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Journal
of Threatened
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Building evidence for conservation globally
Taxa
10.11609/jott.2020.12.17.17263-17386
www.threatenedtaxa.org
26 December 2020 (Online & Print)

Vol. 12 | No. 17 | Pages: 17263– 17386
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Invertebrates
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continued on the back inside cover
Caption: Blue-spotted Mudskipper Boleophthalmus boddarti battle on land (surface behavior). © A. Kumaraguru
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 December 2020 | 12(17): 17263–17275
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print) PLATINUM
OPEN ACCESS
DOI: https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6532.12.17.17263-17275
#6532 | Received 08 August 2020 | Finally accepted 08 December 2020
A
r
t
Genetic and reproductive characterization of distylous Primula reinii i
c
in the Hakone volcano, Japan: implications for conservation l
e
of the rare and endangered plant
Masaya Yamamoto 1 , Honami Sugawara 2 , Kazuhiro Fukushima 3 , Hiroaki Setoguchi 4 &
Kaoruko Kurata 5
1
Hyogo University of Teacher Education, 942-1 Shimokume, Kato-city, Hyogo 673-1494, Japan.
2,3,5
Graduate School of Education, Yokohama National University, 79-2 Tokiwadai, Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 240-8501, Japan.
4
Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida Nihonmatsu, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan.
1
[email protected] (corresponding author), 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected],
4
[email protected], 5 [email protected]
Abstract: Genetic and ecological evaluation are crucial in effective management of rare and endangered species, including those exhibiting
complex breeding systems such as distyly. We studied a threatened distylous herb Primula reinii in the Hakone volcano, central Japan,
to obtain baseline information of reproductive and genetic status towards conservation. In two representative populations inhabiting
a central cone and somma of the volcano, population size, floral morph ratio, stigmatic pollen deposition, and fruit-set were measured.
Using microsatellite markers, we evaluated genetic diversity, structure and differentiation of populations. Population bottlenecks and
historical changes in population size were also estimated from genotype data. We found significant deviation from equal morph ratios in
the central cone population, which also exhibited skewed mating success together with a high frequency of pollination within the same
morph. These trends were not detected in the somma population. From genetic insights, the central cone population showed slightly
lower genetic diversity, whereas no significant deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium was found in either population. The estimated
moderate genetic differentiation and admixed genetic structure suggest recent lineage divergence and/or gene flow between populations.
While robust evidence for a recent bottleneck was not obtained in our analyses, a clear signature of historical population contraction was
detected in the central cone population. Our findings suggest that the skewed morph ratio strongly influenced the reproduction of small
and isolated populations in the short-term, highlighting the vulnerability of distylous plant populations under ongoing anthropogenic
pressure.
Keywords: Distyly, morph bias, reproduction, genetic diversity, volcanism
Editor: Mandar Paingankar, Government Science College Gadchiroli, Gadchiroli, India. Date of publication: 26 December 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Yamamoto, M., H. Sugawara, K. Fukushima, H. Setoguchi & K. Kurata (2020). Genetic and reproductive characterization of distylous Primula reinii in the
Hakone volcano, Japan: implications for conservation of the rare and endangered plant. Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(17): 17263–17275. https://doi.org/10.11609/
jott.6532.12.17.17263-17275
Copyright: © Yamamoto et al. 2020. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this
article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: This work was financially supported by ProNatura Foundation Japan, Support Society of Faculty of Education and Human Science of Yokohama National
University, and Grants-Aid for Science Research from Japan Society for Promotion of Science (#19K16219)
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Masaya Yamamoto is an assistant professor in Hyogo University of Teacher Education. Honami Sugawara is a school teacher in Tokyo, Japan.
Kazuhiro Fukushima is also a school teacher in Shizuoka Pref., Japan. Hiroaki Setoguchi is a professor in Kyoto University. Kaoruko Kurata is an associate
professor in Yokohama National University.
Author contribution: KK conceived the project; MY, HS and KF collected the data; MY led the writing of the manuscript. HS and KK contributed critically to the
drafts and give final approval for publication.
Acknowledgements: Fieldworks are conducted under permits from Kanto Regional Environment Office, Ministry of the Environment. We are grateful to Misato
Wakai and Saki Sugihara, undergraduate and graduate students in the Kurata laboratory (Yokohama National University) for help in field surveys.
17263
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Genetic and reproductive characterization of distylous Primula reinii in Hakone volcano Yamamoto et al.
INTRODUCTION biased populations (Barret 1989; Wilcock & Neiland

2002; van Rossum & Triest 2006). Another consequence
Worldwide, numerous plants are already threatened of skewed morph ratios is an increase in genetic drift and
by human-caused stress (e.g., habitat destruction) and inbreeding, which can lead to a loss of genetic diversity
climate changes (Jackson & Kennedy 2009). Among these (van Rossum & Triest 2006; Meeus et al. 2012) and may
plants, species having a sophisticated entomophilous eventually result in the breakdown of distyly (Washitani
breeding system such as distyly (heterostyly) are likely 1996). Therefore, conservation studies on threatened
to be the most vulnerable to the detrimental effects distylous species which integrate ecological and genetic
of isolation and unreliable pollination service due to approaches are indispensable for assessing current
anthropogenic environmental alteration (Washitani et status and predicting future extinction probability,
al. 2005). as well as for planning effective conservation and/or
Distyly is a floral polymorphism, where populations restoration strategies (Washitani et al. 2005).
have two floral morphs (a long- and short-styled morph; The present paper investigated Primula reinii Franch.
hereafter, referred to as the L- and S-morphs) that et Sav. (Primulaceae), an endemic primrose that inhabits
differ reciprocally in the heights of stigmas and anthers mountainous regions of Japan. As in most primroses,
in flowers. Besides the morphological differences, the plant is a self-incompatible distylous species
distylous plants usually have a heteromorphic (Richards 2003). Because of its attractive and relatively
incompatibility system that prevents selfing and intra- large flowers with dwarf foliage, the primrose has
morph mating (Barrett 2002); only cross-pollination suffered from anthropogenic activity (e.g. horticultural
(i.e., legitimate pollination) between L- and S-morphs exploitation) in the wild. Based on the rarity and serious
results in seed setting. In theory, such morphologically reductions in numbers and populations, the species is
and physiologically disassortative mating between listed in the ‘Vulnerable’ category of the latest Japanese
floral morphs generally leads to an equilibrium with Red List (Ministry of the Environment 2019). Despite
equal morph ratios, as a result of negative frequency- required effective management, especially for small
dependent selection and simple inheritance of distyly populations exposed to ongoing human activities, little
(Heuch 1979; Barret & Shore 2008). Accumulated is known about their population status, reproductive
evidence in distylous plants, however, has provided success, or remnant genetic diversity. Simultaneously,
numerous examples of variation in population morph this might provide an opportunity to study the
ratios (e.g., Kéry et al. 2003; Brys et al. 2008; Meeus et immediate responses of a distylous plant population
al. 2012). It has been advocated that floral morph bias to demographic changes. In this study, we assessed the
can be governed by several factors, such as stochastic genetic and reproductive status of two neighborhood
and deterministic events (Matsumura & Washitani 2000; populations of P. reinii to provide baseline information
Kery et al. 2003), maternal fitness differences between pertinent to the conservation and preservation of this
morphs (Hodgins & Barret 2006), and a combination rare and endangered primrose. To discuss factors
of weak heteromorphic incompatibility and pollen affecting reproductive success in natural habitats, we
limitation (Barret 1989; van Rossum et al. 2006; Brys et measured population size, morph frequency, stigmatic
al. 2008). pollen deposition, and fruit-set within a population, and
Skewed morph ratios have often been found in small evaluated the genetic diversity and structure within and
isolated distylous plant populations (e.g., Matsumura & among populations.
Washitani 2000; Kery et al. 2003). Furthermore, it is well
known that the deviation of morph frequencies from a
1:1 ratio can have negative reproductive and genetic MATERIALS AND METHODS
consequences for populations. Indeed, skewed morph
ratios result in the limited availability of compatible Plant species and study site
mates, which can contribute to reduced reproductive Primula reinii is a diploid (2n = 24) perennial herb
success (Kery et al. 2003; Wang et al. 2005; Pedersen et occurring as a chasmophyte on wet shaded rocky cliffs
al. 2016) and increase the effects of genetic drift (Byers in the mountains (Image 1). The natural populations
& Meagher 1992). Moreover, a combination of the are rare and usually small and isolated from each
loss of effective pollinators and the absence of a strict other because of their narrow edaphic niche and low
heteromorphic incompatibility system can increase dispersal ability arising from the nature of the species.
inbreeding (selfing and biparental inbreeding) in morph- A single ramet produces one to two pink flowers from
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mid-April to early May. Although flower visitors are not

well-known in this species, its narrow corolla tube and
recent pollinator observations in their related species
(Yamamoto et al. 2018) imply that long-tongued flying
insects, such as bumblebees and bee flies can be effective
pollinators for the species. Under cultivation conditions,
the generation time (between seed germination and
first flowering) of the species is estimated to be 2–3
years (Yamamoto et al. 2017).
Fieldwork was conducted from April 2013 to October
2014. We selected P. reinii populations from two sites
in the Hakone volcano within a special protected zone
of the Fuji-Hakone National Park in central Japan (Fig.
1a). These sites were severely isolated by a volcanic
landform, i.e., caldera (distance: ca. 7 km) (Fig. 1b). One
was on Mt. Kintoki (KIN population, 35.289’N, 139.004’E,
1,212m) and the other was on Mt. Komagatake (KOM
population, 35.228’N, 139.021’E; 1,275m). In both sites,
the primrose occurs on rock outcrops near the mountain
top in which populations are composed of scattered
patches within an area of approximately 20 × 20 m2.
Although a few smaller patches also located alongside
the studied populations, these rim populations were
sparse and separated geographically from the studied Image 1. Flowering ramet of Primula reinii on Mt. Komagatake.
center population (>100 m). Thus, each studied Photographed by Honami Sugawara in May 2013.
population was considered to be one reproductive unit.
Formation and strong eruptive activities of the
Hakone volcano initiated 650–350 ka and continued Currently, the Hakone volcano is an attractive destination
until 3ka (Nagai & Takahashi 2008). The mean annual to tourists. There is more than 10,000 people living
precipitation and average air temperature at this area within the caldera, and an approximate average of
are 2,132mm and 8.80C, respectively (http://en.climate- 60,000 tourists visit the area every day. Including
data.org/location/769594/, accessed 7 February 2019). Primula reinii, approximately 80% of endangered plants
Figure 1. a—Location of Hakone volcano | b—Geographical map of Hakone volcano and location of the two populations of Primula reinii
included in this study. KIN and KOM are population codes. The dashed line indicates the caldera rim of the Hakone volcano: Mt. Kami is the
heist peak of the polygenetic volcanoes.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 December 2020 | 12(17): 17263–17275 17265

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found in the volcano are presumed to have decreased After the preliminary marker screening, the genotypes
due to habitat destruction and horticultural exploitation of each individual were characterized following seven
(Osawa & Inohara 2008). microsatellite markers that were originally developed
for Primula sieboldii E. Morren: ga0161, ga0218, ga0580,
Measurements of basic population traits, pollen ga0691, ga1140, Pri0141, and 2ca135 (Ueno et al. 2003,
deposition, and fruit-set 2006, 2009; Kitamoto et al. 2005). PCR amplifications
During the flowering season, the number of all and allele-size determination of fragment analysis were
flowering individuals and flowers within each population, performed in accordance with the methods described by
along with flower morph (L- or S-morph), were recorded. Yamamoto et al. (2017).
Whether the two morphs were equally frequent within a
population (i.e., deviations from a 1:1 morph ratio) was Population genetic analysis
investigated with Chi-square goodness-of-fit tests. For all seven microsatellite loci, the absence of linkage
To elucidate the role of pollen limitation and morph- disequilibrium (LD) and the presence of null alleles were
ratio variation on female reproductive success, we tested using Genepop v4.2 (Raymond & Rousset 1995).
measured the stigmatic pollen load. In the natural The LD test was verified using a Markov chain method
fields, 20 fully-opened flowers were collected from each with 1,000 dememorization steps, and 1,000 iterations
population in the afternoon and carefully transported to per batch. Null allele frequencies were estimated by
the laboratory the same day. In the laboratory, flowers maximum-likelihood estimator based on the expectation-
were dissected, and stigma removed and mounted maximization algorithm (Dempster et al. 1977) with the
on a microscope slide in aniline blue staining solution default setting.
(0.1% aniline blue in 0.1 M K3PO4). Under a compound The following measures were calculated for each
microscope (Olympus), we directly counted the number population: number of alleles (A), effective number
of legitimate (pollen from the opposite morph) and of alleles (AE), number of private alleles (AP), expected
illegitimate (pollen from the same morph) pollen grains heterozygosity (HE), and inbreeding coefficient (FIS).
on stigmas of each floral morph based on pollen size Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium were
differences (L-morph: 18.0 ± 0.1 μm; S-morph: 28.6 ± 0.1 determined by the exact test and permutations. All
μm; Y. Ojima, unpublished data). measurements were calculated using GenoDive v2.0
At the beginning of the fruiting season (August), the (Meirmans & van Tienderen 2004). GenoDive was also
population mean for fruit-set per flower was measured used to compute the population’s genetic differentiation
with the exception of some flowers that were used for pairwise FST and G’ST indices (Hedrick 2005), and FST was
the measurements of stigmatic pollen loads. Even if tested for significance using 10,000 permutations.
the fruit was set, the reproductive success will strongly To estimate genetic structure of P. reinii populations
depend on fruit predation (e.g., Matsumura & Washitani in Hakone volcano, we used the model-based clustering
2000; Yamamoto et al. 2013). Thus, we continued method STRUCTURE 2.3.4 (Pritchard et al. 2000) and
observations until October that was immediately before non-model-based method principal component analysis
avulsion of the capsules. (PCA). STRUCTURE analysis was conducted for all
All field surveys described above were conducted in samples across the two populations. Under an admixture
2013 and 2014 for KOM and KIN population, respectively. model with correlated allele frequency, 20 independent
simulations were run for each K (K = 1–5) with 5 × 105
Population sampling, DNA extraction, and microsatellite Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) steps and a burn-in
genotyping period of 105 interactions. The most likely value of K was
In each population, 32 plants were sampled randomly determined by the ΔK method (Evanno et al. 2005) with
(without distinction of floral morph types) from the STRUCTURE HARVESTER 0.6.94 (Earl & vonHoldt 2012).
entire area occupied by each population for genetic CLUMPAK (Kopelman et al. 2015) was used to average
analysis. Leaf materials were collected and dried in silica the outputs from multiple STRUCTURE runs and produce
gel. Before DNA extraction, leaves were homogenized the graphical results. The F value, the amount of genetic
with a disposable homogenizer (Biomasher 2; Nippi Co., drift between each cluster and a common ancestral
Tokyo, Japan) to a fine powder. Total DNA was extracted population, was also calculated for each cluster. The
from 40 to 80 mg silica-dried leaf tissue using the grass- PCA analysis was performed using the package adegenet
fiber filter method (Takakura 2011). The extracted DNA 2.0.1 (Jombart 2008) in R 3.5.2 (R core Team 2018).
was dissolved in a TE solution and stored at 40C until use. To detect a genetic imprint of past population

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bottlenecks, we first used the heterozygosity excess al. 2002) for all loci, and ran each analysis under a two-
method (Cornuet & Luikart 1996) implemented within phased mutation model with a proportion of 0.22 for
the program BOTTLENECK v1.2 (Piry et al. 1999). This multiple mutations (Peery et al. 2012), for 105 MCMC
method is suitable to detect very recent and less steps (NumberBatch = 1,000,000, LengthBatch = 10),
severe bottlenecks, and has low false positive error sampling every 10 steps (SpaceBatch = 10) with an
rates (Williamson-Natesan 2005). All simulations were acceptance ratio of 0.25 (AccRate = 0.25), after burning
done with mutation-drift equilibrium conditions (2,000 of 10,000 steps. Estimations of sizes were searched for
replicates) under the stepwise mutation model (SMM), from sampling time to 5,000 and 500 generations ago.
infinite allele model (IAM), and two-phase mutation
model (TPM: 70% SMM and 30% IAM). A two-tailed
Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to determine a RESULTS
significant excess of heterozygosity.
We also calculated the M-ratio (Garza & Williamson Population traits and morph ratio
2001) for each population using Arlequin (Excoffier et al. Each population trait is summarized in Table 1. A total
2005). The M-ratio test is considered to have a greater of 72 flowering individuals and 99 flowers were found in
detection power for ancient and moderate-to-severe the KIN population, whereas the KOM population had
population declines in comparison with the former fewer (52 individuals and 69 flowers). The morph ratio in
method (Williamson-Natesan 2005). M-ratio represents KIN did not deviate significantly from a 1:1 ratio (L-morph
the number of alleles relative to the range in allele sizes. ratio = 0.54), even in the number of flowers (L-morph ratio
After a severe bottleneck, the number of alleles should = 0.52). In contrast, the number of flowering individuals
reduce faster than the allelic size range, which results of the L-morph was significantly higher than that of the
in a reduced M-ratio (Garza & Williamson 2001). Thus, S-morph in KOM (L-morph ratio = 0.65) and even higher
the magnitude of the decrease reflects the severity for the number of flowers (L-morph ratio = 0.70).
and duration of the reduction in population size, and
generally an M-ratio <0.68 is indicative of the presence Pollen deposition
of a bottleneck (Garza & Williamson 2001). Stigmas of both floral morphs received pollen grains
Finally, we conducted a Bayesian demographic in each population, but the numbers varied greatly
analysis using the R package, Vareff (Nikolic & Chevalet between the individuals, ranging from zero to 321. In
2014). In contrast to the first two moment-based the KIN population, no differences in stigmatic pollen
methods, this coalescent-based approach can examine loads were detected between morphs (Fig. 2a). In
temporal changes in the effective population size (Ne). addition, the proportion of deposited legitimate pollens
The function Vareff simulates prior changes in the was not significantly different between both morphs
effective population size from microsatellite data by (Fig. 2c), while the proportions varied greatly among
resolving coalescent theory and using an approximate the L-morph stigmas in comparison with the S-morph.
likelihood MCMC (Nikolic & Chevalet 2014). After a This is complemented by the result that the S-morph
series of preliminary runs, we used the prior parameter stigmas received significantly more legitimate pollen
settings for each population (Table S1), following grains than the L-morph stigmas (Fig. 2b), implying that
recommendations from Nikolic & Chevalet (2014). We S-morph stigmas were pollinated more effectively than
set the estimated mutation rate to 5 × 10–4 (Estoup et the opposite morph.
Table 1. Number of blooming plants during the flowering season in each population. Results of χ2 goodness-of-fit tests for the similarity
between the two morphs.
Number of L-morph S-morph Total χ2 P
KIN pop.
Flowering individuals 39 33 72 0.50 0.48
Flowers 51 48 99 0.09 0.76
KOM pop.
Flowering individuals 34 18 52 4.92 0.03
Flowers 48 21 69 10.57 0.001

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Figure 2. Pollen deposition on stigmas and the reproductive status of Primula reinii in the Hakone volcano. a—Stigmatic pollen loads | b—
legitimate pollen loads | c—proportion of legitimate pollen within stigmatic pollen loads. a– c—are represented as beeswarm plots. Purple and
green dots indicate L- and S-morphs, respectively. The dashed lines show the first quartile (lower line), median (center line), and third quartile
(upper line). Asterisk denotes significant differences (Mann-Whitney U-test) between morphs: *P < 0.05, **P < 0.0001. d—Mean population
of fruit set per flower.
In contrast, in the KOM population, L-morph stigmas and 14.3 %, respectively) (Fig. 2c). Within a population,
received a significantly greater number of pollen grains both L- and S-morph scored comparable values in the
than the S-morph stigmas (Fig. 2a). After classifying KIN population (37.1 % and 26.7 %, respectively). In
pollen grains, however, we found no legitimate pollen contrast, fruit-set of L-morph in the KOM population was
grains loaded on the L-morph stigmas (Fig. 2b); that less than half of the opposite morph (10.5 % and 27.3 %,
is, most L-morph stigmas were covered with a large respectively). We continued monitoring until October,
quantity of illegitimate pollen. Although several but no evidence of fruit predation was found in either
S-morph stigmas were legitimately pollinated, similar population, namely fruit-set was almost unchanged
to other populations (Fig. 2c), there was no significant throughout the fruiting season.
difference in the number of legitimate deposited pollen
grains between the two morphs (Fig. 2b). Genetic diversity
LD between locus pairs was not significant. Although
Fruit-set the frequencies of the majority of the null alleles
At the population level, fruit-set ratio was much higher were lower than 0.1, higher frequencies of null alleles
in the KIN population than in the KOM population (32.3 % were detected on 2ca135 and ga1140 loci in the KOM

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(a) (b)
Figure 3. Genetic structure of 64 individuals of Primula reinii in the Hakone volcano. a—Assignment of individuals to clusters based on a
STRUCTURE analysis for K = 2. b—Plots of individual scores on the principal component analysis (axis 1–2 are shown). Each plot is connected
by a line to the 95% confidence ellipse centroid of the respective population. KIN and KOM are represented population codes.
Table 2. Genetic diversity and detection of a recent population bottleneck of the two Primula reinii populations.
Genetic diversity measurements P values of Wilcoxon test M-ratio

Pop. code
A AE AP HE FIS IAM SMM TPM Mean SD
KIN 6.3 3.3 2.9 0.652 0.068 0.109 0.297 0.813 0.312 0.221
KOM 6.1 2.6 1.9 0.544 0.073 0.296 0.007 0.015 0.338 0.199
total 9.0 2.8 - 0.598 0.070 - - - -
A, mean number of alleles; AE, mean number of effective alleles; AP, mean number of private alleles; HE, expected heterozygosity; FIS, coefficient of inbreeding; IAM,
infinite allele model; SMM, stepwise mutation model; TPM, two-phase mutation model.
population (0.227 and 0.114, respectively). As the analyses described below.

presence of null alleles may affect the estimation of Genetic diversity parameters for the two populations
genetic diversity or differentiation, we excluded the are presented in Table 2. In total, 63 alleles were
two loci and repeated several analyses to compare amplified by seven microsatellite markers, with an
results between seven and five microsatellites. This trial average 9.0 alleles per locus. All diversity measurements
revealed no clear difference in the results based on 5 were slightly higher in the KIN population (A = 6.3, AE =
vs. 7 loci (Table S2). Thus, seven loci were used in all 3.3, AP = 2.9 and HE = 0.652) than in the KOM population

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Figure 4. Estimates of effective population size of the two populations for a—the past 5,000 generations, and b—the past 500 generations. Bold
lines indicate the median estimations, while the dashed lines above and below represent the 95% highest posterior density intervals.
(A = 6.1, AE = 2.6, AP = 1.9 and HE = 0.544). The inbreeding between the two populations. The F values of clusters
coefficient value (FIS) was positive and comparable produced by STRUCTURE analysis were higher in the
between the populations, but each value did not deviate KOM population (F = 0.186) than in the KIN population
significantly from zero. (F = 0.086), indicating that the KOM population had
undergone a larger genetic drift compared to that of
Genetic structure and evidence a recent bottleneck the KIN population. In the PCA (Fig. 3b), the first two
A moderate genetic differentiation was detected axes explained 17.0% and 10.7% of the variances in
between populations (FST = 0.115, P < 0.001; G’ST = 0.286). the experimental data, respectively. The results also
The STRUCTURE analysis based on the ΔK method distinguished the two populations, suggesting the
indicated that ΔK was 462.5 for K = 2 and ΔK were <3 existence of two genetic units corresponding to each
for other values of K. Therefore, the optimal ΔK for K population.
= 2 showed that the best-fit model for the 64 sampled In BOTTLENECK analyses, the two-tailed Wilcoxon
individuals of P. reinii revealed two clusters (Fig. 3a). signed-rank test provided statistical support (P < 0.025)
Although several admixed individuals were found in each to the presence of a recent bottleneck in the KOM
population, all samples formed a clear genetic structure population under the SMM and TPM, whereas no

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evidence was found in KIN (Table 2). On the contrary, the populations. Nevertheless, determination of the exact
M-ratio test indicated that both populations experienced causes of floral morph bias in KOM was not possible
a reduction in population size. The M-ratio values were based on the limited ecological and genetic data
0.312 and 0.338 for the KIN and KOM populations, currently available. Because skewed morph ratios are
respectively (Table 2). A clear signature of historical often explained by several biotic and abiotic factors as
population contraction was detected only in KOM via discussed in the Introduction, there is a need for future
the third method, the Bayesian population demographic studies investigating the ability of selfing and intra-morph
analysis. The bottleneck began approximately 1,000 mating, maternal fitness differences between morphs,
generations ago (Fig. 4a), whereas a gradual decline was pollinator assemblage, and population demography.
settled at least 100 generations ago (Fig. 4b). In contrast,
the KIN population seems to have historically had a Genetic differentiation and structure
large constant population size (Fig. 4a); however, recent Our molecular analysis showed that genetic
changes were unclear due to the broad confidence differentiation was moderate between the two
levels (Fig. 4b). populations (FST = 0.115). Additionally, signs of genetic
admixture between the populations were detected in
PCA and STRUCTURE analyses (Fig. 3). There are at least
DISCUSSION two non-exclusive explanations for this: recent lineage
divergence and gene flow. According to accumulated
Reproductive status and genetic diversity geographical surveys, Mt. Kintoki (locality of KIN pop.)
The observed low reproduction in KOM is congruent and Mt. Komagatake (locality of KOM pop.) formed
with reports that morph-biased populations experience approximately ca 350–300 ka (Nagai & Takahashi 2008)
reduced reproduction (Byers & Meagher 1992; Kery et and ca 27–20 ka (Kobayashi 1999; Nagai & Takahashi
al. 2003; Wang et al. 2005; Pedersen et al. 2016). Given 2008), respectively. Formation of the central cone (i.e.,
that almost all stigmas were covered with L-morph Mt. Komagatake) clearly corresponded to the period of
pollen grains (Fig. 2), it is plausible that frequent self- or the last glacial maximum (LGM; ca 25–15 ka), suggesting
intra-morph (i.e., illegitimate) pollination had occurred that the KOM population was established at least after
among the KOM L-morphs. Therefore, our ecological the last glacial period. The observed high F value
data indicate that the low fruiting success in KOM (STRUCTURE analysis) and low private alleles in KOM
L-morphs was caused by stigmatic clogging (Yeo 1975) may support a migration scenario that the population
as a consequence of the skewed morph ratio. Because experienced a founder effect arising from a post-glacial
L-morph flowers generally produce greater amounts of refugial isolation and subsequent migration from the
pollen grains than S-morph flowers (Richards 2003), it lowland of the caldera to the high-altitude areas of the
is apparent that the total pollen pool within KOM was central cone during the late Pleistocene and Holocene.
occupied by a large amount of L-morph pollen. Similar to Hence, it is plausible that the detected genetic admixture
our results, previous studies in distylous plants showed between populations suggests incomplete lineage
higher female reproductive success in the relatively less sorting (i.e., sharing ancestral polymorphism between
abundant morph than the dominant morph (e.g., Wyatt populations) due to recent lineage divergence.
& Hellwig 1979; Thompson et al. 2003; Wang et al. 2005; Given the geographically close relationship between
García-Robledo & Mora 2007). Thus, these results may the populations (Fig. 1b), the presence of contemporary
demonstrate negative frequency-dependent patterns of gene flow will also be taken into consideration. Because
reproductive success in the distylous primrose. the two populations are severely isolated by a volcanic
The indices of genetic diversity were relatively landform, gene flow mediated by pollen would be a
high and comparable between the two populations plausible hypothesis. Moreover, in the flowering season
(Table 2), despite the skewed morph ratio observed. we found claw marks, a useful indicator for the pollination
In addition, each population exhibited low FIS levels services provided by bumblebees (Washitani et al. 1994),
with no significant deviation from the Hardy–Weinberg on the petals of each population. This may suggest that
equilibrium. These results allow for the conclusion that the bumblebees have a key role in pollination within
Primula reinii growing in the volcano had maintained the Primula reinii populations. Although bumblebees
sufficient genetic diversity as a result of outbreeding. are known as strong-flying insects (e.g., Rao & Strange
Overall, this study suggests the persistence of 2012), previous observations in other Primula species
distylous self-incompatibility system in the P. reinii have demonstrated that pollen transfer by bumblebees

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generally occurs within short distances (e.g., Ishihama et was from the central cone in 2.7–2.9 ka (Kobayashi
al. 2006). Therefore, we determined that the pollen flow 1997; Kobayashi et al. 2006), and intermittent phreatic
between the populations might occur contemporarily but eruptions continued until present-day. Although
on very rare occasions. Nevertheless, deciding among speculative, these evidences may support the idea that
the possible explanations for the genetic composition of the historical population declines experienced by the
the primrose in the Hakone volcano is difficult due to the KOM could have been associated with repeated eruptive
weak evidence based on an insufficient number of loci. activities in the central cone. Perhaps, the detected
recent bottlenecks in KOM are caused by eruptive
Recent and historical demography activities rather than human activities.
The two tests for a recent bottleneck yielded mixed On the other hand, the estimated effective
results (Table 2). Based on the BOTTLENECK analysis, only population size in the KIN population inhabiting the
the KOM population exhibited excess heterozygosity. In somma mountains was large and constant in the
contrast, the M-ratio test supported a recent population long term, suggesting that the population has been
size reduction in both populations. As mentioned above, maintained without suffering from volcanic eruptions
however, because these inconsistent results might be occurring in the central cone. Further studies for the
attributed to the low statistical power of our sample lineage divergence and demographic history of P. reinii
size (e.g., number of loci or individuals), our results in this region, using more informative datasets (e.g.,
should be interpreted with caution. Nevertheless, such single nucleotide polymorphisms), will be valuable
conflicting results often indicate the severity or timing because volcanism is one of the key abiotic factors in
of the reduction in population size (Williamson-Natesan the plant’s diversification and distribution in Japan (e.g.,
2005; Marshall et al. 2009; Padilla et al. 2015; Tóth et Yoichi et al. 2017; Nagasawa et al. 2020), located in the
al. 2019), and were expected due to the differences in Pacific Ring of Fire.
power detecting a bottleneck (Peery et al. 2012).
Considering the robust results in KOM, it is likely Implication for conservation
that the morph-biased population may have undergone Our study suggests that morph imbalances are
more recent and severe bottlenecks in comparison striking effects on the reproduction of P. reinii population
with another population. In theory, the BOTTLENECK in the short-term. Accordingly, a measure of morph ratio
analysis can demonstrate population bottlenecks over should be given top priority in conservation management
a period of 0.2–4.0 Ne generations (Cornuet & Luikart of the species, and enhancement of habitat monitoring
1996). Assuming for KOM population of Ne = 100 (Fig. should be considered as in situ managements to protect
4) and a generation time of 2–3 years, it translates remnant individuals and to maintain optimum morph
into approximately 50–1000 years before the present. frequencies from horticultural exploitation. Considering
On the other hand, a clear sign of recent (within 100 the observed negative frequency-dependent patterns
generations) population bottleneck was not found in of reproductive success, if heteromorphic self-
the Bayesian demographic analysis (Fig. 4). Therefore, incompatibility is totally strict in P. reinii, the skewed
based on results from a series of demographic analyses, morph ratio in KOM may be improved in the future when
it is difficult to draw a definitive conclusion on whether regeneration is successful. However, the exact breeding
recent bottlenecks occur or not, and thus, we defer a system of the species remains poorly understood.
final conclusion until more genetic data are available in Therefore, in addition to other examinations (e.g., the
the future. germination requirements and the effect of storage
Contrary to this, the Bayesian demographic analysis time of seeds) towards a future ex situ conservation
provided strong evidence in support of a historical strategy, the levels of within morph fertility and selfing
population bottleneck in KOM inhabiting the central ability should be resolved immediately to evaluate the
volcanic cone. The first signs of population decline medium- to long-term risk of extinction in the remnant
would have occurred 2–3 ka (assuming a generation populations across species distribution ranges.
time of 2–3 years). This timeframe post-dates a climatic The two surveyed populations in the Hakone
warming, known as the Jomon optimum transgression, volcano were distinguished by two genetic clusters,
that occurred approximately 6ka, implying that historical suggesting that each population should be divided into
population bottlenecks were likely due to volcanic a different management unit to maintain evolutionary
activities as opposed to climatic events. According to distinctiveness and ecological viability (Moritz
geological records, the last major eruption of the volcano 1994; Frankham et al. 2002). The moderate genetic

