Review

Phase Change Materials (PCM) for Solar Energy

Usages and Storage: An Overview
M. Mofijur 1,*, Teuku Meurah Indra Mahlia 1, Arridina Susan Silitonga 2, Hwai Chyuan Ong 1,
Mahyar Silakhori 3, Muhammad Heikal Hasan 1,4, Nandy Putra 5 and S.M. Ashrafur Rahman 6
1 School of Information, Systems and Modelling, Faculty of Engineering and IT, University of Technology
Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Politeknik Negeri Medan, 20155 Medan, Indonesia

3 School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia

4 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Pertamina, 12220 Jakarta, Indonesia

5 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus UI Depok 16424, Indonesia

6 Biofuel Engine Research Facility (BERF), Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4000,

Australia
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +61-46985-1901

Received: 28 July 2019; Accepted: 15 August 2019; Published: 17 August 2019

Abstract: Solar energy is a renewable energy source that can be utilized for different applications in
today’s world. The effective use of solar energy requires a storage medium that can facilitate the
storage of excess energy, and then supply this stored energy when it is needed. An effective method
of storing thermal energy from solar is through the use of phase change materials (PCMs). PCMs
are isothermal in nature, and thus offer higher density energy storage and the ability to operate in
a variable range of temperature conditions. This article provides a comprehensive review of the
application of PCMs for solar energy use and storage such as for solar power generation, water
heating systems, solar cookers, and solar dryers. This paper will benefit the researcher in conducting
further research on solar power generation, water heating system, solar cookers, and solar dryers
using PCMs for commercial development.

Keywords: PCM; solar energy; renewable energy; energy storage

1. Introduction
In today’s world, environmental problems and the energy crisis are two major global issues that
need to be urgently addressed [1–3]. The continuous rise in the level of energy consumption, increases
in fuel prices and the emission of greenhouse gases are the main forces driving the need for more
effective use of renewable energy sources [4–6]. Worldwide, primary energy consumption increased
by 1.5% in 2018 compared to consumption levels in 2017 [7]. Many studies on global energy
consumption and emissions have been conducted and these topics are discussed at length in [8–10].
One of the solutions to greenhouse gas emissions is the use of renewable energy, and thus, renewable
energy initiatives have been implemented in many countries [11–16].
However, the problem associated with some renewable energies like solar and wind, is that they
are only available for a certain time period. The supply of renewable energy is difficult to control
since it is based on weather-related natural phenomena such as rain, wind and solar energy. Better
utilization of renewable energy is possible if it can be stored, as this decreases the demand for fossil
fuels, eventually reduces the cost of system maintenance, and in turn, reduces energy waste. In order
to balance energy production with consumption, it is necessary to store excess energy for the
short/long term. However, at this time, storing excess electrical energy is quite expensive. Instead,
the cost related to storing thermal energy is quite low. Excess thermal energy cannot be exported to

Energies 2019, 12, 3167; doi:10.3390/en12163167 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 3167 2 of 20

the energy grid but excess electric energy can be exported through a grid connection. Thermal energy
storage may be able to assist during electric utility grid stress. In order to store energy, systems such
as batteries or PCMs can be used. However, as the energy storage capacity (kWh) of the batteries is
very limited, researchers and users are opting for PCMs as an alternative. It is important to note, that
energy storage is economically attractive when it reduces energy consumption and cost and it is a
viable substitute for another energy source [17–22]. The different forms of energy storage are
presented in Figure 1 [23].

Figure 1. Classification of energy storage systems [23].

