UNIT-1

CONCEPTS OF LAN & DLL PROTOCOLS

CATEGORES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
There are basically three categories of computer networks. They are
1. LAN – Local Area Network
2. MAN – Metropolitan Area Network
3. WAN – Wide Area Network
Local Area Network (LAN)
It is privately owned network within a single office building or a campus covering a distance of few kilo
meters. LAN is designed to share resources such as disk, printers, programs and data. It also enables
exchange of information. . LANs are having data rates of 16MBPS, 100MBPS or more. LANs use Star, Bus
and Ring topology. The bus topology is used in Ethernet LAN & tokens bus LANS. The Ring topology is
used in tokens ring LAN’s of IBM. The modification version of token ring is FDDI [fiber distributed data
interface] Out of these Ethernet and token ring LAN’s are most popular.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
It is a network to cover entire city. In general organizations create smaller network’s called LAN’s and are
within the premises of organization. For example MAN is used to connect the computers in three offices to
each other. The MAN’s are designed to utilize the existing services of telephone networks.
Wide Area Network
It is a huge network which spans across City, State, Country or even continent boundaries. For example a
WAN can connect LAN’s in India, US, JAPAN to each other to form a big network of networks.
2.1 LAN AND ITS USE
LAN’s are used to broadcast the message to all hosts on that LAN. All the hosts in LAN share a single
transmission medium. The address in the packet or frame enables the destination hosts to receive that packet
while all other hosts ignore it. LAN network can be of two types.
1. Static and 2. Dynamic
Static method
In static method each host is given a fixed time slice to send the information like TDM method. If a host
does not have any information to send, that time slot is wasted. Therefore this method is not popular.
Dynamic method
In this method, a host can send a frame any time. If two hosts send a frame at the same time the two frames
collide with each other. This problem is solved by the protocol called MAC.
The dynamic method can be subdivided into two categories
1. Centralized and 2. Decentralized channel allocation method.
Centralized method
In centralized method there is a single entity (bus arbitration unit) which decides who should send the data
next time. This is like a master slave method. A host wanting to send data can request arbitration unit for
permission. Alternately the master can poll all the slave units to find out whether any one of them has
message to send. For example in Star topology hub can play the role of master. If the arbitration unit goes
down the entire network is down. So this method is not efficient.
Decentralized method
In this arbitration is done democratically and more efficient, popular. However it requires protocol to be
followed by all the hosts. There are two methods to implement decentralized method.
1. Carrier sensing: - Used in the Ethernets using bus topology.
2. Token passing: - it is used in token bus topology, token ring topology and FDDI
2.2 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
The term topology refers to the way in which a group of computers are connected in a network. In a network
two (or) more devices are connected through links. A link is a communication path that transfers data from
one device to another.
TYPES OF TOPOLOGIES
The topology of a network is geometric representation of relationship of all the links and linking devices to
one another. The basic topologies are
MESH TOPOLOGY
The topology in which every device has a dedicated point to point link, to every other device is known as
mesh topology. The dedicated links carries traffic only between the two devices it will connects. In mesh
topology the number of duplex node links needed are m(m-1)/2, where m is number of nodes. In this
topology every node has m-1 i/o ports to be connected to m-1 stations.

