EM Cases Digest Vol 2 Pediatric Emergencies PDF
EM Cases Digest Vol 2 Pediatric Emergencies PDF
EM Cases Digest Vol 2 Pediatric Emergencies PDF
Medicine Cases
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This book has been authored with care to reflect generally accepted practices.
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OUR THANKS TO...
EDITORS-IN-CHIEF
Anton Helman
Taryn Lloyd
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Michelle Yee
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Garron Helman
I would like to thank my wife, Sasha, and my children Emma and Rowan for
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Walter Himmel, for his inspiration, friendship, and advice; the EM Cases
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In the past several years, social media technologies have begun challenging how
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a word, it is—opportunistically. With so many digital distractors and an
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FOREWORD (Continued)
Congratulations to Dr. Anton Helman and his EM Cases Digest team, who are at
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the ginormous effort that went into producing such a product with an eye
toward visual design, education theory, and multimedia integration. The result
is an ebook series that is fun, educational, and a joy to read. Thank you for
your dedication and pioneering vision for advancing education in emergency
medicine.
Michelle Lin, MD
Academy Endowed Chair of Emergency Medicine
Professor of Emergency Medicine
University of California, San Francisco;
Editor-in-Chief
Academic Life in Emergency Medicine blog (http://aliem.com)
@M_Lin
Guide to EM Cases Digest
We hope you will find the EM Cases Digest series to be an interactive, flexible, and en-
gaging way to enhance your emergency medicine learning journey. These ebooks are
intended to be an adjunct to the EmergencyMedicineCases.com podcasts, as well as to
existing emergency medicine curricula and resources. For optimal learning, we suggest
EM Cases Digest be used in conjunction with the podcasts for spaced, repetitive learning,
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original resources (links to original references can all be found on our website). We en-
courage you to attempt the Q&As actively, revealing expert answers only after formulat-
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Clinical Pearls:
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Clinical Ah-Has
Pearls Pitfalls Pitfalls:
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Ah-Has:
Wow moments
Tools & Rules:
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and rules
Caution:
Warning; badness ahead
Caution Opinion
What our guest experts
& Rules think when the evidence is
unclear
Key References:
EBM game-changers
What would you do?:
Reflect on what you would
do in your practice
Your Comments:
Key Your
Go to the linked blog post
What would to leave your comment
1
JUMP TO CHAPTER...
CHAPTER 1:
FEVER WITHOUT A
SOURCE
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH SARAH REID AND GINA NETO HERE
Objectives
1. Understand the principles of fever management
2. Identify abnormal vital signs in the setting of pediatric fever
3. Have an approach to the investigation of UTI in children
4. Develop an approach to the child with fever without a source
5. Know when to order a full septic workup versus a partial septic workup
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Approximately 20% of children who present to the ED with fever will have
fever without a source despite your thorough history and physical exam.
In the old days, we used to do a full septic workup including LP for all infants
under the age of three months; thankfully, times have changed in the
post-Haemophilus and pneumoccocal vaccine age, and we aren’t quite so
aggressive any more with our workups. Nonetheless, it’s still controversial
as to which kids need a full septic workup, which kids need a partial septic
workup, which kids need just a urine dip, and which kids need little except to
reassure the parents.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
CASE 1:
FEVER PRINCIPLES
A 12-month-old girl is brought in to your ED with three days of fever between
38.5°C and 40°C. She is previously healthy, immunizations are up to date
(including Haemophilus and pneumococcal vaccines), and there has been
no recent travel. She has no cough, no difficulty breathing, no vomiting, no
apparent belly pain, no rash, and no diarrhea. She’s been eating and drinking
well at home.
Q: The parents are very concerned that the “very high fever” of their
12-month-old girl might cause brain damage or represent a serious
illness. This is a common concern. How do you counsel the parents?
A: Fever itself is the body’s natural response to fighting infection, and does not
inherently cause harm. Children with infection as a cause of their fever almost
never mount a fever high enough to be dangerous (> 41.5°C); these very high
temperatures are typically seen only in non-infectious causes of hyperthermia.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Vital Sign Infant (0-12 mths) Child (1 -11 years) Pre-teen/Teen (12 yrs+)
0 to 6 months 1 to 5 years
Resp Rate 30 to 60 bpm 20 to 30 bpm 12 to 18 bpm
(breaths per
min) 6 to 12 months 6 to 11 years
24 to 30 bpm 12 to 20 bpm
All ages
Rectal Temperature 36.6°C to 38°C (97.9°F to 100.4°F)
Clinical Pearl:
If the child has abnormal vital signs after correcting for fever, have a high
degree of suspicion for dehydration, early compensated shock, or early
sepsis. Make sure you assess for perfusion and mentation, and ask about
urine output.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
CASE 2:
URINARY TRACT INFECTION
An 18-month-old male is brought to your ED with four days of fever at
home between 38.0°C and 38.8°C. His parents say he has been fussier
than usual. He has no significant past medical history, his immunizations
are up to date, and there is no history of recent travel. He has been
drinking well at home. No infectious source is identified on history. On
exam, he is alert and non-toxic. Vital signs are normal except for an
oral temp of 38.2°C. On a thorough head-to-toe exam you do not find a
source of infection.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
A: There is a very low rate of bacteremia in children with two or more doses
of the Haemophilus influenzae type b and pneumococcal conjugate vaccine.
In Canada, the Haemophilus vaccine is given at two, four, six, and 18 months,
and the pneumococcal vaccine is given at two, four, and12 months.
Ah-Ha!
For the child with a fever without a source, be sure to take a complete history
and to undress the child completely when performing a thorough physical exam.
Pay particular attention to the following points on history and physical exam:
Pediatric Assessment of Appearance
Element Explanation
A: Yes, this child does require testing for a UTI as he has multiple risk factors.
Q: You tell the parents you would like to get a urine sample, and
they immediately express concern that they don’t want their child
to have a catheter placed. How do you get a urine sample in this
situation?
A: Your investigation of this child could begin with a urine bag specimen. In
general, the following principles apply when getting a urine sample.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Clinical Pearl:
A:
In general, children < two months of age with a UTI should be admitted
to hospital. Well-appearing children > two months old can usually be
discharged home on antibiotics with good follow-up, provided they do not
show any evidence of dehydration and have reliable caregivers.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Q: The parents ask whether their child has a problem with his
kidneys or bladder that predisposed him to a UTI. What sort of
follow-up should this 18-month-old male with a first-time UTI
have?
A: All children < two years of age with a first-time UTI should have an
outpatient ultrasound to look for vesico-ureteral reflux and structural
anomalies. A voiding cysto-urethrogram (VCUG) is no longer recommended
for children with a first-time UTI.
Clinical Tools:
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
CASE 3:
PNEUMONIA STRIKES
You are seeing a four-year-old female with a six-day history of a runny
nose, cough, and fatigue. She was brought to your ED because she
has had a fever for the past three days. She is otherwise healthy. On
examination, she appears tired but non-toxic. She has a temperature of
40.0°C, a respiratory rate of 30, a heart rate of 130, and a blood pressure
of 110/70. She has mild increased work of breathing.
Clinical Pearl:
Carefully examine the patient for “quiet tachypnea.” Children with quiet
tachypnea will remain tachypneic after correcting the respiratory rate for the
fever (as described above)—this may indicate an underlying pneumonia.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Q: Other than the mild increased work of breathing, the rest of your
physical exam is normal. Does this four-year old girl warrant a chest
X-ray?
A: Yes, she should have a chest X-ray (see below) because she has multiple factors
that make the diagnosis of pneumonia more likely. Despite the fact that most
pediatric pneumonias are viral in origin, we are unable to accurately differentiate
between viral and bacterial causes based on the X-ray appearance alone. It is
therefore prudent to start antibiotics in all children who have an infiltrate on chest
X-ray that is consistent with pneumonia.
Q: Does this child require blood work and/or blood cultures? What are the
indications for blood work and blood cultures in pediatric fever without a
source?
A: A well-appearing, immunized child with a fever typically does not need blood work
or cultures. While C-reactive protein (CRP) and pro-calcitonin may be helpful in risk-
stratifying patients with fever without a source, this hasn’t become a standard of
practice, and the availability of pro-calcitonin in limited.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
CASE 4:
THE FEBRILE NEONATE
A two-week-old female born at term is brought into your ED with a 24-
hour history of fever. No source can be identified on history or physical
exam. The child is alert but has a rectal temperature of 39.1°C.
A: This patient needs a full septic workup. Infants in the first month of life
have the highest rate of SBI out of any time in childhood, and therefore
they represent a high-risk group.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
CASE 5:
THE PARTIAL SEPTIC WORKUP
A two-month-old male born at 36 weeks is brought in with a 12-hour
history of fever. He is unvaccinated and he is circumcised. No focus is
identified on history or physical exam. He appears non-toxic and has a
rectal temperature of 38.6°C, and the rest of the vitals are normal.
A: When calculating age for the purposes of infection, you should use the
chronological age; however, premature babies with a complex medical
history should be thought of as high risk.
A: This child will require at least a partial septic workup and then
be assessed regarding low-risk criteria to determine if any further
investigations are needed.
For children between 29–90 days of age, there are many criteria for the
work-up of fever without a source. Our experts recommend using the low-
risk criteria from the American Academy of Pediatrics. If these criteria are
met, the child has an approximate risk of 1.5% of developing an SBI. These
children may be safely discharged home if they have reliable parents and
follow-up is available within 24 hours.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Comments?
Click here to leave a
comment or to listen to
this podcast.
20
EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
KEY REFERENCES:
1. Baraff LJ. Management of infants and young children with fever without source. Pediatr Ann. 2008;
Oct;37(10):673-679.
2. Robinson JL, Finlay JC, Lang ME, Bortolussi R,. Urinary tract infection in infants and children:
3. Shaikh N, Monroe NE, Lope J, et al. Does This Child Have a Urinary Tract Infection? JAMA, 2007;
298(24):2895-2904.
and Management. Urinary Tract Infection: Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis and
Management of the Initial UTI in Febrile Infants and Children 2 to 24 Months. Pediatrics. 2011;
128(3):595-610.
presenting to the emergency department with fever in the post pneumococcal conjugate vaccine
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EM CASES DIGEST - VOL. 2: PEDIATRIC EMERGENCIES
CHAPTER 2:
SEPSIS & SEPTIC SHOCK
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH SARAH REID AND GINA NETO HERE
Objectives
1. Recognize sepsis and septic shock in a pediatric patient
2. Understand the differences between the presentation, diagnosis, and
treatment of septic shock in children compared with adults
3. Review fluid management, antibiotic use, and vasopressor options in pediatric
sepsis and septic shock
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
CASE 1:
SICK OR NOT SICK, THAT IS THE QUESTION
A seven-day-old boy is brought to the ED with poor feeding and fewer
wet diapers for the past day. He was born via uncomplicated vaginal
delivery at term, and went home from the hospital with his mother
within 24 hours. He is exclusively breastfed and had been feeding
well up until last night, when he became disinterested in feeding.
On examination the child is sleeping but rouses easily. His vitals are:
temperature 37.5°C (rectal), heart rate 120, respiratory rate 40, and
oxygen saturation 96% on room air.
Q: As you hear this story, what other things are you thinking
about asking on history or looking for on physical exam?
A: Given the story, this is potentially quite a concerning situation. Pay close
attention to any change in a newborn’s normal pattern of behaviour, as
this can indicate a possible serious illness. In this age group the signs and
symptoms of sepsis can be quite vague and non-specific. Common signs of
neonatal sepsis that you should think to look for or ask about include:
•• Jaundice •• Vomiting
•• Hepatomegaly •• Abdominal distension
•• Poor feeding •• Diarrhea
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Q: You make note of the newborn’s vital signs and start your
physical exam. You remember that the normal vital signs
for children depend on their age and you wonder if these are
normal. What are the normal vital signs in pediatric patients?
A:
In this case, the only particular concern is that the young child is not
feeding as well as previously. Given that the rest of the history and a full
physical examination are normal, this child is likely not septic but perhaps
a bit dehydrated. Supplementation or strategies to aid feeding should be
discussed with the family. Given that the family is coping well, is reliable
and there are no other concerns, the child can be discharged home with
a plan for follow-up and clear discharge instructions to return if the child
continues a poor feeding pattern, develops a fever, or becomes lethargic or
irritable, or if the parents concerned.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
CASE 2:
FROM BAD (AND ITCHY) TO WORSE
1. Age younger than one year, and early adolescence (10–14 years); in
particular, children younger than one month old have a high risk
2. Unexplained tachycardia (after correction for fever)
3. Clinical signs of poor perfusion (prolonged capillary refill, lethargy,
irritability)
4. Conditions that predispose to sepsis: neuromuscular disease,
immunocompromised, respiratory conditions, cardiac disease
5. Recent surgery
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
In the ED, the patient’s vitals are: temperature 39.4°C, heart rate 168,
respiratory rate 44, blood pressure 70/35, and oxygen saturation 94%. The child
appears ill and is difficult to rouse. She is mottled and has a capillary refill of
five seconds.
A: This case describes an extremely unwell child. She is poorly perfused and
has an abnormal level of consciousness. Her heart rate is higher than would be
expected for her temperature, and her blood pressure is low for her age.
Case continued: As you make note of these things, you are recognizing the
signs of sepsis: tachycardia out of proportion to the fever, tachypnea, and poor
perfusion (capillary refill, lethargic, irritability).
Pitfall:
Q: You finish your physical examination and are anxious to start your
management and treatment. What is your first priority in managing
this patient?
A: The first priority in managing the critically ill child is obtaining vascular access to
start fluid resuscitation. Two peripheral intravenous lines should be placed. If you
cannot obtain IV access within the first 60 seconds, put in an intraosseous line.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Intraosseous Access
Intraosseous (IO) access can be used in all ages, even in awake patients.
Studies show that the pain from the IO comes more from the actual infusion
than from the insertion. To reduce pain, consider infiltrating lidocaine into
the bone prior to the infusion of fluids. The possibility of pain should not
cause hesitation in establishing IO access. The preferred IO sites in kids are
the proximal tibia, distal femur, and proximal humerus.
Click here to listen to EM Cases Episode 61 for some great pearls and pitfalls on
intraosseous line placement.
Caution:
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Clinical Pearl:
A rapid and effective way to administer fluid boluses in children younger than
two years of age is to fill large syringes with normal saline and push 20 cc/kg
boluses as needed to a maximum of 60 cc/kg.
A: For this patient, a reasonable choice of initial antibiotic therapy would be ceftriaxone
75 mg/kg.
Note that local resistance patterns may dictate different antibiotic regimens.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Q: The nurse has now also successfully drawn blood and asks what
investigations you would like to order.
Clinical Pearl:
Check capillary glucose early and treat hypoglycemia with D10W 5 cc/kg.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Pitfall
Q: What about securing the airway for this child in septic shock? When
would you consider endotracheal intubation for pediatric patients in septic
shock?
Infants or neonates with severe sepsis are more likely to require early intubation.
Again, intubation and mechanical ventilation increase intrathoracic pressure, which
reduces venous return and leads to worsening shock. Therefore, fluid resuscitation
must be done first.
Case continued: You start epinephrine and call your colleagues in the pediatric ICU
to tell them about the patient and ask for their assistance. They thank you for your
good work and arrive in the ED shortly to continue care of our young girl.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
CASE 3:
SHOCKED
A nine-year-old girl is brought to the ED with a history of vomiting and diarrhea.
Her heart rate is 140, respiratory rate 36, blood pressure 77/40, and temperature
37.8°C, and she is lethargic and difficult to rouse. She is treated with aggressive fluid
resuscitation, after which her hemodynamic status does not improve.
Q: You start to worry when her clinical status does not improve with
aggressive fluids. What quick test is vital to obtain at this point?
A: Up to 25% of children with septic shock will have adrenal insufficiency. Many
of these patients will have concomitant hypoglycemia, so always check the serum
glucose in septic children. Extremes in blood glucose in sepsis are associated with
higher mortality in children.
Clinical Pearl:
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Q: Her capillary glucose is 1.2 and she is treated with D10W 5 cc/kg IV.
You then also start an epinephrine infusion, but her hemodynamic
status does not improve much. What do you think is causing this, and
what else could you try at this point?
Clinical Pearl:
10 MIN •• First bolus: NS 20 ml/kg given IV push rapidly over 5-10 min.
•• Give antibiotics (see Severe Sepsis PPO)
30 MIN •• Third bolus: NS 20 ml/kg given IV push rapidly over 5-10 min.
•• Consider PICU consult and prepare dopamine infusion
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
KEY REFERENCES:
1. Weiss SL, Parker B, Bullock ME, et al. Defining pediatric sepsis by different criteria: discrepancies
in populations and implications for clinical practice. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2012; July;13(4):e219-26.
Sudbury, Mass, Jones & Bartlett, American Academy of Pediatrics, 2000, pp 43-45.
3. Davies P, Maconochie I. The relationship between body temperature, heart rate and respiratory
4. Van de Voorde P1, Emerson B, Gomez B, et al. Paediatric community-acquired septic shock:
results from the REPEM network study. 2013, Eur J Pediatr. 2013; May;172(5):667-74.
5. Dellinger RP. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Severe
Sepsis and Septic Shock: 2012. Intensive Care Med. 2013; 39:165-228.
6. Sá RA, Melo CL, Dantas RB, Delfim LV. Vascular access through the intraosseous route in pediatric
7. Weiss SL, Fitzgerald JC, Balamuth F, et al. Delayed antimicrobial therapy increases mortality and
organ dysfunction duration in pediatric sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2014; 42(11):2409-17
8. Shekerdemian L, Bohn D. Cardiovascular effects of mechanical ventilation. Arch Dis Child. 1999;
80:475-480.
9. Han YY, Carcillo JA, Dragotta MA, et al. Early reversal of pediatric-neonatal septic shock by
10. Butt W. Septic shock. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001; Jun;48(3):601-25.
11. Gaines NN, Patel B, Williams EA, Cruz AT. Etiologies of septic shock in a pediatric emergency
12. Paul R, Melendez E, Stack A, et al. Improving adherence to PALS septic shock guidelines. Pediatrics.
2014; 133:(5)1358-1366.
13. Aneja R, Carcillo JA. What is the rationale for hydrocortisone treatment in children with infection-
related adrenal insufficiency and septic shock? Arch Dis Child. 2007; Feb;92(2):165-9
Comments?
Click here to leave a
comment or to listen to
this podcast.
34
EM CASES DIGEST - VOL. 2: PEDIATRIC EMERGENCIES
CHAPTER 3:
PAIN MANAGEMENT
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH SAMINA ALI AND ANTHONY CROCCO HERE
Objectives
1. Develop a systematic approach to assessing pain in the pediatric patient
2. Develop a step-wise approach to treating pediatric patient pain in the emergency
department
3. Develop an approach to communicating with and treating a pediatric patient who is
anxious about a sensitive physical exam or invasive procedure
4. Develop an appreciation of moderate to severe pain treatment modalities in a
pediatric patient (e.g., IM, IN, IH)
5. Develop an approach to using different therapeutic agents (acetaminophen,
ibuprofen, morphine, fentanyl, ketamine, nitrous oxide)
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
CASE 1:
PEDIATRIC PAIN ASSESSMENT & TREATMENT
APPROACH
A five-year-old boy presents to your emergency
department with a 24-hour history of peri-umbilical
abdominal pain, vomiting, and low-grade fever. At
triage he is given ibuprophen 10 mg/kg po for the
pain. When you examine him, he appears to be in
a significant amount of pain, and has RLQ rebound
tenderness and guarding.