Amongst the various energy storage systems, thermal energy storage exhibits the highest
efficiency [24]. A thermal storage system can utilize the solar energy and excess thermal energy that
is generated throughout the day and can be stored for either short or seasonal periods [25]. Both
seasonal storage and diurnal storage can be combined to achieve an efficient system. Diurnal thermal
energy storage takes the form of chilled water and ice storage for cooling and hot water tank storage
for heating, with greater energy transfer rates [26]. Seasonal thermal storage helps to avoid energy
shortage during a period when there is limited sun exposure and lowers high energy costs by storing
thermal energy when solar radiation or other energy sources are abundant or inexpensive [27,28].
Therefore, coupling solar energy with sensible storage for diurnal and seasonal periods is important
for distributed generation [25,28]. In order for the PCM system to accomplish seasonal heat storage,
insulated thermal mass and stable super-cooling are required. Super-cooling is a unique property of
PCM storage whereas insulated thermal mass is common to all heat storage media. Stable
supercooling PCMs readily supercool, and can remain supercooled at ambient temperatures for
seasonal durations. This enables long-term storage without heat loss (i.e., no self-discharge) [29].
PCM is a particularly attractive material because it is able to store a high density of energy and
keep a constant temperature or an amount of heat through its heat-storing characteristics [30,31]. The
storage of thermal energy can be further classified into three groups: sensible, latent (PCMs) and
chemical heat storage [32–34]. Other classifications of the application and characteristics of thermal
energy storage can be found in the literature [35–37].
The aim of this paper is to provide a critical review of recent studies of solar energy storage using
PCMs. It discusses the classification of energy storage, PCMs integrated with solar power generation,
solar water heating systems and solar cookers, and ends with an application of PCM as solar dryer
energy. A similar study conducted a review of solar dryers with PCM as an energy storage medium
[38,39]. However, that review focused only on using PCM for the solar dryer while the current one
examines numerous applications of PCM for solar energy storage.

2. Phase Change Materials (PCMs)

The use of PCMs has recently gained more research interest and importance in the optimal use
of energy. The theories, design and analysis of PCMs to store latent heat have been explored
thoroughly in the literature [40–49]. Some of the classifications, types and methods will be discussed
as follows. Based on their phase change, PCMs can be classified into four different types: solid-solid,
solid-liquid, solid-gas and liquid-gas. Of these four types, solid-liquid PCMs are the most suitable for
Energies 2019, 12, 3167 3 of 20

storing thermal energy, and they can be found as organic PCMs, inorganic PCMs and eutectics, as
seen in Figure 2 [50,51].

Figure 2. Phase change materials (PCMs) classification [50,51].

Paraffin wax qualifies as a PCM because it can be used over a wide range of temperatures and
it has reasonably high heat of fusion. Paraffin wax can also undergo freezing without experiencing
super cooling. Hence, technical grade paraffin wax is the most cost effective, feasible and widely used
PCM. There are several studies on this topic, including by the authors [52–55]. Fatty acids are organic
compounds characterized by CH3(CH2)2nCOOH with a higher heat of fusion value compared to
paraffin wax. Fatty acids have the ability to reproduce melting and freezing with little or no
supercooling. One thing that prohibits the application of fatty acids is their cost, which can be 2.0 to
2.5 times higher than the cost of paraffin wax [56,57]. Salt hydrates commonly have a chemical
formula of MnH2O, where M is an inorganic compound and this inorganic compound is important
in storing heat due to its high density of volumetric latent heat storage [52,58]. Metals have not been
a serious candidate for PCM because of their heaviness. However, when volume is taken into account,
metals are likely contenders because of their high thermal conductivities and high latent heat of
fusion per unit volume [52,59].
However, PCMs have several disadvantages For example, PCM systems require a long life to
recover the installation cost [60]; if any repair of the PCM system is required, it is not possible to carry
this out without causing damage to the system; and the supercooling effect reduces the efficiency of
PCM material resulting in insufficient heat recovery. Several researchers have tried to add various
agents to improve PCMs; however, this has resulted in decreased performance [61,62]. PCM has very
low thermal conductivity, which reduces heat transfer during the solid-liquid change of phase [63]
and needs to be improved before installation [61]. As PCM may contain multi-components, phase
segregation may occur and hamper the long-term stability [64]. Organic PCMs in building envelopes
significantly affect fire safety. Researchers have suggested using fire retardants to improve fire safety
while using organic PCMs in building envelopes [65,66]. The advantages and disadvantages of both
organic as well as the inorganic types of materials are listed in Table 1 [67,68].

Table 1. Pros and cons of PCMs [67,68].

Type of
Pros Cons
Materials
1. Available in a large temperature range
2. No supercooling
1. Low thermal conductivity
3. Compatible with other materials
2. Relatives large volume changes
4. No separation
Organics PCMs 3. Flammable
5. Chemically PCMs are stable
4. Expensive except technical grade
6. These are safe to use
paraffin wax
7. Non-reactive in nature
8. Can be recycled
Energies 2019, 12, 3167 4 of 20

1. High volumetric latent heat

2. Less expensive
3. Easily available
1. Changed volume is remarkably high
4. Thermal conductivity is higher
Inorganic PCMs 2. Supercooling
5. The thermal fusion of these PCMs are very
3. Corrosiveness
high
6. Lower volumetric variation
7. These PCMs are non- flammable
1. The melting point of these PCMs are sharp 1. Fewer thermophysical properties data is
Eutectics
2. High volumetric storage density available