a) Mesh topology b) Star topology c) Bus topology

The practical example of mesh topology is to connection of telephone regional offices in which regional
office connected to other regional office. It is shown in fig (a)
ADVANTAGES
1. Eliminates traffic problems as the dedicated links transfer its own data
2. Robust Topology: If one line becomes unusual it does not affect the entire system
3. Privacy or Security: As the messages travels along a dedicated line only the intended recipient receives it
4. Fault identification and fault isolation is easy
DISADVANTAGES
1. The amount of cable links and the number of I/O ports required are more
2. Installation and reconnection is difficult 3. Expensive
STAR TOPOLOGY
In Star topology each device has a dedicated to point to point link only to a central controller called hub. The
devices has not directly linked to one another i.e.it does not allows direct traffic between devices. The
controller acts as an exchange. If one device wants to send data to another, it sends data to the controller
which then relays the data to the another connected device. It is shown in fig (b)
For ex. the Star topology is used in LANs. High speed LANs often use a star topology with a central hub.
ADVANTAGES
1. The amount of cable link is less since each node must be connected to central hub.
2. The no of I/O ports required are less.
3. Easy to install and reconfigure.
4. Robustness. i.e., if one link fails there is no problem
5. Fault identification and fault isolation is easy.
6. As long as the hub is working it can be used to monitor links problems and by pass detected links.
DISADVANTAGES
1. The main disadvantage of star topology is dependency on one single point i.e. hub. If hub goes down the
whole system or entire system dead.
2. More cable is required than Ring or Mesh topology
3. Limited no of stations depending on hub capacity.
BUS TOPOLOGY
In this topology a long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network. A bus topology is an
example of a multipoint type connection. All the nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
A drop lines is a connection running between the devices and the main cable. A tap is a connecter that
splices into main cables or punctures the sheathing of the cables to create a contact with the metallic core.
As a signal travels along the backbone some of energy is transformed into heat and it becomes weaker and
weaker as it travels a long distance. For this reason there are a limited numbers of taps a bus can support and
the distance between the taps. It is Shown in fig (c)
Example: Bus topology was one of the first topology using the designing of LAN
ADVANTAGES
1. Installation is easy
2. Less cabling than mesh & star topology
3. Redundancy is eliminated
DISADVANTAGES
1. Fault isolation and identification is difficult
2. Difficult reconfiguration
3. A fault (or) break in the bus cable stops all transmission
4. Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality
RING TOPOLOGY
In ring topology each node is directly connected to only it’s two adjacent neighbors. If a node want to send
something to a distant node on a ring, it has to go through many intermediate nodes which acts like repeaters
reproducing the incoming bit stream with full signal on the outgoing line. It is Shown in fig (d)

d) Ring topology e) Tree topology

Advantages
1. It is easy to reconfigure 2. It is easy to install
3. In a ring normally a signal circulates all the time 4. Fault isolation is relatively easy
Disadvantages
1. A node is not receiving any signal for a long indicates a fault
2. If anode in simple ring fails the whole ring cannot function.
3. Some ring topologies use dual rings
TREE TOPOLOGY
Tree topology can be derived from the star topology. Tree has a hierarchy of various hubs like tree has
branches, hence it is named as tree topology. Every node is connected to a hub and all the hubs are
connected to a central hub. However only few nodes connected directly to the central hub. It is shown in fig
(e). The central hub contains a repeaters which looks at incoming bits and regenerates them Therefore the
central hub is called active hub. The tree topology is also consists of many secondary hubs which may be
active hub or passive hubs
Advantages
1. It is a cheaper 2. Easy to install
2.3 COMPARE THE PERFORMANCE OF THE THREE TOPOLOGIES
S.NO STAR TOPOLOGY RING TOPOLOGY BUS TOPOLOGY
1. Easy to setup the network Complex hardware is required (the It is easy to setup the network
network interface card is expensive)
2. It is easy to expand the Adding a new client disrupts the Easy expansion of the network
network entire network
3. The cable used is twisted pair The cable used is twisted pair The cable used is twisted pair
and coaxial cable
4. If one link to the hub breaks, If a link or a station breaks down, the In this a breakdown in the bus
only the station using that entire network is disabled. cable brings the entire network
link is affected. down.
5. The common protocol used is The common protocol used is Token The common protocol used is
Ethernet ring Ethernet local fiber
2.4 WORKING OF TOKEN RING NETWORK
The token ring network uses ring topology and it is used in IBMs. A token ring network employees a
mechanism, called token passing. All hosts on a token ring share the same physical medium and are
arranged in the form of a circular ring. The ring in the token ring network consists of a series of a STP
section that link to their immediate neighbor. The output port of one host is connecting to the input port of
next host to create a unidirectional traffic flow. The output of final host is connected back to the input of
first host to complete the ring.
When a host on the ring wants to transmit data it can’t send immediately. It must wait for permission.
However once a host gets the permission no other host is allowed to transmit data at the same time. Thus a
host has an exclusive control over transmission medium. The medium access control in token ring
employees a mechanism called token passing. In this a special three byte frame called token containing a bit
pattern can be circulated on ring. The token ring hard ware make sure that always there is one and only one
token frame on the medium which keeps circulated over the ring from one host to the next continuously.
The token is permission for data transmission. Thus before sending a frame, a host must wait for the token
frame to arrive. Once a host receives a token frame the host has an exclusive access to the transmission
medium. Then it temporarily removes the token frame from the medium and sends data frame to the
medium. When the token is removed from the ring no other host can send any other data frame as a data
frame can be send by a host only after receiving the token frame. This takes care of medium access in a
shared medium.