You make the patient NPO, order an IV, give ondansetron for the vomiting, and
organize an ultrasound to confirm your suspicion for appendicitis.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Clinical Pearl:
Pitfall:
A:
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
The Faces Pain Scale has been validated in different ethnic populations. This may
make it more generalizable than the Wong-Baker FACES Pain Rating Scale due
to differing cultural practices and implications with crying; i.e., not all cultural
groups express pain and suffering with tears.
Pitfall:
Vital signs do not correlate with pain severity or improvement in pain scores.
Assuming minimal pain because the vital signs are normal is a common pitfall.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Q: What can be done to treat the pain of this five-year-old boy with suspected
appendicitis in a timely manner?
A:
1. Triage is a great place to start. Nurse-driven protocols may expedite pediatric pain
identification and management. Alternatively child life specialists, if available, can assist
in this process.
2. Many Canadian hospitals employ oral acetaminophen or ibuprophen triage-initiated
pain protocols. Some hospitals employ physician-approved intranasal fentanyl and oral
opioids at triage.
Your comments?
Pitfall:
One study found that the average What is the strategy in your ED
wait time for pain treatment of non- to improve the timeliness of pain
musculoskeletal presentations to be treatment?
approximately two hours.
Q: What analgesic options would you recommend for this five-year-old boy with
non-musculoskeletal pain?
A: Treatment of undifferentiated abdominal pain with analgesics does not lead to more
complications or negatively affect the accuracy of the physical exam. This is a common myth
that has been debunked in the literature and that delays appropriate pain management.
Mild–Moderate Pain
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
A:
Moderate-Severe Pain
• IV morphine is recommended for severe pain that is expected to last for hours to
days, especially for patients who have been deemed NPO.
• IV morphine is effective in both musculoskeletal and non-musculoskeletal pain
when ibuprofen +/- acetaminophen is not providing adequate pain control.
• IV morphine should be given as an IV push (not in a minibag) to facilitate
frequent reassessment and titration to effect.
• Physicians who may be hesitant to treat the pediatric population with opioids,
or who do not encounter this population frequently, may begin with morphine
0.05 mg/kg IV push. It is essential to reassess the patient’s pain in 10 minutes to
titrate appropriately.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Caution:
Case continued: You get the ultrasound report back that shows no signs
of appendicitis, and when you re-examine the boy he scores low on
the Faces Pain Scale–Revised and is no longer tender to palpation. You
decide to send the patient home and to have him return for a repeat
ultrasound the next day.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Caution:
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Pitfall:
CASE 2:
PEDIATRIC PAIN ASSESSMENT &
TREATMENT APPROACH
A three-year-old girl is sent to your ED from one of your community
pediatricians with a four-day history of fever and maculo-papular rash.
She fulfills the criteria for Kawasaki disease. The pediatrician asks you to
place an IV in the ED so that IV IG can be given.
You get a call from the nurse telling you that they’re having a difficult
time getting the IV. When you enter the room, the child looks terrified
and is not co-operating.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Young children:
•• Favourite
blanket/toys
•• Bubbles
•• Books
•• Audiotapes
•• Videos/movies
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
A:
1. Breastfeeding or breast milk
•• Doesn’t eliminate the pain, but it helps temper it
•• Not established for repeated painful procedures
•• If not available, use glucose/sucrose
2. Oral sucrose
•• Reduces signs of distress in babies < six months of
age
•• Most effective in infants (< 28 days of age)
•• Improved efficacy in combination with non-nutritive
sucking via pacifier
3. Warming the patient
•• Use an infant warmer or warming blanket
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Clinical Pearl:
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CASE 3:
SENSITIVE EXAMINATIONS
AND PROCEDURES
A six-year-old girl comes in after falling off her
bicycle with a straddle injury. Her mother reports
that she saw blood in the underwear. The child
refuses to disrobe despite your reassurance.
A: Options include:
•• Allowing position of comfort
•• Applying ice packs
•• Wrapping bruising (if present)
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Midazolam
•• A small percentage of patients get a paradoxical reaction of increased anxiety
and agitation.
•• Reaction to this benzodiazepine is variable, and as such should be considered
second line.
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CASE 4:
MUSCULOSKELETAL PAIN
A 10-year-old girl comes in after a FOOSH in the playground. She appears very anxious
when you examine her. Her X-ray shows a distal radius fracture requiring reduction. She
has not received any analgesia. She has no IV established.
Q: Given her painful injury, to bridge the gap until the sedation starts, what
analgesics would you recommend for this patient?
A:
Intranasal fentanyl:
Clinical Pearl:
•• Similar onset of action to
intravenous opiates •• Intranasal limitations: nasal secretions/
•• Painless administration congestion
•• A general rule of thumb is that twice •• Do NOT dilute the drugs
the IV dose is needed •• Use both nares (rather than one) for
•• Less risk for respiratory depression volumes > 0.3 ml (1.5 ml+ each nare)
with the appropriate dosing, in the
rare event necessitating a reversal
agent, such as IN naloxone
Key Reference:
•• If oral medication is also a
therapeutic option, consider Intranasal ketamine used in children
administering oral pain medication three to 13 years of age with an isolated
at the same time as the nasal limb injury and moderate to severe pain
medication, to time the oral was shown to have similar pain reduction
therapeutic effect onset with the IN when compared with intranasal fentanyl.
dose decline
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CASE 5:
LACERATION
CONSIDERATIONS
Lidocaine epinephrine
A three-year-old boy has fallen while tetracaine (LET) gel has been
re-enacting a Superman scene. You find a shown to decrease pain in
simple laceration on his forehead. children with lacerations that
are treated with skin adhesive.
Q: How can you minimize pain and
emotional trauma for this child?
Comments?
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
KEY REFERENCES:
1. Weisman S, Bernstein B, Schechter NL. Consequences of inadequate analgesia during painful procedures in
2. Kim MK, Strait RT, Sato TT, Hennes HM. A randomized clinical trial of analgesia in children with acute
3. McGuire L, Heffner K, Glaser R, et al. Pain and wound healing in surgical patients. Ann Behav Med. 2006;
Apr;31(2):165-72.
4. Page GG. Are There Long-Term Consequences of Pain in Newborn or Very Young Infants? J Perinat Educ.
5. Merkel SI, Voepel-Lewis T, Shayevitz JR, Malviya S. The FLACC: a behavioral scale for scoring postoperative
6. Hicks CL. von Baeyer CL, Spafford PA, van Korlaar I, Goodenough B. The Faces Pain Scale–Revised: toward a
7. Wong DL, Baker CM. Pain in children: comparison of assessment scales. Pediatr Nurs. 1998; 14(1):9-17.
8. Bandstra NF, Skinner L, Leblanc C, et al. (2008). The role of child life in pediatric pain management: a survey
9. Ali S, Drendel AL, Kircher J, Beno S. Pain management of musculoskeletal injuries in children: Current state
10. Drendel AL, Kelly BK, Ali S. Pain Assessment for Children: Overcoming Challenges and Optimizing Care.
11. Zempsky WT, Cravero JP. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Pediatric Emergency Medicine and
Section on Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine. Relief of pain and anxiety in pediatric patients in emergency
12. Kircher J, Drendel AL, Newton AS, Dulai S, Vandermeer B, Ali S. Pediatric musculoskeletal pain in the
emergency department: a medical record review of practice variation. CJEM. 2014; Nov;16(6):449-57.
13. Poonai N, Paskar D, Konrad SL, et al. Opioid analgesia for acute abdominal pain in children: A systematic
review and meta-analysis. Acad Emerg Med. 2014 Nov;21(11):1183-92. doi: 10.1111/acem.12509.
14. McGaw T, Raborn W, Grace M. Analgesics in pediatric dental surgery: relative efficacy of aluminum
15. Clark E, Plint AC, Correll R, Gaboury I, Passi B. A randomized, controlled trial of acetaminophen, ibuprofen,
and codeine for acute pain relief in children with musculoskeletal trauma. Pediatrics. 2007; Mar;119(3):460-7.
16. Kramer LC, Richards PA, Thompson AM, Harper DP, Fairchok MP. Alternating antipyretics: antipyretic
efficacy of acetaminophen versus acetaminophen alternated with ibuprofen in children. Clin Pediatr (Phila).
2008; Nov;47(9):907-11.
17. Poonai N, Bhullar G, Lin K, et al. Oral administration of morphine versus ibuprofen to manage postfracture
pain in children: a randomized trial. CMAJ. 2014; Dec 9;186(18):1358-63. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.140907. Epub
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18. Kleiber C, Harper DC. Effects of distraction on children’s pain and distress during medical procedures: a
19. Shah PS, Herbozo C, Aliwalas LL, Shah VS. Breastfeeding or breast milk for procedural pain in neonates.
20. Curtis SJ, Jou H, Ali S, Vandermeer B, Klassen T. A randomized controlled trial of sucrose and/or pacifier
as analgesia for infants receiving venipuncture in a pediatric emergency department. BMC Pediatr. 2007;
7(1):27.
21. Stevens B, Yamada J, Ohlsson A. (2004). Sucrose for analgesia in newborn infants undergoing painful
22. Zempsky WT. Pharmacologic Approaches for Reducing Venous Access Pain in Children. Pediatrics. 2008;
23. Jimenez N, Bradford H, Seidel KD, Sousa M, Lynn AM. A Comparison of a needle-free injection system for
local anesthesia versus EMLA® for intravenous catheter insertion in the pediatric patient. Anesth Analg.
24. Spanos S, Booth R, Koenig H, Sikes K, Gracely E, Kim IK. Jet injection of 1% buffered lidocaine versus topical
ELA-Max for anesthesia before peripheral intravenous catheterization in children: A randomized controlled
25. Zier JL, Liu M. Safety of High-Concentration Nitrous Oxide by Nasal Mask for Pediatric Procedural Sedation.
26. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE). Sedation in Children and Young People. London:
Royal College of Physicians (UK). NICE Clinical Guidelines. 2010; Dec. 30; no. 112.
27. Borland M, Jacobs I, King B, O’Brien D. A randomized controlled trial comparing intranasal fentanyl to
intravenous morphine for managing acute pain in children in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med.
2007; Mar;49(3):335-40.
28. Rickard C, O’Meara P, McGrail M, Garner D, McLean A, Le Lievre P, A randomized controlled trial of
intranasal fentanyl vs intravenous morphine for analgesia in the prehospital setting. Am J Emerg Med. 2007;
Oct;25(8):911-7.
29. Graudins A, Meek R, Egerton-Warburton D, Oakley E, Seith R. The PICHFORK (Pain in Children Fentanyl or
Ketamine) trial: a randomized controlled trial comparing intranasal ketamine and fentanyl for the relief of
moderate to severe pain in children with limb injuries. Ann Emerg Med. 2015 Mar;65(3):248-254.e1.
30. Singer AJ, Stark MJ. Pretreatment of Lacerations with Lidocaine, Epinephrine, and Tetracaine at Triage: A
31. Harman S, Zemek R, Duncan MJ, Ying Y, Petrich W. Efficacy and pain control with topical lidocaine-
epinephrine-tetracaine during laceration repair with tissue adhesive in children: a randomized controlled
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CHAPTER 4:
HEAD INJURY
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH RAHIM VALANI AND JENNIFER RILEY HERE
Objectives
1. Outline the classification of pediatric traumatic head injuries
2. Review and compare the PECARN and CATCH clinical decision
instruments for minor head injury
3. Explore the role of skull X-rays in children with minor head injury
4. Review Return to Sport guidelines after pediatric head injury
5. Review elevated ICP management in a critically ill child with traumatic
brain injury
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CASE 1:
MINOR HEAD INJURY
A mother presents to the emergency department with her nine-month-
old male infant who fell down four steps onto a concrete sidewalk while
in a stroller that had overturned. She reports that he cried immediately,
did not vomit, and did not have a seizure. The infant is otherwise
healthy, with no previous head injuries or significant medical history.
On examination, he is alert and crying. His heart rate is 132 bpm, blood
pressure is 85/50, respiratory rate is 26, temperature is 36.5oC, and
oxygen saturation is 99% on room air. His GCS is 15 with equal and
reactive pupils. Neck range of motion is normal. He is moving all limbs
normally. Full exposure of the infant reveals a 3 cm boggy occipital
hematoma. There are no signs of basal skull fracture, and no signs of
injury of the chest, abdomen, back, or limbs.
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The risk of clinically important TBI in a child with none of these six predictors
was found to be 0.02%. In prospective validation, both the sensitivity and
negative predictive value for the detection of TBI was 100% for children
younger than two years old.
For the CATCH study clinical prediction instrument and comparison to the PECARN
rule, see Case 2.
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A: Background: Eleven per cent of children under the age of two years will
sustain a skull fracture associated with head trauma. Fifteen to 30 per cent
of these will have TBI; therefore, in a child under the age of two years, a
skull fracture is a predictor of TBI. Children with skull fractures require a
head CT to rule out significant intracranial injuries.
While there is little evidence for the role of skull X-rays in ruling out
clinically significant TBI , in practice locations where CT is not readily
available, consider a skull X-ray for children under the age of two years
who present with a significant scalp hematoma with no other signs of TBI
as a screening test for skull fracture. Ensure a radiologist’s interpretation,
as emergency physicians’ interpretations of pediatric skull X-rays have
been shown to have poor accuracy for detecting skull fractures.
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
CASE 2:
MODERATE HEAD INJURY
A six-year-old boy was walking with his family on a windy evening. As
they passed a construction site, a truck driver opened a large metal gate,
which swung out of control and hit the child in the head. The child was
thrown back approximately six feet and landed on the back of his head
on the edge of a cement curb. There was a loss of consciousness of three
to five minutes, and upon awakening the child was confused and had
two episodes of vomiting. He arrives in the emergency department with
paramedics. On further questioning he is amnestic; however, he does recall
walking with his parents prior to the event. In the ED, he is perseverating.
On examination:
Heart rate is 110 bpm, blood pressure is 118/60, respiratory rate is 20,
temperature is 36.5°C, and oxygen saturation is 98% on room air.
A: Patent
B: Breathing spontaneously, good air entry bilaterally
C: Cap refill three seconds, pedal pulses present
D: Pupils are equal and reactive at 4 mm, GSC is 13
A: As you know from Case 1, the PECARN study helps us to decide whom not
to CT scan. In addition, we can use the CATCH study to help us decide whom
to CT scan.
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CATCH Study:
Head CT is required only for minor head injury patients with any
one of these findings:
•• Minor head injury is defined as injury within the past 24 hours
associated with witnessed loss of consciousness, definite
amnesia, witnessed disorientation, persistent vomiting, or
persistent irritability (in a child younger than 2 years of age) with
a GCS of 13–15.
A prospective study comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the PECARN and CATCH rules,
as well as a third set of rules called the CHALICE, found the PECARN rules to be the most
sensitive (100%), while the CATCH rules were found to be 91% sensitive. This is to be expected,
as the PECARN rules are meant to rule out the need for a CT in minor injuries, as opposed to
rule in the need for one. The CHALICE rule was identified as the least sensitive.
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A:
•• Hemotympanum
•• Periorbital ecchymosis (raccoon eyes)
•• Mastoid bone ecchymosis (Battle’s sign)
•• Cerebrospinal fluid leak from the nose or ears (otorrhea/rhinorrhea)
Q: What are the key differences between the adult CT Head Rule
and the CATCH rule?
A: The CATCH rule does not include vomiting and amnesia, but instead
includes irritability in a child younger than two years old, or worsening
headache in the older child, and the presence of a large boggy scalp
hematoma.
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A: If the child has any of the following, then guidelines suggest either a
four- to six-hour observation period, or going straight to CT scan: history of
loss of consciousness, amnesia, confusion, lethargy or persistent vomiting,
severe or persistent headache, or immediate post-traumatic seizure.
A:
•• The first six hours post-injury are referred to as the “red zone,” and the
subsequent 24 hours are the “yellow zone.”
•• Waking up the patient every two hours is probably not necessary (and
if the clinician believes the patient to be high risk, he/she should be
kept in the department longer).
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A:
•• Children’s skull sutures are not closed yet, so their skulls tend to be
more distensible than those of adults. This leads to less TBI after head
trauma with comparable mechanism of injury.
•• Children sustain fewer mass lesions and fewer hemorrhagic
contusions.
•• Children sustain more diffuse brain swelling and can “talk and
deteriorate” with edema alone.
•• Children sustain more diffuse axonal injury.
•• Children sustain more hypoxia.
•• Children have more seizures.
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CASE 3:
MAJOR HEAD INJURY
A five-year-old girl was the front-seat passenger in a
motor vehicle crash. The child was wearing her seat belt,
but no airbags were deployed. The collision occurred
when the driver lost control of the car on the highway,
hitting the concrete divider on the left side of the vehicle.
It was unknown whether the child lost consciousness.
At the scene, the child was confused and combative.
Unfortunately, the driver of the vehicle did not survive.
Heart rate is 100 bpm, blood pressure is 130/90 mmHg, respiratory rate
is 24, temperature is 36.6°C, and oxygen saturation is 98% on oxygen.
A: Patent
B: Breathing, good air entry bilaterally
C: Cap refill three seconds, pedal pulses present
D: Pupils are equal and reactive at 4 mm, GSC is 7 (E3V2M2);
no focal neurological findings.
There are multiple abrasions, a contusion over one eye, a lip laceration,
and a chipped tooth. There is a seat belt bruise on the abdomen, and
the abdomen is tender. There are stellate lacerations of 3 cm and
a hematoma over the right parietal region, with no palpable skull
depression. There are no signs of basilar skull fracture. In addition, there
is an open, complex fracture of the right ankle.
As you are examining the child, her conditions worsen: The GSC drops to
3, while the heart rate and blood pressure remain steady at 95 bpm and
140/95, respectively. The right pupil remains at 4 mm while the left pupil
is now 7 mm.
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Q: Assuming that you want to intubate this patient and send her
for an immediate CT, how would you best sedate the child for
intubation and CT scanning?
The induction agent should aim to prevent a drop in blood pressure, given
that CPP = MAP – ICP (cerebral perfusion pressure equals mean arterial
pressure minus intracranial pressure). Etomidate probably remains the
agent of choice. However, there is evidence that ketamine is a safe and
suitable alternative for sedation in TBI, with recent systematic reviews failing
to demonstrate increased ICP after ketamine use. Ketamine may offer
neuroprotective effects secondary to its effects on NMDA receptor activity.
Expert Tip:
To enable CT scan sedation, keep the very young child awake as long as
possible before going to the CT scanner, and perform the CT scan when
the child falls asleep. Feeding the child and then performing the CT scan
during the post-feed nap can also be an effective way to enable sedation.