It is necessary to have comprehensive and complete information about the thermophysical

properties of the materials under consideration. This includes the melting temperature, the heat of
fusion, density, thermal conductivity and the stability of thermal properties in successive cycles of
heating and cooling. The graphic illustration of PCMs, based on the heat of fusion and melting
temperature, is presented in Figure 3 [44]. As shown in this figure, paraffin wax, fatty acids, salt
hydrates, and their eutectic mixture have a low melting temperature, while chlorides, carbonates,
and fluorides require high melting temperature. The application of these materials can be varied
based on their melting temperature and material characterizations.

Figure 3. Classes of existing PCMs (graph: ZAE Bayern).

3. PCMs Solar Power Generation

For household use, solar energy is currently the most popular source of renewable power
generation in terms of annual investment and offering benefits. There many types of solar energy for
power generation, such as photovoltaics, solar thermal [69], solar organic Rankine cycle [70] as well
as a solar hybrid [71,72]. In this study, solar thermal electricity generating systems (SEGS) will be
discussed due to their ability to be used with PCM to store energy. Therefore, they have great
dispatchability potential, which means that they can be used on-demand, making them more efficient
and cost-effective. However, high-temperature thermal energy storage (TES) systems have not been
widely tested; only a few power plants around the world have been identified as examining this
system [73,74]. More recent designs for SEGS have used expensive synthetic oil as storage media and
achieved an increase in working temperatures, from the former 300 °C up to 400 °C; however, the
technology is still economically infeasible [75]. An example of PCMs used as the heat storage media
for SEGS is illustrated in Figure 4.
Energies 2019, 12, 3167 5 of 20

Although PCM offers a huge opportunity to facilitate the reduction of cost energy produced by
SEGS, it has not yet achieved the expected commercial level or large-scale utilization due to low
thermal conductivity, which prolongs the charging and discharging period. Hunold et al. [76–78]
investigated the heat transfer mechanism for single stage PCMs of different PCM salts by using
single-stage PCM storage. The results showed that the PCMs are technically able to produce the
desired results and suggested a PCM storage design with vertically-oriented shell and tube heat
exchanger.

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of a SEGS plant with TES (thermal energy storage).

The fundamental aspect of using latent heat storage in a concentrated solar thermal (DSG) plant
is related to the interaction between PCMs and heat transfer fluid during charging and discharging.
Figure 5a shows a schematic diagram of a CST plant, which works with latent heat storage and a
Rankine cycle. As shown in Figure 5b, latent heat storage and the CST plant can also be connected to
a super-critical carbon cycle (s-CO2), in which it can be connected to a Brayton cycle for power
generation [79,80]. This process consists of a heliostat field, central tower (solar receiver), thermal
energy storage system, and power block. Solar energy is collected and concentrated on the solar
receiver by heliostat fields. Then, the heat transfer fluid (e.g., molten salt) circulates the absorbed heat
through the system for introducing to a power block (steam Rankine cycle or s-CO2 Brayton cycle) in
order to convert thermal energy to electrical energy.
LHTES (latent heat thermal energy storage) using high-temperature PCM is not yet popular in
commercialized CST plants as research is still ongoing to discover better techniques for high-
temperature PCM encapsulation and heat transfer enhancement [81,82]. However, if PCM is adopted
as the storage media in commercialized CST plants, the operating temperatures will range from 293
°C to 393 °C, which is similar to the storage temperature that results from current parabolic trough
technology. It is also worth noting that a PCM with higher melting temperature is always desirable
in CST plants with higher operating temperature (> 600 °C) as this ensures higher energy conversion
efficiency.
The potential of PCM for steam generation, preheating and superheating through a direct steam
generation (DSG) plant was numerically assessed by Pirasaci and Goswami [83]. Usually, the tanks,
which are filled with PCMs, are serially connected to increase the temperature of the feedwater
entering the TES [84]. The feed water can be heated, evaporated and superheated when it goes
through an N number of tubes. The potential of the eutectic mixture (NaCl+MgCl2) with a melting
temperature of 550 °C, and latent heat capacity of 317 kJ/kg has been studied through this system.
The operating temperature of the water/steam in this system can range between 300 °C and 600 °C,
which is suitable for a DSG plant. The results showed that different parameters, such as the flow rate
of water/steam, and the design criteria (e.g., tube diameter and length of the tank) of the storage
Energies 2019, 12, 3167 6 of 20

system have a significant effect on the performance of the system [83]. Nevertheless, an experimental
assessment of this system has yet to be undertaken. Therefore, further investigation is required to
prove the reliability of this system for a DSG plant.