Fig. Token Ring.

When a sending computer transmits a frame it travels across the ring. Each host on the ring accepts and
checks the destination address and not mean for it forward it into the destination address in the frame with
its own address (NIC) makes a copy of it and forwards it to the next host on the ring so that the frame comes
back to the sender. At the destination node the host also checks CRC to ensure that there are no errors and
then accept the frame by changing a flag bit in the frame to indicate the acceptance of correct flame. When
the frame comes back to the sender the sender can check the flag bit to verify the frames was received by
destination successfully or not. This is acknowledging scheme implementing by the token ring [which is not
present in Ethernet]. Once the data frame comes back to transmitting host the token frames is released on the
medium. This circulation mechanism or token frame ensures that every host is given an equal chance for
data transmission.

Fig. Token passing mechanism used for MAC

TOKEN RING FRAME FORMAT:
The token ring specification describes three frame formats. They are data, token and abort
DATA FRAME:
Preamble Destination address Source address Frame data CRC ED FS
3Bytes 6Bytes 6Bytes 4500Bytes 4Bytes 1Bytes 1Bytes
Preamble: The 3-byte preamble field is used for synchronization purpose. This field also indicates that it is
a data frame and not token frame or an abort frame.
Destination address: The 6-bytes or 48bit address of NIC of destination, to which the frames is addressed is
contained in this field.
Source address: The NIC of sending hosts adds its NIC address to this 6-bytes or 48-bit field.
Frame data: This field contains actual data of frame which can be of variable length up to max of 4500
Bytes.
CRC: This 32 bit field helps the source and the destination NIC to detect transmission errors. The sending
host computers CRC of data and updates this field. The destination host calculates its own CRC based on
received frame and compare it with the content of this field. If they do not match the destination realizes that
a transmission error has occurred and takes appropriate action. (Do not set FS bit) When the sender receives
back the frame it will verify the FS bit & retransmit the frame.
ED [End Delimiter]: This 1-byte field specifies the sender data and controls information.
FS [Frame Status]: The receiver sets it when it receives the frame correctly. It serve the purpose of an
acknowledgement implicitly.
TOKEN FRAME:
Start Delimiter(SD) Access control(AC) End Delimiter(ED)
1 Byte 1 Byte 1 Byte
Start delimiter(SD): This field signifies to a host that a frame is coming.
Access control(AC): This field indicates to the host that the arriving frame is a token frame.
End delimiter(ED): This field signifies to a host the end of the token frame.
ABORT FRAME: This frame does not have useful information. It is used by a sender to abort an ongoing
transmission for whatever reasons, or by the network monitor to purge old, unwanted frames in case of network errors.
Start Delimiter(SD) End Delimiter(ED)
1 Byte 1 Byte
Start delimiter(SD): This field signifies to a host that a frame is coming.
End delimiter(ED): This field signifies to a host the end of the abort frame.
2.5 OPERATION OF REAPEATERS AND BRIDGES
Networking and internetworking devices
At broad level, connecting devices are classified into networking and internetworking devices. These are
further classified as follows.