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differentiation and the presence of large amounts of study. Molecular Ecology 14: 2611–2620.
Excoffier, L., G. Laval & S. Schneider (2005). Arlequin (version 3.0): An
private alleles between the populations highlight this integrated software package for population genetics data analysis.
suggestion; thus, artificial inter-population crossing Evolutionary Bioinformatics 1: 47–50.
should be avoided in this case. Nevertheless, the lack of Frankham, R., D.A. Briscoe & J.D. Ballou (2002). Introduction to
conservation genetics. Cambridge university press, UK.
samples from other parts of the volcano will influence García‐Robledo, C. & F. Mora (2007). Pollination biology and the impact
the estimated genetic structure. Thus, an exhaustive of floral display, pollen donors, and distyly on seed production in
population sampling, including other remnant small Arcytophyllum lavarum (Rubiaceae). Plant Biology 9: 453–461.
Garza, J.C. & E.G. Williamson (2001). Detection of reduction in
population, is required to elucidate the genetic population size using data from microsatellite loci. Molecular
structure and demographic history of P. reinii occurring Ecology 10: 305–318.
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Evolution 59: 1633–1638.
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To our knowledge, this is the first conservation plants. Theoretical Population Biology 15: 43–57.
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an endangered heterostylous herb, Primula sieboldii. Journal of
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Table S1. Prior parameter settings for each population using VarEff software.
Parameters KIN KOM Description
JMAX 4 4 Number of when the effective size has changed
DMAX 10 7 the maximal distance between alleles
NBAR 100 100 prior value for the effective population size
RHOCORN 0 0 coefficient of correlation between effective population size in successive intervals
VARP1 3 3 variance of prior log-distribution of effective population size
VARP2 3 3 variance of prior log-distribution of time intervals
GBAR 10000 5000 number of generations since the assumed origin of the population
Diagonale 0.5 0.5 a smoothing parameter
Table S2. Genetic diversity measurements and population

differentiation between the two populations based on the selected
five loci (ga0161, ga0218, ga0580, ga0691 and Pri0141).
Pop. code A AE HE FIS FST G’ST
KIN 6.0 3.3 0.637 0.020

0.111 0.249
KOM 5.0 2.1 0.472 0.029
Threatened Taxa

OPEN ACCESS
#6243 | Received 29 May 2020 | Final received 10 November 2020 | Finally accepted 02 December 2020
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A review about fish walking on land
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Arumugam Kumaraguru 1 , Rosette Celsiya Mary 2 & Vijayaraghavalu Saisaraswathi 3
Honorary Wildlife Warden, Thiruvarur Forest Division, Tamil Nadu Forest Department, Tamil Nadu 620021, India.
1
1
Biodiversity Conservation Foundation, #360, Indira Gandhi Street, KK.Nagar, Trichy, Tamil Nadu 620021, India.
2
Nature Club, 2,3 School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu 632007, India.
1
[email protected],
பரெவ%&ம()(ம%+கி.ப/(க0)
2
[email protected],
(Mudskipper) நிலந>/ வாழிக0 [email protected]
3
வA.ைபCசா/Eத, ேசIJ (corresponding
தி%Kக0,author)
சL.MநிலNக0,
அைலஏIற பAதிக0, ஆIJ SகTLவாரU மIJU கழிநிலNக0 ேபா)ற பAதிகைள வாWவXடமாக ெகாZடைவ.
ஏற\Aைறய 34 ப)Sக.ப%ட பரெவ%&ம() இனNக0 உலகிc காண.பKகி)றன. பரெவ%&ம()/ம%+கி.ப/க0
ஆ\ஸுெட/சிேட
Abstract: MudskippersேகாபXேட (Oxudercidae
are amphibious speciesGobiidae) AKUபTைத
inhabiting ேச/Eதைவ.
semi-terrestrial ecosystemsஇEேதா-ேமIA பசிபX\ பAதி,
like mudflats, mangroves, marshy ஆ.பXp\காவX)
swamps, intertidal
regions,
ெவ.பமZடல and estuaries.
ேமIA Around 34 diversified
கடIகைர மIJUspeciesஇEதிய.
are found across the globe. Mudskipper
ெபqNகடலிc belongs to the Oxudercidae
இEத உயXpனNகளr) family and
நிகWs பரவலாக\
the subfamily is Oxudercinae.
காண.பKகிறL. பரெவ%&ம( The
) occurrence
உயXpயcofAறிகா%&யாகsU,
species is vastly foundஆIJ
across the Indo-West Pacific region,
SகTLவாரUகளr) the tropical
பாLகா.M western coast
கZகாணX.பX)
of Africa and in the Indian
Aறிகா%&யாகsU
Ocean. Mudskippers are
அறிய.பKகி)றன.
known for being
மனrத/களr)
the biological indicator
பய)பா%&IA ெபpLU
and also an indicator of estuarineஇைவ
உபேயாகபடாததாc,
safety
monitoring. They are used by people for prey-catching baits. This review paper explains the ecological indicators, taxonomy, species
ெபqUபாtU இைரைய பX&\AU uZ&லிc பய)பKTத.பKகி)றன. இEத ஆvs\ க%Kைர, wIJCxழc
diversity, habitat, behavioural pattern, respiration & kinematics, feeding ecology, reproduction, nutrition content & its medicinal value,
Aறிகா%&க0,
and வைகபXpTதc, இனNகளr)
threats to mudskippers. ப)SகTத)ைம, வாWவXடU, நடTைத Sைற, wவாசU மIJU
இய\கவXயc, உணs xழலியc, இன.ெபq\கU, ஊ%டCசTL தரsக0, அத) மqTLவ மதி.M மIJU அபாயNக0
Keywords:
ஆகியவIைற Amphibious fish, distribution, ecological indicator, mudskippers, species diversity.
வXள\AகிறL.
பரெவ%&ம( )(ம%+கி.ப/(க0) (Mudskipper) நிலந>/ வாழிக0 வA.ைபCசா/Eத, ேசIJ தி%Kக0, சL.MநிலNக0, அைலஏIற
பAதிக0, ஆIJ SகTLவாரU மIJU கழிநிலNக0 ேபா)ற பAதிகைள வாWவXடமாக ெகாZடைவ. ஏற\Aைறய 34
ப)Sக.ப%ட பரெவ%&ம() இனNக0 உலகிc காண.பKகி)றன. பரெவ%&ம()/ம%+கி.ப/க0 ஆ\ஸுெட/சிேட ேகாபXேட
(Oxudercidae Gobiidae) AKUபTைத ேச/Eதைவ. இEேதா-ேமIA பசிபX\ பAதி, ஆ.பXp\காவX) ெவ.பமZடல ேமIA கடIகைர
மIJU இEதிய. ெபqNகடலிc இEத உயXpனNகளr) நிகWs பரவலாக\ காண.பKகிறL. பரெவ%&ம() உயXpயc
Aறிகா%&யாகsU, ஆIJ SகTLவாரUகளr) பாLகா.M கZகாணX.பX) Aறிகா%&யாகsU அறிய.பKகி)றன. மனrத/களr)
பய)பா%&IA ெபpLU உபேயாகபடாததாc, இைவ ெபqUபாtU இைரைய பX&\AU uZ&லிc பய)பKTத.பKகி)றன.
இEத ஆvs\ க%Kைர, wIJCxழc Aறிகா%&க0, வைகபXpTதc, இனNகளr) ப)SகTத)ைம, வாWவXடU, நடTைத Sைற,
wவாசU மIJU இய\கவXயc, உணs xழலியc, இன.ெபq\கU, ஊ%டCசTL தரsக0, அத) மqTLவ மதி.M மIJU
அபாயNக0 ஆகியவIைற வXள\AகிறL.
பரெவ%&ம( )(ம%+கி.ப/(க0) (Mudskipper) நிலந>/ வாழிக0 வA.ைபCசா/Eத, ேசIJ தி%Kக0, சL.MநிலNக0, அைலஏIற பAதிக0, ஆIJ
SகTLவாரU மIJU கழிநிலNக0 ேபா)ற பAதிகைள வாWவXடமாக ெகாZடைவ. ஏற\Aைறய 34 ப)Sக.ப%ட பரெவ%&ம( ) இனNக0
உலகிc காண.பKகி)றன. பரெவ%&ம( )/ம%+கி.ப/க0 ஆ\ஸுெட/சிேட ேகாபXேட (Oxudercidae Gobiidae) AKUபTைத ேச/Eதைவ. இEேதா-ேமIA
பசிபX\ பAதி, ஆ.பXp\காவX) ெவ.பமZடல ேமIA கடIகைர மIJU இEதிய. ெபqNகடலிc இEத உயXpனNகளr) நிகWs பரவலாக\
காண.பKகிறL. பரெவ%&ம( ) உயXpயc Aறிகா%&யாகsU, ஆIJ SகTLவாரUகளr) பாLகா.M கZகாணX.பX) Aறிகா%&யாகsU
அறிய.பKகி)றன. மனrத/களr) பய)பா%&IA ெபpLU உபேயாகபடாததாc, இைவ ெபqUபாtU இைரைய பX&\AU uZ&லிc
Editor: A. Biju Kumar, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India.
பய)பKTத.பKகி)றன. இEத ஆvs\ க%Kைர, wIJCxழc Aறிகா%&க0, வைகபXpTதc,
Date of publication: 26 December 2020 (online & print)
இனNகளr) ப)SகTத)ைம, வாWவXடU, நடTைத
Sைற, wவாசU மIJU இய\கவXயc, உணs xழலியc, இன.ெபq\கU, ஊ%டCசTL தரsக0, அத) மqTLவ மதி.M மIJU அபாயNக0
Citation: Kumaraguru, A., R.C. Mary & V. Saisaraswathi (2020). A review about fish walking on land. Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(17): 17276–17286. https://doi.
ஆகியவIைற வXள\AகிறL.
org/10.11609/jott.6243.12.17.17276-17286
Copyright: © Kumaraguru et al. 2020. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this
Funding: None.
Author details: Dr. A. Kumaraguru is working as conservation scientist specialized in wildlife biology and genetic studies on tiger. Ms. Rosette is currently
doing her MSc in biotechnology and her research interests include marine biology, biodiversity and conservation, phytochemical studies, molecular docking.
Dr. V. Sai Saraswathi is an expert in environmental sciences, working for the conservation of biodiversity, climate change, ethnobotany, pharmacognosy, and
phytochemistry.
Author contribution: In this review paper, VS contributed in the literature review collection, paper editing, proof reading. ER collected literature review, paper
drafting. AK prepared the review design, proof reading and editing. All authors were involved in the mansuscript revision.
17276
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Review about fish walking on land Kumaraguru et al.
INTRODUCTION affection towards salinity and temperature variations

(Kanejiya et al. 2017c). They also contribute towards
Osche (1962) suggested that mudskippers would the growth of mangrove trees, when the population
be useful for interpreting the transition of species of mudskippers is abundant, consequently providing
from water to land. There is some evidence about appropriate nutrients supporting the growth of
the transition of fishes to tetrapods, which occurred mangroves (Shenoy et al. 2012).
more than 360 million years ago (Ulrich & Elliott 2013). Polgar (2009) attempted the studies of Malayan
There are about 40 species classified under 10 genera. mudskippers as a biomonitor in mangroves concerning
Mudskippers predominantly inhabit the mangrove forest species area relationship (SAR) and revealed that the
and mudflats of the Indo-West Pacific region, the tropical destruction of habitats resulted from reduced species
western coast of Africa, and Indian Ocean coastlines. abundance. Mudskippers bioaccumulate pollutants
Mudskippers are known to be burrow dwellers preferring through ingestion as they tend to be prey for many
the swampy marshes, estuaries, and the intertidal mudflat species. Mudskippers ensure the coastal,
regions for their living (Murdy 1989). The feeding intertidal, and estuary’s health (Polgar & Lim 2011).
ecology of the Mudskipper Periophthalmus barbarous Studies have shown that mudskippers act as a biological
was found to be ‘opportunistic feeders’ meant to be indicator of addressing the severity of oil pollution in the
satisfying the food needs with the available resources coastal areas of the Persian Gulf. Biomarker responses of
(Chukwu & Deekae 2013). Generally, mudskippers feed Periophthalmus waltoni were recorded and discovered
on algae, detritus, diatoms, nematode, polychaetes and that it acts as the ideal candidate for bioindicator in the
eggs of fishes, along with mud and sand particles (Ravi coastal regions and mudflats. Correspondingly, it can be
2013). utilized for achieving sustainable development (Shirani
Since long ago, researchers have explored et al. 2012).
mudskipper’s distribution pattern, species diversity, Similarly, at Kuwait Bay, Periophthalmus waltoni acts
behavioural patterns and their locomotory activities. as a bioindicator in identifying the bioaccumulation of
In 1989, Murdy studied the morphological features metals (Bu-Olayan & Thomas 2008). It tends to be a
of mudskippers, which paved the way for taxonomic feeble indicator at the Persian Gulf marine ecosystem, a
classification of mudskippers. Also, he hypothesized the biomonitor candidate-Boleophthalmus dussumieri used
relationship of Oxudericnae gobies with other genera in the monitoring of polycyclic aromatic compounds
and groups. Mudskipper’s early developmental age (PAH). It might be various other environmental factors
& growth, respiratory & circulatory adaptations, and which are acting in that ecosystem leading B. dussumieri
feeding ecology were also studied by many researchers to be helpless (Sinaei & Mashinchian 2014). Metal
across the globe (Jaafar & Murdy 2017). toxicity and accumulation of metal toxicants like Zn, Cd,
Due to the medicinal properties found in Pb, Cu have suggested that mudskippers are an ideal
mudskippers, it gains commercial value either through biomonitor. It was observed that their fins and liver are
food consumption or as traditional medicine by humans the biomonitors and accumulate metal toxins. Due to
(Kanejiya et al. 2017a). Sometimes they are even the contaminants of various metal pollutant, it is not
used as bait for catching prey (Gadhavi et al. 2017). A recommended for human consumptions (Ikram et al.
few of the vernacular names used in different places 2010).
for referring to mudskippers are Periophthalmus
darwini, Periophthalmus sp., and Periophthalmus Taxonomy
novaeguineaensis as sakomo, Periophthalmus as Mudskippers belong to the family Oxudercidae and
nebesokera, Periophthalmus weberi as paraguamo, the subfamily Oxudercinae. Some of the species are
Periophthalmodon freycineti as genora, Boleophthalmus tabulated in Table 1 and Image 1.
caeruleomaculatus as ebanea, Boleophthalmus sp. as
poti, Scarpellos histophorus as seekakowea, Oxuderces Species Diversity
wirzi as canipo (Polgar & Lim 2011). Mudskippers are Globally, 34 diverse species of mudskippers were
known as ‘vaetti uluvai’ in Tamil (Ragunathan 2010). recognized, and among them, nine were found in Indian
coastlines (Murdy et al. 1989). Nearly five diversified
Ecological Indicator mudskipper species have been effectively documented
Monitoring the intertidal and estuarine health from Gujarat coastlines (Devendra et al. 2016). In the
depending on their abundance mudskippers have direct southeastern coast of India, mudskippers were recorded

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Table 1. Taxonomic rank, genus, and species of mudskippers around the world with reference to various authors belonging to different periods.
Tribe (taxonomic rank) Genus Species References

Parapocryptes rictuosus,
1 Oxudercini Parapocryptes Valenciennes 1846
Parapocryptes serperaster
Apocryptodon madurensis,
2 Oxudercini Apocryptodon Tomiyama 1934
Apocryptodon punctatus
Oxuderces dentatus,
4 Oxudercini Oxuderces Koumans 1938
Oxuderces wirzi
5 Periophthalmini Apocryptes Apocryptes bato Hamilton 1822
Pseudapocryptes borneensis,
6 Periophthalmini Pseudapocryptes Bloch & Schneider 1801
Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus
7 Periophthalmini Zappa Zappa confluentus Roberts 1978
Scartelaos cantoris,
Scartelaos gigas,
8 Periophthalmini Scartelaos Chu & Wu 1963
Scartelaos histophorus,
Scartelaos tenuis
Boleophthalmus hirdsongi,
Boleophthalmus boddarti, Pallas 1772
9 Periophthalmini Boleophthalmus Boleophthalmus caeruleomaculatus,
Boleophthalmus dussumieri,
Boleophthalmus pectinirostris,
Periophthalmodon freycineti, Valenciennes 1846;
10 Periophthalmini Periophthalmodon Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Pallas 1772
Periophthalmodon septemradiatus, Hamilton 1822
Periophthalmus argentilineatus,
Periophthalmus harbarus,
Periophthalmus chrysospilos,
Periophthalmus gracilis,
Periophthalmus kalolo, Valenciennes 1846
Periophthalmus Periophthalmus malaccensis, Hamilton 1822
11 Periophthalmini
Periophthalmus minutus,
Periophthalmus modestus,
Periophthalmus novaeguineaensis,
Periophthalmus novemradiatus,
Periophthalmus waltoni,
Periophthalmus weberi
most during the post-monsoon season, and their Bakkhali River Estuary, Bangladesh (Rahman et al. 2015).
preferred habitats are estuarine lands and mangrove Complete phylogeographic studies of Periophthalmus
areas. A group of eight species from the Malay Peninsula distributed along Indo-Pacific region helped to
and 12 species from Sumatra is present along the Straits understand its evolutionary history (Polgar et al. 2014).
of Malacca (Takita & Ali 1999). Earlier, there were nine Periophthalmus spilotus, a new species of mudskipper,
species of mudskippers recorded in peninsular Malaysia was identified from Sumatra, Indonesia (Murdy &
(Polgar 2009). Recent studies have updated the total Takita 1999). Similarly, a new species Parapocryptes
count to 17 in peninsular Malaysia (Khaironizam & serperaster has been recorded in peninsular Malaysia
Rashid 2005). Nineteen species have been recorded (Khaironizam & Rashid 2000). Periophthalmus
recently in the Ramsar site, Johor, Malaysia (Hui et walailakae has been recorded in southeastern India
al. 2019). Some of the mudskipper species found (Mahadevan et al. 2019a). There were about 24 newly
in Merauke District, Indonesia are Boleophthalmus recorded species during the recent studies in Indonesian
boddarti, B. pectinirostris, P. takita, P. argentilineatus, waters (Pormansyah et al. 2019).
Scartelaos histophorus, and Oxuderces dentatus (Elviana
et al. 2019). Periophthalmus waltoni is maximally Living Habitat
distributed along the Persian Gulf though there are many Mudskippers inhabit riparian areas with soft and
threats to its population density (Sharifian et al. 2018). muddy plains. Also, they inhabit where the salinity
Though there is a diverse population of Periophthalmus level is found to be low and the place rich with benthic
barbarus around southeastern Nigeria, it is affected by invertebrates (Baeck et al. 2008). Numerous species
overexploitation (Abiaobo & Udo 2017). People do not were living on the rocky coastline as much, as they occupy
consume Periophthalmus novemradiatus as a result of mudflats, mangroves, and sand flats (Gordon et al.
which their growth rate is rapidly increasing along the 1968). Rehabilitating the coastal region with mangrove

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Image 1. Blue-spotted Mudskipper Boleophthalmus boddarti. © A. Kumaraguru
saplings gives a better habitat for various species, and completely fresh water region of the Mekong River (Mai
it was observed that large-sized mudskippers were et al. 2019). Boleophthalmus pectinirostris has shown
found in the breakwater (sheltered area for mangroves) behavioural preferences in choosing their microhabitat
(Hashim et al. 2010). Pseudapocryptes elongatus is at their early juvenile stage (Chen et al. 2008). To
able to tolerate the salinity, and hence it survives in determine the habitat selection, genomic studies were
the open sea, coastal mangroves and inland habitat performed, and also the comparative analysis among
during different stages of their growth (Bucholtz et al. different species were conducted (Cai 1996). Different
2009). Mudskippers alter the environmental conditions mudskippers inhabit different microhabitats and
improving the growth of young mangroves as they mix have different burrow construction methods (Clayton
the soil with detritus (Ravi et al. 2013). Studies related 1993). Habitat selection is dependent on its ecological
to the microhabitat selection of Chinese mudskippers interactions (Polgar & Crosa 2009). Some species such as
identified their preferences, such as salinity levels, land Periophthalmodon septemradiatus is found to survive in
or water; water and air temperatures; light or dark; habitats with low salinity and far from the sea, whereas
and various combinations among them were conveyed B. boddarti survives close to the sea with high salinity
(Gordon et al. 1985). The major threats to the mudflats (Khaironiazam & Rashid 2003). Mudskippers preferred
are soil erosion, macro algae, terrestrialization, and thick mudflat areas for carrying out their burrowing
lack of estuarine water, human interference, and activity effortlessly (Kanejiya et al. 2017c). Burrows
discharge of effluents (Ravi 2012). Periophthalmodon constructed by Bolephthalmus boddartti are classified
septemradiatus species is found to be the first species as follows: burrows with single apertures represent
inhabiting and breeding from a saline environment to a newly constructed one, and the other single and double

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openings ones currently exist. In contrast, the burrows comfortable with a terrestrial lifestyle rather than an
with multiple apertures represent collapsed ones due to aquatic lifestyle. One among them is Periophthalmodon
human interventions (Ravi et al. 2004). schlosseri, which has gill arrangements which are highly
adaptable for air-breathing, and they spend less time in
Behavioral pattern of mudskipper marine habitats (Takeda et al. 1999). Boleophthalmus
Population density is inversely proportional to boddarti builds mud walls for two significant reasons:
the growth rate as the availability of food decreases to avoid hostility between neighbours and as assistance
due to an increased population. Boleophthalmus for feeding. Diatoms are the most preferred food for
pectinirostris (Blue-spotted Mudskipper) is found to mudskippers. They prefer feeding on mud slopes as a
have the longest lifespan; seven and six years in males measure of preventing intervention by their neighbours
and females, respectively (Nanami & Takegaki 2005). (Clayton & Wright 1989). Periophthalmus sobrinus
A study on the terrestrial life of mudskippers with prefers to live unaccompanied and rarely lives within
Periophthalmus sobrinus showed their survival capacity closed groups. There were large spacings between nests
out of water is one and a half days. Surprisingly, there and dark places were preferred for foraging (Gordon et
was no affection in metabolic and heart rates as well al. 1968). The growth rates and life duration of both
as the lactic acid concentration in blood during their the sexes of Pseudapocryptes elongatus obtained from
living out of the water (Gordon et al. 1969). Whereas Sundarbans, India is four-plus years for both the sexes
Chinese Mudskipper Periophthalmus cantonensis as the maximum age. Their growth index (Φ) is 4.394
survives for two and a half days out of the water and (males) and 4.503 (females) possessing larger caudal fins
observed medium sensitiveness of metabolism towards (Mahadevan et al. 2019c).
temperature. Starvation for 9.5 days did not affect the The reason for aggressiveness in Periophthalmus
excretion of ammonia but affected excretion of urea modestus is the hypothalamic hormone, arginine-
(Gordon et al. 1978). vasotocin (VT) (Nao et al. 2013). The foraging behaviours
Boleophthalmus dussumieri has separate exit and in Periophthalmus waltoni are not influenced by
entry for males and females. Juveniles pierce deep environmental factors. They hunt in the same area as
into mud during high tides. Adults neglect to build their prey stays inside the burrow for a longer period
chimneys surrounding their holes as the consistency of time (Clayton & Snowden 2000). The growth of
of the soil is between sand and clay (Rathod et al. Bolepthalmus boddarti has been recorded high during
2019). Mudskippers growth rate is affected when being their juvenile period, decreasing in successive years
exposed to pollution at the embryonic stage (Kruitwagen because of maturation and spending their energy in
et al. 2006). There is a significant role played by spawning (Ravi & Rajagopal 2007).
aquaporins (integral membrane proteins) for adapting
themselves to the terrestrial lifestyle. The selective Respiration and kinematics
changes, like pore formation and substrate selection, Anatomical characteristics of mudskipper gills decide
have a substantial contribution to their adaptation to on adaptations of their habitat and B. boddarti is one
an amphibious lifestyle (Lorente-Martinez et al. 2018). that shows excellent adaptation to aquatic lifestyle.
The species Periophthalmodon schlosseri is found to be In comparison, terrestrial adaptations were favoured
an ideal species for aquaculture and more mudskipper more at odds with their amphibious lifestyle (Low et al.
studies (Quang 2016). Mudskippers like Boleophthalmus 1988). Since mudskippers appear to change the way
boddarti constructs mud-walls, for territorial exclusion their skin breathes, their epidermis and skin layers have
or spacing, territory, and reduces hostility. This is been studied in detail (Beon et al. 2012). They adapt
based on their abundance. These regional behavioural towards terrestrial lifestyle by secreting mucus, and
patterns give better knowledge about the elastic disc their head containing dense capillary network assists
concept of territories (Clayton 1987). Mudflats are vital cutaneous respiration (Jie et al. 2003). Studies related
for the survival of mudskippers but global warming is a to gaseous exchange and their demand for oxygen were
serious threat as the mudflats are greatly affected due to done in the intertidal regions (Karen 1993). Ammonia
high temperature. Spawning season in Scartelaos gigas excretion happens in mudskippers (Periophthalmodon
is from May to July. The growth rate is dependent on schlosseri) through their head. Ammonia gets collected
diet, water temperature, and mudflat exposure (Park et in their burrow through the acidification process,
al. 2002). preventing them from reverse fluctuation (Randall et al.
Some mudskipper species tend to be more 2004). Mudskippers maintain the air phases according

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to the tide. They can breathe both aquatically and as escapists (Swanson & Gibb 2004).
aerially when there is a high tide, while at low tides
they transfer air into their burrow for breathing (Lee Feeding ecology
et al. 2005). Comprehensive research was conducted The mudskipper Pseudapocryptes dentatus follows
in Periophthalmus magnuspinnatus on cutaneous herbivorous feeding patterns. Their main order is
respiration and its relationship with skin layers (Park Diatoms-Bacillariophyceae, green algae and blue-green
2002). Several mudskippers reported evaporative water algae. Levels in size and metabolism are inversely
loss along with their behavioural adaptations (Dabruzzi proportional (Sarker et al. 1980). Both plants and animals
et al. 2011). Significant characteristics of gills found in were documented while studying the Periophthalmus
Periophthalmodon schlosseri, contribute to their ability barbarous stomach. This included mainly crabs, fish
to live inland for a longer period of time (Wilson et al. scales, and insects. We can recognize from this that
1999). The modifications and transformations that occur mud-skippers are opportunistic feeders and are an
in the gill respiratory vasculatures and the mudskippers ideal aquaculture choice (Chukwu & Deekae 2013).
of the bucco-opercular cavities were examined using the As described, their key food items include -diatoms,
technique of corrosion casting. This has helped to define nematode, polychaetes, fish eggs, algae, detritus, along
their adaptation to an amphibious lifestyle (Gonzales with particles of mud and sand (Ravi 2013). It has
et al. 2011). Histological studies using the paraffin been shown, according to the study conducted with
method have studied the ambiguity in the structure Periophthalmodon schlosseri, that there are differential
of the gills and simultaneously compared their aquatic preferences in the selection of food products between
and terrestrial lifestyles (Supriyati et al. 2019). For their male and female. Females preferred small-scale fish,
survival, condition-specific biochemical adaptations namely Oryzias sp., and males over small-scale fiddler
occurred during hypoxia, where the glycolysis process is crabs because they were highly involved in land activities
modified to provide energy during muscle movements, (Zulkifli et al. 2012).
and lactate is accumulated (Chew & Ip 1992). The periophthalmus sobrinus feeds on small
Contradictory circumstances occur concerning their animals. Their food sources are polychaetes, polydora,
adaptations between Periophthalmodon schlosseri and terebellid, nematodes, crustaceans, copepods, tanaids,
Boleophthalmus boddarti. Around the same time, P. prawns, schizopod larvae, alpheid shrimp juveniles, Uca
schlosseri tends to be adaptable to a terrestrial lifestyle chlorophthalmus, and tiny sand crab (Stebbins & Kalk
and is an excellent candidate for aquaculture studies 1961). The discerned food items of Periophthalmus
related to air-breathing fish. B. boddarti, however, waltoni are crustaceans (high occurrence), snails
appear as opposed to the earlier one (Kok et al. 1998). (slightly lower occurrence), 3.4% insects (lower
Mudskipper is an anomaly that stores pre-entry air appearance), and fishes (least) (Mhaisen & Al-maliki
inside their burrow and has no metabolism affection. 2013). Boleophthalmus pectinirostris selects their meal
They regularly maintain their air stages and adapt them based on the abundance, availability, size of the diatoms
to their amphibious lifestyle (Ishimatsu et al. 1998). The and temperature. The size of the species reflects over its
essential feature of their adaptation to terrestrial life is feeding apparatus (Yang et al. 2003).
the presence of dermal bulges, thick middle cell layer Boleophthalmus boddarti likewise feeds on
and a vascularized epidermis (Zhang et al. 2000). In low Bacillariophyta (Quang 2015). The anatomical
tide conditions, the intertidal fishes, like mudskippers, characteristics in Periuphthalmus kuelreuteri are
tend to have many options to choose from. Mudskippers examined by light and X-ray cinematography. It pushes
either agree to be an aquatic or temporary terrestrial forward with its pelvic fins when the prey gets near, and
living being (Karen 1995). Mudskipper’s locomotion brings the jaws near to the target. Opercular bones, aid
has been experimentally tested using water on gelatin swallowing into the pharynx to position the prey. They
and glass along with the assistance of a system for found it easy to capture the prey in the land by biting and
digital image processing. Wang et al. (2013) discovered open mouth. It reaches the stomach via an esophagus
through their study that mudskipper uses both body and after passing the pharyngeal jaws (Sponder & Launder
pectoral fins for movement in the water and on gelatin, 1981).
whereas they use only pectoral fins for land action.
Escapism is a critical behaviour that is required for their Reproduction
survival. A few studies have shown that, during aquatic Studies were conducted in Nigeria’s lagoon swamps,
and terrestrial lifestyles, mudskippers alter their position which concentrated primarily on sex ratios, egg

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diameters, gonodosomatic index and levels of maturation consumed.