(a)

(b)

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of CST (concentrated solar thermal) power plant with (a) steam Rankine
cycle, (b) s-CO2 Brayton cycle.

The same concept has been developed for cascaded latent thermal energy storage (CLHS) by
Michels and Pitz-Paal [75]. As shown in Figure 6, CLHS can be used as alternative storage in the
parabolic trough where thermal oil is used as a heat transfer fluid. This figure shows that five
different PCMs were used in the temperature ranges between 300 °C to 380 °C [85]. The results show
that this system can be adapted to the DS123G plant based on the design and material properties.
However, the theoretical concepts have not been experimentally verified.
Energies 2019, 12, 3167 7 of 20

Figure 6. The cascaded latent heat storage system.

Michels and Pitz-Paal [75] used a numerical model to run the simulation for different cascaded
latent heat storage (CLHS) configurations and used the Tech-thermos standard library
“Dymola/Modelica” to apply the simulation. To simplify the model, a few assumptions were made:
the PCM was assumed to be a lumped mass with an evenly distributed temperature. It was also
assumed that natural convection occurred for the simulation. The experimental results corresponded
with the desired results and this validated their model.
Hybrid PCMs-sensible storage is currently in the early development stage, and has been
proposed as a storage system for solar plants; this seems to be a reasonable approach as a next step
in the development of PCMs storage [86,87]. The hybrid systems have the ability to make better use
of PCM storage capacity and reduce the cost as compared to PCM alone. They are also able to increase
the storage ratio compared to sensible heat material systems [73,88]. The potential of combining latent
and sensible heat through thermocline thermal energy storage was assessed by Azanganeg el al. [89].
They used sedimentary rock and encapsulated PCMs as sensible and latent storage materials. The
results showed that a constant outflow temperature could be achieved with a small amount of PCM,
which was approximately 1.33% of the total volume [89,90]. The operating temperature of this system
was around 575 °C, which is suitable for a DSG plant. Moreover, the thermal capacity of the proposed
system can be increased because it combines sensible and latent heat. Nevertheless, the complicated
design of the storage system is considered to be one of the main drawbacks of the proposed system.

4. PCMs Solar Water Heating System

One of the main areas where solar energy has been thoroughly exploitedis in water heating
systems. In comparing solar thermal conversion and solar electrical direct conversion, it has been
found that solar thermal conversion is more efficient by about 70% compared to 17% for solar
electrical direct conversion systems [91,92]. The hot water is needed for residential, commercial and
industrial usage. Solar water heaters have gained attention recently because they are relatively
inexpensive, maintenance is easy and they are simple to fabricate. In order to ensure hot water is
available throughout the day, PCMs can be used as a means of thermal storage. A typical solar water
heating system is usually comprised of two units, which both operate simultaneously: a solar water
heater and a PCM-contained heater storage unit. During the day, a water heater normally operates
by collecting solar energy to heat the water while at the same time, the PCM absorbs thermal energy
and stores it within the material. During the night when sunshine is unavailable, thermal energy is
retrieved from the PCM to heat the water. A substantial amount of effort by researchers has been
aimed at developing solar water heaters. Various PCMs and thermal storage technologies are readily
available for use and development in the solar water heater (LHTES) [93–95]. The schematic diagram
of an LHTES is presented in Figure 7. The extensive work that has been done on improving the
integrated solar water heater storage systems issummarized in Table 2.
Energies 2019, 12, 3167 8 of 20

Figure 7. Solar water heater system with LHTES (latent heat thermal energy storage).

Table 2. Summary of various studies of integrated solar water heater storage systems.