The summary of different connecting devices is shown as below.

Devices Purpose OSI Layers

Repeaters Electrical specifications of a signal Physical

Bridges Addressing Protocols Data link
Routers Internetworking between compatible networks Network
Gateways Transmission of services between incompatible All
networks
 Repeaters
A Repeater is also called as regenerator is an electronic device that simply regenerates a signal. It works
at the physical layer of the OSI model. As signals travel along the transmission medium, they get weak
(attenuated) or corrupted, which makes integrity of data in danger. A repeater receives such a signal and
regenerates it.

Therefore a repeater extends the range of a network, beyond its physical boundaries. In any way it does
not change the data that is being transmitted or characteristics of the network. Its only responsibility is to
accept a stream of bits, regenerate it, so that they are accurate.
The use of repeater is shown in above fig. Host A wants to send data to Host D. As the data travels it
becomes weak, so a repeater is used to regenerate the signal, so that can be transmitted up to host D.A
repeater simply prevents errors from occurring by taking the input signal corresponding to bits 0110010
send by host A, simply regenerating it to create a signal with the same bit format and the original signal
strength and sending it forward.
A repeater is entirely different from an amplifier. An amplifier is used for analog signals, where it is
impossible to separate original signal and noise. A repeater doesn’t amplify the incoming signal, it
regenerates the original bit pattern corrupted by noise.
Bridges
A bridge is a computer that has its own processor, memory and two NIC cards to connect two portions of
a network. It operates at physical as well as data link layers of OSI model. A bridge is used to divide a big
network into small sub-networks called segments as shown in below fig. In this the bridge splits the entire
network in to two segments.

A bridge is a more intelligent device than a repeater. The main advantage of bridge is, it sends data frames
only to required segment, thus preventing excess traffic. For example, in a network containing four segments
1,2,3,4, a host in segment 1 sends a frame to host in segment 3, and then bridge forwards the frame from
segment 1 to segment 3 only, thus preventing excess traffic in segments 2 and 4.
Therefore a bridge can be used for the following purposes.
 Unwanted traffic is minimized, network congestion can also be minimized.
 Busy links or errors links can be identified and isolated, so that the traffic does not go through these
links.
 Security features can be implemented.
Bridges are classified into three categories
(a)Simple bridge (b) Learning bridge (c) Multipoint bridge

Simple bridge: A simple bridge connects two segments. For this it maintains a table of host address and
segment numbers of host. All these host address and segment numbers have to be entered by an operator
manually. Whenever a host is added or an existing host is deleted, the tables have to be manually updated.
Hence there is a lot of scope for error in simple bridges but these are cheapest.
Learning bridge: A learning bridge is also called as adaptive bridge which can be programmed
automatically. It performs its own bridging function and builds it host address to segment numbers table on
its own.
For this, whenever a learning bridge receives a frame for the first time, it examines the address of sender and
receiver, if they are available in the table, the frame is transferred as usual. However if sender/receiver is not
present in the table, it adds that specific system to the table. Over a period of time, complete table is
constructed. The learning bridges also continuous checking and updating its table all the time.
Multiport bridge: A multiport bridge is a special case of simple or learning bridges. Whenever a simple or
learning bridge connects more than two networks segments then it is called a multiport bridge.
Switches:
A network switch performs the same functionality in a network as a hub except a difference that switch does
not broadcast the data packets to all the computers in a network like a hub. A network switch has multiple

Fig. SWITCH
ports like 4, 8, 16 and 24 etc., All the computers in the wired network are directly connected to the switch
have maximum available bandwidth. Switch doesn’t provide the built-in firewall abilities like the routers. In
the telecommunication and packet switched infrastructure switches play an important role. They transmit the
data towards its destination based on the IP address.