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KEY REFERENCES:
1. Kuppermann N, Holmes JF, Dayan PS, et al. Identification of children at very low risk of
clinically-important brain injuries after head trauma: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2009;
374(9696):1160-70.
2. Greenes DS, Schutzman SA. Clinical significance of scalp abnormalities in asymptomatic head-
3. Hall P, Adami HO, Trichopoulos D, et al. Effect of low doses of ionising radiation in infancy
on cognitive function in adulthood: Swedish population based cohort study. BMJ. 2004; Jan;
328(7430):19.
4. Brenner DJ, Hall EJ. Current concepts - Computed tomography - An increasing source of radiation
5. Palchak MJ, Holmes JF, Vance CW, et al. Does an isolated history of loss of consciousness
or amnesia predict brain injuries in children after blunt head trauma? Pediatrics. 2004;
June;113(6):e507-13.
6. Osmond MH, Klassen TP, Wells GA, et al. CATCH: a clinical decision rule for the use of computed
7. Easter JS, Bakes K, Dhaliwal J, Miller M, Caruso E, Haukoos JS. Comparison of PECARN, CATCH, and
CHALICE rules for children with minor head injury: a prospective cohort study. Ann Emerg Med.
2014; Aug;64(2):145-52.
8. Tator CH. Concussions and their consequences: current diagnosis management, and prevention..
9. Filanovsky Y, Miller P, Kao J. Myth: Ketamine should not be used as an induction agent for
10. Dayan PS, Holmes JF, Atabaki S, et al. Traumatic Brain Injury Study Group of the Pediatric
Emergency Care Applied Research Network (PECARN). Association of traumatic brain injuries with
vomiting in children with blunt head trauma. Ann Emerg Med. 2014; Jun;63(6):657-65.
11. Pearce MS, Salotti JA, Little MP, et al. Radiation exposure from CT scans in childhood and
subsequent risk of leukaemia and brain tumours: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2012; Aug
4;380(9840):499-505.
12. Farrell CA, Canadian Paediatric Society Acute Care Committee. Management of the paediatric
patient with acute head trauma. Paediatr Child Health. 2013; 18(5):253-8.
13. Kamel H, Navi BB, Nakagawa K, Hemphill JC 3rd, Ko NU. Hypertonic saline versus mannitol for the
treatment of elevated intracranial pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Crit Care
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CHAPTER 5:
PEDIATRIC PROCEDURAL
SEDATION
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH AMY DRENDEL HERE
Objectives
1. Develop an approach to pediatric procedural sedation for fracture reduction, dislocation, and
2. Develop an approach to pediatric procedural sedation for patients requiring anxiolytics for
3. Develop an approach to pediatric procedural sedation for patients requiring a lumbar puncture
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CASE 1:
PROCEDURAL SEDATION FOR
PAINFUL PROCEDURES
A 10-year-old morbidly obese boy presents to
the emergency department after a FOOSH in the
playground. After a full history, exam, and X-ray,
you diagnose him with a distal radius fracture,
requiring reduction. The boy appears very
anxious.
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A: The EM literature has shown over and over that families prefer staying
at the bedside for procedures. Parents’ use of distraction techniques with
music or videos from smartphones or tablets, and even helping out in
the procedure, can improve parental satisfaction and decrease the child’s
anxiety. So, generally speaking, it’s a good idea to have Mom or Dad at
the bedside helping out. However, we’ve all been in the situation when
Mom or Dad starts freaking out during the procedure—and usually we can
anticipate which family members will react this way—so for those folks, you
may elect to ask them to step out of the room during the procedure.
You may also consider using other distraction techniques as outlined in this
chapter.
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Q: You decide to have the parents nearby soothing the child and distracting
him with their games on their smartphone. Now it’s time to prepare for the
sedation. What do you consider in preparing to mitigate any potential risks
during the procedure?
Have a procedural sedation tray or procedure tray nearby, and have the child on a
cardiac monitor with frequent vital signs, including a pulse oximeter. If it is available,
use capnography as it has been shown to pick up respiratory depression earlier than
an oxygen saturation probe. Ensure you have at least one dedicated nurse during the
procedure. Also, have all of your age-appropriate airway equipment (including suction
and oxygen) on hand in case of complications.
Pitfall:
Pediatric patients are at a higher risk of airway obstruction due to anatomical
factors such as large occiput and tongue, and narrower, more pliant airways.
Patients younger than three months of age should be sent to anesthesiology due
to more complex neurodevelopmental considerations with sedation.
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Q: As part of your history, you ask the parents when the child
last had anything to eat or drink, and they tell you that he ate a
hamburger two hours prior. Are you safe to go ahead with the
sedation, or do you need to wait another few hours?
A: It is helpful to know when the patient last ate, but the literature does
not support mandatory fasting to prevent complications of aspiration
in procedural sedation. A large study addressing this question found no
difference in adverse events among children who had been fasting two,
four, six, or eight hours. A conservative approach based on the American
Society of Anesthesiologists’ fasting guidelines would be to wait three to
four hours after their last meal, but there is no indication to wait if you
urgently need to perform a procedure.
Q: Now that you have a good grasp on the patient’s history and
physical exam and you have prepared all of your equipment, you
consider the options available to you for sedation of the patient.
What are your options for sedating this patient?
A: You have a variety of options that each have their own strengths and
risks. Consider each in relation to your specific clinical scenario. Different
agents may influence the risk of emesis. For example, ketamine is the most
commonly used medication, but may increase the risk of emesis. Nitrous
oxide also has similar risk of emesis, while propofol may have a decreased
risk but may not be suitable for younger or unstable patients. Consider
adding an antiemetic, such as ondansetron, prior to the sedation. There is
evidence to support the use of ondansetron in conjunction with ketamine
to reduce the risk of emesis (NNT= 9). While the addition of midazolam
to ketamine may reduce the likelihood of emesis, it increases the risk of
respiratory depression and will prolong the recovery time.
Ketamine has become the most common agent for pediatric procedural
sedation. It provides the desired trifecta of analegesia, sedation, and
amnesia in a single agent.
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Ketamine Sedation
Pitfall:
Using ketamine in children younger than three months of age has an increased
rate of respiratory complications, and animal studies have implicated NMDA
antagonists as a cause of apoptosis and neurodegeneration in developing brains.
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Clinical Pearl:
A:
Etomidate
Etomidate has been shown to be safe for Etomidate
procedural sedation in the pediatric population.
Its benefits include a favourable hemodynamic Etomidate dosing for
profile and short duration of action. Consider how pediatric procedural
much time you anticipate the procedure to last, as sedation: 0.1 to 0.2 mg/kg
etomidate is best suited for short procedures. slow IV push
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EM Cases Digest - Vol. 2: Pediatric Emergencies
Propofol Propofol
The risks of respiratory depression with propofol
are much higher than with ketamine. In addition, Propofol dosing for
propofol does not have any analgesic properties, pediatric procedural
so it is recommended that it be combined with an sedation: 0.5 to1 mg/kg
analgesic such as fentanyl. slow IV push
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Q: One of your senior EM doc colleagues pokes his head in the room
and asks, “Why don’t you just use good old fentanyl and midazolam?
I’ve been using that for conscious sedation on kids for 30 years.” Are
fentanyl and midazolam a good choice for procedural sedation?
A: Fentanyl + midazolam
A combination of fentanyl and midazolam used to be a popular cocktail
for procedural sedation. This combination is no longer recommended as
it has been associated with a high incidence of adverse events, including
respiratory depression and apnea.
Q: You begin the procedural sedation and the patient begins to de-
saturate. What are the risk factors for a failed sedation (hypoxia, apnea)?
A:
Clinical Pearl:
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A: The length of observation time depends on the agents used and the patient’s reaction to
the medications. When the patient has returned to their normal developmentally appropriate
motor, cognitive, and social functions; when they can tolerate PO; if they have a reliable
monitoring plan at home (and the family is comfortable with this plan), they are safe to go
home.
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CASE 2:
PROCEDURAL SEDATION FOR SHORT,
NON-PAINFUL PROCEDURES
An 11 month-old boy falls out his mother’s arms as she trips down the stairs. She
saw him hit his head. He had a loss of consciousness of one minute and vomited
several times after the event. He presents with a GCS of 13 and no signs of basal
skull fracture, and point-of-care ultrasound shows no skull fracture. He is agitated,
but appears to be suffering from a minimal amount of pain.
A: Non-painful short procedures can begin with distraction techniques (see Chapter 3
on Pain Management). If distraction techniques are ineffective, intranasal midazolam
is recommended as the first-line therapy for sedation. If IN midazolam is not
available, oral midazolam is recommended.
Midazolam Dosing
Intranasal dose: 0.3 mg/kg (max 10 mg); time of onset: seven to 10 minutes
Oral dose: 0.7 mg/kg (max 20 mg); time of onset: 15–20 minutes
Pitfall:
Before administering midazolam, consider the recovery time and that it may
cloud your physical and neurological assessments of the patient. Perform a
good neurological exam before the sedation, or else you won’t be able to give
the neurosurgical team an accurate report if they are consulted!
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CASE 3:
PROCEDURAL SEDATION FOR LUMBAR
PUNCTURE
A three-year-old male infant presents to the ED with a temperature of
39.7°C, heart rate of 190, and mottled skin. There is no travel history
and no identifiable source of infection; however, he is unimmunized.
You begin your management with a full septic workup, IV fluids, and
broad-spectrum antibiotics.
A: First, consider having the parents stay in the room to console the
patient, if they are able to and they understand the procedure. Family
presence has not been shown to increase the miss rates of the lumbar
puncture.
Local pain control, along with distraction techniques, can often obviate
the need for systemic sedation. For young infants who cannot be
distracted, sucrose has been shown to be an effective sedative.
Sucrose can often achieve the desired level of sedation such that other
less safe medications are not required in infants younger than three
months of age.
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FOAMed link: Click here for the TREKK Summary and Recommendations for
procedural sedation.
Comments?
KEY REFERENCES:
1. http://www.intranasal.net/PainControl/INpaincontroldefault.htm#Introduction
fentanyl to intravenous morphine for managing acute pain in children in the emergency
3. Agrawal D, Manzi SF, Gupta R, Krauss B. Preprocedural fasting state and adverse events in
4. Evered L, Bhatt M. TREKK Bottom Line Recommendations: Procedural Sedation. 2015. http://
cme02.med.umanitoba.ca/assets/trekk/assets/attachments/69/original/bottom-line-summary-
procedural-sedation.pdf?1435343376.
5. Krauss B, Green SM. Procedural sedation and analgesia in children. Lancet. 2006;
Mar;367(9512):766-80.
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6. Chinta SS, Schrock CR, McAllister JD, Jaffe DM, Liu J, Kennedy RM. Rapid administration technique
of ketamine for pediatric forearm fracture reduction: a dose-finding study. Ann Emerg Med. 2015;
Jun;65(6):640-648.
7. Cote CJ, Wilson S, the Work Group on Sedation. Guidelines for monitoring and management
of pediatric patients during and after sedation for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures: an
8. Krauss BS, Brauss BA, Green SM. Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in Children. N Engl J Med.
2014; 370:e23.
versus intravenous fentanyl in patients with pain after oral surgery. Annals of Pharmacotherapy,
2008; 42(10):1380-1387.
10. Wathen JE, Roback MG, Mackenzie T, Bothner JP. (2000). Does midazolam alter the clinical effects
11. Langston WT, Wathen JE, Roback MG, Bajaj L. Effect of ondansetron on the incidence of vomiting
controlled trial to evaluate ketamine/propofol versus ketamine alone for procedural sedation in
13. Grunwell JR, McCracken C, Fortenberry J, Stockwell J, Kamat P. Risk factors leading to failed
procedural sedation in children outside the operating room. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2014; Jun;30(6),
381-387.
14. Langston WT, Wathen JE, Roback MG, Bajaj L. Effect of ondansetron on the incidence of vomiting
15. Andolfatto G, Willman E. A prospective case series of pediatric procedural sedation and analgesia
16. David H, Shipp J. A randomized controlled trial of ketamine/propofol versus propofol alone for
17. Deasy C, Babl FE. Intravenous vs intramuscular ketamine for pediatric procedural sedation by
18. Nigrovic LE, McQueen AA, Neuman,MI. Lumbar puncture success rate is not influenced by family-
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CHAPTER 6:
ORTHOPEDIC INJURIES
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH SANJAY MEHTA AND JONATHAN PIRIE HERE
Objectives
1. Develop an approach to managing a child with an acute knee injury
2. Have an age-appropriate differential diagnosis for the limping child
3. Review the evidence for the diagnosis of septic arthritis in a child
4. Develop an approach to closed ankle injuries in children
5. Be able to assess children with a FOOSH
6. Be able to diagnose a supracondylar fracture and properly assess it
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CASE 1:
KNEE INJURY
A mother presents to the emergency department with her 12-year-old son. While
playing basketball in gym class, he planted his foot and rotated his left leg following
a jump, resulting in a fall to the ground. He had to be carried off the court. He
complains of severe pain in his left knee and says he cannot put weight on it. He
says he may have heard a “pop” as he planted. He denies any other injury and is
previously healthy with no medications or significant medical history.
On exam, his vitals are within normal limits. His left knee is swollen, with a
ballotable effusion and is very tender to the touch diffusely. He is unable to extend
completely and can flex only to about 45 degrees. There appears to be anterior
laxity of the knee. He is unable to bear weight.
A: The mechanism for an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rupture is classically rotation
of the knee against an immobile foot, with sudden deceleration, often in sports such
as basketball, tennis, and soccer. Often a “pop” is felt or heard, and significant swelling
usually occurs within the first hour after injury with minimal ability to bear weight.
Q: What is the most sensitive physical exam manoeuvre for ACL rupture?
A: A meta-analysis from 2003 showed that the pivot shift test was the most sensitive
(88.8%), followed by the Lachman test (77.7%), with the anterior drawer test having a
sensitivity of only 22.2%. All three of these tests have a specificity of more than 95%.
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A:
The Ottawa Knee Rules are 100% sensitive in children for clinically significant
fractures and help reduce X-rays by 31%. Note that the patient in our case would
require an X-ray per the Ottawa Knee Rules regardless of a suspicion of an ACL
tear, because of the inability to bear weight.
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CASE 2:
THE CHILD WITH A LIMP
A two-and-half-year-old girl who attends daycare presents to the ED with
a two-day history of limp and refusal to weight bear. Her parents report
a temperature of 38.2oC at home for the past two days and say that she’s
not eating and drinking as much as usual. They brought her in because
today, when they attempted to move the child’s leg, she started to cry.
There has been no significant recent trauma, except for a minor trip and
fall while running on the sidewalk three days prior. She has had a runny
nose and cough for the past three days, but no difficulty breathing, and
no vomiting, diarrhea, or rash. There has been no recent travel and no
contacts. She has no significant past medical history.
On exam, the child appears alert but anxious and in pain on Mom’s lap,
with no apparent respiratory distress. Vital signs reveal a temperature
of 37.9oC, a heart rate of 124, a respiratory rate of 30, and an oxygen
saturation of 99% on room air.
Her ENT exam is normal except for nasal discharge. Chest is clear.
There are a few scattered bruises on the shins. When you attempt any
movement of the right knee, the child cries. Palpation of the right hip
also elicits crying. The child refuses to bear weight when you attempt to
examine her gait.
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Clinical Pearl:
Case continued: WBC count comes back at 14.5, CRP at 20, and ESR at 40.
A: The Kocher Criteria can be a helpful tool to help risk stratify a patient
whom you suspect might have septic arthritis. It is best used as a rule in and
is not a very sensitive test on prospective validation. When all four criteria are
present, the probability of septic arthritis is 99.6%.
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Toddler’s fracture
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CASE 3:
ANKLE FRACTURES
A six-year-old boy is running during recess at school and twists his ankle. He’s
unable to walk afterward. On exam he’s tender and swollen maximally over the
distal fibula. The X-ray is normal.
A 2001 prospective study showed 100% sensitivity in ruling out clinically significant
fractures in children using a “low-risk examination” technique where pain and
swelling are limited only to the distal fibula and its associated ligaments.
EM Cases Cross-link: For images and explanations on clinical decision rules, click
here for EM Cases’ Stiell Sessions 1: CDRs and risk scales.
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SH I and II fractures are the most common and rarely result in growth
arrest.
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Tillaux ankle fracture of the distal tibia Triplanar ankle fracture of the distal tibia
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CASE 4:
THE FAST FOOSH
A 12-year-old boy was running on the sidewalk. He tripped and fell on
his outstretched right hand. He complains of pain at his wrist only.
Examination from the elbow to the snuffbox reveals slight tenderness at
the distal radius. He is neurovascularly intact.
Buckle fractures of the distal radius heal well in a removable splint, and
studies show that patients prefer this over a cast. A randomized, controlled
trial showed better physical function, less difficulty with activities, the ability
to return to sports sooner, and pain scores that are either not significantly
different when compared with a short arm cast or are lower than with
casting. There is even a study with just a soft bandage showing similar
outcomes compared with a short arm cast.
Not only that, but studies have shown that the removal of the splint can
safely be done at home rather than at a fracture clinic, guided by the child’s
symptoms. This of course assumes that the parents are agreeable, and are
given good discharge instructions with regard to when they might need to
seek medical care. In addition, parents prefer the removal of the splint at
home over having to follow up at a fracture clinic.
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A:
•• < Five years old: up to 30 degrees is acceptable
•• Five to 10 years old: up to 20 degrees is acceptable
•• Ten to 12 years old: up to 15 degrees is acceptable
Caution!
Bone in children remodels well in the dorsal/volar plane but not in the
radial/ulnar plane, so if there is any displacement in the radial/ulnar
plane, it usually needs to be reduced. On the other hand, if there is
displacement in the dorsal/volar plane, you can accept more angulation
and the bone will remodel well.
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CASE 5:
THE FULL FOOSH
A 12-year-old boy was running on the sidewalk.
He tripped and fell on his outstretched right
hand. He complains of pain at his wrist only.
Examination from the elbow to the snuffbox
Clinical Pearl:
reveals slight tenderness at the distal radius. He is
neurovascularly intact. Five per cent of children
with elbow fractures will
Q: What are the most common fractures in have a second fracture
general we can expect to see with a FOOSH at a distal site (at the
mechanism? wrist, for example),
so it is imperative to
A: From distal to proximal: scaphoid, distal radius, examine the joint above
radial head, suprachondylar, proximal humerus, and and below the elbow for
clavicle fractures. all children with elbow
injuries.
Q: Suprachondylar fractures are the most
common elbow fractures in children and are
rarely seen in patients older than 15 years.
How should we assess neurologic status
in children suspected of a suprachondylar
fracture?
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Clinical Pearl:
The anterior interosseous nerve injury is the most common nerve injury
in extension-type injuries, while ulnar neuropathy is the most common in
flexion-type injuries.
Abnormal Normal
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Ask the child to do hand signals to test motor function of each nerve.