Authors Theoretical/Experimental Description Results

The water is heated during the day and
the heat is transferred to the PCM below
it, which melts as latent heat accumulates.
When sunshine is unavailable, the hot
Studied an integrated storage type water
Prakesh et water is replaced with cold water, which
heater, where a layer of PCM is placed at the
al. [96] collects thermal energy from the PCM, in
base of the heater.
which phases are changed to solid from a
liquid. Ineffective transfer of thermal
energy between PCM and the water
means the system is not as efficient.
Suggested a cylindrical storage unit in the
Calculations for the fluid temperature
Bansal and closed-loop with a flat plate collector for its
and its interface moving boundary were
Budi [97] discharging and charging mode. The PCMs
made.
used are paraffin wax (p-116) and stearic acid.
A temperature recovery is seen; the
Porteiro, A thermal analysis is performed to check the energy due to the water temperature,
Míguez [98] thermal properties of each PCM. PCM and the thermal loss to the ambient
environment are observed.
All heat transfer fluid inlet temperature
A numerical study of the thermal behavior of a
Benmoussa, and melting rate of PCM are varied. Also,
shell-and-tube latent thermal energy storage
Benzaoui a variation in the HTF inlet temperature
(LTES) unit using two-phase change materials
[99] significantly affects the temperature
(PCMs).
evolution of PCMs.
The solar heating system with
Theoretical and experimental study of the
Kamiz Na2SO4.10H2O has more F values
performance of phase change energy storage
Kayguz et al. compared to CaCl2.6H2O. The thermal
materials for the solar heater unit. The PCM
[100] properties of the PCM are not reduced
used is CaCl2.6H2O.
during the operation.
Energies 2019, 12, 3167 9 of 20

A comparison study of heat storage

performance for PCM-based, water-based and
rock-based system was also conducted.
The results of the study show the
correlation between transition
Studied a solar thermal collector with thermal
Rabin et al. temperature and thickness of the salt
energy storage using salt hydrate as PCM and
[101] hydrate PCM layer and the effect on the
used for heating.
thermal performance during the PCM
charging process.
Designed, developed and performance
evaluated a latent heat storage unit using a
It was found that the storage unit
Sharma et al. box-type solar thermal collector, which can be
performed well in keeping the hot water
[102] used during the evening and morning where
within the desired temperature range.
hot water is needed. The PCM used is paraffin
wax.
The charging process, the average heat
transfer coefficient increases sharply with
Mattewa Investigated the thermal performance of a increasing the molten layer thickness, as
and Assassa compact PCM solar collector utilizing storage the natural convection grows stronger. In
[103] of energy in term of latent heat. the discharge process, the useful heat
gain was found to increase as the water
mass flow rate increases.
Tested PCM behaviour in real conditions at the
University of Lleida by constructing a solar In order to use numerous cylinders at the
Cabeza et al.
pilot plant. The solar pilot plant is designed to top of the water tank, the PCM module
[104]
work continuously either with a solar energy geometry is adopted.
system, or an electrical heater.
Designed, developed, and evaluated a latent
heat storage system to be used on-demand
The results show that that storage unit in
when warm water is needed, in which the
the heat storage system performed well in
Kumar et al. thermal energy is collected by using a box-type
keeping the hot water within the desired
[105] solar collector. The system comprised of three
temperature range. For the experiments,
finned heat exchangers and the PCM used
15 L and 20 L of water were used.
paraffin wax with a melting point at 54 °C to
store heat.
These systems are capable of providing
Devised two solar water heaters in which the
hot water during the day and night on a
heat storage material is paraffin. One system
Shukla [106] daily cycle basis. These two systems have
had tank-type storage and the other system
an efficiency of 45% and 60%,
had incorporated storage type with a reflector.
respectively.
The study found that the best and most
promising PCMs are myristic acid,
Hasan et al. Analyzed domestic water heater using fatty
palmitic acid, and stearic acid, all having
[107–109] acids as PCM.
melting temperatures between 50–70 °C,
which are suitable for heating water.
Analyzed the effect of running water flow They found that the hot water can be
within a parallel plate on a solid-solid PCM maintained at a high temperature all the
Tiwari et al.
interface to be used as a water heater. To time and increasing the melted region of
[110]
reduce heat dissipated during nighttime, PCM will reduce water temperature
movable insulation is provided to the system. fluctuations.
The heating efficiency of the system
Studied the energy and thermal efficiency of would be 31.7% and the solar fraction
Ling, Mo
the system, the energy consumption for room would be 83.6% while the average
[111]
heating and the solar fraction. temperature indoors was 14.9 °C and
outdoors was −1.5 °C.
Suggested a salt hydrate PCM-based integrated Demonstrated that by incorporating an
Boy et al.
collector storage system to provide appropriate PCM the system's efficiency
[38]
instantaneous hot water. could be raised considerably.
Energies 2019, 12, 3167 10 of 20