2.6 DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN REPEATER,SWITCH AND BRIDGE:

S.N Repeater Switch Bridge
o
1. Repeater is an electronic device. It Switch can be specified as Bridge are the devices that just
regenerate signal central points that connect filter the network traffic .
various devices(computers,
printers)within network
2. Repeater works at the physical While performing the data Bridge works at the physical
layer of the OSI reference model transfer using switch each and datalink layer of the OSI
data frame hold an address reference model
of the destination computer
called MAC address
3. Repeater main role is amplifying Switch read the MAC The main idea of using bridge
the incoming signals and creating a address and transmit the is to divide a big network into
new copy of it. data packet to the intended smaller sub network.
destination computer.
4. It is also called regenerator i.e., It improving the network It can be identified by errors in
regenerate the signals. performance and reducing communication channel or link.
the network load.
2.7 NEED OF PROTOCOLS IN COMPUTER NETWORKS
Protocol is defined as the set of rules that govern data communication in a computer network.
Without a protocol two computers in a network can connect but can’t communicate.
In order to communicate between different systems in a systematic way, protocols play main role in a
communication system.
1. Protocol controls sending and receiving of information within a network.
2. Protocols provide order of messages exchanged.
3. Protocols provide high degree of co-operation between two computer systems
4. Protocols provide a better service when two or more stations communicate.
5. Protocols decide action to be taken on receipt of message.
In brief different functions performed by communication protocols are
 Identify transmitting and receiving stations.
 Request a station for sending message
 Acknowledge a station request
 Error control and Flow control
2.8 ETHERNET
Ethernet is a popular packet switching LAN technology. Ethernet was invented in the year 1970. It uses a
single coaxial cable as a transport medium and also the hosts are connected to this cable using bus
architecture.
A device called transceiver is used to establish the connection between a computer and Ethernet. Transceiver
is responsible in sensing voltages on the cable for interpreting the signals to know the state of bus whether it
is busy or idle.. Transceiver contains analog circuit for interfacing with cable and digital circuits for
interfacing with the hosts.
A transceiver is connected to the host through Network Interface Card (NIC) . It controls the operation of
transceiver using network software. Therefore NIC is a small card plugged on mother board of host and
function like a small computer. It has a small CPU, memory and a limited instruction set. NIC performs all
the networks related functions such as validating incoming frames by checking its CRC to ensure that it is
not an error frame. Each NIC has a unique hardware address or physical address that identifiably a host
uniquely.

Fig. Hosts Connected to a cable on Ethernet Fig. Transceiver connects a host to the cable

The following steps are the carried out while transmitting a file/message to another host on the bus.
1. The source node software breaks up the data to be sent (message) into different frames and sends it
to the NIC.
2. The NIC of the source node adds the field such as source address and destination address etc.
3. The NIC of source node computer CRC of the message and prepare a frame for transmitting to the
destination and it is stored in the memory of NIC.
4. The NIC instructs the transceiver to listen to the bus and look for the idle state of the bus.
5. When the bus transceiver finds that the bus is idle, the NIC starts sending a frame bit by bit.
6. While it sends the full frame it continuous to listen the bus to see if there is any collision. If it
detects it generates a jamming signal to all the nodes to know about collision. After this a binary
exponential back off algorithm takes over. Finally at some stage there is no collision.
 7. The frame travels from node to node. The NIC of each node receives the entire frame in its memory
matches the destination address in the frame it its own address to see whether it is meant for that
host. If it is not, it ignores it. If it is, it checks the CRC and if correct, stores it in its memory.
8. The error free frames are passed from NIC to destination host which reconstructs the original
message and uses it.
ETHERNET FRAME FORMAT (IEEE 802.3)
Preamble Destination address Source address Frame type Frame data CRC
8Bytes 6Bytes 6Bytes 2Bytes 64-1500Bytes 4Bytes