(Lawson 2010). Reports on the growth of eggs with The research by Looi et al. (2016) concluded that
artificial fertilization and larval reports in the species the bioaccumulation of mercury in Periophthalmodon
Periophthalmus cantonensis were carried out (Tsuhako et schlosseri did not cause any serious effects when
al. 2003). The mudskipper’s eggs were laid deep within consumed. From the evaluation of the nutrient content
the burrows where there is a hypoxic environment, and of Pseudapocryptes elongatus, it has been shown to
male mudskippers supply the oxygen by depositing contain sufficient protein, carbohydrate, lipid, important
oxygen through water. Once the development of the and non-essential amino acids, polyunsaturated fatty
eggs is complete, they are released from the burrows acid (PFA) with a greater amount than saturated fatty
and hatched by tides, making them prepare themselves acid (SFA). For consumption it is highly recommended
during severity (Ishimatsu et al. 2007). A research on because of its nutritive value (Mahadevan et al. 2019b).
Apocryptes bato’s (Gobiidae) reproductive biology Mudskippers are widely available in Nigeria and their
in the Payra River, southern Bangladesh, helped to prices are comparatively low, and they are consumed by
understand the basics of reproduction in mudskippers the elderly (Edun et al. 2010). Exposure of mudskipper
(Ferdous et al. 2018). Studies related to reproductive Boleophthalmus boddarti to natural radionuclides (238U,
biology, fertilization, maximum sizes achieved along with 226
Ra and 210Pb and 210Po), the radionuclide concentration
spawning will allow local fishermen to know the exact was found to be below the limit and therefore, did not
time of catching them, rather than disturb them during have a profound impact in Bombay Harbour and coastal
spawning seasons. The concept was prominent from the zone (Bangera & Patel 1984).
studies of sex maturation of Boleophthalmus boddarti
(Quang et al. 2015). The species Periophthalmodon Threats to mudskippers
septemradiatus lays eggs year-round. Observing their The effect on mudskipper density was recorded
complete duration during the maturation stages helped in the mudflats of Hathab coast, Gujarat, considering
to understand reproductive biology and to learn about salinity and temperature as independent variables.
the methods of conservation (Dinh et al. 2018). Studies Accordingly, mudskipper abundance and distribution
at intertidal swamps of the Imo River estuary dealt about have become a vital indicator for determining intertidal
the reproductive biology of Periophthalmus barbarous region health (Kanejiya et al. 2017c). Post-tsunami
along with growth, mortality, recruitment pattern, studies at Mudasolodai, Tamil Nadu, revealed that rapid
gonadosomatic index, and spawning season (Etim et al. changes in soil morphology led to changes that directly
2002). affected the mudskippers’ livelihood. For construction,
they usually prefer clay-rich soil, rather than sandy soil
Studies on nutrition content and medicinal value (Ravi 2005). Although metal uptakes were increasingly
Nutrient content of three species Periophthalmus high during lower salinity, the levels of salinity in the
waltoni, Boleophthalmus dussumieri, and Scartelaos intertidal mudskipper Periophthalmus cantonensis did
histophorus were measured, such as starch, protein, not affect the metal (Cd, Se, & Zn) concentration factors
and lipid. Boleophthalmus dussumieri is rich in nutrients (CF) (Ni et al. 2006). Mudskippers face other menaces
and it comes from the liver. Because of this adventitious due to metal toxicity. To illustrate, when exposed to
effect, people consume them in the Bhavnagar coast, Cr (Vl), Boleophthalmus dentatus causes affection in
Gujarat (Kanejiya et al. 2017a). Mudskippers are known the activity of Na+ , K+ and ATPase, and further affects
to be very rich in proteins and other nutrients. They membrane activity, also causing metabolic stress (Kundu
are either used in traditional medicines in countries like et al. 1995). Similarly, the same has also been deduced
Malaysia or as bait and also utilized for consumption. in other studies pertaining to Boleophthalmus dentatus
During winter, mudskippers are caught and sold at the obtained from the Gulf of Katch (Lakshmi et al. 1991).
market by fishermen using net trap methods (Kanejiya The shrimp effluents collected at the mudskipper
et al. 2017b). Likewise, there are growing demands habitat in the northern Persian Gulf have proved to
for mudskippers at Narmada estuary, Gujarat, and support mudskipper enrichment, which helps them
they are favoured by local people. As a result of this, increase their species density and length. Despite
the ecosystem can get highly exploited and can impact severe changes and reduced dissolved oxygen, shrimp
biodiversity (Bhakta et al. 2018). Though mudskipper effluents create favourable physical conditions for their
meat possess nutritional benefits there are researchers growth; it survived amid these adversities (Kohan et
stating about metal toxicity and bioaccumulation when al. 2018). Mudskippers are known for their versatile

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behaviour and amphibious character. They have less Applied Ichthyology 29(2): 410–415.
Bhakta, D., W.A. Meetei, G. Vaisakh, S. Kamble, T.N. Chanu &
understanding of the public and have lost interest. The S.K. Das (2018). Mudskipper Fishery and Indigenous Fishing
most striking characteristic of them is their survival Devices in Narmada Estuary, Gujarat. Journal of the Indian
ability and adaptation to different environmental Society of Coastal Agricultural Research 36(2): 74–78.
Bloch, M.E. & J.G. Schneider (1801). Systema Ichthyologiae Iconibus
changes. Surprisingly, mudskippers feed on the available CX Illustratum. Post Obitum Auctoris Opus Inchoatum Absolvit,
foodstuffs, rather than relying on specific foods. Correxit, Interpolavit Jo. Gottlob Schneider. Jo. Gottlob Schneider,
Further research can be done with them as they define Berlin, 584pp.
Bucholtz, R.H., A.S. Meilvang, T. Cedhagen, J.T. Christensen & D.J.
themselves as an ideal candidate for aquaculture. Gills’ Macintosh (2009). Biological Observations on the Mudskipper
anatomical features are specifically built to suit both the Pseudapocryptes elongatus in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Journal
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the initial stages of egg production to adjust to severities bioaccumulation in Mudskipper Periophthalmus waltoni Koumans,
such as high tide, and airflow maintenance. 1941 (Gobiidae: Perciformes). Turkish Journal of Fisheries and
Aquatic Sciences 8: 215–218.
Cai, Z. (1996). Population structure and reproductive characteristics of
mudskipper Boleophthalmus pectinirostris, in Shenzhen Bay, China.
CONCLUSION Acta Ecologica Sinica 16 (1): 77–82.
Chen, S.X., W.S. Hong, Y.Q. Su & Q.Y. Zhang (2008). Microhabitat
selection in the early juvenile mudskipper Boleophthalmus
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Chew, S.F. & Y.K. Ip (1992). Biochemical adaptations of the mudskipper
environment and amphibious nature. Mudskippers Boleophthalmus boddaerti to a lack of oxygen. Marine Biology 112:
are less popular among people and aren’t noticed 567–571.
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Threatened Taxa

OPEN ACCESS
#5026 | Received 24 April 2019 | Final received 21 July 2020 | Finally accepted 05 November 2020
C
o
m
Diversity, distribution and conservation status of m
u
the Adder’s-tongue ferns in Goa, India n
i
c
Sachin M. Patil 1 & Kishore Rajput 2 a
t
i
1,2
Laboratory of Plant Anatomy & Pteridology, Department of Botany, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, o
Vadodara, Gujarat 390002, India. n
1
[email protected] (corresponding author), 2 [email protected]
Abstract: The cosmopolitan fern genus Ophioglossum (Ophioglossaceae) is distributed from low to high altitude plateaux, coastal plains
and forest floors of India. This genus has received special attention from pteridologists worldwide since the discovery that Ophioglossum
reticulatum possesses the largest number of chromosomes. There are, however, no reported studies of Ophioglossum in Goa, hence the
present investigation was undertaken to study the diversity, distribution and conservation status of Ophioglossum in that state. A total
of six species were collected from different localities, of which four (O. nudicaule, O. lusitanicum, O. parvifolium, and O. reticulatum) are
reported as new distributional records for Goa State. A detailed morpho-taxonomy, illustration and photographs of all collected species
are given, along with a key to the species.
Keywords: Illustration, morpho-taxonomy, new record, Western Ghats.
Editor: Sanjaykumar R. Rahangdale, PDEA’s A. W. Arts, Science & Commerce College, Pune, India. Date of publication: 26 December 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Patil. S.M. & K. Rajput (2020). Diversity, distribution and conservation status of the Adder’s-tongue ferns in Goa, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(17):
17287–17298. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5026.12.17.17287-17298
Copyright: © Patil & Rajput 2020. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this
Funding: Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), Government of India [File No. PDF/2016/003706]
Author details: Dr. Sachin M. Patil, Laboratory of Plant Anatomy & Pteridology, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, area of interest: taxonomy,
molecular systematics and anatomy of pteridophytes; limnology and phytoplankton diversity. Dr. Kishore S. Rajput, Laboratory of Plant Anatomy & Pteridology,
The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, area of Interest: anatomy of angiosperms and pteridophytes; taxonomy and molecular systematics of pteridophytes
and fungi.
Author contribution: SMP—collection & identification of Ophioglossum species and preliminary writing of present manuscript. KSR—confirmation of identity,
proof reading, finalizing the current manuscript and administrative responsibilities.
Acknowledgements: Authors are thankful to anonymous reviewers and the handling editor for their valuable suggestions on the earlier version of the manuscript.
Also, thankful to Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) for financial support under NPDF programme to SMP.
17287
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Status of Adder’s-tongue ferns in Goa Patil & Rajput
INTRODUCTION species in Goa belonging to six genera from five families.

In 2010, Datar & Lakshminarasimhan (2010) studied
The state of Goa is located on the western coast of the pteridophyte flora of the Western Ghats of Goa
India between Maharashtra and Karnataka states, with and documented 47 species. These studies reported
a geographical area of 3,702km2. It lies on the coastal two species of Ophioglossum: O. costatum R.Br., and
plains of the Western Ghats between 14.899–15.799 0N O. gramineum Willd., from the Western Ghats of Goa.
and 3.681–74.336 0E. The major rivers are Mandovi and While studying the pteridophytes of the Western Ghats,
Zuari (Meteorological Centre, Goa 2020), and the climatic however, the authors visited different places in Goa
features fall under the tropical monsoon climate, making and observed that the plateaux and coastal plains are
the region generally warm and humid throughout the favourable for Ophioglossum and earlier workers may
year. The average rainfall ranges between 2,500–4,500 have missed some species. Thus the present investigation
mm/annum, and highest rainfall is observed during was undertaken to study the morpho-taxonomy, species
June–August. The average temperature ranges between composition, distribution and conservation status of
16.2°C–36.7°C, with maximum temperature during Ophioglossum from Goa.
the month of April–May. The state has a national park
(Molem) and six wildlife sanctuaries which covers an area
of 755km2 (Hiremath 2003; Jadhav & Patil 2012). MATERIALS AND METHODS
The genus Ophioglossum L. belongs to the primitive
family Ophioglossaceae. About 50 species are accepted Field visits were carried out during 2014–2018 in
internationally (Hassler & Schmitt 2020), and 19 species different areas of Goa State. The collected specimens of
are documented from India (Patil & Dongare 2014; Patil et Ophioglossum were processed in the laboratory. Pressed
al. 2018 & Kachhiyapatel et al. 2018), of which the status specimens were fixed with 4% formalin and affixed
of a few were unresolved (Hassler & Schmitt 2020). All are to herbarium sheets using synthetic gum (Fevicol).
terrestrial forms except the epiphytic O. pendulum L. The Specimens were identified using literature, including
genus was studied in India for the first time by Beddome Blatter & d’Almedia (1922); Panigrahi & Dixit (1969);
(1883). After his monumental contribution on the Indian Fraser-Jenkins et al. (2017), and Patil & Dongare (2014).
ferns, the genus Ophioglossum L., received further The voucher specimens are deposited in the herbarium of
attention from Blatter & d’Almedia (1922), Chakravarty the Department of Botany, Maharaja Sayajirao University
(1951), Mahabale (1962), Panigrahi & Dixit (1969), of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat (BARO).
Khandelwal (1987), Khullar (1994), and Goswami (2007),
in their respective works. It is characterized by simple
trophophyll with a spike (rarely bi or trifurcate) bearing RESULTS
two rows of sporangia. In all species the trophophyll is
pale green, green, dark or light green at maturity, and During the present investigation authors collected
produces a paler spike (Khullar 1994; Goswami 2007; six species of Ophioglossum: O. costatum R.Br., O.
Goswami et al. 2008). Ophioglossum gomezianum gramineum Willd., O. lusitanicum L., O. nudicaule L.f.,
Welw. ex A.Braun, O. indicum B.L.Yadav & Goswami, O. parvifolium Grev. & Hook., and O. reticulatum L. The
O. lusitanicum L., and O. rubellum Welw. ex A.Braun, detailed morphology, diversity, distribution, illustrations,
however, produce yellow, pink, reddish to brown tinge photographs, phenology, ecology, and conservation
of trophophyll, respectively (Goswami 2007). Patil & status of each species is given. An identification key for
Dongare (2014) studied the diversity and distribution of the taxa recorded from Goa State is given below.
Ophioglossum from the Western Ghats and reported 06
species. Recently, Fraser-Jenkins et al. (2018) accepted Key to the species for Goa state
only 12 species for India. 1a. Trophophylls having costa or yellow band at
The diversity of pteridophytes in Goa is less centre …………………...…………...……….. O. costatum
understood, with few reports. Dalgado 1898; Blatter & 1b. Trophophylls without costa or yellow band at
d’Almedia 1922; Vartak 1966; Rao 1985–1986; Naithani centre ………………………………...…...……………………. 2
et al. 1997, and Irudayaraj & Bir 1997. Manickam et al.
(2004) studied the pteridophytes of the Western Ghats of 2a. Trophophylls base cordate, strobili having >
Goa and recorded 51 species. Further, Kerkar & Shetkar 20 pairs of sporangia ….……......…… O. reticulatum
(2009) studied the order Pteridales and recorded 16 2b. Trophophylls base not cordate, strobili having

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< 20 pairs of sporangia ............……..................... 3 Ecology: Very common, collected from grassy plateau.
The population size varies according to the water content
3a. Trophophylls attached to substratum of the soils. The population size is larger when water
…………………....…………….........……... O. parvifolium availability is more and vice-versa.
3b. Trophophylls above the ground ……………… 4 Conservation status: It is collected from throughout
4a. Trophophylls ovate-lanceolate, 1–2 cm above the Goa except seashore areas. Population comprises
the ground …………...……………......…... O. nudicaule about 300–400 individuals per km2 and the area of
4b. Trophophylls liner-lanceolate or spathulate occupancy (AOO) is 50–60 km2. Therefore, as per IUCN
not flat on ground …………………....…...…………….. 5 categories and criteria (IUCN red list of Threatened
Species ver. 2017-1), it is assessed as Least Concerned
5a. Trophophylls linear-lanceolate or grass like (LR) species for Goa State.
…………………….………………...…...……. O. gramineum
5b. Trophophylls spathulate-lanceolate not grass Ophioglossum gramineum Willd. Nov. Act. Acad.
like ………………………………......….…… O. lusitanicum Erfurt. 2: 18. t.f.1. 1802; Beddome, Handb. Suppl. Ferns
Brit. India 108. 1892; Balakrishnan et al., Bull. Bot. Surv.
Ophioglossum costatum R. Br., Prod. Fl. Nov. Holl. India 2: 337. 1960; Panigrahi & Dixit, Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci.
163. 1810. Panigrahi & Dixit, Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India India 35: 250. 1969; Patil & Dongare, Indian Fern J. 31:
35: 249. 1969; Patil & Dongare, Indian Fern J., 31: 17–24. 17–24. 2014.
2014. Type: from West Africa, St. Thomae, De Friedland B.
Lectotype: from Australia, Queensland, Arnhem Ophioglossum dietrichiae Prantl, Ber. Deut. Bot. Ges.
North Bay, R. Brown 118. 14.2.1803. 1: 352. 1883.
Ophioglossum pedunculosum Desv., Mag. Nat. Fr. O. gregarium Christ, Nova Guinea Bot. 8: 164. 1909;
Berlin 5: 306. 1811. O. inconspicuum (Racib.) Alderw., Bull. Dépt. Agric.
O. brevipes Bedd., Ferns. Southern India 23. t. 72. Ind. Néerl. 21: 9. 1908.
1863. O. prantlii C.Chr., Ind. Fil. 2: 471. 1906.
O. bulbosum Bedd., Ferns. Brit. India Supl. t. 28. 1876. O. inconspicuum forma majus Alderw., Bull. Dépt.
O. fibrosum Schum., Bedd., Handb. 465. t. 289. 1883. Agric. Ind. Néerl. 21: 9. 1908.
Plant terrestrial, 12–25 cm in height, pale-green; Ophioglossum gramineum var. majus (Alderw.) Wieff.,
rhizomorph 0.5–1 cm, subterranean, disc like or globose, Blumea 12(2): 324. 1964. Ophioglossum gregarium
bearing numerous yellow-brown, fleshy, unbranched, Christ, Nova Guinea, Bot., 8: 164. 1909.
roots; common stalk 2–3 cm, subterranean-terranean; Ophioglossum gracile Pocock ex J.E.Burrows, Bothalia
trophophylls 2–6 x 0.5–1 cm, 1–3 simple, elliptic- 25(1): 61. 1995.
lanceolate, apex acute-apiculate or obtuse-round, base O. vulgatum var. gramineum (Willd.) Hook. f., Fl. Nov.
cuneate, margin entire, green-pale green, glabrous Zel. 2: 50. 1854.
on both sides, coriaceous, costa present, prominent, Plant terrestrial, 4–8 cm in height, green-pale green;
yellow; texture coriaceous, thick; veins indistinct, simple rhizomorph sub-globose-tuberous, subterranean,
reticulate, anastomosing; fertile segment 9–19 cm, bearing numerous, fleshy, fibrous roots; common stalk
unbranched, inserted on adaxial position of leaf; strobili 0.5–2 cm, subterranean-terranean, flat; trophophylls 1–2
2–5 cm, liner-lanceolate, apex blunt-lanceolate, 20–55 cm, 1–2, linear grass-like, apex acuminate, margin entire,
pairs of sporangia, pale yellow, unbranched; spores 20– soft, green-pale green; texture coriaceous, thin; veins
40 µm in diameter, trilete, foveolate. parallel, anastomosing, forming parallel areoles; fertile
Phenology: sterile phase – June–July; fertile phase: segment 3.5–6 cm, unbranched, pale green, flat-round;
July–September (rarely in October) strobili 0.5–1.5 cm, linear-lanceolate, apex pointed, 6–10
Distribution: India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, (rarely >10) pairs of sporangia, arranged in two alternate
Chhattisgarh, Goa (Canacona, Dharbandora, Mapusa, rows, pale green-yellow; spores 25–40 µm dia., trilete,
Pernem, Phonda, Quepem, & Sattari), Gujarat, Himachal exine reticulate.
Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Phenology: Sterile phase: Jun–July; fertile phase:
Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar July–August (rarely September–October)
Pradesh, and West Bengal), Bangladesh, Indonesia, Distribution: India (Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Africa, and Goa (Cancona, Dharbandora, Mapusa, Pernem, Phonda,
Australia. Quepem, & Sattari), Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya

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Image 1. Ophioglossum costatum: a, e–f—habit | b—enlarged trophophyll showing venation | c–d, g—enlarged strobilus | h—globous
rhizomorph | i—trophophyll showing costa. © Sachin M. Patil

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Image 2. Ophioglossum gramineum: a, e–f—Habit | b, g—enlarged rhizomorph | c—enlarged view of venation pattern | d, i—enlarged
strobilus | h—enlarged trophophyll. © Sachin M. Patil

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Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Rajasthan, Tamil occupancy (AOO) is 10–20 km2 per locality and considered
Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, & West as Data Deficient (DD) because the explorations in the
Bengal), Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, East state are not completed and there is a possibility of more
Borneo, East Java, New Guinea, Vietnam, Africa, and Sri locations of occurrence.
Lanka.
Ecology: Common fern collected from grassy plateaux Ophioglossum nudicaule L.f., Suppl. Pl. Syst. 443.
associated with O. nudicaule, O. parvifolium and O. 1781; Beddome, Handb. Ferns Br. India, 464, t. 228. 1883;
costatum. Panigrahi & Dixit, Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 35. 252. 1969;
Conservation status: It is collected from plateaux Manickam & Irudayaraj, Pterid. Fl. West Ghats 48-49. t.
situated in Goa State. Population comprises about 300– 27. 1992; Patil & Dongare, Indian Fern J. 31: 17-24. 2014.
400 individuals per km2 and the area of occupancy (AOO) Type: South Africa: Cape of Good Hope.
is 50–60 km2. Therefore, as per IUCN categories and Ophioglossum capense Sw., Schard. Journ. 1801(2):
criteria (IUCN red list of Threatened Species ver. 2017- 308. 1803.
1), it is assessed as Least Concerned (LR) species for Goa Ophioglossum capense Schlech. var. nudicaule (L.)
State. Schlech., Fil. Prom. Bonae Sp.: 9. 1825.
Ophioglossum ellipticum Hook. & Grev., Icon. Filic. t.
Ophioglossum lusitanicum L., Sp. Pl., 2: 1063. 40 A. 1828.
1753; Clausen, Mem. Torry Bot. Club, 19 (2): 159. 1938; Ophioglossum lineare Schlechter & Brause, Bot. Jerb.,
Mahable, Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 4: 71. 1962; Panigrahi 49: 59, fig. 3F. 1912.
& Dixit, Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 35: 251. 1969; Patil & Ophioglossum luersseni Prantl, Ber. Deut. Bot. Ger. 1:
Dongare, Indian Fern J., 31: 17-24. 2014. 352. 1883.
Type: from Portugal, “Habitat in Lusitania”, not Plant 4–12 cm height, green, terrestrial herb;
designated. rhizomorphs subterranean, sub-globose (at young)-
Ophioglossum loureirianum C.Presl, Suppl. Tent. tuberous (at maturity), bearing many soft, pale brown,
Pterid. 55. 1845. unbranched, fleshy, fibrous, stoloniferous roots;
O. braunii Prantl, Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 1: 351. 1883. common stalk 1–3 cm, subterranean-terranean, white
Plant terrestrial, 3–10 cm in height, small; rhizomorph (subterranean), green (terranean); trophophylls 0.5–2
0.5–1 cm, subterranean, sub-globose-tuberous with x 1–2 cm, 1–2 (rarely 3), green, tuft ovate-elliptic, apex
or without stoloniferous fleshy roots; common stalk acute-obtuse, base cuneate, margin entire, glabrous;
subterranean, white; trophophylls 1–2, erect, red-brown- veins indistinct, simple reticulate, anastomosing, with
green, spathulate, linear-lanceolate or elliptic-lanceolate, or without included veinlets; fertile segment 2–8 cm,
acute-acuminate apex, cuneate- attenuate base, entire unbranched (rarely branched), green at young, yellow at
margin; texture coriaceous, thin; veins indistinct, maturity; strobili 1.5–2.5 cm long, with 10–20 sporangia
anastomosing, forming parallel areoles; fertile segment per strobilus, arranged in two alternate rows, linear-
round, unbranched, green-yellow brown; strobili 1–2 lanceolate, apex pointed; spores 30–40 µm dia., trilate,
cm, linear-lanceolate, 8–10 (rarely >10) sporangia in two with reticulate ornamentation.
rows, green-yellow; spores 20–25 µm dia., trilete, exine Distribution: India (Andhra Pradesh, Himachal
reticulate. Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Goa (Phonda & Canacona),
Phenology: sterile phase: June–July; fertile phase: Gujarat, Jharkand, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra,
August–September Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, & West Bengal), China, Indonesia,
Distribution: India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Malaysia, and Thailand.
Goa (Mapusa, Pernem, & Phonda), Jammu & Kashmir, Phenology: sterile phase: July–August; fertile phase:
Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, August–September.
Odisha, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, & Uttar Pradesh), Algeria, Ecology: The species is growing in patches on fully
Morocco, Portugal, Spain, Tanzania, Tunisia, and Uganda. exposed plateaux or open grassland, associated with O.
Ecology: Common species, collected from grassy costatum, O. gramineum and O. parvifolium.
plateaux of Goa, associated with O. costatum, O. Conservation status: It is collected from open
nudicaule, O. parvifolium and O. reticulatum. grasslands on plateaux situated in Phonda and Canacora.
Conservation status: It is collected from plateaux The area of occupancy (AOO) is 10–20 km2 per locality
situated at Mapusa, Pernem, and Phonda. A population and considered as Data Deficient (DD) because the
of about 100–200 individuals was found. The area of explorations in the state are not completed and there is

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Image 3. Ophioglossum lusitanicum: a, e–g—Habit | b, i—enlarged rhizomorph | c—enlarged trophophyll showing venation | d, j—enlarged
strobilus | h—enlarged trophophyll. © Sachin M. Patil

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Image 4. Ophioglossum nudicaule: a, d–f—Habit | b, h—enlarged trophophylls | c—enlarged strobilus | g—stoloniferous roots. © Sachin M.
Patil

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possibility of more locations of occurrence. 1705.

Ophioglossum peruvianum Presl, Suppl. Tent. Pterid
Ophioglossum parvifolium Grev. & Hook., Bot. Misc. 52. 1845.
3: 218. 1833; Patil & Dongare, Indian Fern J. 31: 17–24. Ophioglossum petiolatum sensu Wieffering, Blumea,
2014. 12: 327. 1964.
O. macrorrhizum Kunze Analecta Pteridogr.: 2. 1837. Ophiglossum cordifolium Roxb., Hort. Bengal. 75.
O. schmidii Kunze in Linnaea 24: 246. 1851. 1814;
O. luerssenii Prantl Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 1: 352. Plant 15–25 cm, terrestrial herb; rhizomorph 3–7
1883. mm long, subterranean, tuberous, bearing few long,
O. pumilum (Racib.) Alderw. Malayan Ferns: 774. thick fleshy unbranched, pale brown roots, with 1–2
1909. trophophylls; common stalk 2–5 cm, terranean, white at
Type: India, Gujarat, Valsad District, Wilson Hills, base, green above; trophophylls 1, 2–5 x 1–3 cm, cordate-
24 Aug 2014, Patil & Kachhiyapatel 38 (BARO No. broadly ovate, rarely elliptic-oblong, apex rounded or
1234500700). typ. cons. prop. (Mazumdar et al. 2018) acute, base cordate; veins reticulate, areoles with or
Plant 4–8 cm, terrestrial herbs; rhizomorph without included free veinlets; fertile segment 12–18 cm
subterranean, sub-globose-tuberous, pale brown, long, round; strobili 1–5 cm, 20–45 pairs of sporangia,
bearing many soft, fleshy, unbranched, fibrous, apex pointed, sporangia arranged in two alternate
stoloniferous roots; common stalk subterranean, compact rows; spores 30–45 µm dia., spherical, trilete,
white, round, glabrous; trophophylls 0.4–1 cm, 1–2 exine hemispherical.
(rarely 3–4), pale green-green, ovate-lanceolate, apex Distribution: India (Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal
acute-apiculate, margin entire, base cordate; texture Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Goa (Sattari &
coriaceous, thin; veins indistinct, simple reticulate, four Canacona), Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu &
or five veins passing up through the stalk of the blade; Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
fertile segment 2–6 cm long, unbranched, green-pale Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Odisha, Rajasthan,
green; strobili 0.5–1 cm long, 5–7 (rarely >10) pairs of Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh,
sporangia, arranged in two alternate rows; spores 25–45 & West Bengal), Malay Peninsula, tropical America,
µm dia., trilete, exine reticulate. Africa, Philippines, and Sri Lanka.
Distribution: India (Madhya Pradesh, Goa (Canacona, Phenology: sterile phase: July–August; fertile phase:
Dharbandora, Mapusa, Pernem, Phonda, Quepem, & August–October
Sattari), Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Ecology: Very common, found beneath trees in the
Kerala, & Tamil Nadu), China, South America, Sumatra, forest along with Ophioglossum costatum, O. gramineum
Malaysia, and Thailand. and O. parvifolium.
Ecology: Common species grows in patches on fully Conservation Status: It is collected from forest
exposed areas from low land to high land areas. regions at Sattari and Canacona. The area of occupancy
Conservation status: It is collected from different (AOO) is 10–20 km2 per locality and considered as Data
plateaux of Goa state. Population comprises about 300– Deficient (DD) because the explorations in the state are
400 individuals per km2. The area of occupancy (AOO) is not completed and there is possibility of more locations
50–60 km2. Therefore, as per IUCN categories and criteria of occurrence.
(IUCN ver. 2017-1), it is assessed as Least Concerned (LC)
species for Goa state.
DISCUSSION
Ophioglossum reticulatum L. Sp. Pl. 2: 1063.
1753; Beddome, Ferns. Southern India 23. t. 70. 1863; Earlier only two species, Ophioglossum costatum
Beddome, Handb. Ferns. Bri. India, 465. t. 290. 1883; and O. gramineum were reported from Goa (Manikam
Panigrahi & Dixit, Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 35. 257. et al. 2004; Datar & Lakshminarsimhan 2010). During
1969; R.D. Dixit, Cens. Ind. Pterid. 24. 1984; Manickam & the present investigation six species were collected,
Irudayaraj, Pterid. Fl. West Ghats: 51. t. 29. 1992; Patil & of which O. lusitanicum, O. nudicaule, O. parvifolium,
Dongare, Indian Fern J. 31: 17-24. 2014. and O. reticulatum have been added to the flora of
Lectotype: (Tardieu Blot, in Aubreville, Flor. Gabon 8: Goa. O. costatum, O. gramineum, and O. parvifolium
30. 1964): from C. America, “Ophioglossum cordatum et are considered least concerned (LC) species, while
reticulatum” in Plumier, Traité Foug. Amér., 141, t. 164, O. lusitanicum, O. nudicaule, and O. reticulatum are

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Image 5. Ophioglossum parvifolium: a, d–e—Habit | b, g—enlarged rhizomorph | c—enlarged trophophylls showing venation | f—stoloniferous
roots | h—enlarged strobilus. © Sachin M. Patil

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Image 6. Ophioglossum reticulatum: a, e–g—Habit | b—enlarged trophophyll showing venation | c–d, j—enlarged strobilus | h—enlarged
trophophyll | i—rhizomorph. © Sachin M. Patil