However, the system is expected to have

a high cost because the salt hydrate PCM
is contained in a specially corrugated fin
heat exchanger.
The results are then used as a comparison
Developed and investigated a system with with the simulation model, which
Tayeb [112] Na2SO4.10H2O as PCM used for the domestic provides the ideal inlet water flow rate
water heater. required to keep the water temperature
constant at the outlet flow.
Researched a preliminary study using solid- The agreement of both simulation and
solid PCM in designing domestic water heater experimental results reveals that this
Font et al.
device. Simulation with numerical values was model can investigate heat transfer
[113]
utilized using a one-directional model and within PCMs and further optimize the
used to confirm the findings of the experiment. water heater device design.
The results showed that when the
thermal conductivity of solid-solid PCM
Bhargava Theoretically investigated a water heater using
is increased, outlet water temperature
[114] solar energy with PCM.
and the efficiency of the system during
the evening hours will also increase.
Analyzed and compared conventional solar
The temperature of the water is found to
water heater with PCM-powered solar water
Canbazoglu be constant at 46 °C throughout the night
heating. Polyethylene bottles were filled with
et al. [115] until morning, while the hot water does
approximately 180 kg of PCM and the bottles
not change at all.
were left to set in the tank in three rows.

Solar water heating systems with different types of PCM should be evaluated to find optimum
heating [116]. Different heat transfer fluid can be used as an alternative to water to obtain better heat
exchange. Furthermore, nanoparticle-enhanced PCM can be used to investigate the system
performance.

5. PCMs Solar Cookers

One of the main elements of energy consumption in developing countries is cooking. The
sources of energy for current cooking methods are kerosene and liquid petroleum gas (LPG) for urban
areas, while in rural areas, non-commercial fuels such as firewood, cow dung and agricultural waste,
are used. Solar cookers have the potential to solve global issues related to fuel source limitations and
CO2 emissions. Hence, more research initiatives are needed to successfully commercialize solar
cookers as a viable replacement for traditional cooking devices. The use of solar cookers could have
a positive impact on the environment by reducing CO2 emissions and helping to reduce the
dependency on fossil fuel. In order to be fully commercialized and widely used, certain social
conditions are required in addition to the cost and performance conditions [117–119]. Also, usage of
solar cookers has a limitation in that they can only be used in clear, sunny conditions and are unusable
during cloudy days or at night. Thus, solar cookers must have the ability to store heat to overcome
these limitations and impracticalities during off-sunshine hours. Research and promotional schemes
in the PCM field are necessary to ensure that solar cookers are viable and commercialized for future
use [120–122]. The schematic diagram of a concentrating type solar cooker using PCM A-164 is
presented in Figure 8.
Energies 2019, 12, 3167 11 of 20

Figure 8. Concentrating type solar cooker using PCM A-164.

Buddhi and Sahoo [123] designed and tested a solar-powered cooker by storing latent heat as a
means of cooking food in the late evening. Thermal energy storage material made of commercial-
grade stearic acid (the latent heat of fusion 161 kJ/kg, melting point 55 °C) was placed under the
absorbing plate. The heat transfer rate during PCM discharge was slow and it took more time to cook
food during the evening [124]. Domanski et al. [125] studied the utilization of PCMs using
magnesium nitrate hexahydrate (Mg(NO3)2.6H2O) as the heat storage media for a box-type solar
cooker to be used during non-sunshine hours. Sharma et al. [126] designed a PCM storage unit in the
shape of a cylinder for a hot box solar cooker using commercial grade erythritol (Tm = 118 °C), to be
used for cooking food in the evening or at nighttime. The results of their experiment showed that
storing solar energy did not affect the solar cooker’s performance during the day. They suggested
that the PCM range of melting temperature should lie between 105–110 °C for evening cooking [127].
Sharma et al. [127] also investigated a solar energy cooker based on an evacuated tube solar
collector (ETSC) with storage of PCM. The designed unit has components for cooking and solar
energy collection, which were then paired with a PCM storage unit. The solar energy was stored
within commercial-grade erythritol as latent heat and released to be utilized later for cooking at night.
Cooking experiments during the day were carried out using different loads and loading times, while
simultaneously experimenting with PCM storage processes. It was observed that noon and evening
cooking are independent of each other, and it was found that evening cooking takes less time when
using PCM heat storage compared to cooking at mid-day without PCM.
Hussein et al. [117] designed a new indirect solar-powered cooker that consisted of a solar
collector with a flat plate, outdoor elliptical cross-section wickless heat pipes, and an integrated PCM
thermal storage which was placed indoors. Two reflectors were used to focus the solar rays on to the
collector, while PCM made of magnesium nitrate hexahydrate (the latent heat of fusion 134 kJ/kg, Tm
= 89 °C) was used inside the indoor cooking unit. The setup showed an average daily improvement
by 24% of incident solar radiation on the surface of the collector when the reflector was placed facing
north and south. Other experiments were also conducted without the load as well as different types
of load at different loading times. This was done to identify any benefits or effects from solar cookers
set up as a means of cooking during the day and for keeping food warm at night and in the early
morning.
However, as reported in the literature, based on the thermal stability test, the maximum
temperature of PCM as a means of solar cooking is around 120 °C. Indirect heating is found to be the
most suitable mode of heating when PCM is incorporated as a heat storage material, for which the
temperature drop between the cooking container surface and storage material would be
approximately 10–15 °C. Thus, it can be deduced that the maximum possible temperature of the
cooking vessel surface is 100 °C, which is below the temperature needed for frying and fast cooking.
Energies 2019, 12, 3167 12 of 20