Ethernet is a data link layer connection between hosts. Therefore the unit of data exchanged by the host
over Ethernet is called a frame rather than a packet.
1. Preamble: It contains 8bytes or 64bytes of alternating 0’s or 1’s for synchronization of hosts.
2. Destination address: It is 6byte or 48bit long and contains the destination address which is nothing but
address of NIC. On receiving a frame the NIC of destination compares it with its own address and if it
matches, accept the frame otherwise reject the frame.
3. Source address: It is 6bytes or 48bit field having the NIC address of sending host or source host.
4. Frame type: This field identifies the type of data carried in the frames i.e. it stores the number of bytes
in the data field.
5. Frame data: It contains the actual data of the frames which can be of variable length i.e. 64-1500
bytes.
6. CRC: This is a 4byte or 32 bit field helps the destination NIC to detect transmission errors. The
hardware of NIC of sending computer computes the CRC of data and updates this field. The NIC
hardware of destination calculates its own CRC using receiving data and compares it with the contents
of CRC field. If they do not match the destination realizes that a transmission error has occurred and
takes an appropriate action. However it can be informed to higher layer software at the destination
which may request the source for retransmission of error frame.
2.9 POINT TO POINT AND POINT TO MULTIPOINT NETWORKS
Point to point link
Point to point link, also known as P2P refers to a connection restricted between two end points,
usually hosts or computers. The point to point line configuration provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the channel is reserved for the two devices. For ex. Changing the T.V
channels by remote control establishes a point to point connection on TV control system.

PPP consists of following protocols.

Link control protocol: The LCP is used to establish the connection between the two serial devices. LCP
can also be used to configure and test the connections.
Network control protocol: NCP selects a layer 3 protocol between the two serial devices.
High level datalink control: HDLC encapsulates the data being transmitted by PPP between the two serial
devices.
When a serial device needs to communicate with another serial device over PPP, it sends an LCP frame to
establish and configure the connection between the devices. After the connection is established, NCP frames
are sent to layer 3 protocol that will be used for communication. Once a network layer protocol is selected,
data packets are exchanged between the two serial devices
The connection is terminated at the end of the data transfer, or due to external activity such as a device
failure. PPP does not support connections that require high bandwidth, such as 1Mbps, so it finds limited
application in WAN.
Point to multipoint link
 Point to multipoint link refers to a broadcast link, where more than two specific devices share a link.
The entire capacity of the channel is shared either “spatially” or “temporarily”. If several devices uses the
link simultaneously it is a spatially shared connection. If users take turns, it is a time shared connection.

2.10 CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE ACCESS (CSMA)

Carrier Sense Multiple Access With Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