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considered data deficient (DD) species. The maximum Fraser-Jenkins, C.R., K.N. Gandhi, B.S. Kholia & A. Benniamin (2017).
An Annotated Checklist of Indian Pteridophytes Part-1 (Lycopodiaceae
diversity was observed in open grassy habitat and to Thelypteridaceae). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun,
plateaux, where we collected O. costatum, O. gramineum, 562pp.
O. lusitanicum, O. nudicaule, and O. parvifolium. Coastal Fraser-Jenkins, C.R., K.N. Gandhi & B.S. Kholia (2018). An annotated
checklist of Indian Pteridophytes Part–2 (Woodsiaceae to
plains contained O. costatum and O. gramineum, and on Dryopteridaceae). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun,
forest floors we collected O. nudicaule and O. reticulatum. 573pp.
In Ophioglossum costatum the trophophylls (leaf- Goswami, H.K. (2007). Biology of Ophioglossum L. Bionature 27: 1–73.
Goswami, H.K., S.C. Verna & B.D. Sharma (2008). Biology of
like segment) have a central yellow band (i.e. costa), Pteridophytes –I. Ophioglossum, Linnaeus. Bionature Monograph,
hence the specific epithet is O. costatum. Amongst the Catholic Press, Ranchi. 135pp.
taxa reported from India, O. costatum is only one with Hassler M. & B. Schmitt (2020). Checklist of ferns and lycophytes of
the world Version 8.30. With special support by Ralf Knapp (https://
a costa (Image 1), thus it can be easily differentiated worldplants.webarchiv.kit.edu/ferns/).
from other Indian residents. In the field it is difficult to Hiremath, K.G. (2003). Recent advances in environmental science.
locate O. gramineum because this species is found on Discovery Publishing House. 470pp.
Irudayaraj, V. & S.S. Bir (1997) Notes on some Pteridophytes from
grassy plateaux and its appearance is similar to a grass the Western Ghats of Goa state South India. Indian Fern Journal 14:
(hence specific epithet O. gramineum). Generally the 113–117.
Jadhav, S. & S.K. Patil (2012). Fauna of Protected areas of Goa.
trophophylls are linear-lanceolate like grass, and are part
Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, 10pp.
underground and part above ground with a common Kachhiyapatel, R.N., S.M. Patil, S.K. Patel & K.S. Rajput (2018). Genus
stalk (Image 2). A species similar to O. gramineum is Ophioglossum L., from Western Part of India with special reference
to Gujarat State. Notulae Scientia Biologicae 10(03): 373–378.
O. lusitanicum, however, the latter has green-brown, https://doi.org/10.15835/nsb10310243
spathulate-lanceolate trophophylls and a subterranean Kerkar, V. & P. Shetkar (2009). Diversity and distribution of Pteridales
common stalk (Image 3). Ophioglossum nudicaule (Pteridophyta) from Goa. pp. 82-86 In: Krishnan, S. and Bhat, D.J.
(eds.) Plant and Fungal Biodiversity and Bioprospecting. Broadway
and O. parvifolium are closely allied and commonly Book Centre, Panaji, Goa. 187pp.
confused species. O. nudicaule is smaller in size, hence Khandelwal, S. (1987). New species of Ophioglossum L. from India.
the specific epithet is parvifolium (parvum = small and Indian Fern Journal 3: 89-94.
Khullar, S.P. (1994). An illustrated fern flora of the West Himalaya Vol I.
folium = trophophylls). Ophioglossum nudicaule has International Book Distributors Dehradhun. 459pp.
trophophylls that are ovate-obovate, 1–2 cm above the Mahabale, T.S. (1962). Species of Ophioglossum in India. Their
ground, common stalk subterranean-terranean, whereas taxonomy and phylogeny. Bulletin Botanical Survey India 4: 71–84.
Manickam, V.S. & V. Irudayaraj (1992). Pteridophyte flora of Western
in O. parvifolium the trophophylls are ovate-broadly Ghats, South India. B. I. Publication, New Delhi. 635pp.
lanceolate, attached or flat on the ground, common Manickam, V.S., A. Benniamin & S. Harikrishnan, (2004). Diversity of
the ferns and fern allies Goa in Western Ghats of India. Malaysian
stalk subterranean only (Image 4–5). Ophioglossum
Journal of Science 23: 85–93.
reticulatum is well-known and popular in biological world Meteorological Centre, Goa (2020). Topography of Goa state. http://
because it has the highest number of chromosomes www.imdgoa.gov.in. Electronic version accessed in 2020.
Mazumdar, J., S.M. Patil, R.N. Kachhiyapatel, R.V. Patel & K.S. Rajput
(n=740). It is allied and confused with O. petiolatum, (2018). (2629) Proposal to conserve the name Ophioglossum
however, O. reticulatum has cordate trophophylls, 2–5 cm parvifolium (Ophioglossaceae) with conserved type. Taxon 67(4):
above ground, epetiolate, common stalk subterranean- 807.
Naithani, H.B., K.C. Sahni & S.S.R. Bennet (1997). Forest Flora of Goa.
terranean, having maximum number of sporangia (Image International Book Distributors, Dehra Dun, 666pp.
6). Panigrahi, G. & R.D. Dixit (1969). Studies in Indian Pteridophytes IV:
The Family Ophioglossaceae in India. Proceedings National Academy
of India 35B: 230–266.
Patil, S.M. & M.M. Dongare (2014). The genus Ophioglossum from
REFERENCES Western Ghats of India. Indian Fern Journal 31: 17–24.
Patil, S.M., R.N. Kachhiyapatel, R.S. Patel & K.S. Rajput (2018).
Beddome, R.H. (1883). Handbook to the ferns of British India. Ceylon Ophioglossum gujaratense, a new species from Gujarat State,
and Malay Peninsula Thacker Spink & Co., Calcutta, 500pp. https:// India. Phytotaxa 351(4): 273–280. https://doi.org/10.11646/
doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.101756 phytotaxa.351.4.3
Blatter, E. & J.F. d’Almeida (1922). The Ferns of Bombay. D B Taraporevala Rao, R.S. (1985–86). Flora of Goa, Diu, Daman, Dadra & Nagarhaveli.
and Sons & Co, Bombay, 233pp. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl. Vols. 1 & 2. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, 544pp.
title.24062 Vartak, V.D. (1966). Enumeration of Plants from Gomantak. MACS,
Chakravarty, H.L. (1951). Indian Ophioglossum. The Botanical Society Pune, 167pp.
Bengal 5: 1–10. Yadav, B.L. & H.K. Goswami (2010). A new pink-brown Ophioglossum
Dalgado, D.G. (1898). Flora de Goa e Savantwadi. Sociedade Geographia (Ophioglossaceae) from India. Bulletin of the National Museum of
de Lisboa, Lisbon, 290pp. Nature and Science Series B 36(4): 155–159.
Datar, M.N. & P. Lakshminarasimhan (2010). Habitat based
Pteridophyte diversity from Western Ghats of Goa, India Habitat
based Pteridophyte diversity from Western Ghats of Goa, India. Threatened Taxa
Phytotaxonomy 10: 70–76

OPEN ACCESS
#6241 | Received 29 May 2020 | Final received 25 November 2020 | Finally accepted 01 December 2020
C
o
m
An inventory of the native flowering plants in East Siang District of m
u
Arunachal Pradesh, India n
i
c
a
Momang Taram 1 , Dipankar Borah 2 , Hui Tag 3 & Ritesh Kumar Choudhary 4 t
i
Department of Botany, Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh 791112, India.
1,3 o
2
Department of Botany, Goalpara College, PO & District Goalpara, Assam 783101, India.
n
4
Biodiversity & Palaeobiology (Plants & Diatoms) Group, Agharkar Research Institute, G.G. Agarkar Road, Pune, Maharashtra 411004, India.
1
[email protected], 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected],
4
[email protected] (corresponding author)
Abstract: The present study is an outcome of floristic surveys of East Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh, carried out during 2016–2019,
and also a compilation of earlier published reports. Vegetation analysis of this area along with a checklist of 508 taxa is presented. A total
of 503 species, one subspecies and four varieties of native flowering plants belonging to 348 genera and 102 families are reported. Among
these, 11 taxa are endemic to India, two Critically Endangered, one Vulnerable, one Near Threatened, two Data Deficient, and others either
Least Concern or Not Evaluated as per IUCN criteria. The study also documents two new distributional records for the flora of Arunachal
Pradesh, and range extension of six lesser-known endemic species. The most dominant families were found to be Poaceae (27 species),
followed by Lamiaceae (23 species), Gesneriaceae (22 species), and Rubiaceae (20 species). The number of new taxa described from the
region, endemism, and the Red Listed plants strongly reflect the floristic importance of the region, which is in dire need of conservation.
Keywords: Checklist, conservation, endemism, Himalayan flora, northeastern India, taxonomy.
Abstract (in Adi language): Ager Sim East Siang District Arunachal Pradesh lo 2016 – 2019 Ditag delo Ito. East Siang lo deddine nesi - neyang
em pado, ajokon ee Tani gidangso India petom lo Kapanekom kado delokke akon akon ee Arunachal Pradesh lok East Siang Goralok
nyomrang kider petom lo panekom kado. Ditag anyi aum solo East Siang lok Nesi-Neyang Researchers kider ee deddine ani-ani neyang em
report delokke new species discoveries em itung. Deddine angu angu kangki kangki manam nesi- neyang em padoaai idola ajo kon nesi
neyang kider si nyoknam lo adung aipe kajun tatjun la bulum ijun mamil apena ditag kider lo bulu tani among holok nyoknam lo kadung.
Nesi Neyang si Tani ngolum delokke Simon-sili, Takom-taruk lope ager abido. Donam tiinam lokke ila dungkeng - dakkeng, kusureng dadi
lope ager amangko kamangdo. Bulu mai ngoluk turkeng ngakeng em bilenne ila bulum ngolukom ayang pe ido delokke atel kokom tani
among sok nyokmo mape aido. Ngolu east siang monam lo magola ditag aum 508 Nesi- Neyang ko kalen malen la atlendung. Akokom
nyomrang kider em gairupe mamil deddine malen penam ee kadungaai.
Editor: K. Haridasan, Pallavur, Palakkad, Kerala, India. Date of publication: 26 December 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Taram, M., D. Borah, H. Tag & R.K. Choudhary (2020). An inventory of the native flowering plants in East Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Journal
of Threatened Taxa 12(17): 17299–17322. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6241.12.17.17299-17322
Copyright: © Taram et al. 2020. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article
in any medium by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: Self-financed, freelance work.
Author details: Momang Taram, a PhD scholar, has authored more than 20 research articles and has described 10 taxa new to science. She is involved in two
major projects ‘Biocultural studies of the Adi tribe in Arunachal Pradesh’ and ‘Revision of the family Gesneriaceae in Arunachal Pradesh’. Dipankar Borah has
authored several research articles and has described 11 taxa new to science. He is interested in native and endemic vascular flora of northeastern India as well as
ethnobotany of the region. His current research project is ‘Enumeration of the biodiversity of Behali Reserve Forest, Biswanath, Assam.’ Hui Tag has been involved
in biocultural studies of the ethnic communities of Arunachal Pradesh. He is also working in the field of nutraceutical and drug discovery targeting some medicinal
plants. Ritesh Kumar Choudhary has worked on the flora of all four biodiversity hotspots of India, and also in Vietnam and Korea. He has described 12 new plant
species, authored three books and more than 70 research papers. He is actively engaged in resolving the taxonomy and phylogeny of plants using molecular data.
He has been recently nominated for Prof. V.V. Sivarajan Gold Medal by Indian Association of Plant Taxonomy for his contribution to the field of plant taxonomy.
Author contribution: MT, DB, HT, and RKC conceptualized the research. MT and DB carried out the field work. All authors contributed in data compilation, analysis
and writing of the manuscript.
Acknowledgements: We are thankful to: Mr. Ojar Taku, for his help during field visits; Prof. Abhaya Prasad Das for his valuable insights in identification, and
taxonomic inputs; and the authorities of Rajiv Gandhi University to carry out this work. RKC thanks the Director, Agharkar Research Institute for facilities.
Comments received from the anonymous reviewers are also acknowldeged.
17299
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Floristic diversity of East Siang District Taram et al.
INTRODUCTION than 300 ethnobotanically useful plant species present

in the Siang belt. Considering its floristic richness, a large
Northeastern India is situated in the transition chunk of this district was demarcated as the erstwhile
zone between the Himalayan and Indo-Burma global Lali Reserve Forest, which was notified as Lali Wildlife
biodiversity hotspots (Olson & Dinerstein 1998). The Sanctuary in 1978 and subsequently renamed Daying
region has a long international boundary of about Ering (D’Ering) Memorial Wildlife Sanctuary in 1986.
2,000km with China and Bhutan in the north, Myanmar Although the general floristic account of the region
in the east, Nepal in the west, and Bangladesh in the was documented in several scattered publications,
south-west; it harbours more than one-third of the a comprehensive checklist for this important area
country’s total biodiversity and 50% of the floral wealth highlighting the endemic and native species was not
(Takhtajan 1969). Arunachal Pradesh is the largest available. The recent discovery and documentation of
among the seven administrative states of northeastern several new species and new records (Jeyaprakash et al.
India, covering an area of about 83,700km2, of which 2014; Gogoi & Borah 2015; Tatum & Das 2016; Nangkar
82% is under forest cover. It hosts a rich floral and et al. 2017; Borah & Das 2018; Borah et al. 2018, 2020a,b;
faunal diversity due to its physiographic variation of Taram & Borah 2020; Taram et al. 2020a,b,c,d,e) from
elevations ranging 150–6,500 m and unique climatic the East Siang District and other districts of Arunachal
conditions (Chakravarty et al. 2012; Taram et al. 2018). Pradesh and its neighbouring regions, highlights the rich
The vegetation ranges from tropical mixed and broadleaf biodiversity of the area and warrants more exploration
evergreen forest to alpine meadow and scrubs (Singh & and research. The present study is, therefore, aimed
Singh 1991), and comprises many hill ranges such as to provide an updated checklist of the native flowering
Mishmee Hills, Abor Hills, Patkai Hills, Dafla Hills, and plants of East Siang District. It also provides information
Aka Hills. The study area of East Siang is an important on the endemic and Red list plant species (IUCN 2020)
administrative district of Arunachal Pradesh and part distributed in the area, based on the field surveys
of the erstwhile Siang frontier division. It also falls and scrutiny of herbarium collections and published
under the Abor Hills of the eastern Himalaya. In 1980, literature.
Siang frontier division was bifurcated into two districts
namely West Siang and East Siang, headquartered at
Along and Pasighat, respectively. In 1994, East Siang METHODS
District was further divided into Upper Siang and East
Siang, and in 2015 and 2017 Siang and Lower Siang Several field surveys of different localities of East
districts were separated from East Siang. East Siang Siang District were carried out from April 2016 to
District is a mountainous area with river plains as well December 2019, covering most vegetation types and
as rocky slopes and has a total area of 3,603km2, lying different elevations. The plant specimens collected were
approximately between 27.71 and 28.85 North latitudes photographed in the field, press dried and mounted on
and 94.70 and 95.58 East longitudes (Figure 1). herbarium sheets following standard methods (Jain &
Griffith (1836), carried out the first floristic work in Rao 1977). Nomenclature was followed using online
the Abor and Mishmi Hills, and published the ‘Flora of databases (POWO 2019; Tropicos 2020; WFO 2020) and
Mishmi Hills’. With the advent of the 20th Century, many classified as per Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system,
more plant explorations were carried out resulting in APG IV (Chase et al. 2016). Identification was done using
significant publications such as ‘On the botany of Abor relevant literature (Hooker 1872; Kanjilal et al. 1934;
Expedition’ by Burkill (1925); ‘Botanical exploration in Hajra et al. 1996; Chauhan et al. 1996; Giri et al. 2008;
the Mishmi Hill’ by Ward (1929), ‘Observation of the Chowdhery et al. 2009; Ambrish 2013) and scrutiny of
Flora of Siang Frontier Division’ by Rao & Joseph (1965), the herbarium specimens housed in ASSAM, ARUN, HAU,
‘Floristic diversity assessment and vegetation analysis of North East Institute of Folk Medicine (NEIFM), Pasighat
Upper Siang District of Eastern Himalaya’ by Choudhary and several virtual herbaria like K, E, PE, etc. Information
(2008a,b), and Choudhary et al. (2012). Moreover, on the conservation status was noted following the
several studies on the taxonomy and ethnobotany of International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN
the plants of the region were also published (Tag et al. 2020) Red List. The voucher specimens were deposited
2008; Singh et al. 2011; Yumnam et al. 2011; Yumnam in HAU (Herbarium of Rajiv Gandhi University, Arunachal
& Tripathi 2013; Baruah et al. 2013; Boko & Narsimhan Pradesh). The field number of the specimens scrutinized
2014; Mibang & Das 2017) which documented more at the herbarium of North East Institute of Folk Medicine

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Figure 1. East Siang District.
(NEIFM), Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh, are prefixed with micrantha, and Paederia foetida (not included in the
NEIFM in the Appendix 1. present checklist). Many common species of bamboos
and orchids can also be found throughout these forests.
The tropical forest of the district can be further divided
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION into three subtypes:
The structure and composition characteristics of the A. Grasslands: The grasslands are found in the
flora of East Siang District can be classified into two major alluvial soils of the Siang River basin. Daying Ering
climatic zones and five vegetation zones following the Memorial Wildlife Sanctuary of this district occupies
earlier classification pattern proposed by Champion & mostly this vegetation. Several scattered trees are also
Seth (1968) and Kaul & Haridasan (1987) (Image 1; Table found in the areas, though the diversity is very less. Carex
1). These are discussed below: baccans, Oplismenus burmanni, Erioscirpus comosus,
Themeda villosa, Saccharum spontaneum, Saccharum
Tropical forest arundinaceum, Phragmites karka, and Thysanolaena
This type of vegetation can be mainly seen in the latifolia are the most commonly found grasses and sedges
area of lower elevation such as Pasighat, Ruksin, Balek, as well as a few grassland orchids such as Pachystoma
Ledum, Magnang, Sille, Rani, Bilat, Mebo, Ngopok, Kiyit pubescens are also found.
up to an altitude of 900m. This forest is characterized by B. Tropical semi-evergreen forest: This type of
tall trees with close canopy and receives heavy rainfall forest can be encountered in Sirki, Bodak, Ponging, and
during monsoon season. The lower elevation areas of adjacent areas, which are dominated by trees like Cordia
the district are occupied by tree species like Gynocardia dichotoma, Duabanga grandiflora, Ficus auriculata, F.
odorata, Liquidambar excelsa, Trevesia palmata, Garcinia crassiramea, and Toxicodendron hookerii. In the next
pedunculata, Terminalia myriocarpa, Dillenia indica, storey, Maesa indica, Abroma augustum, Leea indica,
Actinodaphne obovata, Cinnamomum bejolghota, Litsea Mussaenda glabra, Buddleja asiatica, Coffea bengalensis,
glutinosa, Litsea monopetala, Duabanga grandifolia, Saurauia sinohirsuta, Sabia lanceolata, and several species
Magnolia hodgsonii etc. A large chunk of this forest is being of wild Citrus can be commonly found. The ground storey
invaded by exotic weeds like Ageratum houstonianum, is composed of herbs like Viola betonicifolia, Lobelia
Chromolaena odorata, Cuscuta cassytoides, Mikania nummularia, Persicaria capitata, and P. hydropiper.

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A B
C D
Image 1. Different habitat types of East Siang District: A—perennial waterfall at Sirki | B—evergreen forest along the Siang river basin | C—
dense tropical forests at Pasighat | D—open tropical forests at Ruksin. © Dipankar Borah
Table 1. Major climatic and vegetation zones of East Siang District.
Climatic zone Vegetation zone Champion & Seth (1968) Altitudinal range (in m)
1. Tropical Grasslands Unclassified alluvial plains
Tropical semi-evergreen 2/B/C1/Ia, 2/B/C1b/ISI near alluvial plains
Tropical evergreen 1/B/C1, 1/B/C2 up to 600
Tropical wet evergreen 8/B/C1 up to 900
2. Subtropical Subtropical evergreen 3C3/Bb, 3C/IS2 900–1500
C. Tropical evergreen forest: This type of forest Thunbergia coccinea, and Dischidia bengalensis are also
can be seen in most of the areas of the district such as common. The ground storey comprises of Brachystemma
Renging, Ledum, Mikong, and Pasighat. Due to heavy calycinum, Hellenia speciosa, Phrynium pubinerve,
rainfall in the area, luxuriant growth of the tropical flora Alpinia nigra, Curculigo capitulata, and several others.
can be seen. The common tree species of this forest are D. Tropical wet evergreen forest: These forests
Actinodaphne obovata, Alstonia scholaris, Artocarpus receive comparatively high rainfall (ca. 2,000mm or
lacucha, Callicarpa arborea, Canarium strictum, Litsea more) and the temperature ranges from 10–30 0C.
monopetala, Wallichia oblongifolia, Trevesia palmata, These forests harbour the most diverse flora in the
Rhus chinensis, Liquidambar excelsa, Morus macroura, district comprising of three storeys. Ruksin, Rani, Sile,
Ficus semicordata, F. tinctoria, F. variegata, and F. virens. and Magnang host such forests where the elevation is
The second storey, however, comprises of Saurauia very low compared to the other areas of the district.
punduana and Litsea cubeba. Epiphytic plants like Being mostly plains, the regions are most prone to
Aeschynanthus micranthus, A. acuminatus, A. superbus, deforestation for agriculture, and hence large chunks of

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such forests are under threat. A lot of tall tree species Table 2. Ten dominant families of East Siang District.
with close canopy can be seen growing luxuriantly in Family No. of genera No. of species
these areas. The commonest tree species of this storey 1 Poaceae 21 27
are Castanopsis indica, Chisocheton cumingianus, Toona 2 Lamiaceae 15 23
hexandra, Aesculus assamica, Garcinia pedunculata,
3 Gesneriaceae 08 22
Balakata baccata, Gmelina arborea, and Bauhinia
4 Rubiaceae 17 20
variegata. Whereas the second storey comprises of
5 Fabaceae 18 19
small trees, lianas, and shrubs like Saurauia napaulensis,
6 Orchidaceae 17 19
S. armata, Fissistigma polyanthum, F. bicolor, Entada
phaseoloides, Dalhousiea bracteata, Phlogacanthus 7 Acanthaceae 10 19
curviflorus, Aralia armata, Caryota urens, and Calamus 8 Moraceae 05 18
erectus. The rich epiphytic flora can be seen holding 9 Urticaceae 09 15

the branches of the tree species in the area. Some of 10 Malvaceae 10 13
the common orchids of this forests are Cymbidium
aloifolium, Dendrobium aphyllum, D. nobile, and D.
lasiopetalum. The herbaceous flora of this area includes Mycetia mukerjiana Deb & Ratna Dutta (Image 2A–D)
Bonnaya antipoda, Lobelia zeylanica, Cynoglossum Mycetia mukerjiana can be distinguished from its
wallichii, and several Begoniaceae, Balsaminaceae, & closely allied species M. fangii K.J.Yan & Z.Q.Song by its
Zingiberaceae members. eglandulose calyx (vs. glandulose calyx), calyx lobes sub-
equal to the corolla (vs. calyx lobes much shorter than
Subtropical forest the corolla), and longer bracts and bracteoles (Yan et al.
This type of forest can be occasionally seen in the 2016). M. mukerjiana was known so far from Assam,
northern and eastern parts of the district, on high Mizoram, and Nagaland states of India and Bangladesh
hilltops. Most of these forests lie at elevations of 900m (Das & Rahman 2010; Chaturvedi et al. 2011; Barbhuiya
and above. The elevational gradient plays a significant et al. 2014), but never from Arunachal Pradesh. It
role in vegetation composition of the forest and a subtle was collected from Sirki area of East Siang District of
change in the floristic composition can be observed in the Arunachal Pradesh during our floristic survey.
areas. The ground storey is composed of various species Specimens examined: (MT2075) (HAU), 06.vii.2018,
of Urticaceae (e.g., Elatostema, Pilea, and Boehmeria), 28.103N & 95.267E; 500m, India, Arunachal Pradesh,
Paris polyphylla, Wallichia triandra, Argostemma East Siang, Pasighat, Sirki.
verticiliatum, Phlogacanthus vitellinus, Zeuxine flava,
Cheirostylis parvifolia, even Ficus hederacea, and Citrus indica Yu. Tanaka (Image 2E–I)
Henckelia mishmiensis are seen growing luxuriantly on Citrus indica can be recognized from other Citrus
the rocky walls. The top storey comprises of sporadic species growing in the region by its unifoliate leaves, 5–7
distribution of Phoenix rupicola, Pandanus furcatus, and pairs of prominent secondary veins, globose to obovoid
Pterospermum lanceifolium. fruits, depressed-obtuse at apex, deep orange to scarlet
The present study documents a wide range of red when ripe, thin pericarp, as well as soft and thin
flowering plant diversity of East Siang District and mesocarp, 8–11 endocarp segments, polygonal pulps,
altogether reports 503 species, one subspecies and four sticky and yellow as well as 5–7 flattened, ovoid seeds
varieties, representing 348 genera belonging to 102 per fruit. It was so far known from Assam, Manipur,
families (Appendix 1). The most species-rich families Meghalaya and Nagaland (Borah et al. 2018b) but never
are Poaceae (27 species), Lamiaceae (23 species), from Arunachal Pradesh. During the present study, it
Gesneriaceae (22 species), Rubiaceae (20 species), was collected from Pasighat area of East Siang District.
Fabaceae, Acanthaceae, Orchidaceae (19 species each), Specimens examined: (MT2074) (HAU), 28.063N &
and Moraceae (18 species) (Appendix 1). E 95.324E; 180m, 24.iv.2019, India, Arunachal Pradesh,
East Siang, Pasighat.
New records for the flora of Arunachal Pradesh
The present study documents two interesting species Endemism and range extension
which were never recorded from Arunachal Pradesh. A Within the investigated regions, 11 species endemic
brief taxonomic description of these species is given to India were recorded. Out of which, five species are
below to facilitate their easy identification: narrowly endemic to East Siang District of Arunachal

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A B C D
E F G H I
Image 2. New records for the flora of Arunachal Pradesh. (A–D)—Mycetia mukerjiana Deb & Ratna Dutta: A—leaf | B—inflorescence | C—flower-
top view | D—open flower showing stamens. (E–I)—Citrus indica Yu. Tanaka: E—leaf | F & G—flower | H—fruit | I—seed. © Dipankar Borah
Pradesh, and six endemic to the eastern Himalaya two locations in Arunachal Pradesh from India and few
(Appendix 1). Among these, new distribution localities other neighbouring countries were also recorded in the
were recorded for two endemic species. Their details present study, extending their present known range to
are as follows: some extent. These are:
(1) Hornstedtia arunachalensis S. Tripathi & V. (1) Lysionotus gamosepalus W.T.Wang: Earlier
Prakash (Zingiberaceae) described from Papum Pare reported only from Lohit and Upper Siang districts of
District of Arunachal Pradesh (Tripathi & Prakash 1999) Arunachal Pradesh from India (Akhil et al. 2019; Taram
was recorded during the present investigation from Sirki, et al. 2020a), is also reported here from Pasighat of East
East Siang District, extending its known range by 200km Siang District (Image 3A). It is also distributed in China
(Image 3E). (POWO 2019).
(2) Henckelia mishmiensis (Debb. ex Biswas) D.J. (2) Rhynchotechum parviflorum Blume: So far known
Middleton & Mich. Möller, earlier known only from from Upper Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh (Taram
Mishmi Hills of Arunachal Pradesh (Sinha & Dutta 2016), et al. 2020d) and Andaman & Nicobar Islands in India
was recorded during the present investigation from (POWO 2019) is reported here from Sirki of East Siang
Pasighat and Bodak of East Siang District, extending its District. Its distribution extends to New Guinea (POWO
known range by 100km (Image 3D). 2019).
Moreover, four species reported from only one or (3) Wallichia triandra (J. Joseph) S.K.Basu: Earlier

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Table 3. Rare and threatened plants recorded from the study area. publications in the predatory journals. These studies
IUCN also included exotic, introduced and cultivated taxa to
Species name Family
status their list. We, however, have excluded them from the
1 Saurauia punduana Wall. Actinidiaceae CR present checklist as our main aim was to document
Larsenianthus arunachalensis M. the native flora of the district. Moreover, Champereia
2 Zingiberaceae CR
Sabu, Sanoj & Rajesh Kumar
3 Piper pedicellatum C.DC Piperaceae VU
manillana (Blume) Merr. reported by the same author
as a new distributional record to Arunachal Pradesh was
4 Phoenix rupicola T.Anderson Arecaceae NT
found to be an incorrect identification of Lepionurus
5 Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. Zingiberaceae DD
sylvestris Blume, and hence, excluded from the present
6 Amomum subulatum Roxb. Zingiberaceae DD
checklist.
reported only from Anjaw and Lohit District of Arunachal CONCLUSION

Pradesh (Henderson 2007) is reported here from Sirki of
East Siang District. It is also distributed in China (POWO There is still a gap in the research conducted so far
2019). to determine the approximate floral wealth of East Siang
(4) Saurauia sinohirsuta J.Q. Li & Soejarto: So far District. So far only one protected area, i.e., Daying Ering
known from Upper Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh Memorial Wildlife Sanctuary has been designated in the
in India (Taram & Borah 2020) is reported here from district and much of the biodiversity finds its place in the
Sirki of East Siang District. It is also distributed in China private lands. We believe that our checklist will help in
(POWO 2019). conservation planning of this sanctuary. The outburst
of the human population, however, has created a need
Conservation for new settlements as well as agricultural lands which
Out of the 508 taxa reported during this study, 108 pose serious threats to the present biodiversity in the
species are designated under ‘Least Concern’, whereas area. Geographically, East Siang District is about 4% of
most of them belong to ‘Not Evaluated’ category Arunachal Pradesh, yet it represents around one-fourth
following IUCN 2020. Some rare and threatened plants of the state’s flora. The tropical climate, along with its
recorded from the study area are listed in Table 3 along location in the eastern Himalaya biodiversity hotspot
with their IUCN status. is the probable explanation for the high diversity. The
present study should be considered a preliminary
Plants of medicinal and economic importance account of this floristically rich region, and more survey
During the present study it was found that 20 and research should be conducted to document its
species (3.9%) are used to formulate different forms of accurate floral wealth. Besides, the rich medicinal
traditional medicine, 126 species (24.8%) are edible, and wealth of the district should also be conserved following
362 (71.3%) plants have no known uses (Appendix 1). several exercises such as Conservation Assessment
Most of recorded usage show similarity to the earlier and Management Prioritization (Ved et al. 2005), in
reports (Tag et al. 2008; Singh et al. 2011; Yumnam association with the leading Indian institutions such as
et al. 2011; Baruah et al. 2013; Yumnam & Tripathi BSI, CIMAP, FRI, FRLHT, etc.
2013; Boko & Narsimhan 2014), except Hornstedtia
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Appendix 1. Plant diversity of East Siang District.
Family Taxon Field no. IUCN Status
Acanthaceae
Codonacanthus pauciflorus (Nees) Nees MT2001 NE
Dicliptera babui Karthik. & Moorthy MT2500 NE
Justicia adhatoda L. MT2002 NE
Mackaya neesiana (Wall.) Das MT1742 NE
Phlogacanthus curviflorus (Nees) Nees MT2502 NE
Phlogacanthus gracilis P.Anderson ex Burkill NEIFM-306 E
Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis (Roxb. ex Hardw.) Mabb. MT2127 NE
Phlogacanthus vitellinus (Roxb.) T.Anderson MT2003 NE
Pseuderanthemum leptanthus (C.B.Clarke) Lindau MT2004 NE
Rhinacanthus calcaratus (Wall.) Nees MT2005 NE
Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees MT2501 NE
Strobilanthes hamiltoniana (Steud.) Bosser & Heine MT2128 NE
Strobilanthes mastersii T.Anderson MT2129 E
Strobilanthes oxycalycina J.R.I. Wood MT2007 E
Strobilanthes pauciflora (Merr.) Y.F. Deng MT2006, MT2101 NE
Strobilanthes secunda T.Anderson MT2008 NE
Strobilanthes tubiflos (C.B.Clarke) J.R.I.Wood MT2009 E
Thunbergia coccinea Wall. ex D.Don MT2010 NE
Thunbergia grandiflora (Roxb. ex Rottler) Roxb. MT2011 NE
Achariaceae
Gynocardia odorata R.Br. MT1731 NE
Acoraceae
Acorus calamus L. MT2533 LC
Actinidaceae
Saurauia armata Kurz # MT1619 NE
Saurauia sinohirsuta J.Q.Li & Soejarto MT1829 NE
Saurauia napaulensis DC. # MT1590 LC
Saurauia punduana Wall. # MT1589 CR
Altingiaceae
Liquidambar excelsa (Noronha) Oken MT1692 LC
Amaranthaceae
Achyranthes aspera L. MT2134 NE
Achyranthes bidentata Blume MT2503 NE
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. MT2135 LC
Amaranthus viridis L. MT1564 NE
Chenopodium album L. # MT1700 NE
Chenopodium giganteum D.Don. # MT1617 NE
Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume MT1235 NE
Deeringia amaranthoides (Lam.) Merr. # MT1747 NE

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Amaryllidaceae
Allium hookeri Thwaites MT1634 NE
Anacardiaceae
Mangifera sylvatica Roxb. # MT1686 LC
Rhus chinensis Mill. * MT1580 LC
Spondias pinnata (L.f) Kurz. MT1530 NE
Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B.L.Burtt & A.W.Hill # MT2534 NE

Toxicodendron hookeri (Sahni & Bahadur) C.Y.Wu &
MT1626 NE
T.L.Ming
Annonaceae
Fissistigma bicolor (Roxb.) Merr. MT1816 NE
Fissistigma polyanthum (Hook.f and Thomson) Merr. # MT1772 NE
Miliusa dioeca (Roxb.) Chaowasku & Kessler MT200 NE
Polyalthia suberosa (Roxb.) Thwaites NEIFM-394 NE
Trivalvaria costata (Hook.f. & Thomson) I.M.Turner NEIFM-513 NE
Apiaceae
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb * MT1711 LC
Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. MT1821 LC
Apocynaceae
Aganosma cymosa (Roxb.) G.Don NEIFM-483 NE
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. MT2133 LC
Beaumontia grandiflora Wall. MT1636 NE
Dischidia bengalensis Colebr. MT2134 NE
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br. MT2135 NE
Hoya arnottiana Wight NEIFM-215 NE
Hoya verticillata (Vahl) G.Don MT2012 NE
Rauvolfia verticillata (Lour.) Baill. NEIFM-353, NEIFM-486 NE

Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.) R.Br. ex Roem. &
MT2136 NE
Schult.
Wrightia coccinea (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Sims NEIFM-247 NE
Araceae
Alocasia fornicata (Kunth) Schott MT2014 LC
Amorphophallus bulbifer (Roxb.) Blume NEIFM-560 NE
Amorphophallus napalensis (Wall.) Bogner & Mayo NEIFM-551 NE
Arisaema arunachalensis A.Nangkar, A.P. Das & H.Tag cf. Nangkar et al. 2017 E
Colocasia fallax Schott MT2013 LC
Homalomena aromatica (Spreng.) Schott MT2535 NE
Pothos scandens L. * MT1722 NE
Pothos chinensis (Raf.) Merr. NEIFM-213 NE
Rhaphidophora decursiva (Roxb.) Schott MT1571 NE
Rhaphidophora glauca (Wall.) Schott MT2130 NE
Rhaphidophora hookeri Schott MT1572 NE
Steudnera assamica Hook.f. MT2131 E

J TT
Araliaceae
Aralia armata (Wall ex. Don) Seem. # MT1552 LC
Brassaiopsis glomerulata (Blume) Regel MT1579 LC
Eleutherococcus trifoliatus (L.) S.Y.Hu NEIFM-307 NE
Heteropanax fragrans (Roxb.) Seem. MT1656 NE
Hydrocotyle himalaica P.K.Mukh. MT1830 NE
Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam. MT2504 LC
Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. MT1712 NE
Schefflera bengalensis Gamble NEIFM-207 NE
Trevesia palmata (Roxb. ex Lindl.) Vis. # MT1679 LC
Arecaceae
Calamus erectus Roxb. # MT1562 NE
Calamus flagellum Griff. Ex Walp # MT1541 NE
Caryota urens L. MT1570 LC
Phoenix rupicola T.Anderson DB2015 E, NT
Pinanga gracilis Blume MT2016 NE
Wallichia oblongifolia Griff. MT1538 NE
Wallichia triandra (J.Joseph) S.K.Basu MT1537 LC
Aristolochiaceae
Aristolochia platanifolia (Klotzsch) Duch DB2152 NE
Asparagaceae
Dracaena angustifolia (Medik.) Roxb. MT2407 NE
Dracaena petiolata Hook.f. MT2409 E
Peliosanthes ligniradicis N.Tanaka, Taram & D. Borah MT&DB 651 E
Peliosanthes macrophylla Wall. ex Baker MT2411 NE
Tupistra stoliczana Kurz MT2412 NE
Asteraceae
Artemisia indica Willd * MT1646 NE
Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC. * MT1655 NE
Gnaphalium polycaulon Pers. # MT1758 NE
Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. NEIFM-91 NE
Gynura cusimbua (D.Don) S.Moore # MT1743 LC
Laggera crispata (Vahl) Hepper & J.R.I.Wood MT2407 NE
Pseudognaphalium affine (D.Don) Anderb. # MT1757 NE
Youngia japonica (L.) DC. # MT1536 NE
Balanophoraceae
Balanophora dioica R. Br. ex Royle # MT1558 NE
Balsaminaceae
Impatiens arguta Hook f. & Thomson MT2019 NE
Impatiens latiflora Hook.f. & Thomson MT2018 NE
Impatiens porrecta Wall. ex Hook.f. & Thomson MT2017 NE
Impatiens siangensis Gogoi MT2417 E

J TT
Begoniaceae
Begonia aborensis Dunn # MT1595 NE
Begonia acetosella Craib. # MT1638 NE
Begonia annulata K.Koch MT2019 NE
Begonia biserrata Lindl. # MT1639 NE
Begonia burkillii Dunn MT2020 NE
Begonia josephi A.DC MT2021 NE
Begonia roxburghii (Miq.) A.DC # MT1594 NE
Begonia silletensis (A.DC.) C.B. Clarke # MT2022 NE
Begonia xanthina Hook. MT2024 NE
Bignoniaceae
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz MT2406 NE
Radermachera gigantea (Blume) Miq. NEIFM-535 LC
Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC MT2025 NE
Boraginaceae
Bothriospermum zeylanicum (J.Jacq.) Druce NEIFM-254 NE
Cordia dichotoma G.Forst MT1514 LC
Cynoglossum wallichii G.Don MT2405 NE
Ehretia acuminata R.Br. NEIFM-109, NEIFM-185 LC
Ehretia wallichiana Hook.f. & Thomson ex C.B.Clarke DB2023 NE
Rotula aquatica Lour. NEIFM-413 NE
Brassicaceae
Cardamine hirsuta L. # MT1751 NE
Rorippa dubia (Pers.) H.Hara # MT1753 NE
Burseraceae
Canarium strictum Roxb. # MT1687 NE
Campanulaceae
Lobelia nummularia Lam. MT2403 NE
Lobelia zeylanica L. MT2404 LC
Capparaceae
Capparis acutifolia Sweet subsp. sabiifolia (J. D. Hooker
MT2026 NE
& Thomson) Jacobs
Capparis assamica Hook.f. & Thomson MT2027 E
Capparis multiflora Hook.f. & Thomson MT1776 NE
Crateva magna (Lour.) DC. NEIFM-543 NE
Stixis suaveolens (Roxb.) Baill. # MT1613 NE
Caryophyllaceae
Brachystemma calycinum D.Don * MT1746 NE
Stellaria media (L.)Vill # MT1694 LC
Celastraceae
Microtropis discolor (Wall.) Wall. ex Meisn. MT2412 NE
Loeseneriella pauciflora (DC.) A.C.Sm. NEIFM-357 NE

J TT
Chloranthaceae
Chloranthus elatior Link NEIFM-322 NE
Clusiaceae
Garcinia anomala Planch. & Triana # MT2411 NE
Garcinia lanceifolia Roxb. # MT1560 NE
Garcinia pedunculata Roxb. ex Buch.- Ham * MT1586 NE
Garcinia xanthochymus Hook.f. ex T.Anderson NEIFM-487 NE
Colchicaceae
Disporum longistylum (H.Lév. & Vaniot) H.Hara NEIFM-484 NE
Combretaceae
Terminalia chebula Retz. # MT3003 NE
Terminalia myriocarpa Van Heurck & Mull.Arg MT3004 NE
Commelinaceae
Amischotolype hookeri (Hassk.) H.Hara MT2505 NE
Commelina benghalensis L MT2401 LC
Floscopa scandens Lour. MT2402 LC
Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan MT1693 NE
Rhopalephora scaberrima (Blume) Faden MT2400 NE
Convolvulaceae
Argyreia argentea (Roxb.) Sweet NEIFM-407 NE
Argyreia nervosa (Burm.f.) Bojer MT2029 NE
Cornaceae
Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harms MT2507 NE
Costaceae
Hellenia speciosa (J.Koenig) S.R.Dutta MT2028 NE
Cucurbitaceae
Cucumis maderaspatanus L. NEIFM-365 NE
Hodgsonia macrocarpa (Blume) Cong. # MT1552 NE
Solena heterophylla Lour. * MT2538 NE
Thladiantha cordifolia (Blume) Cong. # MT1738 NE
Trichosanthes nervifolia L. MT2299 NE
Cyperaceae
Carex baccans Nees MT1677 LC
Cyperus digitatus Roxb. MT2536 LC
Cyperus rotundus L. MT2537 LC
Cyperus distans L.f. NEIFM-552 LC
Cyperus mindorensis (Steud.) Huygh NEIFM-129 NE
Cyperus pilosus Vahl NEIFM-555 NE
Eleocharis geniculata (L.) Roem. & Schult. MT2298 LC
Erioscirpus comosus (Wall.) Palla MT2291 NE
Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forssk.) Bubani MT2288 LC
Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl NEIFM-073, NEIFM-297

J TT
Dilleniaceae
Dillenia indica L. # MT1593 NE
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea alata L. # MT1778 NE
Dioscorea bulbifera L. # MT1652 NE
Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burkill # MT1832 NE
Dioscorea pentaphylla L. # MT1544 NE
Tacca integrifolia Ker Gawl. MT2030 NE
Ericaceae
Agapetes bhutanica N.P.Balakr. & Sud.Chowdhury NEIFM-528 NE

Agapetes macrantha var. grandiflora (Hook.f.) D.Banik
MT1502 NE
and Sanjappa *
Agapetes serpens (Wight) Sleumer MT2031 NE
Euphorbiaceae
Balakata baccata (Roxb.) Esser MT22188 LC
Bridelia montana (Roxb.) Willd. NEIFM-232 NE
Croton caudatus Geiseler MT2508 NE
Homonoia riparia Lour. NEIFM-100 LC
Mallotus paniculatus (Lam.) Müll.Arg. MT22187 LC
Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb.) Kurz MT2509 NE
Ostodes paniculata Blume MT1556 LC
Fabaceae
Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth MT1550 LC
Archidendron chevalieri (Kosterm.) I.C. Nielsen NEIFM-478 NE
Bauhinia purpurea L.# MT2178 LC
Bauhinia variegata L.# MT1745 LC
Crotalaria spectabilis Roth MT2177 NE
Dalbergia rimosa Roxb. NEIFM-355 LC
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC. MT2176 NE
Dalhousiea bracteata (Roxb.) Graham ex Benth MT2175 NE
Entada phaseoloides (L.) Merr. MT1773 NE
Erythrina variegata L. MT2173 LC
Gymnocladus burmanicus C.E.Parkinson cf. Singh et al. 2009 NE
Leptodesmia microphylla (Thunb.) H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi NEIFM-265, NEIFM-177 NE
Mastersia assamica Benth. MT2177 NE
Mucuna macrocarpa Wall. MT2510 NE
Ohwia caudata (Thunb.) H.Ohashi NEIFM-411 NE
Ototropis multiflora (DC.) H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi MT2178 NE
Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. * MT1775 NE
Senegalia catechu (L.f.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb. NEIFM-080, NEIFM-252 NE
Senegalia rugata (Lam.) Britton & Rose MT1501 NE
Tephrosia candida DC MT2171 NE

J TT
Fagaceae
Castanopsis indica (Roxb. Ex Lindl.) A.DC.# MT1602 LC
Castanopsis purpurella (Miq.) N.P.Balakr. # MT1618 NE
Gesneriaceae
Aeschynanthus acuminatus Wall. ex A.DC MT2042 NE
Aeschynanthus gracilis C.S.P.Paris ex C.B Clarke MT1505 NE
Aeschynanthus micranthus C.B. Clarke MT1504 NE
Aeschynanthus monetarius Dunn MT1811 NE
Aeschynanthus parasiticus C.B. Clarke MT1503 NE
Aeschynanthus superbus C.B.Clarke MT2041 NE
Boeica filiformis C.B.Clarke MT2040 NE
Boeica fulva C.B. Clarke # MT1704 NE
Epithema carnosum Benth MT2039 NE
Henckelia siangensis Taram, D.Borah & Tag MT2300 E
Henckelia grandifolia A.Dietr. MT2038 NE

Henckelia mishmiensis (Debb. ex Biswas) D.J.Middleton
MT2037, MT2172 NE
& Mich.Möller
Henckelia oblongifolia (Roxb.) D.J.Middleton & Mich.
MT2170 NE
Möller
Henckelia pumila (D.Don) A.Dietr MT2036 NE
Lysionotus gamosepalus W.T.Wang var. gamosepalous MT2035 NE
Lysionotus serratus D.Don MT2034 NE
Rhynchotechum ellipticum (Wall. ex D.Dietr.) A.DC. # MT1705 NE
Rhynchotechum obovatum (Griff.) B.L.Burtt # MT22167 NE
Rhynchotechum parviflorum Blume # MT1814, MT22168 NE
Rhynchotechum vestitum Wall. ex C. B. Clarke # MT1706, MT22169 NE
Stauranthera grandifolia Benth. MT2033 NE
Tetraphylloides bengalensis (C.B.Clarke) Doweld MT2032 NE
Gentianaceae
Exacum teres Wall. MT2166 NE
Hydrangeaceae
Hydrangea febrifuga (Lour.) Y. De Smet & Granados MT2043 NE
Hydroleaceae
Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl MT2165 LC
Hypoxidaceae
Curculigo capitulata (Lour.) Kuntze * MT1815 NE

Curculigo prainiana (Deb) Bennet & Raizada (SE,
MT2133 NE
Ethnomedicine)
Lamiaceae
Achyrospermum densiflorum Blume NEIFM-401 NE
Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze MT1894 NE
Callicarpa arborea Roxb. # MT2164 LC
Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl MT1517 LC
Clerodendrum chinense (Osbeck) Mabb. MT2512 LC
Clerodendrum colebrookeanum Walp. # MT2163 NE

J TT
Clerodendrum indicum (L.) Kuntze NEIFM-471 NE
Clerodendrum japonicum (Thunb.) Sweet MT2162 LC
Clerodendrum laevifolium Blume MT2044 NE
Elsholtzia ciliata (Thunb.) Hyl. NEIFM-359 NE
Gmelina arborea Roxb. ex Sm MT1545 LC
Isodon coetsa (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) Kudô NEIFM-240 NE
Leonurus japonicus Houtt. NEIFM-452 NE
Leucas chinensis (Retz.) Sm. NEIFM-065 NE
Leucas zeylanica (L.) W.T.Aiton NEIFM-296 NE
Leucosceptrum canum Sm. MT1733 NE
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt. # MT2161 NE
Pogostemon brachystachyus Benth. NEIFM-312 NE
Pogostemon elsholtzioides Benth. NEIFM-148 NE
Pogostemon plectranthoides Desf. NEIFM-382 NE
Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb. MT 2511 NE
Tectona grandis L.f MT2160 NE
Teucrium viscidum Blume NEIFM-319, NEIFM-490 NE
Lauraceae
Actinodaphne obovata (Nees) Blume MT1690 NE
Beilschmiedia assamica Meisn. NEIFM-541 NE
Cinnamomum bejolghota (Bucc-Ham) Sweet # MT1777 LC
Lindera communis Hemsl. NEIFM-443 NE
Litsea cubeba (Lours.) Pers. # MT2159 NE
Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Rob. MT2540 LC
Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers. MT1563 LC
Phoebe cooperiana P.C.Kanjilal and Das # MT2158 E
Linderniaceae
Bonnaya antipoda (L.) Druce MT2157 NE
Bonnaya ciliata (Colsm.) Spreng. MT2156 NE
Torenia bicolor Dalzell MT2154 LC
Torenia crustacea (L.) Cham. & Schuldt MT2153 LC
Torenia fournieri Linden ex E.Fourn. MT2541 NE
Loranthaceae
Helixanthera parasitica Lour. # MT2046 NE
Lythraceae
Duabanga grandiflora (Roxb. Ex DC) Walp. MT2045 LC
Rotala rotundifolia (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Koehne MT20542 NE
Magnoliaceae
Magnolia hodgsonii (Hook.f. & Thomson) H.Keng MT2047 LC
Malvaceae
Abroma augustum (L.) L.f. MT1699 NE
Ayenia grandifolia (DC.) Christenh. & Byng NEIFM-216, NEIFM-463 NE
Bombax ceiba L. MT2050 NE

J TT
Grewia asiatica L. NEIFM-351 LC
Kydia calycina Roxb. MT1691 LC
Melochia corchorifolia L. NEIFM-270, NEIFM-325 NE
Pterospermum acerifolium (L.) Willd MT2049 LC
Pterospermum lanceifolium Roxb. ex DC. MT2048 NE
Sida acuta Burm.f. MT2054 NE
Sterculia lanceolata var. coccinea (Jack) Phengklai # MT1786 LC
Sterculia striatiflora Mast. # MT&DB 0206 NE
Sterculia villosa Roxb. ex Sm MT2052 NE
Urena lobata L. MT2051 NE
Marantaceae
Phrynium pubinerve Blume # MT2050 NE
Mazaceae
Mazus pumilus (Burm.f.) Steenis MT2150 NE
Mazus surculosus D.Don MT2513 NE
Melanthiaceae
Paris polyphylla Sm. * MT2051 NE
Melastomataceae
Melastoma malabathricum L # MT2149 NE
Osbeckia nepalensis Hook. MT2148 NE
Osbeckia nutans Wall. MT2147 NE
Oxyspora paniculata DC. MT2054 NE
Pseudodissochaeta assamica (C.B.Clarke) Nayar MT2052 NE
Sarcopyramis napalensis Wall. DB2053 NE
Meliaceae
Chisocheton cumingianus (C.DC.) Harms DB2055 LC
Dysoxylum alliaceum (Blume) Blume NEIFM-488 LC
Melia azedarach L. MT2126 LC
Toona hexandra (Wall.) M.Roem MT2056 NE
Menispermaceae
Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers MT2057 NE
Stephania rotunda Lour. MT2058 NE
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. & Thomson MT2514 NE
Molluginaceae
Trigastrotheca pentaphylla (L.) Thulin NEIFM-345 NE
Moraceae
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. # MT1779 NE
Artocarpus lacucha Buch.Ham. # MT1756 NE
Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L'Hér. ex Vent. NEIFM-228 LC
Ficus auriculata Lour. # MT1601 LC
Ficus crassiramea (Miq.) Miq. MT1641 NE
Ficus drupacea Thunb. NEIFM-545 LC

J TT
Ficus hederacea Roxb. MT1790 NE
Ficus heteropleura Blume MT1764 NE
Ficus hispida L.f.# MT2124 LC
Ficus oligodon Miq. # MT1600 LC
Ficus religiosa L. MT1574 NE
Ficus semicordata Buch-Ham ex Sm.# MT1575 LC
Ficus simplicissima Lour. MT1599 NE
Ficus tinctoria G.Forst. MT1588 LC
Ficus variegata Blume MT1833 LC
Ficus virens Aiton # MT1808 LC
Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner # MT1647 NE
Morus macroura Miq. MT2123 NE
Musaceae
Musa aurantiaca G.Mann ex Baker # MT1726 LC
Musa balbisiana Colla # MT1760 LC
Musa sanguinea Hook.f. * MT2069 LC
Myricaceae
Myrica esculenta Buch.Ham Ex D.Don # MT2121 NE
Myrtaceae
Syzygium formosum (Wall.) Mason # MT1826 NE
Syzygium fruticosum DC. # MT1828 NE
Syzygium aqueum (Burm.f.) Alston # MT2068 NE
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels # MT2120 LC
Nyctaginaceae
Boerhavia diffusa L. NEIFM-537 NE
Olacaceae
Erythropalum scandens Blume MT2517 LC
Oleaceae
Jasminum pentaneurum Hand.-Mazz. NEIFM-445 NE
Jasminum laurifolium Roxb. ex Hornem. var. laurifolium MT2067 NE
Orchidaceae
Arundina graminifolia (D.Don) Hochr DB2137 NE
Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (Sm.) Lindl. ex Wall. MT2066 NE
Cheirostylis parvifolia Lindl. DB2138 NE
Coelogyne fimbriata Lindl. var. fimbriata MT2065 NE
Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Blum DB2139 NE
Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. MT2064 NE
Dendrobium aphyllum (Roxb.) C.E.C.Fisch. MT2140 LC
Dendrobium chrysanthum Wall. ex Lindl. MT2141 NE
Dendrobium nobile Lindl. MT2142 NE
Dendrolirium lasiopetalum (Willd.) S.C.Chen & J.J.Wood MT2144 NE
Eulophia dabia (D.Don) Hochr. NEIFM-102, NEIFM-234 NE

J TT
Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. NEIFM-191 NE
Goodyera procera (Ker Gawl.) Hook. MT2063 NE
Nervilia macroglossa (Hook.f.) Schltr. NEIFM-214 NE
Pachystoma pubescens Blume DB2143 NE
Pholidota pallida Lindl MT2062 NE
Rhynchostylis retusa (L.) Blume MT2061 NE
Vanda bicolor Griff. MT2060 NE
Zeuxine flava (Wall. ex Lindl.) Trimen DB2059 NE
Orobanchaceae
Lindenbergia hookeri C.B.Clarke ex Hook.f. # MT2119 NE
Aeginetia indica L. NEIFM-493 NE
Pandanaceae
Pandanus furcatus Roxb. # MT1788 NE
Phyllanthaceae
Actephila excelsa (Dalzell) Mull.Arg MT1508 NE
Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. # MT1629 NE
Bischofia javanica Blume NEIFM-495 LC
Breynia androgyna (L.) Chakrab. & N.P.Balakr.# MT2118 NE
Leptopus clarkei (Hook.f.) Pojark. NEIFM-387 NE
Phyllanthus assamicus Müll.Arg. NEIFM-121 LC
Phyllanthus fraternus G.L.Webster NEIFM-389, NEIFM-431 NE
Phyllanthus lanceolarius (Roxb.) Müll.Arg. NEIFM-298 NE
Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. MT2070 NE
Piperaceae
Piper attenuatum Buch.-Ham. ex Miq. NEIFM-174, NEIFM-362 NE
Piper griffithii C.DC. NEIFM-334 NE
Piper mullesua Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don MT1609 NE
Piper pedicellatum C.DC # MT2071 E,VU
Piper sylvaticum Roxb. NEIFM-435, NEIFM-386 NE
Plantaginaceae
Plantago asiatica L. # MT1631 NE
Poaceae
Arundinella nepalensis Trin. NEIFM-361 NE
Bambusa tulda Roxb. * MT2117 NE
Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin MT2555 NE
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. MT1653 NE
Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro * MT1643 LC
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees and Arn.ex Munro * MT1581 NE
Digitaria abludens (Roem. & Schult.) Veldkamp NEIFM-130, NEIFM-131 NE
Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler NEIFM-133 NE
Dinochloa macclellandii (Munro) Kurz MT2072 NE
Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link MT2553 LC

J TT
Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv. NEIFM-098 LC
Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. NEIFM-344 LC
Eulalia hirtifolia (Hack.) Kuntze NEIFM-410 NE
Hemarthria compressa (L.f.) R.Br. NEIFM-291 LC
Oplismenus burmanni (Retz.) P. Beauv. MT2550 NE
Oplismenus compositus (L.) P. Beauv. MT 2551 NE
Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. MT1585 LC
Phyllostachys manii Gamble MT1566 NE
Pseudoraphis minuta (Mez) Pilg. NEIFM-290 NE
Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. # MT1782 NE
Saccharum spontaneum L. # MT1584 LC
Sacciolepis indica (L.) Chase NEIFM-161 NE
Setaria palmifolia (J.Koenig) Stapf MT2554 NE
Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. MT2552 NE
Stapletonia seshagiriana (R.B. Majumdar) H.B. Naithani MT1820 NE
Themeda villosa (Lam.) A. Camas MT1708 NE
Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Honda MT2116 NE
Polygonaceae
Koenigia mollis (D.Don) T.M. Schust. & Reveal # MT1710 NE
Persicaria barbata (L.) H. Hara MT1632 LC
Persicaria capitata (Buch - Ham Ex D.Don ) H. Gross MT1624 NE
Persicaria chinensis (L.)H.Gross # MT1787 NE
Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Delarbre MT1633 LC
Persicaria nepalensis (Meisn.) H. Gross MT1623 NE
Persicaria orientalis (L.) Spach NEIFM-89 NE
Persicaria strigosa (R.Br.) H. Gross NEIFM-540 NE
Primulaceae
Ardisia solanacea Roxb. # MT1680 NE
Lysimachia debilis Wall. NEIFM-531 NE
Maesa indica (Roxb.) Sweet # MT1654 LC
Ranunculaceae
Ranunculus cantoniensis DC. NEIFM-105 NE
Rafflesiaceae
Sapria himalayana Griff. MT3010 NE
Rosaceae
Potentilla indica (Andrews) Th. Wolf # MT1648 NE
Rubus ellipticus Sm. # MT1759 NE
Rubus moluccanus L. # MT1567 NE
Rubus niveus Thumb # MT1542 NE
Rubus paniculatus Sm. # MT1569 NE
Rubus rosifolius Sm. # MT1831 NE
Rubus sumatranus Miq. # MT1713 NE

J TT
Rubiaceae
Argostemma sarmentosum Wall. MT2081 NE
Argostemma verticillatum Wall. MT2080 NE
Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng. NEIFM-466 NE

Chassalia curviflora var. ophioxyloides (Wall) Deb &
DB2079 NE
B.Krishna
Coffea benghalensis B.Heyne ex Schult. MT1697 LC
Dentella repens (L.) J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. NEIFM-95 LC
Dimetia scandens (Roxb.) R.J.Wang DB1111 NE
Exallage auricularia (L.) Bremek. NEIFM-125 NE
Gomphostemma lucidum Wallich ex Bentham MT3006 NE
Ixora polyantha Wight MT2078 NE
Mussaenda glabra Vahl # MT2077 NE
Mussaenda roxburghii Hook.f. # MT2076 NE
Mycetia mukerjiana Deb & Ratna Dutta MT2075 E
Oldenlandia umbellata L. MT2519 NE
Paederia foetida L. * MT2115 NE
Psychotria monticola Kurz NEIFM-425 NE
Psychotria silhetensis Hook.f. NEIFM-426 NE
Scleromitrion diffusum (Willd.) R.J.Wang NEIFM-158 NE
Uncaria macrophylla Wall. MT3005 NE
Wendlandia budleioides Wall. ex Wight & Arn. MT2114 NE
Rutaceae
Citrus indica Yu. Tanaka # MT2074 E
Citrus latipes (Swingle) Yu.Tanaka # MT1688 NE
Citrus medica L. # MT2073 NE
Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. NEIFM-424 LC
Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. # MT2113 NE
Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack MT1675 NE
Murraya tetramera C.C.Huang NEIFM-429 NE
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. MT1535 NE
Zanthoxylum armatum D.C # MT1534 LC
Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew. # MT1533 NE
Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) DC. # MT2112 LC
Sabiaceae
Sabia lanceolata Colebr. MT2111 NE
Salicaceae
Casearia vareca Roxb. MT1597, MT2110 NE
Sapindaceae
Aesculus assamica Griff. MT2109 NE
Nephelium lappaceum L. # MT2100 LC
Saurauraceae
Houttuynia cordata Thunb. * MT2108 NE

J TT
Schrophulariaceae
Buddleja asiatica Lour DB2107 LC
Simaroubaceae
Brucea mollis Wall. ex Kurz NEIFM-243 NE
Ailanthus integrifolia Lam. MT2106 LC
Smilaceae
Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. ex D.Don MT2105 NE
Smilax zeylanica L MT2104 NE
Solanaceae
Solanum spirale Roxb. # MT1524 NE
Solanum villosum Mill. # MT2103 NE
Solanum violaceum Ortega # MT1583 NE
Lycianthes biflora (Lour.) Bitter NEIFM-402 NE
Stemonaceae
Stemona tuberosa Lour MT2099 NE
Styraceae
Styrax serrulatus Roxb. MT2098 NE
Tamaricaceae
Tamarix dioica Roxb. ex Roth MT2520 NE
Theaceae
Pyrenaria barringtoniifolia (Griff.) Seem. NEIFM-180 NE
Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. MT2089 LC
Typhaceae
Typha angustifolia L. MT1740 LC
Urticaceae
Boehmeria penduliflora Wedd. ex D.G.Long MT1739 NE
Boehmeria pilosiuscula (Blume) Hassk. MT1741 LC
Debregesia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd. MT1762 NE
Dendrocnide sinuata (Blume) Chew MT1825 NE
Elatostema dissectum Wedd. # MT2088 NE
Elatostema sessile J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. MT1755 NE
Gonostegia hirta (Hassk.) Miq. # MT1568 NE
Gonostegia pentandra (Roxb.) Miq. NEIFM-173, NEIFM-264 NE
Pilea insolens Wedd. # MT1749 NE
Pilea umbrosa Wedd. ex Blume # MT1744 NE
Poikilospermum suaveolens (Blume) Merr. # MT1701 NE
Pouzolzia calophylla W.T.Wang & C.J.Chen NEIFM-412 NE
Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. MT1750 NE
Urtica ardens Link. * MT1729 NE
Urtica dioica L. # MT2097 LC
Viburnaceae
Sambucus adnata Wall. ex DC. MT2096 NE

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Violaceae
Viola betonicifolia Sm.# MT1540 NE
Viola pilosa Blume # MT1539 NE
Viola thomsonii Oudem. NEIFM-249 NE
Vitaceae
Ampelocissus hoabinhensis C.L.Li NEIFM-514 NE
Causonis trifolia (L.) Mabb. & J.Wen NEIFM-455 NE
Cissus assamica (M.A.Lawson) Craib NEIFM-256 NE
Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr. MT2093 LC
Parthenocissus semicordata (Wall.) Planch. NEIFM-198, NEIFM-454 NE
Tetrastigma leucostaphylum (Dennst.) Alston MT2087 ; MT2095 NE
Zingiberaceae
Alpinia nigra (Gaertn.) Burtt # MT1683 LC
Alpinia roxburghii Sweet # MT1591 NE
Amomum maximum Roxb. # MT1578 LC
Amomum pterocarpum Thwaites # MT1592 LC
Amomum subulatum Roxb. # MT2086 DD
Globba multiflora Wall. ex Baker MT2085 NE
Hedychium coccineum Buch.-Ham. ex Sm MT2084 NE
Hedychium stenopetalum G.Lodd. MT1627 NE
Hornstedtia arunachalensis S. Triphathi & V. Prakash # MT2083 E

Larsenianthus arunachalensis M. Sabu, Sanoj & Rajesh
cf. Mibang & Das 2017 E, CR
Kumar
Larsenianthus assamensis S. Dey, Mood & S. Choudhury cf. Mibang & Das 2017 E
Larsenianthus careyanus (Benth. & Hook.f.) W.J. Kress
DB2082 NE
& Mood
Zingiber sianginensis Tatum & A.K. Das * MT2083 E
Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. MT2084 DD
*—Ethnomedicine | #—Edible
CR—Critically Endangered | LC—Least Concern | NT—Near Threatened | E—Endemic | VU—Vulnerable | DD—Data Deficient.
Ved, D.K., G.A. Kinhal, K. Ravikumar, R.V. Sankar & K. Haridasan cauliflora. Systematic Botany 41(1): 229–237. https://doi.
(2005). Conservation Assessment and Management Prioritisation org/10.1600/036364416X690624
(CAMP) for wild medicinal plants of North-East India. Medicinal Yumnam, J.Y. & O.P. Tripathi (2013). Ethnobotany: plant used in fishing
Plant Conservation 11: 40–44. and hunting by adi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of
Ward, F.K. (1929). Botanical Exploration in the Mishmi Hills. The Traditional Knowledge 12(1): 157–161.
Himalayan Journal 1: 51–59. Yumnam, J.Y., S.I. Bhuyan, O.P. Tripathi & M.L. Khan (2011). Study on
WFO (2020). World Flora Online. Published on the Internet; http:// the ethnomedicinal plants used by Adi tribe of East Siang District,
www.worldfloraonline.org. Accessed 09 April 2020 Arunachal Pradesh. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany
Yan, K.J., D.X. Xu & Z.Q. Song (2016). Mycetia fangii (Rubiaceae), 35(2): 369–377.
a New Species from South China, with notes on M.
Threatened Taxa