•• Radial nerve: make a “thumbs up”
•• Median nerve: make a fist, and pinch a piece of paper with a pincer grip
•• Ulna nerve: make scissors with the index and middle finger, or a “peace” sign
For the sensory examination, test the first dorsal webspace (radial), and the
dorsum of the second or third fingertip (median) and fifth fingertip (ulna).
Pitfall:
Pitfall:
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Capitellum
Radial head
Internal (medial) epicondyle
Trochlea
Olecranon
External (lateral) epicondyle
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Comments?
Click here to leave a comment or
to listen to this podcast.
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KEY REFERENCES:
1. Scholten RJ, Opstelten W, van der Plas CG, Bijl D, Deville WL, Bouter LM. Accuracy of physical
diagnostic tests for assessing ruptures of the anterior cruciate ligament: a meta-analysis. J Fam
2. Stiell IG, Wells GA, Hoag RH, et al. Implementation of the Ottawa Knee Rule for the use of
3. Bulloch B, Neto G, Plint A, et al. Validation of the Ottawa Knee Rule in children: a multicenter
4. Kocher MS, Zurakowski D, Kasser JR. Differentiating between septic arthritis and transient
synovitis of the hip in children: an evidence-based clinical prediction algorithm. J Bone Joint Surg
5. Kocher MS, Mandiga R, Zurakowski D, Barnewolt C, Kasser JR. Validation of a clinical prediction
rule for the differentiation between septic arthritis and transient synovitis of the hip in children. J
6. Singhal R, Perry DC, Khan FN, et al. The use of CRP within a clinical prediction algorithm for the
differentiation of septic arthritis and transient synovitis in children. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2011;
Nov;93(11):1556-61.
7. Stiell IG, Greenberg GH, Mcknight RD, Nair RC, Mcdowell I, Worthington JR. A study to develop
clinical decision rules for the use of radiography in acute ankle injuries. Ann Emerg Med. 1992;
Apr;21(4):384-90.
8. Dowling S, Spooner CH, Liang Y, et al. Accuracy of Ottawa Ankle Rules to exclude fractures of the
ankle and midfoot in children: a meta-analysis. Acad Emerg Med. 2009; Apr;16(4):277-87.
9. Boutis K, Komar L, Jaramillo D, et al. Sensitivity of a clinical examination to predict need for
radiography in children with ankle injuries: a prospective study. Lancet. 2001; Dec;358(9299):2118-
21.
10. Boutis K, Willan A, Babyn P, Goeree R, Howard A. Cast versus splint in children with
minimally angulated fractures of the distal radius: a randomized controlled trial. CMAJ. 2010;
Oct;182(14):1507-12.
11. Plint AC, Perry JJ, Correll R, Gaboury I, Lawton L. A randomized, controlled trial of removable
splinting versus casting for wrist buckle fractures in children. Pediatrics. 2006; Mar;117:691-697.
12. West S, Andrews J, Bebbington A, Ennis O, Alderman P. Buckle fractures of the distal radius are
safely treated in a soft bandage: a randomized prospective trial of bandage versus plaster cast. J
13. Al-Ansari K, Howard A, Seeto B, Yoo S, Zaki S, Boutis K. Minimally angulated pediatric wrist
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CHAPTER 7:
POCUS NERVE BLOCKS
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH JASON FISCHER HERE
Objectives
1. Understand the indications for performing forearm nerve blocks
2. Identify the radial, ulnar, and median nerve with POCUS
3. Perform the steps of POCUS-guided forearm nerve blocks of the radial,
ulnar, and median nerve
4. Understand the complications and pitfalls of performing nerve blocks
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A: Pain relief is one of the most important roles an emergency physician can perform,
especially on a child. If a child has a painful experience in the emergency department,
it is likely they will fear future pain, doctors, and hospitals. A properly performed
forearm nerve block may not only completely eliminate a child’s pain, but may also
prevent future negative attitudes toward hospitals and health-care providers.
CASE 1:
THE CASE OF PUTTING OUT FIRES WITH POCUS
Q: A four-year-old boy is brought into the
emergency department after a firecracker
exploded in his closed hand. Among other
investigations and treatment, the child
needs quick and effective pain relief. What
are some of your options?
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Caution:
Forearm nerve blocks provide analgesia only to the hand, not the forearm.
They are indicated only for significant hand injuries, not for forearm injuries.
A: Step 1: Position
The patient should be placed in a position of comfort that allows the target
limb to be accessible to the ultrasound probe. This is usually achieved by
having the patient sit in a chair with their arm prone on a bedside table.
The ultrasound screen and the injection site should be aligned in the
operator’s direct line of vision to reduce unnecessary head movement.
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Clinical Pearl:
Step 2: Preparation
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A: Advance the needle tip “in-plane” toward the target nerve. This provides
superior visualization of both the nerve and the needle over the “out-of-
plane” view (see image).
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Clinical Pearl:
Buffer your
lidocaine with
bicarbonate to
make injecting
the lidocaine less
painful.
Radial nerve
Ulnar nerve
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A: When the needle tip is adjacent to the nerve (but not in the nerve), inject
the anesthetic so it surrounds the nerve circumferentially. If the nerve is
bathed circumferentially with anesthetic (an anechoic area completely
surrounding the nerve), clinically the patient should feel fully anesthetised in
that nerve distribution. Multiple redirections of the needle may be necessary
to bathe the nerve adequately. Visualization of the needle tip should be
continuous throughout the procedure to avoid accidental puncture of
vascular structures.
Caution:
Ensure you have performed a full neurological exam of the child’s distal
extremity before you perform a nerve block, and document it for your
colleagues who may take over care. Once the anesthetic has been
administered, the neurologic exam will be compromised (loss of ability to
check two-point discrimination). Also ensure that compartment syndrome has
been ruled out before performing the nerve block.
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Caution:
Q: In this case, the four-year-old boy is moving his arm a bit and you
lose visualization of the needle on the screen. What are the best ways to
troubleshoot this?
A: Complications arise from losing the needle tip (damaging other structures, hitting
vessels, going through a nerve). Try to visualize the needle tip on screen at all times
before advancing it and always withdraw the plunger on the syringe to confirm that
the needle is not inside a vessel before injecting the local anesthetic. If you lose your
needle tip, don’t panic. Move only one component at a time to re-identify your needle.
You can either hold the ultrasound probe still while re-direct your needle back into
view by moving it more “in-plane” with the probe, or you can hold your needle still and
slowly move your ultrasound probe to visualize your needle on the screen.
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KEY REFERENCES:
1. Frenkel O, Mansour K, Fischer JW. Ultrasound-guided femoral nerve block for pain control
in an infant with a femur fracture due to non-accidental trauma. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2012;
Feb;28(2):183-4.
on the radial, ulnar, and median nerves for hand procedures in the emergency department. Ann
3. Herring AA, Stone MB, Fischer J, et al. Ultrasound-guided distal popliteal sciatic nerve block for ED
4. Ganesh A, Gurnaney HG. Ultrasound guidance for pediatric peripheral nerve blockade. Anesthesiol
6. Tsui BC, Suresh S. Ultrasound imaging for regional anesthesia in infants, children, and
adolescents: a review of current literature and its application in the practice of extremity and
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CHAPTER 8:
ABDOMINAL PAIN &
APPENDICITIS
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH ANNA JARVIS & STEPHEN FREEDMAN HERE
Objectives
1. Develop an approach to assessing acute abdominal pain in the pediatric patient
2. Recognize the common pitfalls in accurately diagnosing appendicitis among
pediatric patients
3. Understand the role of laboratory investigations in assessing a pediatric patient with
acute abdominal pain
4. Develop an approach to the selection of imaging investigations for the pediatric
patient suspected of appendicitis
5. Understand how to interpret equivocal ultrasound results
6. Describe effective ways to provide analgesia for pediatric patients
7. Review the management of appendicitis in the ED
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CASE 1:
APPROACH TO PEDIATRIC ABDOMINAL PAIN
A seven-year-old boy presents to your ED at 9 p.m. with a history of diarrhea
and fever for two days, as well as vague abdominal pain. On further
questioning, he has no travel history, his immunizations are up to date, there
are no known viral contacts, and he is otherwise healthy on no medications.
He vomited once that morning, has no urinary symptoms, no URI symptoms,
and no rash. On exam, his vital signs are normal except for a temperature of
38.1°C. His abdomen is soft, with slight diffuse tenderness, and no peritoneal
signs. The rest of his exam is normal.
Caution:
Only 1-2% of kids who present with abdominal pain will have a surgical diagnosis,
yet these conditions can lead to significant morbidity and mortality if they are not
diagnosed and managed appropriately in the ED. Children with a so-called “classic”
gastroenteritis presentation may actually end up having a perforated appendicitis,
while those with significantly tender bellies may have pneumonia, strep throat, or DKA.
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Case continued: A urine dip is normal. A stool for culture and sensitivity is
sent off, the boy is rehydrated with an oral rehydration solution in the ED, and
a diagnosis of gastroenteritis is made. The patient is sent home with the usual
gastroenteritis instructions.
A: Despite being the most common surgical diagnosis for pediatric abdominal
pain, appendicitis remains a very difficult diagnosis to make in the ED, with a
misdiagnosis rate between 28% and 57% on the initial visit.
Q: How does the rate of perforation of the appendix change with age?
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Before palpating the abdomen, observe the child’s behaviour and preferred
position. Patients with appendicitis often prefer to lie still with their hips flexed.
Restless movements are more suggestive of intussusception. You can also ask the
child to cough, jump, or sit up in bed to elicit peritoneal tenderness, although these
have poor predictive value. Proceed next with percussion to localize tenderness
and detect peritonitis while minimizing discomfort, and then finally with palpation.
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Q: Next, you begin to consider whether you need to poke this child
for blood work. What is the value of obtaining a complete blood
cell (CBC) count on pediatric patients with abdominal pain?
Key Reference:
The earlier the presentation, the less likely the WBC count will be elevated.
The WBC count is normal in first 24 hours in 80% of appendicitis cases.
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Caution:
Pyuria and hematuria are findings that can be consistent with the
diagnosis of appendicitis. Don’t let the findings of pyuria or hematuria
dissuade you from diagnosing appendicitis in a child whom you suspect
has appendicitis clinically.
A: There are three published decision rules for pediatric appendicitis: the
Refined Low-Risk Appendicitis Score, the Pediatric Appendicitis Score, and
the Alvarado Score.
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The Alvarado
Score for
Predicting Acute
Appendicitis
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FOAMed Link: For more on appendicitis decision rules, visit emDocs here.
Case continued: The results are returning on your patient and you
summarize your findings. On examination, the patient seems to be in
moderate discomfort, and prefers to lie still on the stretcher. Palpation
of the abdomen reveals rebound tenderness in the RLQ. Laboratory
testing is remarkable for an elevated WBC count of 14 and a normal
urinalysis. You remain concerned that this child has appendicitis and
order an ultrasound.
Q: While awaiting imaging, what are some options for treating this
patient’s pain?
A: The myth has long been dispelled that providing analgesia can mask
physical exam findings leading to misdiagnosis in appendicitis.
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An ultrasound where the appendix is not seen can still provide valuable information. The
absence of any secondary signs of appendicitis makes a final diagnosis of appendicitis
very unlikely. One study found a 0.90 (95% CI 0.83-0.95) negative predictive value in
the absence of secondary signs of appendicitis among ultrasound results where the
appendix was not seen.
Q: What should be the next step if you remain concerned that a patient may
have appendicitis and the ultrasound was inconclusive?
A: This is an area of great practice variability from centre to centre and between
individual physicians.
In the event that the initial ultrasound is inconclusive for a well-appearing child with a
low to moderate clinical pre-test probability, one approach is to have the child return
to the ED in 12 to 24 hours to be reassessed and potentially repeat the ultrasound.
This strategy avoids the radiation exposure of a CT, while capitalizing on the improved
diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound examination with the increased duration of symptoms.
A secondary analysis from a prospective trial on children with suspected appendicitis
demonstrated that the sensitivity of ultrasound improved from 86% within the first 12
hours after the onset of symptoms to 96% after 48 hours.
Clinical Pearl:
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FOAMed link: For more on ultrasound versus CT for appendicitis, visit the
Academic Life in EM blog.
When you call the pediatric surgeon you are informed that they
are in the operating room and should be down to see the patient
in the next two hours. While waiting for the surgeon to arrive
you decide to start antibiotics. What is the role for antibiotics in
acute appendicitis? And which antibiotics should be used?
Comments?
Click here to leave a
comment or to listen
to this podcast.
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KEY REFERENCES:
1. Becker T, Kharbanda A, Bachur R. Atypical clinical features of pediatric appendicitis. Acad Emerg
2. Bundy DG, Byerley JS, Liles EA, Perrin EM, Katnelson J, Rice HE. Does this child have appendicitis?
3. Kharbanda AB, Casme Y, Liu K, Spitalnik SL, Dayan PS. Discriminative accuracy of novel and
traditional biomarkers in children with suspected appendicitis adjusted for duration of abdominal
4. Kwan KY, Nager AL. Diagnosing pediatric appendicitis: usefulness of laboratory markers. Am J
5. Kharbanda AB, Dudley NC, Bujaj L, et al. Validation and refinement of a prediction rule to identify
children at low risk for acute appendicitis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2012; Aug;166(8):738-44.
6. Kulik DM, Uleryk EM, Maguire JL. Does this child have appendicitis? A systematic review of clinical
prediction rules for children with acute abdominal pain. J Clin Epidemiol. 2013; Jan;66(1):95-104.
7. Goldman RD, Crum D, Bromberg R, Rogovik A, Langer JC. Analgesia administration for acute
abdominal pain in the pediatric emergency department. Pediatric Emerg Care. 2006; Jan;22(1):18-
21.
8. Estey A, Poonai N, Lim R. Appendix not seen: the predictive value of secondary inflammatory
9. Bachur RG, Dayan PS, Bajaj L, et al. The effect of abdominal pain duration on the accuracy of
diagnostic imaging for pediatric appendicitis. Ann Emerg Med. 2012; Nov;60(5):582-590.
10. Ohle R, O’Reilly F, O’Brien KK, et al. The Alvarado score for predicting acute appendicitis: a
11. Doria AS, Moineddin R, Kellenberger CJ, et al. US or CT for diagnosis of appendicitis in children
12. Lee SL, Islam S, Cassidy LD, et al. Antibiotics and appendicitis in the pediatric population: an
American Pediatric Surgical Association Outcomes and Clinical Trials Committee Systematic
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CHAPTER 9: POCUS
APPENDICITIS &
INTUSSUSCEPTION
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH ALEX ARROYO AND ADAM SIVITZ HERE
Objectives
1. Review the literature of POCUS in pediatric appendicitis
2. Learn the technique to perform appendicitis POCUS
3. Learn the technique to perform intussusception POCUS
4. Identify the target sign of intussusception
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Appendicitis is notorious for its variability in clinical presentation, which can make it
challenging to diagnose. Blindly taking a patient to surgery without any imaging can lead
to a negative laparotomy, leading to complications. The current guidelines stipulate that
ultrasound should be the first line imaging modality for suspected pediatric appendicitis.
Ultrasound is a safe and useful tool to diagnose appendicitis, but unfortunately it is not
available 24 hours a day in many centres. Appendicitis Point of Care Ultrasound (POCUS)
may be an alternative in this case and save the patient radiation from a CT scan.
Q: Will the surgeons believe me when I tell them I’ve confirmed appendicitis
on POCUS? Can clinicians accurately diagnose appendicitis on POCUS?
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1. In an older child who is able to point to the location of their pain, place the
probe where they point. Younger patients require a more systematic scanning
technique.
2. Identify the ascending colon in the lateral right side of the abdomen. Move
down the lateral wall to make sure you are not missing a lateral or retro-cecal
appendix.
3. Move to medial side of the cecum and ascending colon; this is commonly
where the appendix comes off of the cecum.
4. To correctly identify the appendix, ensure you are seeing a tubular non-com-
pressible structure. (A common pitfall is to misidentify the terminal ileum or
another small bowel structure as the appendix.)
5. Once you locate the appendix, trace it all the way to its blind end.
FOAMed Link: For a challenging case of appendicitis POCUS on the EDE blog, go here
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CASE 2:
THE STOMACH ACHE
A 14-month-old female presents to your ED with the chief complaint
of crying intermittently for the past three hours. Her parents explain
that she vomited with each of these episodes. They report no blood
per rectum, no fevers, and that she was well prior to the episode. On
examination, the child looks very well but her parents tell you she seems
more tired that usual. You just had some training in POCUS and want to
keep up your skills, so you grab an ultrasound machine and place the
probe on the child’s abdomen. To your surprise, you immediately see
a target sign. Shortly afterward, the child once again develops severe
abdominal pain and vomits, but her pain resolves in a few minutes. You
call your local pediatric referral centre and refer your patient with the
diagnosis of intussusception.
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Q: The patient doesn’t have the classic triad of abdominal pain, vomiting,
and bloody stool! Are you sure the diagnosis is intussusception?
A: Intussusception has a wide variety of presentations and age range. The classic
triad is seen in only 20% of cases. The lack of textbook presentation may lead
clinicians to initially miss the diagnosis, leading to complications such as bowel
obstruction and perforation. Using intussusception POCUS in children with
non-classic presentations who have abdominal pain or vomiting may capture
intussusception cases that may otherwise be discharged as gastroenteritis or viral
illnesses.
Q: In this case you got lucky by seeing the target sign immediately
after placing the ultrasound probe on the patient’s abdomen. But you
won’t be so lucky every time. What is your step-by-step approach to
intussusception POCUS?
A: Choose the high-frequency probe (also called the linear probe). Begin the scan
at a 6 cm to 8 cm depth, but you may need to adjust this based on the patient’s
body habitus. Start with the probe in the right upper quadrant in the transverse
orientation. Ensure that bowel is identified before the probe is moved.
Clinical Pearl:
Bowel gas may scatter the image, making for a challenging scan. Light
sedation can make the POCUS more comfortable for the patient and allow
the POCUS physician to clear some bowel gas by pushing down harder on
the abdomen.
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A: Scan the entire bowel in the transverse orientation. Once all the bowel
is seen, rotate the probe into the longitudinal position to once again
visualize all the bowel. This should be repeated in all the other abdominal
quadrants.
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Q: Great! And what will help you determine if the patient does in fact
have intussusception?
A: Look for the target sign or doughnut sign (mmm … delicious). A target sign can
be found in appendicitis, intussusception, and pyloric stenosis. In the transverse
view you can see one ring within another. In the longitudinal view it may have a
layered appearance of bowel stacked onto itself.
Video: Dr. Samuel Lam illustrates the technique of POCUS for intussusception in the
following video.
Clinical Pearl:
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Comments?