The decentralized medium access control used by Ethernet is the approach of CSMA/CD. In this multiple
hosts can access the Ethernet bus simultaneously through their transceivers and can determine if it is idle by
looking for presence or absence of a carrier wave on the bus. So it is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access
(CSMA). When a host has a frame to be transmitted, its transceiver checks the Ethernet cable to see if
another host has transmitted data i.e. it performs carrier sensing. When the host determines that the cable is
idle it transmit its own data (limited) on to the Ethernet.
When a host begins transmission the signal takes some time to reach all parts of network. Therefore until the
signal reaches another host that host continues to believe that the cable is idle. Thus it is quite possible that
the two transceivers believe that Ethernet is free and can transmit data exactly at the same time. When this
happens the electrical signals of two transmissions intermingle and neither remains a meaningful
transmission. This condition is called collision.
To resolve collisions, while a host transmits data, the transceiver of that host continues to listen to Ethernet
bus to see if a collision has occurred. If it has, the transceiver informs NIC to stop further transmission and
waits for some time before it ask the transceiver to retransmit the data. As soon as collision is detected host
generates a specific jamming signal across the bus informing all the nodes about collision. The NIC of other
node is trying to send some data also detect jamming signal and backs off. Now both nodes wanting to send
some data wait for some time.
The Ethernet standard uses a binary exponential back off algorithm. In this a sender waits for a random time
after first collision (t1), twice the time if the retransmission also results in a collision and so on. The
different host had different random times for waiting. This ensures that if collisions occur the host recover
quickly. By doubling the waiting period and by making it random the chances of another collision after first
one are not very high.
For example there are three nodes N1, N2, N3. N1and N2 sends the data simultaneously which results into
collision. Now N1 waits for time T1 and N2 waits for time T2. After T1 time N1starts checking the cable
status .If it is free it sends a frame and at same time N3also sends a frame .Then the both nodes back off.
Now N1waits for 2T1 whereas N3 waits for T3 .In the mean while N2 try to send a frame after time T2 and
this time the cable is free and this time it succeeds in sending frame. This example clarifies the binary back
off algorithm.
CSMA/CA:
This protocol is similar to CSMA/CD except that it implement CA (collision avoidance) instead of
CD(collision detection). Here the receiving host, upon receiving a transmission, issues an acknowledgement
to the sending host. This informs the sending host that a collision did not occur. If the sending host does not
receive this acknowledgement, it will assumes that the receiving node did not receive the frame and it will
transmit it. CSMA/CA also defines special frames called request to send (RTS) and clear to send(CTS)
which further help minimize collisions. CSMA/CA is used in IEEE 802.11 standard (WLAN).
2.11 WIRELESS LAN
Wireless LAN is a wireless local area network which is the linking of two or more computers without using
wires. It utilizes spread spectrum or OFDM modulation technology based on radio waves to enable common
between devices in a limited area known as Basic Service Set (BSS).
In wireless LANNIC works with a wireless modem and an antenna for actual transmission. Usually there is
an antenna at the celling a of the floor where wireless LAN is created. The standard developed for wireless
LAN technology is IEEE 802.11 Wireless technology became popular to use laptops in an office with an
ability to move around and being connected to the network at all times. Wireless LAN has an access point
called Base Station which is the main controller of the network, like a switch in an Ethernet network.. A
wireless network can also be constructed without an access point and it is called an Adhoc network or
peer-to-peer network. The access point is nothing but a wireless router. It has a transceiver and connects on
one side to the wireless devices and on the other side to wired networks such as Ethernet. When installed at
a home it connects to wireless networks on one side and a cable modem or DSL modem on the other side.
Computers that need to connect to a wireless LAN need to have a wireless NIC. At any time a wireless
device belong to only one access point because of this arrangement other access points know to which base
stations any device belongs to any moment and redirect traffic to that specific base stations.
Wireless LAN topologies
1. Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS)
2. Infrastructure Basic Service Set.

Independent Basic Service Set

The most basic wireless LAN topology is one in which the set of stations are recognized each other and are
connected through a wireless media in a peer to peer fashion. This is known as IBSS or ADHOC Network.
In this mobile stations communicate directly with each other. Every mobile station may not be able to
communicate with every other station due to range limitations. There are no relay functions and therefore all
stations need to be within the range of each other.
Infrastructure Basic Service Set
It has a base station called access point. The access point provides local relay functions in IBSS. All the
stations in this BSS communicate with access point and no longer communicate directly. All frames are
relayed between stations by the access point. This local relay function effectively doubles the range of IBSS.
IEEE 802.11 standard defines two kinds of services.
1. Basic service set (BSS).
2. Extended service set (ESS).
1. Basic Service Set:-
IEEE 802.11 defines the Basic Service Set (BSS) as the building blocks of wireless LAN. Basic service set
is made of stationary (or) mobile wireless station and an optional central base station, knows as the Access
Point. An access point is wireless hub. It is connected to a wired LAN and provides coordination between
users. An AP is made of three components- an antenna, a receiver and a transmitter.
The BSS without an AP is stand alone network and can’t send data to other BSS. It is called a ADHOC
architecture. In this architecture stations can form a network without need of an AP. They can locate one
another and agree to be a part of BSS. A BSS with an AP is some times referred to as an infrastructure
network.
2.Extended service set (ESS)
An Extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSS. In this case the BSS are connected through a
distribution system which is usually a wired LAN. The distribution system connects the AP in the BSS.
IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution system. It can be any IEEE LAN such as Ether net. Note that
ESS uses two types of stations.-Mobile, Stationary.
The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS. The stationary stations are AP stations that are part of
a wired LAN. When BSS are connected the stations within reach of one to another can communicate without
the use of an AP. However the communication between two stations in two different BSS usually occurs via
two