OPEN ACCESS
#5397 | Received 09 September 2019 | Final received 20 October 2020 | Finally accepted 01 November 2020
C
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Crepuscular hunting of swiftlets (Family: Apodidae) by Besra m
u
(Family: Accipitridae) in the urban areas of the Andaman Islands, India n
i
c
a
Amruta Dhamorikar 1 , Dhanusha Kawalkar 2 , Prathamesh Gurjarpadhye 3 & Shirish Manchi 4 t
i
1,2,3,4
Division of Conservation Ecology, Sàlim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Anaikatty (Post), Coimbatore, o
Tamil Nadu 641108, India.
n
1
4
Abstract: We report the crepuscular hunting behavior by the Besra Accipiter virgatus, on the Glossy Swiftlets Collocalia esculenta affinis
and the Edible-nest Swiftlets Aerodramus fuciphagus inexpectatus in urban areas the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Unlike other raptors
in the islands, the Besra hunts at twilight often in the absence of moonlight or/and artificial light. Glossy and Edible-nest Swiftlets have
been ranched in human habitations and their nests harvested for livelihood support of local communities under an ex situ conservation
program. Using the focal animal sampling method, we recorded the hunting behavior of the Besra (the predator) on the swiftlets (the
prey) for 40h (120 min/day for 20 days) at the ex situ swiftlet colony established in a house in the Middle Andamans. The Besra made 84
hunting attempts, with the highest success rate (15.4%) between 17.00–18.00 h. The catch rate was a mean of 4±11 (SD) per day. The
maximum time that was used for attempt to kill the prey was two hours. Depredation of the Edible-nest Swiftlet by the Besra could affect
ex situ conservation efforts, which can also lead to economic losses and retaliation against the raptor. Restricting perch sites for the raptor
around ranching houses might reduce predation risks for the swiftlets.
Keywords: Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Besra, crepuscular hunting, Edible-nest Swiftlet, ex situ conservation, predatory behavior.
Editor: Anonymity requested. Date of publication: 26 December 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Dhamorikar, A., D. Kawalkar, P. Gurjarpadhye & S. Manchi (2020). Crepuscular hunting of swiftlets (Family: Apodidae) by Besra (Family: Accipitridae) in the
urban areas of the Andaman Islands, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(17): 17323–17329. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5397.12.17.17323-17329
Copyright: © Dhamorikar et al. 2020. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this
Funding: Ministry of Environment and Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC), Government of India.
Author details: Amruta Dhamorikar, MSc, a researcher in the Edible-nest Swiftlet conservation program (2017–2019) and is currently working as an ecologist in
AECOM India Pvt. Ltd. Dhanusha Kawalkar, Msc, a researcher in the Edible-nest Swiftlet conservation program (2017–2020) and currently engaged in studying
the Indian Swiftlet towards its conservation in Maharahstra. Prathamesh Gurjarpadhye, PhD scholar and a researcher is involved in the Edible-nest Swiftlet
conservation program (2018 onwards). He is presently exploring the population dynamics of the species through ecological and molecular approach. Manchi
Shirish, PhD, Principal Scientist is involved in research and conservation of the Edible-nest Swiftlet in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands for around two decades.
Author contribution: AD—conceptualization, data curation, methodology, writing – original draft; DK—conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis,
methodology, writing – original draft; PG—conceptualization, methodology, data curation, writing – original draft; SM—funding acquisition, investigation, project
administration, resources, conceptualization, supervision, validation, writing – review & editing.
Acknowledgements: We thank the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change for funding the in situ and ex situ conservation of endemic Andaman
Edible-nest Swiftlet project under which the present study was conducted. We are grateful to the Department of Environment and Forests, Andaman and Nicobar
Island for providing the necessary permissions. We especially thank Mr. Russogi (Divisional Forest Officer, Mayabunder, WL) for his support during the fieldwork.
We are indebted to Miss. Pallavi Poojari and Justin Sumit Kumar for their help during the data collection. We acknowledge reviewers for their inputs to improve
the quality of the manuscript.
17323
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Crepuscular hunting of swiftlets by Besra Dhamorikar et al.
INTRODUCTION habitats in the Andaman Islands. As the other members

of the genus Accipiter, the Besra is a swift and silent
Availability of food and potential nesting sites hunter. The species is quick on the wing in quest of prey,
play an essential role in adapting birds to survive often twisting and turning to chase the bird and escape
urban environments (Marzluff 2016). Glossy Swiftlet hindrances. Besra breeds from March to May and nests
Collocalia esculenta affinis and the Edible-nest Swiftlet on roadside trees, near human habitation, mangrove
Aerodramus fuciphagus inexpectatus (Cranbrook et al. forests, and Padauk plantations (Ali & Ripley 1978).
2013) are examples of birds that are adapted to urban Being an opportunistic hunter, the diet of Besra includes
habitats in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands (Manchi & small birds, insects, and some mammals and reptiles,
Mane 2012). This successful adaptation is due to the depending on the season and availability of prey. It
availability of nesting locations and food. Some cave- primarily preys on birds during the breeding season
dwelling swiftlets such as the Edible-nest Swiftlet are (Huang et al. 2004). In the Andaman Islands, the Besra
of human interest and famous worldwide for ‘bird’s predates on poultry near human habitation. It is also a
nest soup,’ a delicacy in Chinese cuisine, and traditional potential predator of swiftlets breeding in the limestone
Chinese medicine (Koon & Cranbrook 2002; Chantler & caves of the Andaman Islands, according to Manchi &
Boesman 2019). The nests exclusively built using bird’s Sankaran (2009).
saliva have a high market value due to their medicinal Foraging in twilight is generally regarded as an end
properties. These birds are farmed for mass production or beginning of diurnal or nocturnal activity. While
of the edible nests to sustain international demand crepuscular foraging is uncommon, many nocturnal
(Hobbs 2004; Thorburn 2015). predators such as owls, nightjars, and waders begin
In the past several decades, the nests have been hunting at dusk. The circumstances under which
illegally harvested from caves in the Andaman Islands, crepuscular hunting occurs are not well understood
impacting the population. For sustainable use of or documented (Martin 1990). Among diurnal raptors
the birds’ nest and to reduce the pressure on wild other than owls, the smaller species of the genus Falco
populations, an ex situ conservation program was (Lesser Kestrel F. naumanni, Kestrel F. tinnunculus,
started in urban houses, which habituated the Edible- Hobby F. Subbuteo and Sooty Falcon F. concolor) and
nest Swiftlet to nest in human-made structures. The large-bodied falcons such as the peregrine falcon hunt
Glossy Swiftlet also nests in abandoned houses, bridges, at night under artificial lights such as street lamps, and
and jetties. As part of the conservation program, the moonlight (Ratcliffe 1980; Pierson & Donahue 1983).
swiftlets are attracted to human habitation and reared As the swiftlet ranching in the ex situ houses
in an artificial structure, known as ex situ swiftlet house aims to provide livelihood support for the economic
(Manchi & Mane 2012). Scientists and managers with development of the local populations in the Andaman
years of efforts, have successfully attracted the Edible- Islands, the threat from Besra can have significant
nest Swiftlet population to breed in one such ex situ implications. Therefore, we studied the crepuscular
structure (henceforth ‘swiftlet house’) in the Middle hunting behavior of Besra. Further, we hypothesized
Andamans by using the sympatric Glossy Swiftlet as that the successful hunting of swiftlets by Besra is
foster parents to hatch the eggs and rear the chicks associated with i) time of day (diurnal vs. crepuscular),
(Sankaran & Manchi 2008). This swiftlet house supports ii) availability of perch sites, and iii) flock size of swiftlets.
a colony of Glossy Swiftlet (~1,000 individuals) and
Edible-nest Swiftlet (8–10 individuals). The Edible-nest
Swiftlet (ENS) shares the nesting site with the Glossy MATERIALS AND METHODS
Swiftlet. Some young ENS birds are also known to build
nests on existing Glossy Swiftlet nests. Study Area
During our study, the swiftlet population in the The Andaman group of islands is in the northeastern
house was hunted by the raptor, Besra Accipiter virgatus Indian Ocean, along the southern extension of the
abdulalii, at dawn and dusk. Besra is a small, diurnal bird Arakan Yoma mountain range, are peaks of a submerged
of prey of the Order Falconiformes. Out of 11 subspecies continuous mountain ridge extending up to Sumatra in
of A. virgatus, A.v. abdulalii is an endemic subspecies the south, between latitude 6.75–13.68 0N and 92.20—
restricted to the Andaman Islands (Naoroji 2006; Clark 93.95 0E. The Andaman group of islands are divided
& Marks 2020). Due to the easy availability of the prey, into (a) South Andaman, (b) Middle Andaman, (c) North
and its nesting locations, Besra has adapted to the urban Andaman, (d) Baratang, and (e) Rutland. The forest

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Figure 1. Geographical location of the study site.
types range from the tropical wet evergreen forest 17.31h & 17.33h, respectively (Time and Date 2018).
towards the south to tropical moist deciduous forest in Human habitation and small patches of deciduous forest
the North Andaman group of islands (Davidar et al. 2001; surround the swiftlet house. Plant species such as
Champion & Seth 2005). Parts of the islands also have Azadirachta indica A. Juss, Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp.,
human settlements and agricultural fields surrounded Calamus sp. L., Tectona grandis L.f., and Ficus religiosa L.
by deciduous forests. This island group, with a high are seen around the swiftlet house. We made daily visits
proportion of endemic flora and fauna, is one of the to the swiftlet house during the late summer season from
global biodiversity hotspots in the world (Conservation 02 April to 28 April 2018 between 16.00h and 18.00h.
International 2005). The archipelago has 19 identified The study period coincided with the breeding season
Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (Rahmani et of the Besra (Ali & Ripley 1978) and swiftlets (Manchi
al. 2016) and is also recognized as an endemic bird & Sankaran 2014). The activities of the Besra near the
area (Birdlife International 2019). Including endemic swiftlet house were studied using focal animal sampling
species such as Andaman Serpent Eagle Spilornis elgini, (Altmann 1974). We made observations from the
Great Nicobar Serpent Eagle Spilornis klossi, Central moment the individual arrives around the swiftlet house
Nicobar Serpent Eagle Spilornis minimus, and Nicobar until it leaves the site. Simultaneously, swiftlets around
Sparrowhawk Accipiter butleri; the Andaman & Nicobar the house were observed to understand the interaction
Islands have 22 raptor species. between the prey and predator. Three observers were
We conducted the present study in the northernmost stationed at different observation stations around
part of Middle Andaman in Tugapur near Mayabunder the house to observe and note the behavior of the
town (Figure 1). The temperature in Tugapur during Besra along with the time (Figure 2). With 120 min of
April was between 27oC and 35oC (Accuweather 2018). observation every day, we collected data for 2,400 min
Sunrise and sunset were between 05.01h & 05.16h and in 20 days. Occasionally, we prolonged the observations

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Figure 2. Study site: a—Azadirachta indica | b—Gliricidia sepium | c—Tectona grandis | d—towards Ficus religiosa | e—entrance of the
swiftlet house for swiftlets | f—frequently used path by Besra | g—water tank | h—entry of the study site | i–j–k—observation stations.
until 18.30h to check the presence and activity of Besra. and the period of most hunting attempts were during
Because of unfavorable circumstances, we could make the crepuscular (twilight) hours (Time and Date 2018).
only one observation during the morning hours (04.45– It confirmed the crepuscular hunting behavior of Besra,
07.00 h). To process the collected data, we used XL-STAT the predator. Out of the total time the besra spent near
software (Ver. 2020, Addinsoft 2020). We excluded the the ex situ house, 48% was spent attempting a kill while
set of data from the single morning visit during analysis. 35% time was spent on the perch (Figure 4).
Ethograms of Besra was made based on behavioral All the hunting attempts, successful or unsuccessful,
observations. No ethical approval was obligatory for were on the flock of swiftlets swarming in the lower
this study. canopy (2–5 m above ground) and never above the
canopy. The number of attempts increased as the
RESULTS swiftlet flock size increased (Table 1). The Besra
captured and carried its kill with its claws. Immediately
The present study confirms the Besra as a predator after capture, the predator brought each kill to the same
of the swiftlets. Swiftlets being diurnal foragers, the perch of attack (mostly Azadirachta indica) or the nearest
breeding individuals keep returning to the breeding landing site (mostly Tectona grandis within 10m). As
location to feed their nestlings, and the arrival of the the swiftlets gathered around the house in small groups
Besra was at 16.00h. During the 20 days of observations, (15–20 birds), the Besra would chase the selected prey
the Besra made 84 hunting attempts per day to catch with athletic ease, twisting, turning, and swooping close
swiftlets with 4±11 (Mean±SD). It preyed upon 1±0.5 to the ground (6 in Figure 2) as the aerodynamic swiftlet
swiftlets per day, with 14.92% (n=84) successful tried to break away from its grasp. The predator and
attempts. The most hunting attempts were between the prey are swift flyers, and thus sometimes swiftlets
17.31–17.50 h (67.80 %), and most successful (11.48%) managed to evade the predator successfully. The height
and unsuccessful (56.32%) attempts were also made at which the chase was made, particular areas around
during the same period (Figure 3). Comparing the the swiftlet house , and the time of the hunt influenced
sunset timings (17.31h to 17.33h on observation days) a successful kill.

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Table 1. Table 1. The hunting attempts by the Besra (the predator) at

a given time in relation to the flock size of swiftlets (the prey) (Note:
flock size: <50—small | 50–200—medium | 200–500—large)
Total hunting attempts
Time (h) Flock size of swiftlets
(% success)
16.20–16.30 small 1 (0)
16.30–16.40 small 1 (0)
16.40–16.50 small 6 (50)
16.50–17.00 large 3 (0)
17.00–17.10 large 0
17.10–17.20 large 6 (0)
17.20–17.30 large 11 (0)
17.30–17.40 large 35 (14.28)

17.40–17.50 small 21 (23.80) Figure 3. Hunting attempts (in %) by the Besra in relation to the time
17.50–18.00 small 0 of the day.
Total 84
The Besra usually ripped off the feathers of its

prey before consuming the kill. Occasionally, it would
swallow the feathers too. The Besra spent 16% of its
time in consuming the kill (Figure 4). By examining
the kill remnants, we confirmed that the prey species
was Glossy Swiftlet, however, once the population
of the Edible-nest Swiftlet grows, we cannot deny the
possibility of it being hunted by the Besra.
The most hunting attempts by Besra were from a
particular perch in the canopy of a large Azadirachta Figure 4. Activity time budget of Besra near the ex situ swiftlet
house, Middle Andaman Island.
indica (46.17%), beside the swiftlet house, however,
the Besra was observed using other perching sites
around the swiftlet house as well (Table 2). After each
attempt, it often perched (30.76%) on Gliricidia sepium breeding/roosting sites (Tarburton 2009) are counted as
(2 in Figure 2). The predator returned to the same perch the anti-predatory behaviors of the swiftlets.
on Azadirachta indica for the next attempt to catch a Approximately 20km from the swiftlet house, we
swiftlet. located a Besra chasing the swiftlets during morning and
evening twilight hours. This location hosts thousands
of Glossy Swiftlets. Here, we observed the swiftlets
DISCUSSION forming to chase away the predator. Therefore, we can
see two anti-predatory mechanisms in the swiftlets, one
Swiftlets are known to flock near their breeding to escape the predator by forming groups, and secondly
and roosting sites during dawn and dusk while leaving by mobbing the predator by forming larger groups.
or returning to their roosts (Tarburton 2009; Mane & The anti-predatory behavior may limit the number of
Manchi 2017). The cave-dwelling swiftlets are usually prey obtained by the Besra. Apart from the Besra, we
known to be vulnerable while entering and exiting noticed that the Shikra Accipiter badius attempting to
the caves (Mane & Manchi 2017). The present study, hunt swiftlets near the swiftlet house between 16.00
however, is the first to document aerial predation of and 16.30 h from the Ficus benghalensis L. trees which
swiftlets by the Besra around human-habitation. Flying was the tallest in the study site. The Shikra chased the
in flocks equips the swiftlets to successfully evade swiftlets swarming in the open air but was unsuccessful
predators. The time of arrival at the roost (Mane & in catching a bird.
Manchi 2017, 2019) and the speed used for entering the As the number of Glossy Swiftlets in the swiftlet

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Table 2. Perch sites used by Besra while hunting the swiftlets near the ex situ swiflet house, Middle Andaman.
Common name of Height of perch Total hunting
Scientific name of the perch tree the perch tree (meters) attempts (% success)
1 Azadirachta indica A. Juss Neem 3.5 13 (46)
2 Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp Gliricidia 2.3 13 (15)
5 Tectona grandis L.f. Teak 3 7 (14)
6 Ficus religiosa L. Peepal ~7 26 ((8)
house is greater than the Edible-nest Swiftlet, we can resources.’ Therefore, with a more focused study and
say that the Besra may be preying on the more easily observations throughout the islands, it can be concluded
available target. It makes the Edible-nest Swiftlet as whether A. v. abdulalii of Andaman Islands has adapted
vulnerable to predation as the Glossy Swiftlets, putting to crepuscular hunting owing to the swiftlet’s ecology,
the already low population at risk. and whether this behavior is limited to urban areas (in
Sparrow-hawks use at least a 15cm circumference ex situ structures) or exists everywhere.
branch of a tree or a moderately flat surface for perching
(Owen 1932). Although we could not confirm the same
for the Besra, the repetitive use of the same perch CONCLUSION
shows some preference for perches. To avoid predation
of swiftlets, it is essential to avoid such ideal ‘perches’ Since the swiftlet-farming efforts are in the direction
or trees near the swiftlet house. Removal of these ideal of livelihood development and economic growth in the
available perches might drastically reduce the rate of islands, any hindrance to such a program will ultimately
predation of the swiftlets by the Besra, at least till the affect the local human populations. The raptor-human
individual finds and learn to use any other perching site conflict that may arise from this is a threat to the
and hunting strategy. The predation behavior depends survival of both (prey and predator) species. Based
mostly on the cognitive ability of an individual; it is on the observations discussed, we now recommend
challenging at present to ascertain the change in the maintaining the premises of the swiftlet houses by
predation rates by the Besra after removal of the perch restricting the vegetation growth for better management
trees around the house. of the swiftlet populations in urban areas and also to
Many raptors have shown adaptations in hunting and avoid future raptor-human interaction.
foraging behavior according to the prey resources. The
Bat Hawk Macheiramphus alcinus in sub-Saharan Africa,
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Threatened Taxa

OPEN ACCESS
#6465 | Received 22 July 2020 | Final received 03 December 2020 | Finally accepted 18 December 2020
C
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A study on diversity of mammalian species using camera traps and
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associated vegetation in Mizoram University Campus, Aizawl, Mizoram
c
a J.H. Zothanpuii 1 , Sushanto Gouda 2 , Abinash Parida 3 & G.S. Solanki 4
t
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o 1–4
Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram 796009, India.
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Abstract: Fragmented forests often have conservation value, serving as a refuge or corridors for small mammalian species. In the study,
the diversity of mammals was studied within Mizoram University (MZU) campus. Forty-eight plant species from 25 families were recorded
on different sites. Thirty quadrates were nested at the locations of occurrence of mammalian species for vegetation type analysis.
Schima wallichi was the most dominant plant species with the highest IVI values of (31.7%), followed by Aporosa octandra (22.93%) and
Castanopsis tribuloide (21.17%). Camera trap method was used to collect information about the mammalian diversity in the campus.
The mammalian species recorded in this study makes 15% of mammalian fauna of the state of Mizoram. Twelve mammal species and
six bird species were recorded by the camera traps. With proper awareness among residents of the campus and a planned approach for
developmental activities, the findings of our study can make an important extension for the coexistence of mammalian species and long
term survivability within MZU campus.
Keywords: Camera traps, coexistence, mammalian diversity, Mizoram University, Urban biodiversity.
Editor: Anwaruddin Choudhury, The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North East India, Guwahati, India. Date of publication: 26 December 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Zothanpuii., S. Gouda, A. Parida & G.S. Solanki (2020). A study on diversity of mammalian species using camera traps and associated vegetation in Mizoram
University Campus, Aizawl, Mizoram. Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(17): 17330–17339. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6465.12.17.17330-17339
Copyright: © Zothanpuii et al. 20. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this
Funding: We are thankful to the Department of Zoology, Mizoram University for providing necessary supports for the study. Facilities developed in NMHS project
were also utilized. NMHS project sanction letter no. GBPNI/NMHS-2017/MG-221/5561.
Author details: J.H. Zothanpui is a MSc student of Department of Zoology, Mizoram University and the work is a part of her dissertation work. She is currently
preparing for future possible research opportunities. Sushant Gouda is a PhD scholar and is currently engaged in a NMHS based project under the Department
of Zoology, Mizoram University. He is active in the field of wildlife biology and conservation education. His major research area is ecology and distribution of
Himalayan bear. Abinash Parida is a senior research fellow in the NMHS project in department of zoology. He is a vigorous field biologist and working on faunal
diversity and conservation. His major research area is primate diversity, ecology, and conservation. G.S. Solanki is Professor in Zoology and Principal Investigator of
Nation Mission on Himalayan Studies (NMHS) project in the Department of Zoology. This project is funded by G.B. Pant National Institute Himalayan Environment
and Sustainable Development, Almora,Uttarakhand. Major research area is ecology and conservation of wilderness species with main emphasis on primates.
Author contribution: JHZ and AP have carried out the research work and collected the data. SG helped in preparation of this the manuscript. GSS was Principal
Investigator and guiding teacher, and provided work plan and all logistic suppot required.
Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful acknowledge the support and logistic provided by Department of Zoology and administration of Mizoram University.
First author also extend thanks to principal investigator of NMHS project who very kindly allowed me to use camera traps of the project. Thanks are also due to
the security in charge of MZU for the necessary permission and co-operation during the study.
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Diversity of mammalian species in Mizoram University Campus Zothanpuii et al.
INTRODUCTION was planned to determine the mammalian diversity

using mainly camera traps and direct observations
The northeastern region of India shares two within the campus.
biodiversity hotspots and has rich mammalian and avian
diversity (Choudhury 2006). The state of Mizoram is
part of the Indo-Myanmar Biodiversity Hotspot region MATERIALS AND METHODS
and harbours 126 species of mammals including 37
threatened species (Lalthanzara 2017). The rapid Study area
expansion of shifting cultivation and urbanization in the Mizoram University (MZU) is located at the western
region has, however, led to a contemporary changes end of the Aizawl town, the state capital of Mizoram at a
in landscape, forest fragmentation, and ecosystem distance of about 15km. The campus of MZU is spread
modification (Teegalapalli et al. 2009; Yadav 2013). in an area of 978.1988 acres and lies between 23.7394oN
Such anthropogenic activities have created a mosaic & 92.6651oE. The elevation ranges between 300–880
of remnant forest patches of varying size, demarcated m. University campus encompasses the administrative
by a network of roads, concerts, and settlements block, academic blocks, hostels, and other facilities which
areas (Mazumdar et al. 2011). Recent researches on are sparsely embedded within regenerating tropical
biodiversity conservation had put urban areas having wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (Image 1).
rich biodiversity into the limelight for the long-term The campus also harbors a protected forested water
persistence of native species (Ordenana et al. 2010; catchment reserve in the north and a small biodiversity
Lopucki & Kitowski 2017; Hill et al. 2018). Urbanization park. In the vicinity of the campus, there are settlement
is often considered to have several negative impacts areas, where residents undertake agriculture practice
on the native flora and fauna; nevertheless, it also (jhum cultivation), which is the primary source of income
serves as valuable habitat and corridor for dispersal of and livelihood. Several small natural and seasonal
certain animal species (Opdam et al. 2003; Fernandez streams also flow through the campus. Vegetation
& Simonetti 2013). Urban and semi-urban green forest profile is dominated by trees comprised of 384 species
patches serves as surrogate and refuge habitat to be of vascular plants from 290 genera and 107 families
utilized for dispersal and migration for birds and many (Lalchhuanawma 2008; Rai 2016; Sailo et al. 2019). A
small to medium size mammals (Gallo et al. 2017). The map of the university is presented in Figure 1.
role of degraded forest landscapes and patches within
the campus of academic institutions as a potential Vegetation analysis
habitat for small mammals and birds has also been A preliminary survey of campus area was carried
acknowledged in some studies (Vallejo et al. 2008; out to select the sampling site for vegetation study.
Mazumdar et al. 2011; Voon et al. 2014; Nerlekar et al. Transects were set up in areas where signs and evidence
2016). of animals’ presence were observed. For vegetation
The camera trap is a useful technique widely used sampling 10m x 10m quadrates were plotted at every
for collecting information on elusive species (Kelly et 200m interval along transects for tree diversity analysis.
al. 2008; Linkie & Ridout 2011). Information on species Thirty quadrates were plotted in different sites and only
diversity and distribution is considered to be the primary trees having DBH more than 10cm were considered for
need for conservation activities (Geldmann et al. 2013; the analysis (Daniels et al. 1996). Vegetation analysis
Brncic et al. 2015). While information on biodiversity was done for the relative frequency of occurrence of
in megacities and large urban areas are easily available, the species; relative density, relative abundance and
the same is scarce in small cities and educational important value index (IVI) were determined following
campuses (Lopucki et al. 2013; Lopucki & Kitowski 2017). methods of Lalchhuanawma (2008) and Ahmed (2012).
Mizoram University (MZU) campus at Aizawl, Mizoram
encompasses a large area with lush green landscape Camera trapping
having several patches of natural forest vegetation. The camera traps are often used for understanding the
Although research on herpetofauna (Vanlalhlimpuia secretive behavior or nocturnal activity, and estimating
2012), butterfly (Baruah 2017), spiders (Lalthafamkima animal population comprehensively even at relatively
2017), and birds (Sailo et al. 2019) are available from low densities of animals (Ordenana et al. 2010; Gouda
MZU campus, no study has been undertaken on the et al. 2020). Camera deployment points were chosen
distribution of mammalian species. Therefore, a study based on the presence of visible animal trails, footprints,

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Figure 1. Location of Aizawl City and Mizoram University campus.
scats, activity areas such as dens or close to streams

(Sasidhran et al. 2016). Nine camera traps (Cuddeback)
were randomly deployed at 15 sampling points within
the study sites for 45 days as presented in Figure 2. The
cameras were installed on a tree trunk at a suitable
height of 30–50 cm above the ground at optimum
angles based on slope conditions for viewing the animal
trails without the camera view being blocked by any
objects (Image 1). Camera traps were programmed to
take sequential photographs with five seconds delay
registering date and time for each exposure. On average
the camera traps were operational for five days and
were checked every two days for photos and battery
replacement. GPS (Garmin map 78S) was also used to
record coordinates, elevation, and slope of camera trap
locations. The relative abundance index (RAI) value was
calculated using the method suggested by Jenks et al.
(2011). Whenever possible we also recorded directly
observed species especially arboreal ones around the Figure 2. Location of camera traps and quadrates for vegetation
camera trap locations. sampling.

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Image 1. a & b—view of MZU campus | c—installation of camera traps | d—habitat with water source, footprints, and tracks of different animal
species. © Abinash Parida.
RESULTS photo-captured during this study (Table 4) (Image 3).

Among the mammalian species, civets are predominant
Forty-eight plant species which belongs to 25 with 30.17% followed by felids (25%). The presence of
families were recorded along the transect lines during Marbled Cat Pardofelis marmorata (Near Threatened),
the vegetation study. Vegetation samples were analyzed Clouded Leopard Neofelios nebulosa (Vulnerable),
for the parameters mentioned in Table 1. The analysis and Golden Jackal Canis aureus (Least Concern) were
showed that Schima wallichi is the most dominant plant important and majestic mammalian species. Such
species having the highest IVI values (31.7%), followed valuable observations from the fragmented habitat of an
by Aporosa octandra (22.93%), Castanopsis tribuloide urban landscape are significant for species conservation.
(21.17%), and Syzgium praecox (17.86%). Plant species Other recorded species are categorised as Least
such as Hibiscus macrophyllus, Bischofia javanica, Concern. The relative abundance index (RAI) value was
Cinnamomum cassia, and Acer laevigatum were some highest (16.67) for Crab-eating Mongoose Herpestes
of the least available species (Table 1). The family urva followed by Common Palm Civet Paradoxurus
Euphorbiaceae contributed for the highest IVI, followed hermaphroditus (13.3), and Leopard Cat Prionailurus
by Theaceae and Fagacae while the family Pandanaceae bengalensis (10) (Table 2). Sites with minimal human
had the lowest IVI values among the recorded plant disturbance and water bodies within the campus had
families (Figure 3). higher RAI values. Among directly observed mammalian
The mammalian diversity on MZU campus is 19 species squirrels and shrews were the major ones (Table
mammalian species; 12 were captured through camera 3). Seven avian species namely Khalij Pheasant (male
traps (Table 2) (Image 2) and seven were recorded by and female), Blue Whistling Thrush, Forktail, Asian
direct observations (Table 3). Six bird species were also Barred Owlet, Long-tailed Nightjar, and Large Cuckoo

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Table 1. Vegetation composition and analysis.
Relative Important
Relative Relative Dominance Value
Name of species Mizo name Family density (%) Frequency (%) (%) Index(IVI)
1 Acer laevigatum Thingkhim Aceraceae 0.54 0.36 0.38 1.28
2 Albizia chinensis Vang Mimosaceae 2.20 1.84 1.93 5.97
3 Albizia richardiana Theichhawl Mimosaceae 2.20 1.65 3.23 7.08
4 Albizia procera Kangtek Mimosaceae 1.37 1.10 2.48 4.95
5 Anogeissus acuminate Zairum Combretaceae 0.29 0.73 0.69 1.71
6 Aporosa octandra Chhawntual Euphorbiaceae 10.09 4.61 8.23 22.93
7 Artocarpus lakoocha Theitat Moraceae 0.83 1.10 1.01 2.94
8 Balakata baccata Thingvawkpui Euphorbiaceae 1.37 3.68 1.84 6.89
9 Bischofia javanica Khuangthli Euphorbiacea 0.12 0.01 0.15 0.28
10 Bombax insigne Pang Bimbaceae 1.78 1.47 3.29 6.54
11 Callicarpa arborea Hnahkiah Verbenaceae 4.4 3.13 1.95 9.48
12 Castanopsis indica Sehawr Fagaceae 3.74 1.84 1.40 6.98
13 Castanopsis lanceifolia Vawmbuh Fagaceae 0.41 1.29 0.87 2.57
14 Castanopsis tribuloides Thingsia Fagaceae 8.43 3.13 9.61 21.1
15 Cedrellatoona Tei Meliaceae 0.29 0.36 0.30 0.95
16 Cinnamomum cassia Thakthing Lauraceae 0.12 0.01 0.13 0.26
17 Cinnamomum tamala Tespata Lauraceae 2.36 1.47 1.81 5.64
18 Colona floribunda Hnahthap Tiliaceae 0.12 0.36 0.17 0.65
19 Cordiawallichi Muk Boraginanaceae 0.83 2.02 2.05 4.9
20 Derris robusta Thingkha Fanaceae 1.12 1.29 0.92 3.33
21 Derris thrysiflora Hulhu Papillionaceae 0.12 0.01 0.19 0.32
22 Drymicarpus racemosus Vawmbal Anacardiaceae 3.44 1.65 5.24 10.3
23 Duabanga grandiflora Zuang Sonneratiaceae 0.12 0.01 0.28 0.41
24 Embilica officinales Sunhlu Euphorbiaceae 0.54 0.55 0.51 1.6
25 Erythrina variegate Fartuah Papillionaceae 0.41 0.73 1.99 3.13
26 Ficus hirta Sazutheipui Moraceae 0.54 0.62 0.67 2.13
27 Glochidion heyneanum Thingpawnchhia Euphorbiaceae 2.78 2.02 2.15 6.95
28 Gmrlina arborea Thlanvawng Verbenaceae 0.71 0.55 1.22 2.48
29 Haldina cordifolia Lungkhup Rubiaceae 2.20 1.10 1.62 4.92
30 Hibiscus macrophyllus Vaiza Malvaceae 0.12 0.01 0.07 0.20
31 Ilex godajam Thinguihahni Aquifoliaceae 0.41 0.73 0.82 1.96
32 Lithocarpus elegans Thingpuithing Fagaceae 0.70 0.36 0.72 1.78
33 Litseamono petala Nauthak Lauraceae 2.07 1.84 1.60 5.51
34 Macaranga indica Hnahkhar Euphorbiaceae 4.86 2.94 3.74 11.54
35 Macropanax undulatum Phuanberh Araliaceae 0.41 0.92 0.85 2.18
36 Messua ferrea Herhse Guttiferae 0.70 0.36 0.31 1.37
37 Pandanus fasicularis Ramlakhuih Pandanaceae 0.41 1.47 0.33 2.21
38 Protium serratum Bil Burseraceae 1.37 0.92 1.45 3.74
39 Saurauia punduana Tiar Actinidiaceae 2.78 1.29 1.96 6.03
40 Schima khasiana Khiangzo Theaceae 0.64 0.92 0.67 2.23
41 Schima wallichi Khiang Theaceae 13.29 4.05 14.36 31.70
42 Sterculia villosa Khaupui Sterculaceae 1.12 0.92 1.33 3.37