In order to overcome this problem, a solar cooking system using PCM A-164 as the storage medium
is still being studied [128–130]. This system consists of a solar collector with a concentrator, a PCM
based thermal storage unit and an indoor cooking unit [131]. The thermic fluid has been chosen to be
the heat transfer fluid to allow heat flow between the cooking unit and the collector. PCM A-164 is
used as a thermal energy storage medium to store energy during the day and the energy is retrieved
in off-sunshine hours. The cooking unit employs a flat surface hot place, similar to electric cooking,
and circulation of cooking oil ensures flow below the finned hot plate to ensure that the surface
temperature is maintained at around 140–150 °C. This system can be utilized for cooking throughout
the day. Although the capital and cost of initiating this system is high, it could be cost-effective for
long-term usage if the PCMs could be manufactured at a lower cost [132,133].

6. PCMs Solar Dryers

Drying techniques are processes used to decrease the moisture of products, which can be used
for storage of foods and agricultural products [134]. An operating temperature of 40–60 °C is required
for drying products such as fruits and vegetables [135,136]. The moisture content and quality of the
products (e.g., nutritional properties) can be controlled with the humidity level and operating
temperature. These parameters are varied for different products [137].
The solar drying method has received significant attention in the food and agriculture industry
because it makes the process of preservation easier [137]. Moreover, it has significant ecological
benefits [138]. The potential of paraffin wax as a PCM in the solar dryer has been assessed by
Devahastin et al. [139]. They found that PCMs can store surplus energy from the sun and discharge
this energy when it is demanded. Different parameters such as heat transfer characteristics, inlet, and
outlet temperature, and the effect of air velocity were studied during charging and discharging. The
results showed that the extracted energy decreases from 1920 kJ·min/kg to 1386 kJ·min/kg when the
inlet velocity increases from 1 to 2 m/s [139]. They also found that sweet potato can be dried up to
40% with this inlet velocity. The schematic diagram outlining the basic concept of this process is
shown in Figure 9. As shown in this figure, the PCM is placed in the latent heat storage tank.

Figure 9. Schematic diagram of the basic concept of the solar drying chamber.

Devahastin et al. [139] proposed latent heat storage from exhausted gas of a modified spouted
bed grain dryer via numerical simulation. They claimed that up to 15% of saving could be achieved
by combining these methods. Meanwhile, Bal et al. [140] developed and designed a solar dryer with
LHS using paraffin wax as the PCM to store any excess solar energy during the day and release it
when solar energy was inadequate or not available. Another paper by the same authors gives detailed
explanations about a solar dryer with thermal energy storage systems that was used for drying
agricultural food products [140–142]. The drying process of pineapple slices and green peas through
indirect forced convection and a desiccant bed was assessed by Shanmugam and Natarajan [143].
This system was designed to perform in both sunshine hours and off-sunshine hours.
Another study by Shalaby et al. showed the effect of PCMs on the performance of a solar dryer
[138]. The results showed that PCMs could increase the operating temperature of the solar dryer up
Energies 2019, 12, 3167 13 of 20