KEY REFERENCES:
1. Sivitz AB, Cohen SG, Tejani C. Evaluation of acute appendicitis by pediatric emergency physician
2. Elikashvilli I, Tay ET, Tsung JW. The effect of point of care ultrasound on emergency department
length of stay and computed tomography utilization in children with suspected appendicitis. Acad
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CHAPTER 10:
GASTROENTERITIS,
CONSTIPATION & OBSTRUCTION
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH ANNA JARVIS AND STEPHEN FREEDMAN HERE
Objectives
6. Develop an approach to imaging investigations for pediatric patients with abdominal pain
8. Be able to distinguish surgical causes of abdominal pain from sickle cell pain crisis
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CASE 1:
VOMITING & DIARRHEA
A seven-year-old boy presents to your ED at 9 p.m.
with a history of diarrhea and fever for two days, as
well as vague abdominal pain. On further questioning,
he has no travel history, his immunizations are up to
date, there are no known infectious contacts, and he
is otherwise healthy on no medications. He vomited
once that morning, has no urinary symptoms, no
URI symptoms, and no rash. On exam, his vital signs
are normal except for a temperature of 38.1oC. His
abdomen is soft, with slight diffuse tenderness, and
no peritoneal signs.
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Q: What are the key aspects of the history when assessing a child who
presents with vomiting and diarrhea?
Case continued: Based on the history and physical exam, you determine the
most likely diagnosis is gastroenteritis and proceed to assess the child for signs of
dehydration.
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*Goldman RN, Friedman JN, Parkin PC. Validation of the Clinical Dehydration Scale for children with acute
gastroenteritis. Pediatrics. 2008; 122 (3): 545-549
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Q: Your resident then asks, “What about a stool culture?” What are the
indications for obtaining a stool culture for patients presenting with
diarrhea?
A: The indications for obtaining a stool culture are any of the following: travel to
an endemic country, > 10 diarrhea stools in 24 hours, > five days duration and not
resolving, blood and/or mucous in stools, and unremitting fever.
Q: How would you rehydrate this child with some signs of dehydration
from gastroenteritis?
A: Oral rehydration is the treatment of choice for children with acute gastroenteritis
who have evidence of some dehydration. Compared with IV rehydration, oral
rehydration therapy is associated with a lower risk of complications such as
electrolyte imbalances, cerebral edema, phlebitis, and cellulitis.
Oral rehydration solution dose: The following does are administered via syringe,
preferably by the parents, q5min, for a goal of 30 ml (1oz)/kg/hour for the first three
to four hours:
•• 5 cc if < six months old
•• 10 cc if six months to three years old
•• 15 cc if > three years old
•• An additional 10 cc/kg/stool should be administered for
each episode of diarrhea in the ED
•• The child should continue to breastfeed during this time
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The child should return to the ED for On the other hand, there is some evidence to
reassessment if they develop bloody suggest that probiotics may shorten the duration
diarrhea, worsening abdominal pain, of diarrheal illnesses and have a far more
increased vomiting, are unable to favourable safety profile. However, they should
tolerate fluids, or develop lethargy. be avoided in children with indwelling lines,
congenital heart disease, or short gut syndrome.
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CASE 2:
BLOATED
A two-year-old girl presents at 9 p.m. to your ED with several hours of
intermittent crying and looking “bloated.” There is no history of vomiting,
fever, or urinary symptoms, and the last bowel movement two days ago
was normal. Last week, she had a mild upper respiratory tract infection
that resolved spontaneously. She is otherwise healthy with no past
medical or surgical history, and is taking no medications. On exam,
the vital signs are normal except for a slightly high heart rate and a
temperature of 38.0oC. The abdomen is soft and non-tender, and bowel
sounds are present. An abdominal X-ray shows a moderate amount of
fecal loading and no obvious signs of obstruction. The girl is diagnosed
with constipation, and discharged home with a script for lactulose and
dietary instructions.
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The most widely accepted definition for functional constipation are the
Rome III criteria. There are two sets of criteria, one for children who have
a developmental age younger than four years of age, and another for
children with a developmental age of four years or older.
In the absence of organic pathology, at least two of the following must occur for
one month for a child with a developmental age < four, and at least once a week
for two months for a child with a developmental age of ≥ four.
1. Two or fewerdefecations per week
2. At least one episode of fecal incontinence per week after the acquisition of
toilet training skills
3. History of excessive stool retention or retentive posturing
4. History of painful or hard bowel movements
5. Presence of a large fecal mass in the rectum
6. History of large-diameter stools that may obstruct the toilet
A: Some red flags on history that are suggestive of more serious diseases
include a history of fever, abdominal distention, anorexia, nausea or
vomiting, weight loss, delay in first bowel movement for more than 48
hours after birth, and blood in the stools.
On physical exam, the astute clinician should also note the absence of stool
in the rectum on digital rectal exam in the presence of a large palpable
fecal mass in the abdomen, abdominal distension, and evidence of lower
back skin defects.
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Clincal Pearl:
A: Oral medications work better when combined with enemas in the ER.
After initiating treatment, it is important to explain to parents that it can
take months to years to retrain the bowel.
For enemas, if the child is younger than two years old, use a saline enema
at 20 cc/kg. Children > 20 kg can use an adult fleet enema.
Upon discharge home, patients should be instructed to take PEG 3350 (e.g.,
Laxaday) at a dose of 1–1.5 g/kg/day dissolved in 240 ml of fruit juice until
the child has one soft stool per day for three days, and then titrate down
the dose. PEG 3350 is preferred over lactulose.
A: Infants four to eight months of age are advised to add 120 ml of fruit
juice to their diet, substitute barley cereal in place of rice cereal, and use
glycerine suppositories as needed.
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Older children can be advised to increase their intake of fluids and fibre
(e.g., bran cereals, fruits such as pears or prunes, and beans).
Case continued: The next day, the family returns to the ED and the child
looks lethargic, pale, and tachypneic, with a distended abdomen. The girl
is placed on a monitor and an IV is started in the resuscitation room. A
20 cc/kg NS bolus is given, as well as IV antibiotics to cover for possible
sepsis. A portable abdominal X-ray is ordered and blood work is sent.
The X-ray shows prominent loops of bowel. A venous blood gas comes
back showing a metabolic acidosis with pH of 7.1. A rectal examination
is done with a positive fecal occult blood test. The patient was stabilized
and sent for advanced imaging.
A: Intussusception.
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Clincal Pearl: Typically, the episodes of pain will intensify and increase
in duration with shorter pain-free intervals. Vomiting
“Currant jelly stools” usually develops within the first six to 12 hours.
are a late finding in
intussusception, and Q: You make the diagnosis of intussusception
are often absent on and the parents ask you what may have
initial presentation to caused this. You also begin to consider causes
the ED. The absence of intussusception and wonder about other
of currant jelly diagnoses not to miss in this patient. What
stools should not diagnosis should you consider?
dissuade a clinician
from a diagnosis of A: Henoch-Schonlein purpura (HSP) is frequently
intussusception. implicated as a potential cause for intussusception.
HSP is a vasculitis that affects children predominantly
between the ages of two to 11 years old. It is classically
characterized by the triad of abdominal pain, arthritis,
and palpable purpura.
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The abdominal pain is typically diffuse and colicky, and may precede the
rash, making the diagnosis more difficult. The arthritis is migratory, usually
targeting the knees and ankles, and associated with periarticular swelling
and redness on exam. The palpable purpuric rash is the hallmark of HSP.
It usually is isolated to the buttocks and lower extremities and may look
urticarial or petechial.
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Q: What should you be looking for on physical exam for the patient
with suspected intussusception?
A: The patient may appear pale and lethargic in between episodes, and show
signs of dehydration such as a prolonged capillary refill, abnormal respirations
or dry mucous membranes.
However, the exam between episodes of abdominal pain can also be relatively
unremarkable. A well-appearing child with a good history for intussusception
warrants further observation in the ED.
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Pitfall:
Experienced clinicians who have examined many children may be able to detect
a subtle emptiness in the RLQ (known as “dance sign”), with the intussuscepted
segment of bowel migrating up to the RUQ.
While the utility of a rectal examination for most cases of pediatric abdominal pain
has been called into question, the presence of fecal occult blood can be an early
clue for intussusception well before the onset of currant jelly stools.
The remainder of the exam should focus on ruling out alternative diagnoses that
can present in a similar manner, such as an inguinal hernia, testicular torsion,
midgut volvulus, sepsis, meningitis, or non-accidental trauma.
Q: Should you order any further investigations? What role does plain
radiography serve in diagnosing intussusception?
A: Although plain film radiographs of the abdomen have poor sensitivity, there are
a number of potential findings that can be highly suggestive of intussusception.
It is estimated that up to 25% of abdominal plain films are normal in patients
who have a final diagnosis of intussusception. However, subtle findings such as a
target sign or crescent sign can warrant consultation with a surgeon (see images
on following pages). In addition, plain films can be used to screen for potential
complications such as perforated viscous or evidence of a small bowel obstruction.
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Clincal Pearl:
The “big three” findings to look for on EVERY pediatric plain film of the abdomen:
•• Free air to detect perforated viscous
•• Multiple air fluid levels to detect small bowel obstruction
•• The double bubble sign to detect proximal obstructions such as volvulus
The target sign is a faint, doughnut-shaped mass in the right upper quadrant; it is subtle, so
you must specifically be looking for it, and its presence is near diagnostic of intussusception.
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A: An enema can perforate the bowel if the gut is ischemic. Gastrografin has a
high osmolality and can produce shock (secondary to intravascular depletion)
in the case of perforation. Some centres prefer air-contrast enemas since
they result in smaller tears in the event of perforation. Using air is also less
expensive, requires less radiation, and leads to shorter fluoroscopy times.
CASE 3:
OBSTRUCTED
A five-year-old boy is brought to the ED with a chief complaint of diffuse
abdominal pain and persistent vomiting for the past 24 hours. He has not
tolerated oral fluids at home. His last bowel movement was two days ago
and his last urination was 12 hours ago. He has no fever, diarrhea, dysuria,
or coughing. His past history is significant for two previous episodes of
severe abdominal pain, which resolved on their own.
On exam his vital signs were normal: heart rate 100, respiratory rate
30, blood pressure 110/70. He is moderately ill appearing; pale with dry
mucous membranes and diminished skin turgour. His abdomen is soft and
slightly tender all over. Bowel sounds are diminished. He has no inguinal
hernias and his genitals are normal.
Children born with congenital malrotation are at high risk for midgut
volvulus. Roughly half of those born with malrotation will manifest with an
acute bowel obstruction during the first few months of life.
Clinical Pearl:
Pitfall:
A: Plain film x-rays of the abdomen can show evidence of a proximal bowel
obstruction, also known as the double bubble sign, with one bubble in the
stomach and one in the duodenum.
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Case continued: You receive a verbal report that the child’s ultrasound
is very suggestive of midgut volvulus. Seconds later, the nurse calls you
STAT to the child’s bedside. The child is now tachycardic with a heart
rate of 200 bpm, and the blood pressure is 60 mmHg on palpation. She
appears very lethargic and unwell.
CASE 4:
PMHx SICKLE CELL DISEASE
An adolescent female with a history of sickle cell disease presents
with nausea, vomiting, and poorly localized abdominal pain that has
prevented her from attending school. She is adamant that this feels
different than her previous vaso-occlusive pain crisis. She denies
any chest pain, back pain, or arthralgias. She is afebrile and slightly
tachycardic, with a heart rate of 105 bpm. Her blood pressure is 110/75.
She appears uncomfortable on exam and is noted to have tenderness in
the RUQ. She has no prior surgeries.
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Q: How can a clinician distinguish a sickle cell pain crisis from a surgical
abdomen?
A: Unfortunately, a vaso-occlusive pain crisis can perfectly mimic a surgical abdomen, with
patients presenting with symptoms of nausea, vomiting, fever, and peritoneal tenderness.
Although very little evidence exists in the literature, many experienced clinicians will report
that if the pain is reported to be similar to a previous pain crisis, an underlying surgical
etiology is less likely.
In contrast, pain that occurs in the absence of typical bone or joint symptoms is more likely
to be associated with a problem requiring surgery.
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KEY REFERENCES:
1. Steiner MJ, DeWalt DA, Byerley JS. Is this child dehydrated? JAMA. 2004; Jun;291(22):27-46.
Gastroenteritis Study Group. Diagnosing clinically significant dehydration in children with acute
3. Friedman JN, Goldman RD, Srivastava R, Parkin PC. Development of a clinical dehydration scale
for use in children between 1 and 36 months of age. J Pediatr. 2004; Aug;145(2):201-7.
4. Gorelick MH, Shaw KN, Murphy KO. Validity and reliability of clinical signs in the diagnosis of
5. Freedman SB, Adler M, Seshadri R, Powell EC. Oral ondansetron for gastroenteritis in a pediatric
6. Fedorowicz Z, Jagannath VA, Carter B. Antiemetics for reducing vomiting related to acute
gastroenteritis in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011; Issue 9.
7. Bernaola Aponte G, Bada Mancilla CA, Carreazo NY, Royas Galarza RA. Probiotics for treating
8. Goldenberg JZ, Lytvyn I, Steurich J, Parkin P, Mahant S, Johnston BC. Probiotics for the prevention
of the pediatric antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015; Issue 12.
9. Hymen PE, Milla PJ, Benninga MA, Davidson GP, Fleisher DF, Taminiau J. Childhood functional
10. Rasquin A, Di Lorenzo C, Forbes D, et al. Childhood functional gastrointestinal disorders: child/
11. Dillon MJ, Ozen S. A new international classification of childhood vasculitis. Pediatr Nephrol. 2006;
Sep;21(9):1219-22.
Comments?
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CHAPTER 11:
DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH SARAH REID AND SARAH CURTIS HERE
Objectives
1. Identify aspects of the history and physical exam that should prompt one to suspect
DKA in children
2. Develop an understanding of the diagnostic criteria for DKA and how this directs
investigations in whom the diagnosis is suspected
3. Develop an approach to the management of DKA based on disease severity
4. Understand the risk factors and clinical presentation of cerebral edema in DKA patients
5. Develop an approach to the management of cerebral edema in DKA patients
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CASE 1:
APPROACH TO DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS
(DKA)
A four-year-old boy presents to your academic ED with his parents
complaining of abdominal pain and shortness of breath since waking
that morning. They report a low-grade fever two days ago, which has now
resolved, no vomiting, and normal bowel movements. He has had a mild
cough for three days but no chest pain. They report that he’s been going to
the bathroom more often than usual to urinate. His past medical history is
unremarkable.
On exam he appears fatigued but is alert and oriented with a GCS of 15.
He is tachypneic with deep respirations but no indrawing. The patient has a
clear chest, capillary refill is two seconds, and mucous membranes are dry.
Abdominal exam is benign and the neurological exam is grossly normal.
A: Most patients will not present with the classic constellation of polyuria,
polydipsia, nausea/vomiting, and abdominal pain. The presence of
tachypnea with a clear chest should prompt the consideration of acidosis.
Hyperventilation is an attempt to release CO2 from the blood as a respiratory
compensation for the metabolic acidosis associated with DKA. This breathing
pattern is called Kussmaul breathing.
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Q: Given the pathophysiology underlying DKA, what are the criteria we use
to diagnosis it?
A: The diagnosis of DKA requires the presence of acidosis, ketosis, and hyperglycemia.
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Q: You are working in an academic hospital that sees adult patients almost
exclusively, and so you are more familiar with managing DKA in adults.
In general, how does the management of DKA differ between adults and
pediatric patients?
A: The key goals in managing DKA are to correct hypovolemia, correct acidosis, reverse
ketosis, restore glucose to near normal, monitor for complications, and treat any
precipitating event. While these principles are true both in adult and pediatric populations,
there are major differences in management between adults and pediatric patients.
1. IV fluids: While adult DKA guidelines recommend multiple fluid boluses in the
first two hours of care, fluid boluses are indicated only in pediatric patients who
are in decompensated shock. Judicious use of IV fluids is encouraged with twice
maintenance being the upper limit of the rate of administration.
2. Potassium management: Adult DKA patients have strict potassium cut-offs that
guide insulin administration, but potassium management in pediatric DKA is less
stringent. This is because pediatric patients are less prone to arrhythmias with
hypokalemia.
3. Sodium bicarbonate: While sodium bicarbonate is recommended in adult DKA with
a pH < 7.1, its use in pediatric DKA is limited to patients with cardiovascular collapse.
CASE 2:
MODERATE DKA
A six-year-old girl presents to your ED with her parents complaining
of abdominal pain with nausea and vomiting throughout the day. The
patient’s mother states the child looks more lethargic than normal, has
not been drinking, and is making very dark urine today.
On exam, she is alert and oriented with a GCS of 15, but she appears
drowsy. Vitals are: heart rate 135, respiratory rate 50, and blood pressure
89/50. Capillary refill is two seconds and the mucous membranes are dry.
Chest is clear and there is no indrawing. Abdominal exam is benign.
A: This patient is clearly sicker than the previous case. However, she is
not in decompensated shock, as her systolic blood pressure is greater
than the minimal acceptable for her age (70 + [2 x age]). Her pH and HCO3
are consistent with moderate DKA. Remember that it took a few days to
develop these metabolic derangements in DKA, and there is no rush to
correct them immediately. In fact, aggressive fluid and insulin boluses
may increase the risk of cerebral edema. It is important to follow the DKA
algorithm provided by your hospital or the Canadian Diabetes Association
in consultation with your pediatrician or pediatric endocrinologist.
Pitfall:
One of the common pitfalls in the management of hemodynamically stable
pediatric DKA patients is employing aggressive fluid management with large
boluses of saline up front. This practice increases the risk of cerebral edema.
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The metabolic derangements of DKA took one to two days to develop, and
so they should be corrected over one to two days, as well.
Key Reference:
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Q: Following these initial interventions, how are you going to monitor this
child to determine how to adjust further treatment?
A: The DKA algorithm provided by your consultant will inform further care, but the
principles of ongoing monitoring interventions in DKA are outlined below:
CASE 3:
SEVERE DKA AND CEREBRAL EDEMA
A two-year-old girl presents to your ED with lethargy for the
past 24 hours. She has no infectious signs or symptoms and
there are no sick contacts. The excellent triage nurse carries
the child in her arms directly to your resuscitation room, as
she is really worried about her. She looks altered and is not
responding appropriately. She is very tachypneic.
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Clinical Pearl:
A: This patient is presenting with altered mental status
If you have a in the presence of severe DKA. The possibility of cerebral
patient with DKA edema must be considered. In addition to the previously
with altered stated care plan, it would be prudent to:
mental status,
presume they have 1. Elevate the head of the bed to 30 degrees to help
cerebral edema. decrease raised ICP
Administration 2. Prepare mannitol and/or 3% hypertonic saline
of mannitol or 3. Call your regional referral centre, as this patient will
hypertonic saline require admission to a pediatric ICU
should be strongly
considered. Case continued: The patient is given a 400 ml bolus of
normal saline as well as an IV insulin bolus. The nurse
calls you back to the bedside because the child is now
stuporous and incontinent of urine. Her heart rate has
decreased from 150 to 90 beats per minute, and her
blood pressure has increased to 140/10 mmHg.