APs. The idea is similar to communication in a cellular network. If consider each BSS to be a cell and each
AP to be base station. Note that mobile stations can belong to more than one BSS.
Station types
IEEE 802.11 defines 3 types of stations based on their mobility in a wire less LAN
1. No transition 2. BSS transition 3. ESS transition mobility
No transition: A station with no transition mobility is either stationary or moving only inside a BSS.
BSS transition. A station with BSS transition mobility can move from one BSS to another, but the
movement is confined inside one ESS.
ESS transition. A station with ESS transition mobility can move from one ESS to another.
2.12 BLUE TOOTH TECHNOLOGY
Blue tooth is wireless LAN technology designed to connect different devices such as telephones, notebooks,
computers, cameras, printers etc.
It was originally started as a project by ERRICSON company. Blue tooth technology was standardized by
IEEE 802.15, which defines a Wireless PAN(Personal Area Network)
Blue Tooth defines two types of networks.
1. Pico Net : It is a Blue Tooth network which can have upto 8 stations. One of the stations is called primary
and the rest are secondary. All the secondary stations synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with
primary. Communication between primary and secondary can be one to one and one to many.
2. Scatter Net :Pico Net can be combined to form a Scatter net. A secondary station in one Pico Net can the
primary in another Pico Net.
 Fig. Pico Net Fig. Scatter Net
BLUE TOOTH STANDARDS
 Blue tooth technology was standardized by IEEE 802.15.
 Blue tooth uses 2.4 GHZ ISM band and provides 1 MBPS speed in its first version.
 Blue tooth uses FHSS technique to avoid interference from other devices, hopping the frequency
1600 times / sec.
 Blue tooth uses GFSK ( Gaussian Bandwidth filtering ) modulation
 Blue tooth uses two types of links.
1.SCO(Synchronous Connection Oriented Channel): It is used when speed of delivery is
more important than error free delivery. This is used for real time audio.
2.ACL(Asynchronous Connectionless Channel):It is used when data integrity is more
important. It is used for data.
Applications of Blue Tooth
 A Blue tooth network in an office or organization can avoid the complex task of networking
between computing devices.
 Blue tooth enables digital cameras can send still or video images from one location to another.
 Blue tooth allows automatic synchronization of desktop, note book and mobile phone.
 Blue tooth helps to provide home automation.
These are only a small set of potential applications of Blue tooth. There are a large no of other
application for Blue tooth technology.
2.13 APPLICATION OF WAP
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a technical standard for accessing information over a
mobile wireless network. A WAP browser is a web browser for mobile devices such as mobile phones that
uses the protocol.
A WAP is an open interaction standard for application that used in Wire less communication. Its principle
application is to enable access to the internet from a mobile phone. A WAP browser provides all the basic
services of a computer based web browser but simplified to operate with in the restrictions of mobile phone.
The following are the applications of WAP.
1. E-mail by mobile phone.
2. Tracking of stock market prices.
3. Sports results.
4. News headlines.
5. Music downloads.
6. Information, weather forecasting, stock quotations, horoscopes and news.
7. Messaging services such as e-mail, voice mail and unified messages.
8. Financial services: - Mobile banking and mobile based services.
9. Personal information management: - Services such as call management and personal directories
which enables the modifications of personal information.
10. Location based services: - Services that are dependent on location including mapping and vehicle
location information.