to 6.5 °C. Syringe et al. [144] studied the thermodynamics of this process for drying garlic cloves. The
results depicted that the moisture content of a garlic clove decreased from 55% to 6.5% over 8 hours.
The energy and exergy efficiencies of the drying chamber with circulating air were also improved by
14.9% and 88.2%, respectively [144]. Another solar dryer with PCM was fabricated by Jain and Tewari
[145]. This solar dryer consisted of a flat plate collector, a storage system (pack bed), natural draft
system and drying chamber. The results showed that the temperature of the dryer remains stable at
40–45 °C, which helped the drying process. Moreover, the thermal efficiency of this system reached
up to 28.2%. The potential of a natural convection type solar dryer in two different conditions (load
and unload) has also been assessed by Sain et al. [146]. In this experiment, ginger was dried under
full load conditions, which reduced the moisture content from 74% to 3% over 24 hours. While the
estimated drying efficiency was 12.4%, the overall efficiency of the system reached 22.7%. Moreover,
solar collector efficiency increased up to 96% and 55% in no-load and full load condition, respectively
[146]. Cocoa beans have also been dried with the help of a solar dryer and desiccant thermal energy
storage [147]. The results demonstrated that the temperature of the drying chamber varied between
40 °C and 54 °C during sunshine hours, which is higher than the ambient temperature. They also
found that combining a solar dryer with thermal energy storage improves the specific energy
consumption and drying time of the product.
The solar hybrid dryer proposed and designed by Reyes et al. [148]consisted of solar panels, a
solar accumulator, electrical heater, drying chamber, and centrifugal fan. Paraffin wax was used as a
PCM in this system. An outlet air temperature of 60 °C was achieved through this system, while the
temperature of the solar panel increased up to 30 °C higher than ambient air. The results showed that
the thermal efficiency of the system varied between 22% and 67%. This value fluctuated from 10% to
21% for the accumulator, which leads to a reduction in the electricity consumption of the system.
They also found that the use of PCM significantly improved the thermal efficiency of the system.
To improve the thermal performance of solar dryers, PCMs with high latent heat and a large
surface area for heat transfer are required. This results in a reduction in the heat loss and the disparity
between supply and demand, and improves the energy efficiency of the system [138]. However, the
low thermal conductivity of PCM is still a problem and further research and development is required
in this regard.

7. Conclusions and Recommendations

Energy storage is very appealing to many parties because of its ability and potential to improve
system performance. Storing excess energy for future use makes the development of technology more
effective and viable compared to building new power plants. PCMs can play a significant role in
storing higher amounts of energy, which is linked with the latent heat of the phase change. Also,
PCMs support a target-oriented settling temperature by the fixed temperature of the phase change.
The energy storage capacity of PCMs in the heat recovery of solar power plants is affected by several
factors. Two forms of heat transfer, heat conduction and convection occur during the phase change
process inside the PCMs. Improve heat transfer techniques can increase heat conduction and
suppress heat convection. To ensure better and more cost-effective PCM performance in energy
storage applications, it is recommended that the available information be consolidated to provide
better facilities to end-users. Also, social awareness, along with the technological development of
solar stills can significantly motivate people to use PCM-based energy storage systems. However,
future research should focus on techniques to improve and optimize the heat transfer of PCMs.
Further research on the development of efficient and cost-effective PCMs with less ageing effects for
solar thermal energy storage applications is needed to ensure significant and positive social impacts.

Abbreviations
CLHS cascade latent thermal energy storage
CST concentrated solar thermal
DSG direct steam generation
ETSC evacuated tube solar collector
Energies 2019, 12, 3167 14 of 20

LHTES latent heat thermal energy storage

LPG liquid petroleum gas
PCM phase change material
SEGS solar electricity generating systems
TES thermal energy storage

Author Contributions: Original draft preparation, M.S. and M.H.H.; Supervision, T.M.I.M. and H.C.O.; Review
and Editing, M.M. and A.S.S.; Revision, N.P. and S.M.A.R.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by Centre for Advanced Modeling and Geospatial Information
Systems (CAMGIS) [Grant no. 321740.2232397] and research development fund; School of Information, Systems
and Modelling, University of Technology Sydney, Australia; Direktorat Jenderal Penguatan Riset dan
Pengembangan Kementerian Riset, Teknologi dan Pendidikan Tinggi Republik Indonesia, (Grant no.
147/SP2H/LT/DRPM/2019) and Politeknik Negeri Medan, Medan, Indonesia.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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