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A: Cerebral edema is a rare but devastating complication of DKA. Risk factors for the
development of DKA can be divided into patient-related and treatment-related. These risk
factors are summarized in the table below. Note that these are only associations only,
derived mostly from retrospective studies. The pathogenesis of cerebral edema in DKA is
quite controversial. Theories attributing it to aggressive insulin and fluid administration
describe increased intracellular sodium, with the forcing of water into brain cells a
possible mechanism. Alternatively, cerebral hypoperfusion from dehydration and acidosis
in DKA, causing cytogenic edema, has been proposed. Certainly, patients in severe
DKA can present to the ED already with signs of cerebral edema, so it is unlikely it is a
phenomenon caused exclusively by overzealous insulin and IV fluid administration.
Q: What are your immediate steps in the management of this patient who is
now showing signs of cerebral edema with raised intracranial pressure (ICP)?
A: The patient’s mental status has declined and she now has signs of increased ICP,
as suggested by her hypertension and bradycardia, both part of the Cushing reflex of
increased ICP. The head of the bed should be elevated to 30 degrees. Administer mannitol
0.5–1 g/kg over 20 minutes and/or 3% hypertonic saline 5-10 cc/kg IV over 30 minutes.
Hypertonic saline has the theoretical benefit of preventing hyponatremia as well as
preventing hypovolemia caused by mannitol-induced osmotic diuresis. However, there is
no strong clinical evidence in the pediatric population to support one agent over the other.
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A head CT can be considered to evaluate for increased ICP, but only after the patient
has stabilized. In fact, CT findings of cerebral edema usually lag behind clinical
symptoms, so management should proceed based on clinical signs of cerebral edema.
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As mentioned before, patients with mild DKA who are older than five years
of age and are tolerating oral fluids can be considered for discharge from
the ED if they are otherwise well, have clear follow-up instructions, and
have reliable caregivers.
FOAMed link: For a full pdf of the bottom line recommendations from TREKK,
click here.
Comments?
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KEY REFERENCES:
1. Edge JA, Jakes RW, Roy Y, et al. The UK case-control study of cerebral oedema complicating
2. Koves IH, Neutze J, Donath S, et al. The accuracy of clinical assessment of dehydration during
3. Levin DL. Cerebral edema in diabetic ketoacidosis. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2008; May;9(3):320-9.
4. Ma OJ, Rush MD, Godfrey MM, Gaddis G. Arterial blood gas results rarely influence emergency
physician management of patients with suspected diabetic ketoacidosis. Acad Emerg Med. 2003;
Aug;10(8):836-41.
5. Sheikh-ali M, Karon BS, Basu A, et al. Can serum beta-hydroxybutyrate be used to diagnose
umanitoba.ca/assets/trekk/assets/attachments/39/original/Bottom_Line_Summary_DKA.
pdf?1415132311.
7. Wherrett D, Huot C, Mitchell B, Pacaud D. Type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents. Can J
8. Wolfsdorf JI, Allgrove J, Craig ME, et al. Diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar
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CHAPTER 12:
BRONCHIOLITIS
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH DENNIS SCOLNIK AND SANJAY MEHTA HERE
Objectives
1. Develop an approach to the clinical exam of a patient with respiratory distress
2. Learn how to distinguish between bronchiolitis, asthma and pneumonia clinically
3. Know which investigations are necessary for children with bronchiolitis
4. Develop an approach to the management of bronchiolitis with an understanding
of the evidence supporting various treatment modalities
5. Learn which children with bronchiolitis require admission
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CASE 1:
DIFFICULTY BREATHING
A six-month-old girl is brought to the emergency department by her parents
because the child is having difficulty breathing. She’s had a cough and runny
nose for the past three days and gradually increasing shortness of breath since
the previous evening. This is her second ED visit.
On the first visit she was treated with ibuprofen and nebulized salbutamol,
and sent home. Her past history reveals that she was an uneventful delivery
with no NICU admission and no history of reactive airways. She is otherwise
healthy. Both her mother and father had asthma when they were children.
Q: As you are about to start you physical exam, you recall the Pediatric
Assessment Triangle and go through in your head all its components
to help guide your exam and to determine how “sick” this child is.
What are the important aspects of the Pediatric Assessment Triangle
that can help you out when faced with a six-month-old child with
respiratory distress in front of you?
Circulation:
•• Pallor
•• Mottling
•• Cyanosis
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Clinical Pearl:
Case continued: The patient’s vitals are: heart rate 150, respiratory rate 55,
oxygen saturation 95% on room air, and a temperature 38.4°C. On exam, the
patient is alert and does not appear toxic, but is in moderate respiratory distress
with tracheal tugging and intercostal indrawing. Auscultation reveals bilateral
diffuse biphasic wheezes with no crackles. Mucous membranes are moist,
anterior fontanelle is flat, and capillary refill is one second. The rest of the exam is
unremarkable.
A:
Q: You’re thinking that this child likely has reactive airways disease—
either an asthma-type illness, since both her parents were asthmatics,
or bronchiolitis, which you know is the most common lower respiratory
tract infection in those younger than two years of age and one of the
leading causes of hospital admission in those under six months of age.
Or could this be pneumonia?
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You wonder, how does one tell the Q: This six-month-old girl’s
difference between asthma, pneumonia, parents are quite anxious,
and bronchiolitis clinically, at the bedside? and they want to know if you
are going to order a chest
A: Bronchiolitis may present in the “classic” X-ray. Is this necessary?
fashion with a first-time wheezing episode in the
first year of life between the months of November A: In our case, a chest X-ray is not
and April in northern climates. Bronchiolitis necessary. Chest X-ray findings
usually begins with a two- or three-day viral of bronchiolitis are often non-
prodrome of fever, cough, and runny nose, which specific.
progresses to tachypnea, wheeze, crackles, and
a variable degree of respiratory distress, usually They may show hyperinflation,
with a decreased oxygen saturation. It usually perihilar fullness (see below), and
lasts about 10 days, with the severity increasing areas of atelectasis that are often
over the first three to five days. misinterpreted as a consolidation
and lead to inappropriate
However, often it is not possible to distinguish antibiotic use.
bronchiolitis from asthma or pneumonia at first
contact because their presentations may overlap. However, one should consider a
chest X-ray when the diagnosis
Children with asthma usually presents with is unclear or pneumonia
recurrent wheezing in a child younger than two is suspected due to severe
years old with a personal and/or family history of respiratory distress, focal
atopy or asthma. Response to beta-agonists may lung findings on clinical exam
help to differentiate bronchiolitis from asthma, or unexpected response to
as typically patients with bronchiolitis do not treatment.
show any improvement following beta-agonist
administration, whereas asthma patients typically
do.
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Key Reference:
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Q: The nurse asks you if you would like him to swab the nose of
this six-month-old child for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV).
While your reflex answer is ,“Sure, why not?” you’re actually not
sure if there is any value in RSV swabs for patients who present
to the emergency department with suspected bronchiolitis. Is
there any value in doing an RSV swab for this patient?
Q: The parents hear the word “wheezy” and remind you that they
both had asthma as a child. Should this child be treated with
inhaled bronchodilators?
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Key Reference:
The evidence for the combination of oral steroids with nebulized epinephrine
is equivocal. A large randomized control trial by Plint et al. demonstrated
a trend toward decreased admission rates for children treated with a
combination of oral steroids and nebulized epinephrine. However, some
experts believe the clinical significance of this difference was very small, and
therefore do not recommend this treatment routinely.
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A: Once again, the evidence is equivocal for the use of hypertonic saline
in the ED. There is evidence for its use in hospitalized patients, in whom
it has been shown to reduce length of stay and severity scores. However,
the benefits are short term and have not been shown to consistently
reduce rates of admissions or improve oxygenation. Our experts view
this treatment as a temporizing measure for a patient who is going to be
admitted and not as a rescue manoeuvre.
Q: Given the lack of good evidence for benefit for most treatment
modalities, what is your approach to the management of patients
with bronchiolitis?
A:
1. Correct hypovolemia
2. Treat hypoxemia if the oxygen saturation is less than 90%
3. Treat fever for comfort
4. Do serial assessments to determine the need for further interventions
5. Consider a trial of salbutamol if there is a history of atopy or a family
history of asthma or atopy
6. If admission is anticipated, consider a trial of epinephrine and/or
hypertonic saline
7. If showing signs of severe respiratory distress, high-flow oxygen is an
option (see Case 3)
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Management of Bronchiolitis:
Adapted from The Canadian Paediatric Society Guidelines for Bronchiolitis, 2014
A: Key Reference:
One study of otherwise healthy infants between the ages of four weeks to
12 months, with mild to moderate bronchiolitis and true oxygen saturations
of 88% or higher, were randomized to pulse oximetry measurements with
true saturation values displayed or with altered saturation values displayed
that had been increased three percentage points above the true values.
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They found that those with an artificially elevated pulse oximetry reading
were less likely to be hospitalized within 72 hours or to receive active
hospital care for more than six hours than those with unaltered oximetry
readings. This suggests that oxygen saturation should not be the only
factor in the decision to admit, and its use may need to be re-evaluated.
CASE 2:
AN INFANT WITH FEVER & BRONCHIOLITIS
A seven-week-old female is brought to the emergency department by
her parents with a two-day history of fever, runny nose, and cough. She
is previously healthy with an uncomplicated delivery.
On exam, her vitals are: heart rate 140, respiratory rate 60, oxygen
saturation 97% on room air, and a temperature of 38.5°C. She is alert
and interactive. She has intercostal indrawing and bilateral expiratory
wheeze on auscultation. She appears well hydrated. The rest of the exam
is non-contributory.
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A: Strongly consider obtaining a urinalysis for all infants who present with
fever and bronchiolitis. All infants from birth to 28 days of age with a fever
require a full septic workup and should be started on empiric IV antibiotics,
regardless of any suspicion for bronchiolitis. All febrile infants who display
signs of septic shock or impending septic shock should also have a full
septic workup and be started on empiric IV antibiotics.
Q: When you go to reassess this infant, her mother tells you she
thinks her baby may have stopped breathing for a few seconds
in the ED. Is this seven-week-old female at risk for apnea with
her bronchiolitis? Can the risk be predicted?
A: Yes, she is at increased risk because she is younger than two months of
age. The overall incidence of apnea in children with bronchiolitis is 2.7%.
Risk factors for apnea with bronchiolitis include:
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CASE 3:
FEVER AT THREE MONTHS OF AGE
A three-month-old male is brought in to the emergency department by his
parents with a three-day history of runny nose and cough. He has felt warm
at home. Over the past 24 hours his parents have noticed that he is not
acting himself, has decreased feeding, and increased work of breathing. He
is previously healthy and was born at term with an uncomplicated delivery.
On exam, his vitals are: heart rate 160, respiratory rate 70, oxygen
saturation 89% on room air, and a temperature of 38.1°C. He is not very
interactive. He is working hard to breathe with tracheal tugging, nasal
flaring, and intercostal indrawing. On auscultation, you hear a bilateral
diffuse biphasic wheeze with no crackles. His mucus membranes are
dry and his capillary refill is three seconds. The rest of the exam is non-
contributory.
A: There is conflicting evidence for the use of CPAP and high-flow nasal
cannula for respiratory failure in bronchiolitis. However, our experts
recommend the use of warmed, humidified high-flow oxygen by facemask
for children with bronchiolitis who are in severe respiratory distress.
High-flow oxygen may not be tolerated by all patients, but in those who are
showing signs of fatigue and in whom you are considering intubation, it may
play a role. High-flow oxygen by facemask provides positive end expiratory
pressure (PEEP) and allows the delivery of a high concentration of oxygen.
FOAMed link: For more on high-flow oxygen for bronchiolitis, check out this
PEM Currents podcast.
A:
Admission criteria for bronchiolitis:
Clinical Pearl:
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KEY REFERENCES:
1. Ecochard-Dugelay E. Beliah M, Perreaux F, et al. Clinical predictors of radiographic abnormalities
among infants with bronchiolitis in a paediatric emergency department. BMC Pediatr. 2014;
Jun;14:143.
2. Fernandes RM, Bialy LM, Vandermeer B, et al. Glucocorticoids for acute viral bronchiolitis in
infants and young children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013; Issue 6.
3. Friedman JN, Rieder MJ, Walton JM, Canadian Paediatric Society, Acute Care Committee, Drug
monitoring and management of children one to 24 months of age. Pediatr Child Health. 2014;
Nov;19(9):485-498.
4. Hartling L, Bialy LM, Vandermeer B et al. Epinephrine for Bronchiolitis (Review). Cochrane Database
5. Plint AC, Johsnon DW, Patel H, et al. Epinephrine and dexamethasone in children with
6. Ralston SL, Lieberthal AS, Meissner HC, et al. Clinical practice guideline: The diagnosis,
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Objectives
1. Determine the severity of asthma to guide ED management
2. Distinguish asthma from common asthma mimics
3. Understand the evidence for various treatments for acute asthma exacerbations
4. Understand the dangers of endotracheal intubation in patients with severe asthma
5. Know the discharge and hospital admission criteria for pediatric asthma
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CASE 1:
HISTORY OF ASTHMA
A 10-year-old boy with a history of asthma is triaged to the acute area of
your ED with a seven-day history of shortness of breath. Today, during
recess at school, he suddenly became much more short of breath and his
inhaler was empty from using it the day before. EMS brought the child
to your ED. On arrival he appears alert but tachypenic, with nasal flaring
and accessory muscle use. He’s able to speak in single-word phrases.
His respiratory rate is 40, heart rate is 140, oxygen saturation is 88% on
room air, and temperature is 37.4oC. His chest is silent.
A:
•• Previous life-threatening exacerbations
•• Admissions to ICU
•• Intubation
•• Deterioration while on systemic steroids
•• Using more than two canisters of short-acting beta-agonist per month
•• Cardiopulmonary and psychiatric comorbidities
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Pitfall:
A common pitfall is to assume that the lack of risk factors means that the
patient is low risk for deterioration. It is important to realize that a lack
of risk factors does not necessarily confer a lack of risk. In the absence of
the risk factors above, asthmatic patients may still have a severe disease
course and deteriorate in the ED.
A:
1. Bronchiolitis: Low-grade fever, wheeze tends to sound harsher and
less melodious; for more on bronchiolitis, jump to Chapter 12
2. Airway FB: Symptomless period followed by paroxysms of respiratory
distress, choking, recurrent or unresolving pneumonia, unilateral
wheeze, failure to improve with asthma therapies.
3. Tracheomalacia: Usually within first two months of life, strong
inspiratory component, no improvement with asthma meds—may
even cause worsening
4. GERD: Incidence among patients with asthma is as high as 48%;
heartburn, regurgitation, dysphagia
5. Pneumonia: Toxic appearing, respiratory distress, febrile, crackles
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A: You may want to consider obtaining a chest X-ray if the patient has:
•• Focal chest findings
•• Fever
•• Extreme distress
•• Subcutaneous emphysema
•• History of choking
Q: You have ordered your peak expiratory flow and used your
clinical score. You are now even more confident that this is asthma
and, given his condition, you want to start treatment right away.
You are going to start with beta-agonist therapy. How will you
deliver this treatment?
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Salbutamol Dosing:
•• For patients who weigh less than 15 kg, use Salbutamol MDI four puffs
or 2.5 mg nebulized + 3 ml NS.
•• For patients who weight more than 15 kg, use Salbutamol MDI eight
puffs or 5 mg nebulized + 3 ml NS.
Caution:
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A: Ensure the patient has an MDI spacer! If not, prescribe him one.
Let’s back up and pretend you have a similar scenario but with a patient
who clinically worsens despite continuous nebulized beta-agonist and
ipatropium bromide plus oral dexamethasone 0.6 mg/kg. His oxygen
saturation is now 86% and he is showing signs of fatigue. His GCS is 14,
and the nurse asks what you want to do next.
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Q: You have now tried everything you could think of for asthma,
except epinephrine. In what situations is epinephrine indicated?
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Currently, systematic reviews and guidelines state that heliox should not be
used routinely in patients with acute asthma in the ED.
Caution:
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In a 2001 prospective, observational, single-arm pilot study in two pediatric EDs over three
months, the effect of IV ketamine added to standard therapy in status asthmaticus was
evaluated. Initiation of ketamine in patients with severe asthma was associated with clinical
improvement. Side effects were easily managed with treatment or discontinuation of
ketamine.
The take-home message is that more convincing evidence is required before ketamine can
be recommended for routine treatment of severe pediatric asthma to avoid intubation.
Ketamine, however, is safe at dissociative dosages, and is a reasonable option when all
others measures have failed.
Case continued: This 10-year-old boy who is now suffering from worsening status
asthmaticus is given IV magnesium and IM epinephrine in addition to continuous
salbutamol, and he continues to tire. His GCS has dropped to 13 and his VBG shows an
elevated CO2.
A: Positive-pressure ventilation should be considered, and you should prepare for intubation.
Caution:
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A:
Other criteria may also be taken into consideration (e.g., distance from
home, comorbid conditions such as anaphylaxis).
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A:
Discharge Criteria in
Pediatric Asthma
KEY REFERENCES:
1. Belessis Y, Dixon S, Thomsen A, et al. Risk factors for an intensive care unit admission in children
2. Gorelick MH, Stevens MW, Schultz T, Scribano PV. Difficulty in obtaining peak expiratory flow
measurements in children with acute asthma. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2004; Jan;20(1):22-6.
3. Parkin PC, Macarthur C, Saunders NR, Diamond SA, Winders PM. Development of a clinical
asthma score for use in hospitalized children between 1 and 5 years of age. J Clin Epidemiol. 1996;
Aug;49(8):821-5.
4. Chalut DS, Ducharme FM, Davis GM. The Preschool Respiratory Assessment Measure (PRAM): A
5. Gorelick MH, Stevens MW, Schultz TR, Scribano PV. Performance of a novel clinical score, the
Pediatric Asthma Severity Score (PASS), in the evaluation of acute asthma. Acad Emerg Med. 2004;
Jan;11(1):10-18.
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6. Birken CS, Parkin PC, Macarthur C. Asthma severity scores for preschoolers displayed weaknesses
Managing the pediatric patient with an acute asthma exacerbation. Paediatr Child Health. 2012;
May;17(5):251-62.
8. Gershel JC, Goldman HS, Stein RE, Shelov SP, Ziprkowski M. The usefulness of chest radiographs
9. Castro-Rodriguez JA, Rodrigo GJ. Beta-agonists through metered-dose inhaler with valved holding
chamber versus nebulizer for acute exacerbation of wheezing or asthma in children under 5
10. Cates CJ, Welsh EJ, Rowe BH. Holding chambers (spacers) versus nebulisers for beta-agonist
11. Camargo CA, Spooner CH, Rowe BH. Continuous versus intermittent beta-agonists in the
12. Rodrigo GJ, Castro-Rodriguez JA: Anticholinergics in the treatment of children and adults with
asthma may reduce incidence of acute respiratory failure. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2014;
Mar;112(3):207-10.
14. Rowe BH, Bretzlaff JA, Bourdon C, Bota GW, Camargo CA Jr. Intravenous magnesium sulfate
treatment for acute asthma in the emergency department: A systematic review of the literature.