Stereospermum
43 Zinghal Bignoniaceae 0.41 1.17 0.75 2.63
tetragonum

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Relative Important
Relative Relative Dominance Value
Name of species Mizo name Family density (%) Frequency (%) (%) Index(IVI)
44 Syzigiumcumini Lenhmui Myrtaceae 0.71 1.47 1.43 3.61
45 Syzigium praecox Hmuifang Myrtaceae 6.35 2.76 8.75 17.86
46 Toona ciliate Teipui Meliaceae 0.41 0.55 0.94 1.90
47 Trema orientalis Belphuar Cannabaceae 0.41 0.92 9.03 10.36
48 Wendlandia budieioides Batling Rubiaceae 3.19 2.21 1.73 7.13
Table 2. Mammalian diversity based on photo captured and their status

Family Common name Scientific name IUCN status RAI
1 Felidae Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa Vulnerable 3.33
2 Felidae Marbled Cat Pardofelis marmorata Near threatened 3.33
3 Felidae Leopard Cat Prionailurus bengalensis Least concern 10.00
4 Suidae Wild Pig Sus scrofa Least concern 3.33
5 Viverridae Large Indian Civet Viverra zibetha Least Concern 13.33
6 Viverridae Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica Least concern 10.00
7 Viverridae Common Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Least concern 13.33
8 Herpestidae Crab-eating Herpestes urva Least concern 16.67

Mongoose
9 Canidae Golden Jackal Canis aureus Least concern 3.33
10 Viverridae Himalayan Palm Paguma larvata Least concern 6.67

Civet
11 Mustelidae Ferret Badger Melogale sp. Least concern 3.33
12 Tupaiidae Tree Shrew Cladobats belangari Least concern 3.33
Shrike were also captured by camera traps in different species. The record of 19 mammalian species in the
areas of the campus (Table 4, Image 3). campus is an evidence of its rich mammalian diversity,
which contributes for 15% of the mammalian fauna of
the state of Mizoram. Family viverridae is highly diverse
DISCUSSION in MZU campus; five species of family viverridae were
also reported earlier in Mizoram (Lalthanzara 2017).
This study can make an important extension in Presence of felids (three species) in the campus also
documentation and range of faunal species available forms 37.5%, as eight fields were previously reported by
within a university campus. The IVI and other Lalthanzara (2017) in Mizoram. Species such as Clouded
quantitative values obtained for different plant species Leopard, Marbled Cat, Golden Jackal, and Ferret Badger
in the study coincide with the findings of Lalramenga not only indicates the potential of the university
(2006) and Lalchhuanawma (2008) that were carried out campus to support the cohabitation and co-existence
within the campus. The rich floral diversity plays a key with mammals but also highlights the values of urban
role in supporting both the avifauna and mammalian diversity.
fauna in the campus. The presence of roadside plants The relative abundance index (RAI) indicates that
like Ficus benghalensis, F. religiosa, Trema orientalis, ground dwelling birds such as Khalij Pheasant (male and
Lantana camara, Musa paradise, and Casia auriculata females) were dominant (RAI= 13.33) and also are the
in MZU campus can serve as good habitat and feeding prey species for carnivorous mammals. The mammalian
grounds for birds and small mammals as reported by species evident in MZU campus are very rare and may be
Lalchhuanawma (2008) and Rai (2016). difficult to record even in a protected forest. Dense shrub
The undisturbed forest patches within MZU campus forests, tall fruiting trees, and low lying natural streams
appears to support a diverse group of mammalian along the edges of the campus that provides ideal forest

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Table 3. Mammalian species observed directly during study and their status.
Family Common name Scientific name IUCN status
1 Mustelidae Yellow-throated Martin Martes flavigula Least Concern
2 Cervidae Barking Deer Muntiacus muntjak Least Concern
3 Sciuridae Pallas’s Squirrel Callosciurus erythraeus Least Concern
4 Sciuridae Himalayan Hoary-bellied Squirrel Callosciurus pygerythrus Least Concern
5 Tupaiidae Northern Tree Shrew Tupaia belangeri Least Concern
6 Muridae Black Rat Rattus rattus Least Concern
7 Soricidae House Shrew Suncus murinus Least Concern
Table 4. Avian sapecies photo-captured during the study and their status.
Family Common name Scientific name IUCN RAI
1 Phasianidae Khalij Pheasant Lophura leucomelanos Least Concern 13.33
2 Muscicapidae Blue Whistling Thrush Myophonus caeruleus Least Concern 3.33
3 Muscicapidae Forktail Enicurus leschenaulti Least Concern 3.33
4 Strigidae Asian-barred Owlet Glaucidium cuculoides Least Concern 6.67
5 Campephagidae Large Cuckoo Shrike Coracina macei Least Concern 3.33
6 Caprimulgidae Long-tailed Nightjar Caprimulgus climacurus Least Concern 3.33
Figure 3. Plant families and their IVI values.
cover and feeding opportunities are contributing to the the ever-increasing chain of construction works can
abundance of these species within the campus. The low have negative impacts on biodiversity in general and
resident human population (little over 2000 individuals) particularly on mammals of MZU campus. Information
with a good sense of conservation value and long forest on mammalian diversity recommends that a long-term
corridors are also key factors for the distribution of such and systematic study on biodiversity profile of the MZU
majestic species within the campus. Anthropogenic campus is needed.
activities like hunting, jhumming or shifting cultivation
in the vicinity of the campus, collection of NTFP’s and

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Image 2. a—Clouded Leopard | b—Golden Jackal | c—Himalayan Palm Civet | d—Crab-eating Mongoose | e—Leopard Cat | f—Large Indian
Civet | g—Small Indian Civet | h—Himalayan Hoary-bellied Squirrel | i—Common Palm Civet | j—Ferret Badger | k—Wild Boar | l—Marbled
Cat.
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Threatened Taxa

OPEN ACCESS
#5231 | Received 16 July 2019 | Final received 23 November 2020 | Finally accepted 09 December 2020
S
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Distribution of Syzygium travancoricum Gamble (Myrtaceae), a Critically
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Endangered tree species from Kerala part of Western Ghats, India
o
m
m V.B. Sreekumar 1 , K.A. Sreejith 2 , M.S. Sanil 3 , M.K. Harinarayanan 4 , M.P. Prejith5 & R.V. Varma 6
u
n Forest Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala 680653, India
1,2,3,5
i 4
Department of Botany, Sree Krishna College, Guruvayur, Thrissur, Kerala 680602, India
c
a
6
Research Council Member, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala 680653, India
t 1
[email protected] (corresponding author), 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected], 4 [email protected],
i 5
[email protected], 6 [email protected]
o
n
Abstract: Syzygium travancoricum Gamble is an endemic, Critically (L.) Alston), timber (S. aqueum (Burm. f.) Alston, S.
Endangered tree species found in marshy swamps of the Western
Ghats. An assessment was conducted on existing distribution pattern
malaccense (L.) Merr. & L. M. Perry), or for medicinal
and population structure of this species in Kerala. Most of the existing properties (S. aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L. M. Perry) or
populations are mainly located in sacred groves and this tree is an as spices. In India, 54 species have been so far reported
ideal example on role of sacred groves in conserving biodiversity
especially IUCN red listed species. A total of 465 individuals were (Govaerts et al. 2008) with the highest concentration
recorded in which maximum number of sapling density was recorded in the Western Ghats with 48 species, among which 27
in Kalasamala Sacred grove followed by patches of Myristica swamps species are exclusively endemic to this region (Sujanapal
in Kulathupuzha. Fragmentation of populations, habitat modification,
over exploitation, pollution and invasion of exotics are major threats to & Kunhikannan 2017). The forests of the Western Ghats,
S. travancoricum. Hence urgent intervention is required for restoration especially tropical wet evergreen and high-altitude Shola
programmes, management of habitat and subsequently delisting this peaks are ideal habitats for the Syzygium, however,
species from IUCN red list of threatened species.
most of these species are threatened and as per the
Keywords: Endemic, Kalasamala, Myrtaceae, population structure, IUCN (v1.18-2019) Red List, three species are Critically
southern Western Ghats.
Endangered, eight as Endangered, five Vulnerable and
four as Least Concern. The species like S. palghatense
and S. courtallense are known from single locality and
The genus Syzygium Gaertner (Myrtaceae) S. beddomei and S. rubicundum are known only by their
comprises more than 1,200 species all over the world, type collections. Syzygium travancoricum Gamble is an
distributed in tropical regions of Asia, Africa, Australia, evergreen tree species endemic to the Western Ghats
and in southwestern Pacific regions (Parnell et al. 2007; and it was first discovered in the swampy lowlands
Govaerts et al. 2008). As an economically and ecologically (altitude <65m) of Travancore by Bourdillon (1908). Later
important genus, Syzygium species are commercially Gamble described it in 1918 in Kew Bulletin and Flora of
cultivated for their fruits (S. cumini (L.) Skeels, S. jambos the Presidency of Madras in 1919. According to Byng et
Citation: Sreekumar, V.B., K.A. Sreejith, M.S. Sanil, M.K. Harinarayanan, M.P. Prejith & R.V. Varma (2020). Distribution of Syzygium travancoricum Gamble (Myrta-
ceae), a Critically Endangered tree species from Kerala part of Western Ghats, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(17): 17340–17346. https://doi.org/10.11609/
jott.5231.12.17.17340-17346
Copyright: © Sreekumar et al. 2020. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this
Funding: KFRI Plan Grants (748/2018) supported by KSCSTE, Thiruvananthapuram.
Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful to the Director, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Thrissur for providing facilities. We express our sincere
thanks to Mr. Sarath, R. and Mr. Prasad, T. S. for help during the field work.
17340
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Distribution of Syzygium travancoricum Sreekumar et al.
al. (2015), S. travancoricum is conspecific with S. stocksii Syzygium cumini and Litsea coriacea. The population
(Duthie) Gamble, as both share long petioles, elliptic of S. travancoricum has declined considerably mainly
leaves and highly branched inflorescences, however, because of over exploitation and habitat destruction.
Sujanapal & Kunhikannan (2017) treated this as different A vast stretch of virgin forest is being converted for
species and commented that detailed studies based on agriculture purpose and pressure from exotics plants,
molecular and population data are essential for fixing grazing and forest fire also caused decline in regeneration
the status of S. travancoricum. This is a medium sized (Udhayavani et al. 2013). The swampy wetland habitat
tree growing up to 25m in height. The bark surface is has been widely drained and converted into paddy
longitudinally fissured, grayish-brown in colour and fields have also caused the reduction of its population,
inner bark is grey. Leaves are simple, opposite, 8–16.5 × leading to a critically endangered state (IUCN 2019).
5–8.5 cm, exstipulate and large in size; lateral nerves are The plants are under great threat due to fragmentation
10–15 pairs, parallel, distant, with intra-marginal nerve; of populations, high rate of inbreeding and habitat
petiole 10–20 mm long, grooved above. Flowers are specificity which accounts for poor regeneration and
bisexual, white, mostly in axillary lax cymose corymbose seed viability (Sujanapal & Kunhikannan 2017; present
with peduncle 4.5–5 (8) cm long, their branches are also observation). In this context, a thorough understanding
long and ascending. Stamens are numerous, free, bent of existing population structure and composition of S.
inwards at middle when in bud. Ovary is inferior, two- travancoricum will be helpful in developing a proper
celled with many ovules. Fruit is a berry, oblong-obtuse conservation plan.
on sides, 1 × 0.5 cm, deep violet, and pericarp juicy
containing single seed (Image 1). As per IUCN Red list Material and Methods
(2019), only 200 trees are found in the Western Ghats The forest areas and sacred groves in Kerala part of
and treated as Critically Endangered C2a ver 2.3. It is the Western Ghats were thoroughly surveyed during
also reported that the sacred grove of Aikad reported 2016, samples were collected and identified using
to harbour four individuals and another subpopulation relevant literature (Gamble 1919; Sasidharan 2004). All
of 15 to 20 trees has been seen at Guddrikal. Nair specimens were deposited at Kerala Forest Research
& Mohanan (1981) quoted that “Apparently no tree Institute herbarium (KFRI). Several new locations
is surviving in the type locality. Recently only four were identified and total number of individuals in a
trees have been spotted in a sacred grove of Aikad in population, site characteristics, important threats,
Quilon District”. In Kerala, S. travancoricum have been and pattern of regeneration in each site were noted.
reported from evergreen and semi-evergreen forests Moreover, all previous literature available in Kerala part
and few sacred groves in Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, of Western Ghats were also compiled and revisited.
Pathanamthitta, Alapuzha, Thrissur, and Kasaragod
districts (Sasidharan 2004) and locally known as Poriyal, Results
Vathamkollimaram or Kulavetty. Ray (2011) reported It was found that among newly identified populations
this species from three groves namely, Devaravattibana in Kerala, except for the population at Kalasamala
(Mattigar), Kadkod Choudammabana (Aralihonda) and Sacred grove, others are represented with few isolated,
Choudammabana (Dugdimane) with high seedlings and scattered individuals. In this context, we conducted
sapling density in Karnataka region. It has also been a detailed investigation on Kalasamala population
reported from the freshwater Myristica swamps of including total enumeration of individuals with detailed
Kaan forests of Uttara Kannada (Chandran et al. 2008 vegetation analysis, especially on population structure,
& 2010), Kulathupuzha (Robi 2009) and from a relic species composition and contribution of individuals.
Myristica swamp at Brahma Karmali of Valpoi Taluka in This population might be the second largest population
Goa (Prabhugaonkar et al. 2014). From Tamil Nadu, this represented with mature reproductively viable
species was reported in five sites, viz., Pandiar, Nadugani, individuals distributed outside in the protected areas in
Tropical Gene Pool Garden, Kilnadugani and Poonoor the state.
forest areas in Nadugani Village of Gudalur Taluk in Kalasamala is situated at Thrissur District (Figure 1)
Nilgiri District (Udhayavani et al. 2013) and Megamalai and the area lies between 11.1280 N & 76.1500 E at 30
Wildlife Sanctuary (Karuppusamy & Ravichandran 2016). m above the sea level with an annual average rainfall
Udhayavani et al. (2013) also recorded S. travancoricum of over 2,600 mm. The major proportion (77%) of
from the Nilgiri District growing in association with annual rainfall occurs from the south-west monsoon
species like Aporosa lindleyana, Sterculia guttata, which usually starts in early June and continues until

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Figure 1. Study area of

Syzygium travancoricumin
Kalasamala Sacred grove.
September. The north-east monsoon starts in October

and lasts until the end of November. The mean annual
maximum and minimum temperature is 370C and 190C,
respectively. There is a small sacred groove under private
ownership in this area with an extent of 3.5 acres of land
crammed with an isolated patch of S. travancoricum.
For getting effective protection measures, the last
author initiated legal procedures to declare this as a
‘biodiversity heritage site’ and the process has almost
in completion. Total stem count was carried out for the
population with an area of 0.21ha which in turn divided
into 21 blocks of 10m × 10m size for enumeration of tree
species. All individuals above 10cm GBH (Girth at Breast
Height) girth at 1.37m above ground were measured
and identified. Population density, frequency, basal area, Figure 2. Girth class distribution of Syzygium travancoricum
IVI (Important value index) and girth class distribution population in Kalasamala, Kerala, India.
were calculated.
Since S. travancoricum is a critically endangered
species, our survey throughout the Kerala State located of S. travancoricum was accounting for 109.37m2/ha.
six new localities in which five were represented with The basal area value is higher than the normal value may
very small population size (<10 individuals) except be due to the presence of more number of higher girth
for Kalasamala. The results of total enumeration of class trees and higher density value. S. travancoricum
individuals in Kalasamala population shows presence also represents the 100% frequency of distribution
of 246 stems (>10.1cm) representing in 236 individuals (Table 1) and associated species are Alstonia scholaris,
highlights conservation significance of this area (Table 1). Caryota urens, Holigarna arnottiana. In Uttara Kannada
This population covers a total area of 0.21ha and results (Chandran et al. 2008, 2010), reported the position of
of vegetation structure shows that the vegetation is over S. travancoricum in terms of IVI as 17th and the values
dominated by S. travancoricum which represent 86.74% range from 0.1065 to 0.5483. The mean IVI of 0.3044 is
of total Important Value Index (Table 1). The basal area slightly higher than 0.2988, the mean of the IVI recorded

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Figure 3. Distribution of Syzygium travancoricum

in Kerala.
Table 1. Plant species and their contribution to the population dominated by Syzygium travancoricum in Kalasamala, Kerala, India.
Density (Individuals/ Percentage of

Species Basal area m2/ha ha ) Frequency IVI Relative IVI
Alstonia scholaris 3.46 14 10 11.20 3.73
Caryota urens 6.48 14 10 13.65 4.55
Holigarna arnottiana 3.17 19 14 14.92 4.98
Syzygium travancoricum 109.37 1171 100 260.23 86.74
from transects in six swamps of southern Kerala. counted only 20 trees from 17 transects in six specific
In Uttara Kannada (Chandran et al. 2008), reported swamps like Emponge, Karinkurinji, Marappalam Major,
that Aglaia anamallayana, Calophyllum apetalum, PerumPadappy, PlavuChal, and Pullu Mala. Density was
Diospyros paniculata, D. pruriens, Dipterocarpus 11 trees/ha and sixth most important position with an
indicus, Gymnocranthera canarica, Holigarna grahamii, IVI of 0.1198 girth class distribution shows that there
Hydnocarpus pentandra, Hopea ponga, Mastixia arborea, was less number of individuals in the smaller girth size
Myristica fatua var. magnifica, and Pinanga dicksonii as which means the lowest size class of 10–30cm gbh was
the main associates of S. travancoricum. Robi (2009) less abundant and formed 5.08% of the total density.
surveyed different swamp patches in Kulathupuzha and The highest number of individuals were record in girth

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A C
D E
Image 1. A—habit | B—flowering branch; C—inflorescence | D & E—fruiting twigs. (© A–C - M.S. Sanil | D–E - V.B. Sreekumar)
class 30–60 and 60–90 cm gbh which is accounting for distribution in five sites of Nadugani Village (Udhayavani
49.14% of the total density and the density of large et al. 2013) shows that 37% of mature stems, 50% sub-
trees (girth >180cm) was 6.36%. The study on size class adults, 13% saplings. Here in the present study, the size

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Table 2. Details of existing status Syzygium travancoricum reported from forest areas and sacred groves in Kerala.
Number of
Place Current status of the population References
individuals
Alteration of swampy habitat, moderate
1 236 Kalasamala, Kunnamkulam, Thrissur Present study
regeneration, very low seedling establishment.
2 2 Konginichal Kavu, Alakkadu, Kannur No regeneration, poor fruit set Present study
Mazhuvancheril Sree Khandakarna Kavu, Vaikom,
3 2 No regeneration, poor fruit set Present study
Kottayam
4 2 Paliyerikavu, Kannur No regeneration, poor fruit set Present study
5 2 Ponnakkudam Sacred grove, Ernakulum; Kerala No regeneration, poor fruit set Present study
6 16 Vazhachal forests, Thrissur; Kerala No regeneration. Present study
7 2 Andallur Kavu, Dharmadam Kannur No regeneration, poor fruit set Present study
8 5 Pariyaram, Kannur Habitat modification, Present study
9 4 Aickad Sacred grove Kodumon, Pathanamthitta No regeneration and unhealthy trees IUCN, 2017
10 20 Goodrical, Kerala Population was not traced IUCN, 2017

Emponge, Karinkurinji, Marappalam Major,
Habitat modification, moderate regeneration and
11 153 PerumPadappy, PlavuChal, Pullu Mala and other Robi 2009
fruit set.
swampy patches, Kulathupuzha (Kerala)
Kuzhumathikkad Chirakkadavu Bhagavathi Temple
12 8 No regeneration and unhealthy trees Present study
Sacred grove, Kollam
Mampuzha Shri Indaliyappan Temple, Kottamkara, Invasion of exotics, very low fruit set and
13 5 Present study
Kollam regeneration
14 3 Moonamkadavu Sacred grove, Kasaragod district Habitat modification Present study
15 5 Asramam, Kollam Habitat modification Present study
class distribution of tree species shows that inadequate the population is degradation of swampy habitat due
or poor regeneration status with most of the trees to intense soil erosion from the top hill. Table 2 shows
in medium to large size class and few are young trees the compilation of number of individuals recorded so
(Figure 2) which need to be investigated thoroughly. far from different localities of Kerala and a total of 465
In Kulathupuzha, the girth class distribution for S. individuals were counted in which the maximum number
travancoricum (Robi 2009) shows reduced number of of sapling density was found in Kalasamala followed by
individuals in the lower girth classes and the graph plotted Myristica patches of Kulathupuzha. Figure 3 shows that
is an almost perfect ‘J’ instead of the expected inverted the current distribution locations of S. travancoricum in
‘J’. Whereas, in the Uttara Kannada sub-population of Kerala region. As a part of this study, we could revisit
S. travancoricum, graphical representations of girth all populations reported by the previous authors (Table
class distribution return an almost perfect inverted ‘J’ 2), except the population in Goodrical which is not
indicating a healthy regeneration pattern (Chandran et traceable. In most cases, alteration of swampy habitat
al. 2010). Similarly, the seedlings density reported from is the major factor for poor seedling establishment
the sacred groves of Karnataka (Ray 2011) is 8235.44/ha which gradually result in declining total number of the
(Mattigar, Devarabatti Bana), 4549.52/ha (Aralihonda, individuals.
Kadkod Choudamma Bana) and 52.736/ha (Dugdimane, In conclusion, disjunct distribution pattern, alteration
Choudi Bana), however, in the present study, observation of habitats, changes in landuse pattern and poor fruit
of phenological pattern indicates normal fruiting set affected the distribution pattern of S. travancoricum.
and seed germination patterns for S. travancoricum, In Kalasamala, the swampy habitat of this species has
whereas germinated seedlings do not survive after the altered due to deposition of silt and waste as a result of
two-leaf seedling stage as other studies (Chandran et al. construction activities and other human interventions.
2008; Robi 2009) and consider that swamps might be The State Biodiversity Board has already taken urgent
inundated at the time of fruit fall and seed germination. steps to declare this site as ‘heritage site’, and to
It was also presumed that fungal attack in the intense support the temple management for protection of
humid nature of swamp conditions is the major problem this highly threatened species. As a first step towards
of the survival of S. travancoricum. In Kalasamala, eco-restoration programmes, Kerala Forest Research
seedlings are totally absent and the main threat to Institute (KFRI) has raised sufficient seedlings, around

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100 seedlings were restored at Kalasamala initially and IUCN (2019). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2019-2.
Downloaded on 11 May 2020.
planning to restore 2,000 seedlings in different sites of Karuppusamy, S. & V. Ravichandran (2016). Diversity Assessment of
sacred groves involving officials of concerned panchayat, Woody Plants of Megamalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Theni District, Tamil
temple management, students as well as through public Nadu. Bio Bulletin2: 74–89.
Nair, N.C. & C.N. Mohanan (1981). On the rediscovery of four
support. threatened species from the sacred groves of Kerala. Journal of
Economic and Taxonomic Botany 2: 233–235.
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with one of the largest genera of angiosperms, pp. 251-274. In:
Hodkinson, T. & J. Parnell (eds.). Reconstructing the Tree of Life,
Bourdillon, T.F. (1908). The Forest Trees of Travancore. The Travancore Taxonomy and Systematics of Species Rich Taxa. Boca Raton, FL.
Government Press, Trivandrum, xxxii+456pp. Taylor & Francis, 368pp. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420009538
Byng, W.J., P.G. Wilson & N. Snow (2015). Typifications and Prabhugaonkar, A., D.K. Mesta & M.K. Janarthanam (2014). First
nomenclatural notes on Indian Myrtaceae. Phytotaxa 2: 101–116. report of three red-listed tree species from swampy relics of Goa
Chandran, M.D.S., D.K. Mesta, G.R. Rao,S. Ali, K.V. Gururaja & T.V. State, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 6(2): 5503–5506. https://
Ramachandra (2008). Discovery of Two Critically Endangered doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o3376.5503-6
Tree Species and Issues Related to Relic Forests of the Western Ray, R. (2011). Developing Strategies for Conservation of Threatened
Ghats. The Open Conservation Biology Journal 2: 1–8. https://doi. Endemic Biodiversity of the Sacred Groves of central Western Ghats
org/10.2174/1874839200802010001 Project report. Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of
Chandran, M.D.S., G.R. Rao, K.V. Gururaja & T.V. Ramachandra Science, Bangalore.
(2010). Ecology of the swampy relic forests of Kathalekan from Robi, T.J. (2009). Floristic structure and diversity of Myristica swamps at
central Western Ghats, India. Bioremediation, Biodiversity and Kulathupuzha in a GIS perspective. Dehradun University, viii+148pp.
Bioavailability, Global Science Books 4: 54–68. Sasidharan, N. (2004). Biodiversity Documentation for Kerala Part 6:
Gamble, J.S. (1919). Flora of the Presidency of Madras, Adlard and Flowering Plants. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, 702pp.
Son, Ltd., London, 480pp. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.21628 Sujanapal, P. & C. Kunhikannan (2017). The Genus Syzygium in Western
Govaerts, R.H.A., M. Sobral, P. Ashton, F.R. Barrie, B.K. Holst, L. Ghats. In: Nair, K.N. (ed.).The Genus Syzygium: Syzygiumcuminiand
Landrum, K. Mastsumoto, F.F. Mazine, E.M.N. Lughadha, C.E.B. Other Underutilized Species. Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL, 288pp.
Proenca, L.H. Soares-Silva, P.G. Wilson & E. Lucas (2008). World https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315118772
Checklist of Myrtaceae, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London. Udhayavani, C., V.S. Ramachandran & H.A. John (2013). Ecology and
Assessed on 03 April 2019. http:// apps.kew.org/wcsp. population study on Syzygium travancoricum Gamble (Myrtaceae) -
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Threatened Taxa

OPEN ACCESS
#5142 | Received 02 June 2019 | Final received 25 September 2020 | Finally accepted 20 November 2020
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Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) of the undivided Midnapore District, r
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West Bengal, India: a preliminary report C
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Anirban Mahata 1
, Niladri Prasad Mishra 2
& Sharat Kumar Palita 3 m
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1,3
Department of Biodiversity and Conservation of Natural Resources, Central University of Odisha, Koraput, Odisha 764021, India. n
2
PG Department of Zoology, Tamralipta Mahavidyalaya, Tamluk, Purba Medinipur, West Bengal 721636, India. i
1
[email protected], 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected] (corresponding author) c
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Abstract: A butterfly study in the biodiversity rich biogeography Thomas 2005; Bonebrake et al. 2010), and serve as n
transition zone of the undivided Midnapore District of West Bengal
was carried out from March 2014 to March 2017. A total of 98
surrogate species for floral and faunal diversity (Ehrlich
species of butterflies under five families, 19 subfamilies, and 70 & Raven 1964) by improving community structure.
genera were documented by the study. Maximum species diversity Further, they are primary consumers in forest ecosystems
was found in Nymphalidae family with 31 species (31.63%), followed
by Lycaenidae 24 species (24.48%), Hesperiidae-17 (17.34%), Pieridae
(Rosenberg et al. 1986) and their diversity increases with
16 (16.32%), and the least by Papilionidae 10 (10.28%). Among the an increase in habitat scale and vegetation structure
families, the highest common species (n=10) was recorded under complex (Price 1975). Therefore, the conservation
the family Nymphalidae and maximum rare species (n=4) under the
family Lycaenidae. Highest species richness has been recorded in post- of butterflies is necessary to understand their natural
monsoon season (97 species) followed by monsoon (78 species), winter history and ecology for the maintenance of ecosystem
(66 species), and pre-monsoon (47 species). During the study, five health.
species of butterflies (Castalius rosimon, Neptis jumbah, Discophora
sondaica, Lethe europa, and Papilio clytia) under Schedule-I, three Transition zones are defined as the boundaries
species (Euchrysops cnejus, Mahathala ameria, and Cepora nerissa) between biogeographical regions, which represent areas
under Schedule-II and three species (Baoris farri, Hyarotis adrastus, of biotic overlap, and being favoured by ecological and
and Euploea core) under Schedule-IV were legally protected under
the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. A good species to genera historical changes allow a combination of taxa belonging
ratio (1.4: 1) along with 10 newly recorded species and their range to various biotic components (Morrone 2004). As the
extension provide information for better understanding of the ecology
boundaries between these regions are areas of high biotic
and distribution pattern of the butterfly fauna. The information
of the study will thus help to develop conservation strategies for interaction (Ruggiero & Ezcurra 2003), with increased
management of the unique bio-geographical transitional zone. richness and abundance as well as unique ecotonal
Keywords: Checklist, new records, species diversity, seasonality,
species (Odum 1953), they deserve special attention.
biogeography transition zone. The undivided Midnapore District of West Bengal which
lies in the transition zone of three distinct biogeographic
regions of India (Deccan Peninsula: Chotta-Nagpur biotic
Butterflies are highly sensitive to changes in the province, Gangetic Plains: Lower Gangetic Plain biotic
environment (Landres et al. 1988; Simberloff 1988), act province, and Coast: Eastern Coastal biotic province)
as ecological indicators (New 1991; Pollard & Yates 1993; makes it a perfect habitat for species diversity (Payra et
Editor: Jatishwor Singh Irungbam, Biology Centre CAS, Branišovská, Czech Republic. Date of publication: 26 December 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Mahata, A., N.P. Mishra & S.K. Palita (2020). Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) of the undivided Midnapore District, West Bengal, India: a preliminary
report. Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(17): 17347–17360. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5142.12.17.17347-17360
Copyright: © Mahata et al. 2020. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this
Funding: None.
Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to the Head, Department of Biodiversity and Conservation of Natural Resources, Central University of Odisha,
Koraput, Odisha for support and encouragement.
17347
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Butterflies of undivided Midnapore District, West Bengal Mahata et al.
al. 2017; Samanta et al. 2017; Paria et al. 2018; Biswas Materials and Methods
et al. 2019) and acts as a connecting path of species Study sites
distribution and migration from Western Ghats zone The study was conducted at undivided Midnapore
to northeastern zone (Abdulali 1949; Ali 1949; Hora district (22.953°–21.610° N & 88.211°–86.564° E) of
1949). Dry peninsular Sal forest and dry deciduous West Bengal, India. The undivided Midnapore district
scrub vegetation along with different orchard plantation is now divided into three districts (Purba Medinipur,
and agriculture practices in this region act as refuges for Paschim Medinipur, and Jhargram) and covers an area
butterflies (Mahata et al. 2019). of 14,081km2. Of which 2,971km2 is under forest cover
Limited studies have been carried out on butterfly contributing 3.35% of the total geographical area of the
fauna in the undivided Midnapore District, and previous state (FSI 2017). This region covers northern dry mixed
records from the region include the report of 112 deciduous forest of Chotta-Nagpur Plateau ecozone,
species from the coastal area of Purba Medinipur (Payra Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests of the
et al. 2017) and 82 species from Midnapore Municipality eastern part of Eastern Ghats along with dry peninsular
area of West Midnapore District (Biswas et al. 2019) and Sal Forest, and deciduous scrub forest of Lower
remaining part was untouched. The present study aims Gangetic Plain and saltwater mixed forest (Champion &
to document butterflies in the undivided Midnapore Seth 1968; Figure 1). The topography of this region is
district and prepare a checklist along with habitat highly variable from undulating southwestern region to
ecology and management status for undertaking proper Gangetic Plains and wetlands towards the eastern side.
conservation action in near future. This undivided Midnapore District is characterized by
Figure 1. The map of study sites in undivided Midnapore District, West Bengal, India (DDF- Dry Deciduous Forest, MDF- Moist Deciduous Forest)