15. Mohammed S, Goodacre S. Intravenous and nebulised magnesium sulphate for acute asthma:
16. Cheuk DK, Chau TC, Lee SL. A meta-analysis on intravenous magnesium sulphate for treating
17. Denmark TK, Crane HA, Brown L. Ketamine to avoid mechanical ventilation in severe pediatric
18. Allen JY, Macia CG. The efficacy of ketamine in pediatric emergency department patients who
present with acute severe asthma. Ann Emerg Med. 2005; Jul;46(1):43-50.
19. Petrillo TM, Forteberry JD, Linzer JF, Simon HK. Emergency department use of ketamine in
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CHAPTER 14:
LUNG POCUS
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH ALYSSA ABO HERE
Objectives
1. Understand the advantages of lung Point of Care Ultrasound (POCUS)
2. Understand the steps to perform lung POCUS to diagnose pneumonia
3. Understand the common pearls and pitfalls of lung POCUS
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A: Many children present to the emergency department with respiratory illnesses. Although
only a small number of these patients have pneumonia, a large number of these patients
receive chest X-rays. POCUS may be used not only to limit the number of chest X-rays
performed on patients, but also because it is more accurate than chest X-ray in diagnosing
pneumonia.
CASE 1:
THE CASE OF THE NON-RADIATING WAR ON
PNEUMONIA
A three-year-old boy presents to the emergency department with fever, cough, and
tachypnea. You order a chest X-ray and it shows the appearance of a complete whiteout
of the right hemithorax. You have a discussion with your emergency team, mostly
about placing a chest tube and obtaining a CT for this child. Someone mentions that you
should consider doing a bedside ultrasound of the lungs. POCUS is performed, and the
right lung shows a large pneumonia taking up the entire lung field with no fluid.
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A: Since the clinical scenario and the ultrasound findings Use of lung POCUS
are in favour of pneumonia, you may not need to go on to has the potential to
further CT investigations. Other advantages of using POCUS decrease the number
for suspected pneumonia include: of chest X-rays
1. Differentiating pneumonia from a viral URTI or performed in pediatric
empyema patients in the future
2. Potentially diagnosing early bacterial pneumonia and can show the
before there is evidence of pneumonia on a chest X-ray lungs in more detail
3. Reliably diagnosing retro-cardiac infiltrates that are for some illnesses.
difficult to visualize on chest X-ray
A:
Key Reference: Clinical Pearl:
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Q: That makes you feel better. So, you see lots of different “lines”
when you look at the lungs. What are the common lines on lung
POCUS, and what do they all indicate?
A: There are many different “lines” present on POCUS. The most common
ones are A-lines, B-lines, and comet tails.
1. A-lines: These are artifact lines horizontal to the pleural line that
represent normal lungs
2. B-lines: These are hyperechoic lines that extend vertically from the
pleural line to the far field of the POCUS screen; they do not taper, they
move with respiration, they are pathologic, and they abolish A-lines; they
represent an interstitial process
3. Comet tails: These are hyperechoic artifacts that extend vertically from
the pleural line and taper in the far field and move with respiration;
these are seen in normal lungs, but may be absent in normal lungs
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Q: You think you are convinced and are ready to start using POCUS for
pneumonia. What are the steps for lung POCUS?
What is the ideal probe to use to look for pneumonia? Which orientation should
be used?
The pneumonia scan starts by placing a high-frequency probe in the longitudinal
plane on the child’s chest. This will help identify landmarks and the pleura. Depending
on the child’s body size, the low-frequency probe will be needed to look deeper into
the chest cavity to identify any evidence of pneumonia. Rotating the probe into the
transverse plane to look between the ribs and sweep can also be used.
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Q: If you are looking for signs of consolidation, what do you need to watch for?
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Clinical Pearl:
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Clinical Pearl:
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Q: When you are scanning, you may notice a bright white line
above the diaphragm, consistent with the spine. Why is the
spine seen so clearly in the setting of a hemothorax or pleural
effusion?
A: The lung is normally filled with air, which causes scatter of the
ultrasound beam. Thus, no far-field structures are seen through the
lung, as it makes for a poor acoustic window for the ultrasound beam.
However, when fluid is present in the lung from a hemothorax or pleural
effusion, it provides an excellent acoustic window, which allows beams to
pass through and identify far-field structures such as the spine. (Analogy:
Pregnant women need to fill their bladder before an obstetric ultrasound to
see the fetus through the bladder. If the bladder is not filled, it is difficult to
visualize the fetus.)
Video: Click here to watch a video of lung POCUS by Dr. Mike Stone.
Comments?
KEY REFERENCES:
1. Cortellaro F, Colombo S, Coen D, Duca PG. Lung Ultrasound is an Accurate Diagnostic Tool for the
2. Shah VP, Tunik MG, Tsung JW. Prospective evaluation of POCUS for the diagnosis of pneumonia in
3. Lichtenstein D, Meziere G, Seitz J. The dynamic air bronchogram: A lung ultrasound sign of
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CHAPTER 15:
PEDIATRIC CROUP
SPECIAL THANKS TO DENNIS SCOLNIK AND SANJAY MEHTA
Objectives
1. Review the differential diagnosis of stridor in children
2. Understand the value of imaging in children with stridor
3. List the evidence-based medications for croup
4. Review the criteria for admission for children with croup
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CASE 1:
A BARKING COUGH
A four-year-old boy is brought in to the ED by his mother on an early
winter evening. She is concerned about his strange sounding cough,
hoarse voice, and noisy breathing that she noticed while her son was
sleeping that evening. For the past few days he has had a mild cough and
runny nose. On exam he has a heart rate of 130, respiratory rate of 40,
blood pressure 90/60, an oxygen saturation of 99%, and temperature of
37.9oC. As you enter the patient’s room, you can hear a croupy cough and
stridorous respirations from across the room.
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Q: This boy is not very happy and keeps throwing the oxygen
saturation probe off of his finger. As you’re encouraging him to
keep it on, you wonder about the utility of an oxygen saturation
in a child with croup. How can the oxygen saturation of a child
with croup be misleading?
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A: Croup is a clinical diagnosis and laboratory and imaging are not required
to make the diagnosis.
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A: Children who are treated with epinephrine they should be observed for
a minimum of three hours before being discharged from medical care.
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Clinical Pearl:
Always inform the family the child’s cough can last up to several weeks
and the stridor may recur during episodes of agitation/excitement.
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Another case: A few shifts later, you have another four-year-old child with
a croupy cough and stridor. The child receives oral dexamethasone and
nebulized epinephrine and three hours later continues to be stridorous with
worsening retractions.
Q: How would you manage this child differently compared with the
previous case?
A: You may consider using heliox. However, heliox has not been shown to reduce
the need for intubation in severe croup.
In a child whose croup is progressing despite treatment in the ED, you should
prepare for intubation. Approximately 3 in 1,000 cases of croup require
intubation, with a mortality rate of < 0.5% in intubated patients.
Q: As you are assessing the child again, the mother mentions this is
their fourth visit to the ED for the same issue. When should you worry
about the child with recurrent croup?
A: Recurrent croup (three or more episodes) should be considered a red flag for
an alternative underlying cause. Anatomic abnormalities have been reported in
a significant proportion of patients with recurrent croup. Most, if not all, of these
patients will require bronchoscopy by ENT to rule out anatomic abnormalities.
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KEY REFERENCES:
1. Rihkanen H, Rönkkö E, Nieminen T, et al. Respiratory viruses in laryngeal croup of young children.
2. Stoney PJ, Chakrabarti MK. Experience of pulse oximetry in children with croup. J Laryngol Otol.
1991; Apr;105(4):295-8.
3. Bjornson CL, Klassen TP, Williamson J, et al. A randomized trial of a single dose of oral
4. Ledwith CA, Shea LM, Mauro RD. Safety and efficacy of nebulzie racemic epinephrine in
conjunction with oral dexamethasone and mist in the outpatient treatmen of croup. Ann Emerg
can we identify children for outpatient therapy? Am J Emerg Med. 1994; Nov;12(6);613-6.
6. Waisman Y, Klein BL, Boenning DA, et al. Prospective randomized double-blind study comparing
7. Bjornson C, Russell K, Vandermeer B, Klassen TP, Johnson DW. Nebulized epinephrine for croup in
8. Moore M, Little P. WITHDRAWN: Humidified air inhalation for treating croup. Cochrane Database
9. Neto GM, Kentab O, Klassen TP, Osmond MH. A randomized controlled trial of mist in the acute
10. Joshi V, Malik V, Mirza O, Kumar BN. Fifteen-minute consultation: structured approach to
management of a child with recurrent croup. Arch Dis Child Educ Pract Ed. 2014; Jun;99(3):90-3.
11. Rankin I, Wang SM, Waters A, Clement WA, Kubba H. The management of recurrent croup in
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CHAPTER 16:
PEDIATRIC SYNCOPE
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH ERIC LETOVKSY AND ANNA JARVIS HERE
Objectives
1. Develop an approach to assessing a child who presents to the ED with syncope
2. Distinguish between syncope and seizure
3. Understand the key historical and physical exam features that distinguish
benign versus serious causes of syncope
4. Develop an approach to reading the ECG of a child who presents to the ED with
syncope
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CASE 1:
A STICKY LOC SITUATION
Sammy is a 15-year-old male out with his friends at a summer concert
watching a cool new band, The Crew, at the town festival. It is a hot
summer day. Sammy starts to feel warm and nauseated, and begins to
sweat profusely. Sammy loses consciousness and drops to the ground.
There are a few jerking movements of his limbs. He is unconscious
for only half a minute and quickly regains consciousness. His shirt is
soaked with sweat. When his friends question him, Sammy tells them he
remembers feeling warm and nauseated before he passed out, but does
not remember being unconscious. When you assess him in the ED he says
he feels fine, and his vital signs are all normal.
A:
•• Step 1: Differentiate syncope from seizure
•• Step 2: Categorize syncope by the underlying cause as benign or
serious/life-threatening, and whether the cause is autonomic, cardiac, or
non-cardiac
•• Step 3: Assess the risk for a future cardiovascular event or sudden death
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Step 1:
Q: Was Sammy’s episode at the concert a syncopal episode or a seizure?
Step 2:
Q: Was Sammy’s episode at the concert a syncopal episode or a seizure?
A: While Sammy’s episode is quite classic for vasovagal syncope, more serious causes
need to be ruled out.
Patients with vasovagal syncope typically display pallor, with cold skin, profuse
diaphoresis, and occasionally dilated pupils. In general, this phase is not typically
recalled by the patient. Rarely, patients can describe feeling “disconnected” or being
able to hear bystanders’ voices while being unable to respond to them.
Clinical Pearl:
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A: A detailed history and physical exam will identify the cause of syncope
in nearly 50% of the patients. A 12-lead ECG should be obtained in every
patient. Routine labs and neuroimaging are not recommended.
A:
•• Pattern: Is this the first presentation, or is there a pattern of recurring
episodes?
•• Position: What position was the patient in?
•• Exertion: Was physical exertion involved?
•• Situation: What was happening at the time before syncope?
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CASE 2:
CENTREFIELD COLLAPSE
John is an athletic 14-year-old male who was out with his friends playing
football when suddenly he collapsed mid-stride. He spontaneously
recovered after about one minute. EMS was called and arrived on scene.
On route to the hospital, John told the paramedic that he felt some
chest pain and a bit short of breath before he collapsed. John further
explained that while working out last week at the gym, he felt chest pain,
which made him a bit dizzy. Sal, John’s father, arrived at the hospital and
mentioned that his brother suddenly died while playing hockey in his
30s, and his son suddenly collapsing reminded him of his brother’s story.
On physical exam, John was found to have an outflow murmur that
increases with valsalva. An ECG was ordered.
A: The concerning elements of this case for a cardiac etiology are that John
collapsed while exerting himself physically, there was no prodrome, and
the syncopal event occurred mid-stride. His father, Sal, also tells of a family
history of his brother dying of sudden cardiac death at a young age.
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Key References:
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Caution:
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Q: What do you expect the ECG to look like in patients with HCM?
Caution:
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Clinical Pearl:
Acquired heart block found on ECG can be caused by infectious myocarditis
(most commonly Lyme disease), neonatal lupus, congenital heart disease,
or cardiomyopathy. Second- and third-degree heart block in the setting of
syncope usually requires urgent placement of a cardiac pacemaker.
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A:
•• Short PR interval of less than three small squares (120 ms)
•• Slurred upstroke to the QRS indicating pre-excitation (delta wave)
•• Broad QRS
•• Secondary ST and T wave changes
ECG showing WPW syndrome. Courtesy of Life in the Fast Lane blog.
Clinical Pearl:
Atrial arrhythmias are rarely associated with syncope, with the important
exception of WPW syndrome.
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Clinical Pearl:
While a QTc interval > 500 is considered high risk for Click here for a list
torsades de pointes and sudden death, in children a QTc of medications to
interval > 450 is considered high risk warranting referral to avoid in patients
an cardiac electrophysiologist. with long QT.
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Caution:
Sudden cardiac death may be the first and only presenting symptom of
Brugada syndrome.
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Clinical Pearl:
The ECG of a patient with Brugada syndrome is divided into two types:
•• Type 1 shows a pseudo-RBBB pattern with a triangular-shaped ST
elevation in the anterior precordial leads (V1 to V3)
•• Type 2 shows a > 2mm of saddleback-shaped ST elevation
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Q: What lab tests would you consider ordering in a patient with syncope
who has an ECG showing a prolonged QT interval?
A: Routine blood tests are of low diagnostic value in patients who present to
the ED with syncope. However, in a patient whose ECG shows a prolonged QT
interval, an electrolyte panel may be revealing as hypokalemia, hypocalcemia, and
hypomagnesemia can all cause a prolonged QT interval.
Caution:
Some of the more common medications that can prolong the QT interval
include the following:
•• Tricyclic antidepressants •• Macrolide antibiotics
•• Antipsychotics •• Antihistamines
CASE 3:
BREATHLESS & BLUE
Sarah is a 14-month-old girl brought in to the ER by her nanny after “fainting”
this afternoon. Sarah was playing with the household cat, Patches, when the
cat swatted and scratched her arm. Sarah gave a loud cry and then stopped
breathing, according to the nanny. She then turned pale, then blue, and her body
jerked a couple of times before going limp. After about 30 seconds, Sarah gasped
for air, followed by a few deep inspirations, and she returned to normal.
Q: What are the two main types of breath holding spells and how do they
present?
A: Breath-holding spells are seen in children between six months and 24 months
of age. There are two forms, cyanotic and pallid. The cyanotic form occurs at six
months of age, peaks at two years, and is completely gone at 5 years. The episode is
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KEY REFERENCES:
1. Kaniwal K, Calkins H. Syncope in children and adolescents. Cardiol Clin. 2015; Aug;33(3):397-409.
2. Tretter JT, Kavey RE. Distinguishing cardiac syncope from vasovagal syncope in a referral
3. Yang J, Zhu L, Chen S, et al. Modified Calgary score in differential diagnosis between cardiac
4. Timmermans C, Smeets JL, Rodriguez LM, Vrouchos G, van den Dool A, Wellens HJ. Aborted
5. Brugada J, Brugada R, Brugada P. Right bundle branch block and ST segment elevation in leads V1
6. Prodinger RJ, Reisdorff EJ. Syncope in children. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 1998; Aug;16(3):617-26.
8. Maron BJ. Sudden death in young athletes. N Engl J Med. 2003; Sep;349(11):1064-75.
9. Gersh BJ, Maron BJ, Bonow RO, et al. ACCF/AHA guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment
American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011; Dec;58(25):
2703-38.
10. Probst V, Denjoy I, Meregalli PG, et al. Clinical aspects and prognosis of Brugada syndrome in
11. Haïssaguerre M, Derval N, Sacher F, et al. Sudden cardiac arrest associated with early
12. Hurst D, Hirsh DA, Oster ME, et al. Syncope in the pediatric population emergency department --
can we predict cardiac disease based on history alone? J Emerg Med. 2015; Jul;49(1):1-7
13. DiMario FJ. Prospective study of children with cyanotic and pallid breath holding spells. Pediatrics.
2001; Feb;107(2):265-9.
14. Steinberg LA, Knilans TK. Syncope in children: diagnostic tests have a high cost and low yield. J
15. Zangwill SD, Strasburger JF. Commotio cordis. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2004; Oct;51(5):1347-54.
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CHAPTER 17:
PEDIATRIC SEIZURES
LISTEN TO THE PODCAST WITH LAWRENCE RICHER & ANGELO MIKROGIANAKIS HERE
Objectives
1. Differentiate between benign febrile seizures and complex febrile seizures
2. Learn the appropriate workup for both febrile and non-febrile seizures
3. Review the management of seizures in the emergency department
4. Know the medication options for status epilepticus
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CASE 1:
THE BLUE CHILD
A 14-month-old boy is brought in by his mother as she is worried that he had
a seizure at home. He was playing quietly on the living room floor and his
mother stepped briefly into the kitchen. She heard a bang, then a cry, and
went running into the room to find her son lying on the floor looking a bit
blue. He made a couple of jerky movements and then started to move and
breathe normally. After the episode, he woke up within minutes and was
completely back to normal on arrival in the ED. His vital signs were normal
and he was happily playing with his mother in the examination room.
A: Much of this is going to hinge on the history. Ask about the onset; duration
and nature of the movements; tongue biting; eye findings and the recovery
phase after the episode. The level of responsiveness during the episode is
also important, as parents can sometimes mistake rigors for seizure activity.
The recovery phase is critical, as a rapid/immediate return to normal activity
is unlikely to follow a true seizure. Breath-holding spells, syncope, and
pseudoseizures can be difficult to differentiate from true seizures.
Clinical Pearl:
•• Postictal phase
•• Lateral tongue biting
•• Flickering eyelids
•• Blank stare or deviated eyes
•• Lip smacking
•• Increased heart rate and blood pressure during the event
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CASE 2:
FEBRILE SEIZURES
Panicked parents bring their eight-month-old to your Emergency
Department. Thirty minutes ago, they saw their daughter suddenly become
unresponsive and start shaking. The episode lasted about five minutes, and
the child is now waking up. They mention that she has had a fever for the
past four days and they have been giving her acetaminophen for this at
home. She has not had any respiratory or GI symptoms over the past few
days. She is otherwise healthy and fully immunized.
On exam, the child is awake but a bit drowsy. She has moist mucous membranes
and normal capillary refill. Her neck is supple, she is moving all four limbs well
and is beginning to interact with her parents. Her vital signs are normal other
than a temperature of 38.3°C. Her ENT and respiratory exams are normal and
her abdomen is benign. She does not have a rash. As you are examining her, she
begins to seize again.
Q: You are convinced by both the history and seizure you see in the
emergency department that this child has had a seizure associated with
a febrile illness. The distinction between simple versus complex febrile
seizures is important, as complex febrile seizures may indicate a more
serious underlying disease process and warrant a workup. How do you
distinguish simple from complex febrile seizure clinically?
A: A diagnosis of complex febrile seizures is made if there is any deviation from the
criteria of a simple febrile seizure.
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Clinical Pearl:
Simple febrile seizures tend to occur within the first 24 hours of a febrile
illness. If the seizure occurs > 24 hrs after the onset of fever as in this case,
the index of suspicion for a serious bacterial illness should be heightened.
A: The workup of complex febrile seizures requires a stepwise approach given the wide
breadth of presentations in this category. Keep in mind that the younger the child, the more
aggressive the workup should be. Children who return to baseline after a complex seizure
and at no point displayed any focal neurologic symptoms usually do not require an extensive
workup. Even though studies have shown that febrile seizures do not increase the risk of
serious bacterial infection compared with fever alone, meningitis should always be on the
differential diagnosis in a child with complex febrile seizures. About 25% of children with
meningitis will present with a new onset febrile seizure; however, they will almost always
display persistent mental status abnormalities along with other signs of meningitis, such as
nuchal rigidity, focal seizures, and petechia.
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If the seizure was focal, one should consider CNS infection, neuroimaging,
and EEG testing. Otherwise, in the child older than six months who has had
somewhat prolonged or multiple seizures in 24 hours, a combination of
limited testing and observation with frequent reassessment is reasonable.
Initial tests generally include CBC, glucose, electrolytes, and urinalysis.
Q: Let’s say that this child looked toxic after a complex febrile
seizure. Would you perform a lumbar puncture? What are the
indications for doing a lumbar puncture in a child with a febrile
seizure? Would you send the patient for a CT scan of the head?
When would you consider neuroimaging in the ED in the child
with a febrile seizure?
BMJ Article on
Febrile Seizures (2015)
Red flags to warrant considering a
lumbar puncture: Indications for neuroimaging in the
ED in the child with a febrile seizure:
•• Postictal symptoms lasting > one
hour •• Suspicion of non-accidental injury
•• Any physical exam signs of •• Signs of increased ICP
meningitis (bulging fontanelle, neck •• Patient who does not return to
stiffness, focal neurologic deficits, neurologic baseline
photophobia, petechial rash) •• Underlying known CNS disorder
•• Irritability or lethargy (e.g., VP shunt)
•• Already on antibiotics
•• Incomplete immunization (HiB and
Strep pneumo)
•• Complex febrile seizures
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Q: You diagnose this child with a viral illness and simple febrile
seizure and decide to send her home. What discharge instructions will
you give the parents?
A:
Safety: Place the child in the recovery position and do not place anything in the
child’s mouth
If the child has all four of the risk factors, the risk of recurrence is 70%. If the
child doesn’t meet any criteria, the risk falls to 20%.
Q: As you’re about to discharge this child, the parents ask you about
how to keep the child’s fever at bay to prevent another seizure from
occurring. Does the use of antipyretics alter the risk of febrile seizure?
A:
Clinical Pearl:
Parents will often blame themselves for not treating the seizure
appropriately or quickly enough to prevent the seizure. It is important to
educate them that the height of the fever does not predict risk of suffering a
seizure, and that prophylactic antipyretics do not have any effect on the rate
of seizure recurrence.
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CASE 3:
NON-FEBRILE SEIZURE
A two-month-old girl is brought in to the ED by her
parents. Over the past 24 hours she has become
increasingly drowsy. She has no fever, respiratory
symptoms or GI symptoms. Thirty minutes ago,
the parents witnessed what you determine to
be a generalized tonic-clonic seizure lasting two
minutes. She is now beginning to rouse. The infant
was born at term with no issues during pregnancy
or with the delivery. She is otherwise healthy.
There is no family history of seizure disorders.
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Angiofibromas
Pitfall:
Children younger than two years of age who present to the ED with a non-
febrile seizure are almost always found to have a worrisome underlying
etiology, as apposed to epilepsy. Even if the history and physical do not
reveal any obvious etiology for the seizure, these patients need further
assessment to rule out ominous causes of their seizure.
A: Lab tests may not be necessary for the child who has suffered a brief seizure and is
now alert and back at baseline level of function. A thorough history and physical exam in
patients who have no identifiable risk factors have been shown to yield more diagnostic
information than a laboratory evaluation.
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Q: Which laboratory studies are Q: Would you order a CT scan on this two-
required in the ED? month-old girl who has suffered a non-febrile
seizure? Why or why not?
A: Specific laboratory tests should
be guided by the clinical assessment. A: Neuroimaging is generally not necessary in
Some tests to consider are: the ED in a child after a non-febrile seizure who
•• Capillary glucose returns to neurologic baseline. This child has not
•• CBC returned to her baseline level of awareness, and so
•• Electrolytes including sodium, neuroimaging might be a reasonable consideration.
calcium, and magnesium
•• Ammonia (for inborn errors of Some high-risk criteria for finding a culprit lesion on
metabolism) a CT scan of the head are:
•• Toxicology screen •• Focal seizure or persistent seizure activity
•• Serum level of anticonvulsant •• Focal neurologic deficit
(if patient is already on an •• VP shunt
anticonvulsant medication) •• Neurocutaneous disorder suggested on skin
•• ECG (if you are considering exam
syncope for a cardiac cause of •• Signs of elevated increased ICP
event; e.g., long QT) •• History of trauma
•• Travel to an area endemic for neurocysticercosis
•• Immunocompromised state
•• Hypercoagulable state (e.g., sickle cell disease)
or bleeding disorder
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Clinical Pearl:
On further questioning, you find out that this child’s parents have indeed
been watering down the infant formula.
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A:
Q: Suppose that this patient was not found to have any underlying
etiology for her non-febrile seizure. What is the risk of recurrence
after a non-febrile seizure?
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CASE 4:
STATUS EPILEPTICUS
A three-year-old boy is brought in by an EMS crew. The mother called 911
after her son seized at home, and en route to hospital the child began to
seize again. By the time they arrive in your ED the child had been seizing
continuously for eight minutes.
Q: This child has been seizing for eight minutes. Does this
constitute status epilepticus? How is status epilepticus defined?
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Pitfall:
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Benzodiazepine Dosing
The choice of benzodiazepine and the choice of route are not the major
determinants of efficacy. Rather, the most important determinant of
benzodiazepine efficacy in stopping seizures is time to administration. Again,
early administration of a benzodiazepine is a priority.
A: There are a number of specific situations that require specific treatment. Some
can be established on history and others will require specific laboratory tests.
Pitfall:
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Some important specific causes of seizures and their treatments are as follows:
Cause Treatment
Hyponatremia 3 cc/kg of hypertonic (3%) saline IV
Hypoglycemia Dextrose IV
Anticholinergic toxicity Sodium bicarbonate (if QRS > 100)
Isoniazid toxicity Pyridoxine
Eclampsia Magnesium Sulphate
Clinical Pearl:
Once you have started giving your antiepileptic medications, start drawing
up the next dose of medication so it is ready to administer if seizure
activity continues to persist.
Q: This child received two doses of diazepam but continues to seize. What is
your next move?
Caution:
Avoid using phenytoin/fosphenytoin in toxin-related seizures (e.g., cocaine,
local anesthetics, theophylline, TCAs). If you are suspicious of a toxin-related
seizure, consider using phenobarbital or valproate as second-line drugs.
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A: If the patient is still seizing and has not already been intubated, the
airway should be secured. In terms of medications, the options include an
infusion of midazolam, pentobarbital, or propofol.
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The next priority is to identify any underlying causes for the seizure if it
hasn’t been identified already. Double-check blood work, including sodium
and calcium levels. Do an ECG to look for evidence of toxins or primary
cardiac causes of the event (e.g., long QT). Think about other reversible
causes, such as hypertensive encephalopathy, structural CNS disease, non-
accidental injury, toxins, etc.
Comments?
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KEY REFERENCES:
1. Alford EL., Wheless JW, Phelps SJ. Treatment of Generalized Convulsive Status Epilepticus in
2. Berg AT, Shinnar S, Darefsky AS, et al. Predictors of recurrent febrile seizures. A prospective
3. Hirtz D, Berg A, Bettis D, et al. Practice parameter: Treatment of the child with a first unprovoked
seizure Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology
and the Practice Committee of the Child Neurology Society. Neurology. 2003; Jan;60(2):166-75.
4. Larry. Seizures and Status Epilepticus: Diagnosis and Management in the Emergency Department.
2007; 1–32.
5. Patel N, Ram D, Swiderska N, Mewasingh LD, Newton RW, Offringa M. Febrile seizures. BMJ. 2015;
Aug; 351:h4240.
8. Warden CR, Brownstein DR, Del Beccaro MA. Predictors of Abnormal Findings of Computed
Tomography of the Head in Pediatric Patients Presenting With Seizures. Ann Emerg Med. 1997;
Apr;29(4);518-23.
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RAPID REVIEW
QUESTIONS
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A: Heart rate: increases by 10 beats per minute for every degree of fever above 38°C
Resp rate: increases by 5 breaths per minute for every degree of fever above 38°C
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A: < 2 months: obtain urine sample by catheterization and send every sample for a
culture (as the urinalysis may be normal with a true infection)
Toilet trained: obtain a mid-stream urine after adequate cleaning of the genitals.
A: All children < 2 years with a first time UTI should have an outpatient ultrasound to
look for vesico-ureteral reflux and structural anomalies. A voiding cysto-urethrogram
(VCUG) is no longer recommended for children with a first time UTI.
Q: What does a full septic workup include and what age group is this
recommended in?
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A: Absolutely not. Hypotension is a late sign of pediatric septic shock and imminent
arrest. Do NOT wait for hypotension to make the diagnosis of septic shock.
A: If your team cannot obtain IV access within the first 6o seconds, put in an IO line.
Q: If you have made the call that your critically ill child is in septic shock,
how much fluid should you be giving as an initial resuscitative measure?
A: Fluids, typically crystalloids such as normal saline or Ringer’s lactate, are given in
boluses of 20cc/kg, repeated up to a total of 60cc/kg within the first hour, as long as
there are no signs of hepatomegaly, crackles in the lungs, or sonographic evidence
of pulmonary edema.
Q: How would you infuse these fluids in the child who is in septic shock?
IV normal saline “wide open”?
A: IV fluids “wide open” may not deliver fluids fast enough. In order to deliver fluids
faster, for younger children (<2yo), fill a 30-60cc syringe with saline and manually
bolus them by IV push. For older children, use a level 1 infuser.
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Q: How do you distinguish between warm and cold septic shock in your
patient and which would be more common in children?
A: Warm shock, as seen in most adults in septic shock presents with warm
extremities and flash capillary refill, while cold shock, as seen in most children in
septic shock presents with cool extremities and delayed capillary refill.
Q: Which inotrope would be the best initial choice for your patient if you
determine they are in cold shock? How about if you determine it’s warm
shock instead?
A: Epinephrine would be best if you determine its cold shock while norepinephrine
is preferable for warm shock.
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Q: As you are resuscitating your critically ill septic child, what markers of
a successful resuscitation would you be looking for?
A:
•• Capillary refill < 2 sec
•• Normal blood pressure
•• Normal pulses with no differential between central and peripheral pulses
•• Warm extremities
•• Urine output > 1 ml/kg/hr
•• Normal mental status
•• Normal lactate
A: Up to 25% of kids with sepsis have adrenal insufficiency either from prior
steroid use, from the cause of sepsis itself or primary adrenal insufficiency.
Adrenal insufficiency in this setting may lead to fluid and pressor refractory shock.
Treatment is hydrocortisone 2mg/kg IV.
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A: Be creative, use distraction techniques with music, toys, cell phone videos,
or books. You can also use physical elements such as heat, cold and proper
positioning. You can try having a child breast feed if age-appropriate, or giving
oral sucrose to children <6 months. Also remember to get your interprofessional
team on board -- if you have Child Life Specialists, call them, too!
A: A good oral option would be morphine oral suspension at a dose of 0.2 – 0.5
mg/kg PO (max 15 mg) q4-6h. IV morphine is dosed at 0.1 mg/kg IV push and
titrated to effect.
Q: Your pediatric patient is in a lot of pain and you are having trouble
starting an IV. What you would do next?
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Q: If you are suspecting a basilar skull fracture, what signs might you be
expecting to find in your pediatric patient?
Q: If you are sending your patient with mild or moderate head injury
home is it necessary for their parents to wake them up every 2 hours to
ensure they are acting appropriately?
A: No; however, if overnight includes the first 6 hours after injury it would be
reasonable to wake them up once to ensure they are acting appropriately.
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Before administering midazolam, consider the recovery time and that it may
cloud your physical and neurological assessments of the patient. Perform a good
neurological exam before the sedation!
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A:
1. Age >55 (omitted in pediatrics
2. Pain at the fibular head
3. Isolated patellar tenderness
4. Inability to flex the knee to 90 degrees
5. Inability to walk four weight-bearing steps both immediately & in the ED
Q: If you suspect an ACL tear, which two fractures should you look out
for on the X-ray?
A: A Toddler’s Fracture
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A: The Ottawa Ankle rule has been shown to have a high sensitivity for ankle and
mid-foot fractures in children older than five years old.
A: Buckle fractures of the distal radius heal well in a removable splint, and studies
show that patients prefer this over a cast. One randomized control trial showed
better physical function, less difficulty with activities, the ability to return to sports
sooner, and pain scores that were either not significantly different when compared
to a short arm cast, or less than with casting.
Q: What are the elements of the Kocher criteria for septic arthritis?
A: Kocher Criteria is a tool to help risk stratify patients suspected of having septic
arthirits. If all four criteria are met, the probability of septic arthritis is 99.6%.
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A: No. The myth has long been dispelled that providing analgesia can mask physical
exam findings leading to misdiagnosis in appendicitis.
A WBC is of limited utility in diagnosing the cause of pediatric abdominal pain. The
likelihood ratios associated with the presence or absence of leukocytosis are not
sufficient to either rule in or rule out appendicitis. Children with gastroenteritis may
have a high WBC with a left shift, while as many as 40% of those with appendicitis
may have no leukocytosis. Nonetheless, a normal WBC does make the diagnosis less
likely.
Q: If you are worried about a patient that may have appendicitis but the
ultrasound report was inconclusive, what should your next step be?
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A:
•• Intracranial Mass
•• Meningitis
•• Intussusception
•• Diabetic Ketoacidosis
•• Cholinergic Syndrome
•• Pneumonia
•• Myocarditis
•• Appendicitis
•• Urinary Tract Infection
Q: If you are trying to determine if this child is dehydrated, what are the 4
most useful clinical exam findings that you should look for?
A: From the Gorelick Score, 2 or more of the following suggests > 5% dehydration:
•• Capillary Refill > 2 seconds
•• Absent tears
•• Dry mucous membranes
•• Ill general appearance
A:
•• Elevate the head of the bed to 30 degrees
•• Mannitol 0.5-1g/kg over 20 minutes or
•• 3% Hypertonic Saline 5-10cc/kg IV over 30 minutes
Q: What is the only situation you would consider giving a child with DKA
fluid boluses?
A: Fluid boluses are only indicated in pediatric DKA patients who are in
decompensated shock. If a child has a blood pressure below 70 + (2 x Age), judicious
fluids should be given until the pressure corrects above this range.
Q: What is the timing, dose and rate of initial IV insulin treatment for the
child in moderate or severe DKA?
A: The severity of DKA is classified based on the degree of acidosis and the HCO3
level.
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A: Serum ketones or a decreasing anion gap are both useful in monitoring ketosis
and treatment.
Q: How does the management of DKA differ between adult and pediatric
patients?
A:
1. IV fluids – While adult DKA guidelines recommend multiple fluid boluses in the
first 2 hours of care, fluid boluses are only indicated in pediatric patients who
are in decompensated shock. Judicious use of IV fluids is encouraged with twice
maintenance being the upper limit of administration.
2. Potassium management – Adult DKA patients have strict potassium cut-offs
that guide insulin administration, but potassium management in pediatric DKA
is less stringent. This is likely a result of pediatric patients being less prone to
arrhythmias with hypokalemia.
3. Sodium bicarbonate – While sodium bicarbonate is recommended in adult
DKA with a pH < 7.1, its use in pediatric DKA is limited to patients with cardio-
vascular collapse.
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A: No! The upper limits of normal for respiratory rate in children are:
•• Term Neonate – 50 breaths/min
•• 6 month old – 40 breaths/min
•• 12 month old – 30 breaths/min
A: There isn’t great evidence for the use of nebulized epinephrine in bronchiolitis;
however, a Cochrane Review did find some benefit in those patients who were
admitted to hospital so nebulized epinephrine may be considered in patients in
whom you suspect admission will be the likely disposition.
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A: The evidence for hypertonic saline is equivocal but it is reasonable to try in kids
likely requiring admission.
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A:
•• Previous life-threatening exacerbations
•• Admissions to ICU
•• Intubation
•• Deterioration while already on systemic steroids
•• Using more than 2 canisters of short acting B-agonist per month
•• Cardiopulmonary and psychiatric comorbidities
Q: What are the features on history or physical exam that you might
elicit that should make you consider ordering an x-ray for your pediatric
patient with a clinical asthma exacerbation?
A:
•• Focal chest findings (unilateral wheezing, or crackles)
•• Fever
•• Extreme distress
•• Subcutaneous emphysema
•• History of choking
Q: If you elect to treat your patient with the severe exacerbation with
magnesium, why would it be important to infuse it slowly?
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A:
•• Syncope during physical exertion
•• Family history of sudden cardiac death or deafness
•• Chest pain, palpitations or dyspnea
•• History of structural heart disease
•• Abnormal cardiac exam
•• Focal neurological findings
Q: What are the key features of this ECG and what is the disease are they
typical of?
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A:
This ECG is suggestive of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC).
Q: This ECG is suggestive of what cardiac disease that can cause syncope
and sudden death?
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A: The history of pediatric patients who present to the ED with syncope related
to Long QT Syndrome typically involves exertion such as swimming, or emotional
distress. These patients can also suffer an abrupt onset of syncope due to fright or
awakening by a loud noise, such as an alarm clock.
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A:
•• Post-ictal phase (rapid/immediate return to normal activity is unlikely to follow
a true seizure)
•• Lateral tongue biting
•• Flickering eye lids
•• Blank stare or deviated eyes
•• Lip smacking
•• Increased heart rate and blood pressure during the event
Q: What features of a witnessed seizure might you elicit that would tend
to favour the diagnosis of pseudoseizure?
A:
•• Adolescent population
•• Movements such as side to side head motion, back arching, asynchronous
movement (ie bicycling)
•• Preserved level of consciousness
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A:
Q: If the parents of your patient with the febrile seizure tell you that
this is his third day of fever would this be more or less worrisome for an
underlying serious bacterial infection?
A: Simple febrile seizures tend to occur within the first 24 hours of a febrile illness.
If the seizure occurs > 24 hrs after the onset of fever the index of suspicion for
more severe bacterial illness should be heightened.
A: If your history suggests that the seizure is a simple febrile seizure, then no
specific workup is required for the seizure, other than investigating the fever as
you would in any other febrile child.
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If they have all 4 of the factors, their risk of recurrence is 70%. If they don’t meet
any criteria, their risk falls to 20%.
The risk of epilepsy is approximately 2% after a simple febrile seizure and 5 % after
a complex febrile seizure (compared to 1% in the general population).
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Q: If you have given 3 rounds of benzos to your seizing patient and a load
of phenytoin or fosphenytoin but they are still seizing, what is your next
step?
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