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a variety of soil ranging from lateritic red soil towards species (24.48%), Hesperiidae 17 species (17.34%),
the western region, alluvial along the rivers and sandy Pieridae 16 species (16.32%), and least by Papilionidae
saline soil in the coastal belt. The average temperature 10 species (10.20%) (Table 2). The Nymphalidae family
in this region lies in between 10°C and 39°C with average was very common in occurrence (10 species) whereas
annual precipitation of 1,752mm (Anonymous 2011a, the maximum number of rare species were found in
b). The climate is characterized by tropical hot summer, the Lycaenidae family (four species) (Table 2, Figure 3).
cold winter, abundant rainfall and humidity in monsoon. Highest species richness was recorded in post-monsoon
Floods are quite regular in monsoon (Anonymous season (97 species), followed by monsoon (78 species),
2011a,b). A total of 20 different sites have been winter (66 species) and pre-monsoon (47 species) (Figure
surveyed on the basis of different vegetation patterns to 4). Among the species recorded, 11 species are under
document the butterfly fauna. Elevations of these sites schedule category of Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act
vary between 2–90 m (Table 1). 1972. Under Schedule-I, there are five species (Castalius
rosimon, Neptis jumbah, Discophora sondaica, Lethe
Data collection europa, and Papilio clytia), under Schedule-II, three
The study was carried out over a period of three species (Euchrysops cnejus, Mahathala ameria, and
years during March 2014 to March 2017 in four distinct Cepora nerissa) and under Schedule-IV three species
seasons: pre-monsoon (March to May), monsoon (June (Baoris farri, Hyarotis adrastus, and Euploea core) (Table
to August), post-monsoon (September to November), 2). Five species are placed under Least Concern (LC)
and winter (December to February). We adopted category and the rest 93 species are not assessed (IUCN
opportunistic sampling methods by walking through trails 2020) (Table 2, Image 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5).
and recorded the species visually by using close focusing Among the recorded 17 species of Hesperiidae
binocular (Olympus WP II, Olympus Corporation, Japan). (Image 1), Ampittia dioscorides was very common,
Butterfly sampling was carried out only in good weather whereas Badamia exclamationis and Matapa aria were
conditions (>10°C, <18 miles/hour wind speed and no rare. Baoris farri and Pelopidas subochracea were
rain) from 09.00 to 13.00 h. Butterflies were identified recorded for the first time from the region. Among 24
in the field with the help of field guides (Wynter- species of Lycaenidae family (Image 2), Arhopala atrax,
Blyth 1957; Kunte 2000; Kehimkar 2008). Butterflies Iraota timoleon, Mahathala ameria, Rathinda amor,
which could not be identified in flight, were caught and Virachola isocrates were found to be rare. Zizina
with butterfly-net, identified and then released safely. otis and Arhopala atrax were recorded for the first
Photograph of the documented species was taken during time from this region. Iraota timoleon and Rathinda
the survey with the help of a DSLR camera (Nikon D5300 amor were recorded only during post monsoon period.
with Nikon 70–300 mm lens, Nikon Corporation, Japan) Out of 31 species recoded under Nymphalidae (Image
for further confirmations. Taxonomy and species names 3), Ariadne ariadne, A. merione, Danaus chrysippus,
of butterflies were followed after Varshney & Smetacek Danaus genutia, Euploea core, Acraea violae, Phalanta
(2015). A checklist of butterfly fauna was prepared phalantha, Junonia almana, J. iphita, and J. lemonias
along with their legal protection status. The status of a were very common whereas Tirumala septentrionis and
butterfly was decided based on the frequency of sighting Discophora sondaica were rare and T. septentrionis,
of the butterfly during the total study period. Status of Phaedyma columella, and Ypthima baldus were recorded
the butterfly was categorized under five categories: rare for the first time from this region. Among 10 species
(R), not rare (NR), not common (NC), common (C), and under Papilionidae family (Image 4), Papilio demoleus
very common (C). Butterflies having <20 % sightings was very common, whereas Papilio crino was rare and
were marked as rare butterflies, 20–40 % not rare, 40– Graphium nomius was newly recorded from this region.
60 % not common, 60–80 % common, and >80% very Out of 16 species under Pieridae family (Image 5), Delias
common (Payra et al. 2017; Samanta et al. 2017). eucharis was very common and two species (Eurema
laeta and E. sari) were recorded for the first time from
Results and Discussion undivided Midnapore region (Table 2, 3).
A total of 98 species of butterflies under five families, In our study, the presence of Symphaedra nais,
19 subfamilies and 70 genera were documented from Danaus melanippus indicusand and Ypthima baldus
the study area (Table 2, Image 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5). Maximum showed the species range extension from central India
species richness was observed in the family Nymphalidae towards eastern India. Our study also recorded several
with 31 species (31.63%), followed by Lycaenidae 24 Eastern Ghats species such as Pseudozizeeria maha,

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Table 1. Location and Habitat conditions of the study sites.
Site Vegetation type

Site name GPS Location Elevation (m) Habitat type Management status
No. (dominant)
Non-native flowering
Gopegarh Eco-park 22.419°N Managed park surrounded Managed by park
1 52.43 plants and Anacardium
(S1) 87.283°E by natural vegetation authority, no grazing
occidentale
Gurguripal Eco-park 22.430°N Degraded park with Shorea robusta and Moderately anthropogenic
2 48.77
(S2) 87.215°E natural vegetation Eucalyptus tereticornis activity, no grazing
Natural vegetation
VU Campus, 22.432°N Anacardium occidentale Least management, no
3 58.22 surrounded by Non-native
Midnapore (S3) 87.299°E and Eucalyptus tereticornis grazing
flowering plants
22.412°N Natural rural vegetation Eucalyptus tereticornis, Grazing along with high
4 Pathra (S4) 33.18
87.418°E with agriculture field Bambusa spp. human interference
Amlachati Vesaj 22.377°N Managed herbal garden Medicinal plants and Highly managed, no
5 89
Udyan (S5) 87.039°E surrounded by sal forest. Shorea robusta grazing
Jhargram Mini Zoo 22.449°N Managed mini zoo in sal
6 81.38 Shorea robusta Managed, no grazing
(S6) 87.020°E forest
22.451°N Moderate grazing with
7 Chilkigarh (S7) 73.85 Rural area Shorea robusta
86.881°E anthropogenic activity
No management,
Jhilli Pakhiralaya 22.179°N Forest area along marshy
8 66.45 Shorea robusta moderate grazing with
(S8) 86.729°E water body
anthropogenic activity
Mangifera indica, ‎Psidium
Kodopal fruit 22.151°N Fruit orchards along with Managed. No grazing and
9 35.66 guajava, Citrus spp.,
garden (S9) 87.075°E ornamental flowering plant anthropogenic activity
Zizyphus vulgaris
Mangifera indica, ‎Psidium Poorly managed. grazing
22.363°N
10 Banantika (S10) 79.55 Fruit orchards guajava, Phyllanthus and anthropogenic
87.113°E
emblica activities limited
22.059°N Ornamental flowering
11 Haldia (S11) 07.32 Park Garden Managed park
88.077°E plants
22.178°N Shrub land with natural Rural area, No
12 Mahishadal (S12) 06.10 Mangifera indica
87.988°E fruit orchards management
22.192°N Shrub land beside rail
13 Nandakumar (S13) 04.87 Lantana camara No management
87.928°E tracks
22.302°N Ornamental flowering Urban area, no
14 Tamluk (S14) 06.10 Natural Vegetation
87.927°E plants management
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis,
22.439°N Shrub land and agriculture Rural area, less grazing and
15 Kolaghat (S15) 09.45 Tabernaemontana
87.887°E land anthropogenic activity
divaricate
22.273°N Grass and Eucalyptus Rural area, less grazing and
16 Moyna (S16) 04.57 Bogs and Marshy area
87.775°E tereticornis anthropogenic activity
22.375°N Rural area, less grazing and
17 Khirai (S17) 06.10 Riverside agriculture land Oryza sativa, Tagetes spp.
87.694°E anthropogenic activity
22.195°N Natural shrub and Rural park, less
18 Geonkhali (S18) 02.13 Riverside Park
88.057°E ornamental flower management
21.782°N Shrub land and agricultural Lantana Camara and Oryza Rural area, less grazing and
19 Contai (S19) 07.32
87.742°E fields sativa anthropogenic activity
Semi urban area, less
22.137°N
20 Narghat (S20) 06.10 Riverside semi urban park Casuarina equisetifolia grazing and anthropogenic
87.892°E
activity
Anthropogenic Activities (AA) are based upon number of human encounters and grazing seen during 30 minutes transect walk.
Least: 0–1 time, moderately AA: 3–4 times, highly AA: 8–10 times encounter
Junonia orithya, Catopsilia pyranthe, Cepora nerissa, information for better understanding the butterfly
Spindasis vulcanus, Papilio demoleus, Arhopala atrax, fauna and making conservation strategies for similar
Tarucus nara, Papilio hector, and Graphium nomius. biogeographical ecozones.
The study further revealed the presence of Papilio crino
known from northeastern India as as well as species Conclusion
such as Colotis amata, Catopsilia pomona, Catopsilia The present study provides a checklist of butterfly
pyranthe, Cepora nerissa, Danaus chrysippus, Tirumala fauna in a biogeographically transitional region of
limniace, Zizeeria karsandra, and Catochrysops strabo undivided Midnapore District; the first attempt at a
known from northwestern India (Kehimkar 2008). This relatively larger scale documentation of butterflies of
species checklist represents the species distribution this region. A record of 98 species of butterfly along

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Figure 2. Subfamily wise recorded butterfly species in study sites.
Figure 3. Status of butterfly in the study: VC—Very Common | C—Common | NC—Not common | NR—Not Rare | R—Rare.

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Table 2. Checklist of butterfly fauna recorded in the study.
Scientific name Common name Status Flight period IUCN/IW(P)A
Family Hesperiidae
Subfamily Coeliadinae
1 Badamia exclamationis (Fabricius, 1775) Brown Awl R 2, 3 NE
2 Hasora chromus (Cramer, [1780]) Common Banded Awl NR 1, 2, 3,4 NE
Subfamily Hesperiinae
3 Suastus gremius (Fabricius, 1798) Indian Palm Bob C 1,3 NE
4 Ampittia dioscorides (Fabricius, 1793) Bush Hopper VC 3,4 NE
5 Baoris farri (Moore, 1878)* Paintbrush Swift NC 2,3,4 NE/ Sch IV
6 Borbo cinnara (Wallace, 1866) Rice Swift NC 2,3,4 NE
7 Erionota thrax (Linnaeus, 1767) Palm Redeye NR 2,3 NE
8 Hyarotis adrastus (Stoll, [1780]) Tree Flitter NC 1,3 NE/ Sch IV
9 Iambrix salsala (Moore, [1866]) Chestnut Bob C 1, 2, 3, 4 NE
10 Matapa aria (Moore, [1866]) Common Redeye R 1, 4 NE
11 Parnara guttatus (Bremer & Grey, [1852]) Straight Swift NC 2,3,4 NE
12 Pelopidas subochracea (Moore, 1878)* Moore’s Swift C 1,2,3,4 NE
13 Pelopidas thrax (Huebner, [1821]) Small Branded Swift C 2,3,4 NE
14 Telicota colon (Fabricius, 1775) Common Palm Dart NC 2,3,4 NE
15 Telicota bambusae (Moore, 1878) Dark Palm Dart C 3,4 NE
16 Udaspes folus (Cramer, [1775]) Grass Demon NC 2,3,4 NE
Subfamily Pyrginae
17 Spialia galba (Fabricius, 1793) Indian Skipper C 1,2,3,4 NE
Family Lycaenidae
Subfamily Curetinae
18 Curetis thetis (Drury,1773) Indian Sunbeam C 3,4 NE
Subfamily Lycaeninae
19 Pseudozizeeria maha (Kollar, [1844]) Pale Grass Blue VC 1,2,3,4 NE
20 Zizina otis (Fabricius, 1787)* Lesser Grass Blue VC 1,2,3,4 NE
Subfamily Miletinae
21 Spalgis epius (Westwood, 1852) Common Apefly NR 2, 3 NE
Subfamily Polyommatinae NE
22 Anthene emolus (Godart, 1824) Common Ciliate Blue C 2,3,4 NE

NE/ Sch I
23 Castalius rosimon (Fabricius, 1775) Common Pierrot VC 1, 2, 3
(Part IV)
24 Catochrysops strabo (Fabricius, 1793) Forgetmenot C 1,2,3,4 NE
25 Chilades lajus (Stoll, [1780]) Lime Blue C 2,3,4 NE

NE/ Sch II
26 Euchrysops cnejus (Fabricius,1798) Gram Blue NR 2,3,4
(Part II)
27 Jamides bochus (Stoll, [1782]) Dark Cerulean C 1,2,3,4 NE
28 Jamides celeno (Cramer, [1775]) Common Cerulean C 3,4 NE
29 Luthrodes pandava (Horsfield, [1829]) Plains Cupid VC 1.2.3.4 NE
30 Neopithecops zalmora (Butler, 1870) Quaker VC 2,3,4 NE
31 Prosotas dubiosa (Semper, [1879]) Tailless Lineblue C 1,2,3 NE
32 Tarucus nara (Kollar, 1848) Striped/ Rounded Pierrot C 2,3,4 NE

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33 Zizeeria karsandra (Moore, 1865) Dark Grass Blue C 1,2,3,4 NE
34 Zizula hylax (Fabricius, 1775) Tiny Grass Blue VC 1,2,3,4 NE
Subfamily Theclinae
35 Arhopala atrax (Hewitson, 1862)* Indian Oakblue R 2,3 NE
36 Iraota timoleon (Stoll, [1790]) Silverstreak Blue R 3 NE

NE/ Sch II
37 Mahathala ameria (Hewitson, 1862) Falcate Oakblue R 3
(Part II)
38 Rapala manea (Hewitson, 1863) Slate Flash NR 2,3 NE
39 Rathinda amor (Fabricius, 1775) Monkey Puzzle R 3 NE
40 Spindasis vulcanus (Fabricius, 1775) Common Silverline NC 2, 3 NE
41 Virachola isocrates (Fabricius, 1793) Common Guava Blue R 1, 3, 4 NE
Family Nymphalidae
Subfamily Biblidinae
42 Ariadne (Linnaeus, 1763) Angled Castor VC 1, 2,3,4 NE
43 Ariadne merione (Cramer, [1777]) Common Castor VC 1, 2,3, 4 NE
Subfamily Danainae NE
44 Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus, 1758) Plain Tiger VC 1,2,3,4 NE
45 Danaus genutia (Cramer, [1779]) Common Tiger/ Striped Tiger VC 1,2,3,4 NE
46 Danaus melanippus indicus (Fruhstorfer, 1899) White Tiger C 2,3,4 NE
47 Euploea core (Cramer, [1780]) Common Crow VC 1, 2,3, 4 LC/Sch IV
48 Euploea klugii kollari (C. & R. Felder, 1865) King Crow C 3,4 NE
49 Tirumala limniace (Cramer, [1775]) Blue Tiger NC 1, 2, 3 NE
50 Tirumala septentrionis (Butler, 1874)* Dark Blue Tiger R 2,3 NE
Subfamily Acraeinae
51 Acraea violae (Fabricius, 1793) Tawny Coster VC 1, 2, 3,4 NE
Subfamily Heliconiinae
52 Phalanta phalantha (Drury, [1773]) Common Leopard VC 1, 2,3, 4 NE
Subfamily Limenitinae
53 Euthalia aconthea (Cramer, [1777]) Common Baron NR 2, 3 NE
54 Moduza procris (Cramer, [1777]) Commander C 2, 3 NE
55 Neptis hylas (Linnaeus, 1758) Common Sailer C 2, 3, 4 NE

NE/ Sch I
56 Neptis jumbah Moore, [1858] Chestnut-streaked Sailer NR 2, 3
(Part IV)
57 Phaedyma columella (Cramer, [1780])* Short-banded Sailer NC 2,3,4 NE
58 Symphaedra nais (Forster, 1771) Baronet C 1, 2, 3 NE
Subfamily Morphinae
NE/ Sch I
59 Discophora sondaica Boisduval, 1836 Common Duffer R 3
(Part IV)
Subfamily Nymphalinae
60 Hypolimnas bolina (Linnaeus, 1758) Great Eggfly c 1,2,3,4 NE
61 Junonia almana (Linnaeus, 1758) Peacock Pansy VC 2,3,4 LC
62 Junonia atlites (Linnaeus, 1763) Grey Pansy c 2,3,4 NE
63 Junonia hierta (Fabricius, 1798) Yellow Pansy NC 2,3 LC
64 Junonia iphita (Cramer, [1779]) Chocolate Pansy VC 1, 2, 3, 4 NE
65 Junonia lemonias (Linnaeus, 1758) Lemon Pansy VC 1,2,3,4 NE
66 Junonia orithya (Linnaeus, 1758) Blue Pansy NR 2, 3 NE

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Subfamily Satyrinae
67 Elymnias hypermnestra (Linnaeus, 1763) Common Palmfly NR 2, 3, 4 NE

NE/Sch I (Part
68 Lethe europa (Fabricius, 1775) Bamboo Treebrown NR 3,4
IV)
69 Melanitis leda (Linnaeus, 1758) Common Evening Brown C 1, 2, 3, 4 NE
70 Mycalesis perseus (Fabricius, 1775) Common Bush Brown NR 2,3,4 NE
71 Ypthima baldus (Fabricius, 1775)* Common Fivering NR 2, 3, 4 NE
72 Ypthima huebneri Kirby, 1871 Common Fourring C 1,2,3,4 NE
Family Papilionidae
Subfamily Papilioninae
73 Graphium agamemnon (Linnaeus, 1758) Tailed Jay C 1,2,3 NE
74 Graphium doson (C. & R. Felder, 1864) Common Jay C 1, 2, 3 NE
75 Graphium nomius (Esper, 1799)* Spot Swordtail C 1,2,3 NE
76 Pachliopta aristolochiae (Fabricius, 1775) Common Rose C 1, 2, 3, 4 NE

NE/Sch I (Part
77 Papilio clytia Linnaeus, 1758 Common Mime C 2, 3
IV)
78 Papilio crino Fabricius, 1793 Common Banded Peacock R 3, 4 NE
79 Papilio demoleus Linnaeus, 1758 Lime Butterfly VC 1,2,3,4 NE
80 Papilio hector (Linnaeus, 1758) Crimson Rose NR 1,2,3,4 NE
81 Papilio polymnestor Cramer, [1775] Blue Mormon NC 2,3,4 NE
82 Papilio polytes Linnaeus, 1758 Common Mormon C 2, 3, 4 NE
Family Pieridae
Subfamily Coliadinae
83 Catopsilia pomona (Fabricius, 1775) Common Emigrant C 1, 2, 3, 4 NE
84 Catopsilia pyranthe (Linnaeus, 1758) Mottled Emigrant VC 1,2,3,4 NE
85 Eurema andersoni Moore, 1886 One-spot Grass Yellow C 1,2,3,4 LC
86 Eurema blanda (Boisduval, 1836) Three-spot Grass Yellow VC 1,2,3,4 NE
87 Eurema brigitta (Stoll, [1780]) Small Grass Yellow VC 1,2,3,4 LC
88 Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus, 1758) Common Grass Yellow C 2, 3, 4 NE
89 Eurema laeta (Boisduval, 1836)* Spotless Grass Yellow C 1,2,3,4 NE
90 Eurema sari (Horsfield)* Chocolate Grass Yellow C 2, 3, 4 NE
Subfamily Pirinae
91 Appias libythea olferna (Swinhoe, 1890) Striped Albatross NR 2,3 NE

NE/Sch II
92 Cepora nerissa (Fabricius, 1775) Common Gull C 2, 3
(Part II)
93 Colotis amata (Cramer, 1775) Small Salmon Arab NC 1,2,4 NE
94 Delias eucharis (Drury, 1773) Common Jezabel VC 1, 2, 3, 4 NE
95 Ixias pyrene (Linnaeus, 1764) Yellow Orange Tip NC 1,2,3 NE
96 Leptosia nina (Fabricius, 1793) Psyche C 1,2,4 NE
97 Pareronia valeria (Cramer, [1776]) Common Wanderer NR 2,3 NE
98 Pieris canidia (Linnaeus, 1768) Indian Cabbage White NR 2,3 NE
VC—very common | C—common | NC—not common | NR—not rare | R—rare | 1—pre-monsoon | 2—monsoon | 3—post-monsoon | 4—winter | NE—not evaluated
| LC—Least Concern | Sch—schdule.
* indicates newly recorded species from this region

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Table 3. List of newly recoded species along with their distribution and legal protection status.
Legal
New records Distributiona Reference
protectionb
Family Hesperiidae
West Bengal (Alipurduar, South 24 Parganas, Bankura, Purulia
1 Baoris farri NE/ Sch IV Saji & Manoj (2020)
district), NEI, A & N Is., SI, CI
2 Pelopidas subochracea West Bengal (northern Bengal, southwestern Bengal), NEI, SI, CI NE Saji (2020)
Family Lycaenidae
3 Zizina otis India NE Saji & Mahajan (2020)
4 Arhopala atrax West Bengal (Alipurduar, Bankura, Purulia district) NEI, CI, NI NE Anonymous (2020a)
Family Nymphalidae
5 Tirumala septentrionis NEI, NI, SI, CI NE Saji et al. (2020)
6 Phaedyma columella West Bengal (Alipurduar, Bardhaman district), NEI, NI, SI, CI, A&N Is NE Churi & Bagli (2020)
7 Ypthima baldus West Bengal (Northern Bengal to southern Bengal), NEI, NI, CI, SI NE Ogale & Saji (2020)
Family Papilionidae
8 Graphium nomius West Bengal (Bardhaman, Bankura, Purulia district), SI, CI, NEI NE Churi (2020)
Family Pieridae
9 Eurema laeta West Bengal (Bankura, Purulia district), SI, CI, NEI, NI NE Bhakare & Bhagwat (2020)
10 Eurema sari NEI, SI NE Anonymous (2020b)
a
Emphasis on regional distribution along with National level distribution (NEI: Northeastern India, NI: Northern India, SI: Southern India, CI: Central India, A&N Is:
Andaman & Nicobar island of newly recoded species in this study.
b
Legal protection of newly recorded butterfly species based on IUCN Red list (NE: Not Evaluated)/IW(P)A (Sch IV: Schedule IV).
References
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Image 1. Species of Hesperiidae family recorded in the present study: 1—Badamia exclamationis | 2—Hasora chromus | 3—Suastus gremius |
4—Suastus gremius | 5—Baoris farri * | 6—Borbo cinnara | 7—Erionota thrax | 8—Hyarotis adrastus | 9—Iambrix salsala | 10—Matapa aria
| 11—Parnara guttatus | 12—Pelopidas subochracea * | 13—Pelopidas thrax | 14—Telicota colon | 15—Telicota bambusae | 16—Udaspes
folus | 17—Spialia galba.
ifoundbutterflies.org/sp/590/Graphium-nomius History Society, Oxford University press. Walton Street, Oxford, New
Churi, P. & K. Bagli (2020). Phaedyma columella (Cramer, [1780]) – Short- York, 497pp.
banded Sailer. Kunte, K., S. Sondhi & P. Roy (chief editors). Butterflies Kunte, K. (2000). Butterflies of Peninsular India. Universities Press
of India, v. 3.04. Indian Foundation for Butterflies. http://www. (Hyderabad) and Indian Academy of Sciences (Bangalore), 254pp.
ifoundbutterflies.org/sp/753/Phaedyma-columella Landres, P.B., J. Verner & J.W. Thomas (1988). Ecological uses of
Ehrlich, P.R. & P.H. Raven (1964). Butterflies and plants: a study in vertebrate indicator species: a critique. Conservation Biology 2:
coevolution. Evolution 18: 586–608. 316–328.
FSI (2017). India State of Forest Report. Forest Survey of India, Mahata, A., K.T. Samal & S.K. Palita (2019). Butterfly diversity in
Dehradun, India, 314–319pp. agroforestry plantations of Eastern Ghats of southern Odisha, India.
Hora, S.L. (1949). Satpura Hypothesis of the distribution of Malayan Agroforestry Systems 93: 1423–1438. https://doi.org/10.1007/
fauna and flora of peninsular India. Proceedings of National Institute s10457-018-0258-y
of Science of India 15(8): 309–314. Morrone, J.J. (2004). La Zona de Transición Sudamericana:
IUCN (2020). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2020-2. caracterización y relevancia evolutiva. Acta Entomológica Chilena
https://www.iucnredlist.org. 28: 41–50.
Kehimkar, I. (2008). The book of Indian Butterflies. Bombay Natural New, T.R. (1991). Butterfly conservation. Oxford University Press,

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Image 2. Species of Lycaenidae family recorded in the present study: 18—Curetis thetis | 19—Pseudozizeeria maha | 20—Zizina otis *| 21—
Spalgis epius | 22—Anthene emolus | 23—Castalius rosimon | 24—Catochrysops strabo | 25—Chilades lajus | 26—Euchrysops cnejus | 27—
Jamides bochus | 28—Jamides celeno | 29—Luthrodes pandava | 30—Neopithecops zalmora | 31—Prosotas dubiosa | 32—Tarucus nara |
33—Zizeeria karsandra | 34—Zizula hylax| 35—Arhopala atrax * | 36—Iraota timoleon | 37—Mahathala ameria | 38—Rapala manea |39—
Rathinda amor | 40—Spindasis vulcanus | 41—Virachola Isocrates.

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Image 3. Species of Nymphalidae family recorded in the present study: 42—Ariadne ariadne | 43—Ariadne merione | 44—Danaus chrysippus |
45—Danaus genutia | 46—Danaus melanippus indicus | 47—Euploea core | 48—Euploea klugii kollari | 49—Tirumala limniace | 50—Tirumala
septentrionis *| 51—Acraea violae | 52—Phalanta phalantha | 53—Euthalia aconthea | 54—Moduza procris| 55—Neptis hylas| 56—Neptis
jumbah | 57—Phaedyma columella * | 58—Symphaedra nais | 59—Discophora sondaica | 60—Hypolimnas bolina | 61—Junonia almanac |
62—Junonia atlites | 63—Junonia hierta | 64—Junonia iphita | 65—Junonia lemonias | 66—Junonia orithya | 67—Elymnias hypermnestra |
68—Lethe europa | 69—Melanitis leda | 70—Mycalesis perseus | 71—Ypthima baldus * | 72—Ypthima huebneri.

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Image 4. Species of Papilionidae family recorded in the present study: 73—Graphium Agamemnon | 74—Graphium doson | 75—Graphium
nomius* | 76—Pachliopta aristolochiae | 77—Papilio clytia | 78–Papilio crino | 79—Papilio demoleus | 80—Papilio hector | 81—Papilio
polymnestor | 82—Papilio polytes.
Image 5. Species of Pieridae family recorded in the present study: 83—Catopsilia Pomona | 84—Catopsilia pyranthe | 85—Eurema andersoni |
86—Eurema blanda | 87—Eurema brigitta | 88—Eurema hecabe | 89—Eurema laeta * | 90—Eurema sari * | 91—Appias libythea olferna | 92—
Cepora nerissa | 93–Colotis amata | 94—Delias eucharis | 95—Ixias pyrene | 96—Leptosia nina | 97—Pareronia valeria | 98—Pieris canidia.

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Melbourne, 224pp. Saji, K & P. Manoj (2020). Baoris farri (Moore, 1878) – Complete Paint-
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Philadelphia. xii + 384 pp. of India, v. 3.04. Indian Foundation for Butterflies. http://www.
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Five-ring. Kunte, K., S. Sondhi & P. Roy (chief editors). Butterflies Saji, K. & R.P. Mahajan (2020). Zizina otis (Fabricius, 1787) – Lesser
of India, v. 3.04. Indian Foundation for Butterflies. http://www. Grass Blue. Kunte, K., S. Sondhi & P. Roy (chief editors). Butterflies
ifoundbutterflies.org/sp/559/Ypthima-baldus of India, v. 3.04. Indian Foundation for Butterflies. http://www.
Paria, S., S. Ghosh, P.C. Mardaraj, P.H. Mallick & S.K. Chakraborty ifoundbutterflies.org/sp/829/Zizina-otis
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OPEN ACCESS
#5983 | Received 11 April 2020 | Final received 05 November 2020 | Finally accepted 17 November 2020
S
h
o
Occurrence of Corica soborna Hamilton, 1822 (Clupeiformes: Clupeidae) r
t
in the Godavari basin, India C
o
m
Kante Krishna Prasad 1 , Mohammad Younus2 & Chelmala Srinivasulu 3 m
u
1,3
Wildlife Biology and Taxonomy Lab, Department of Zoology, University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad, n
Telangana 500007, India.
i
c
2
Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Studies, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana 500007, India. a
3
Systematics, Ecology & Conservation Laboratory, Zoo Outreach Organization, No. 12 Thiruvannamalai Nagar, t
Saravanampatti-Kalapatti Road, Saravanampatti, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641035, India. i
1
[email protected], 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected] (corresponding author) o
n
Abstract: We record for the first time, Corica soborna Hamilton, 1822 Myers 1937; Whitehead 1967, 1972). This species was
from Godavari River, based on a single specimen collected from stream
near Talai Village, Kumaram Bheem Asifabad District of Telengana
described from Aiyargunj in erstwhile Bengal Presidency
State. In addition to a detailed description of its morphological (Hamilton 1822; also see Britz 2019), at the confluence
characters, we also provide details on distribution, habitat and threats of Punarbhaba River with Mahananda River, located in
to the species.
current day Bangladesh (Bhattacharya 1974). Previous
Keywords: Bejjur, Clupeoid, freshwater fish, Pranahita River sub-basin, records of the species are mostly from the Ganges and
Telangana State. its tributaries – Dehri-on-Sone on river Sone in Bihar
(Motwani & David 1957), Goribaba on river Ken in
Approximately 420 species of clupeoids are known Uttar Pradesh (Srivastava et al. 1970), Dighwara on the
from around the world, distributed in marine, estuarine Ganges in Bihar (Karamchandani 1962), from several
and freshwater habitats (Fricke et al. 2020). In India, other locations on the Ganges in Patna and Bhagalpur
more than 80 species of clupeoid fishes have been districts in Bihar, and Sahibganj district in Jharkhand
recorded (Froese & Pauly 2019), of which around 34 (Kamal & Ahsan 1978). The only record of this species
species are distributed in freshwaters and estuaries in India, outside the Ganges River system is from the
(Jayaram 2010; Froese & Pauly 2019). The Ganges Ponnani Estuary, Kerala (Bijukumar & Sushama 2000).
River Sprat, Corica soborna Hamilton, 1822 is a small Whitehead (1972) inadvertently mentioned ‘Mahanadi’
freshwater clupeid primarily known from the Ganges river as type locality instead of ‘Mahananda’ river from
river basin, with a record from the Bharathapuzha River where the species was described by Hamilton (1822). It
basin in Kerala (Bijukumar & Sushama 2000). Other has so far not been recorded from the Godavari River
records are from Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore basin (Talwar & Jhingran 1991; Krishnan & Mishra 2001;
in southeastern Asia (Hardenberg 1936; Herre & Jayaram 1981, 2010), or from anywhere in Telangana
Editor: Rajeev Raghavan, Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS), Kochi, India. Date of publication: 26 December 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Prasad, K.K., M. Younus & C. Srinivasulu (2020). Occurrence of Corica soborna Hamilton, 1822 (Clupeiformes: Clupeidae) in the Godavari basin, India.
Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(17): 17361–17365. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5983.12.17.17361-17365
Copyright: © Prasad et al. 2020. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article
in any medium by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: The study was funded by UGC-BSR scheme.
Acknowledgements: We acknowledge the Head, Department of Zoology, University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad for providing facilities and
encouragement. KKP acknowledges the research funding from University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi. MY acknowledges the internship support at the
Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Studies, Osmania University, Hyderabad. We also thank Tokala Venkatesh and his family members for assistance in the
the field and hospitality.
17361
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Occurrence of Corica soborna in Godavari basin Prasad et al.
State (Barman 1993; Chaudhry 2010; Jayaram 2010). fish, attaining about 50mm in standard length. The
Through this communication, we report for the first following characters distinguish the species from its
time, the occurrence of Corica soborna in the Godavari congeners: body moderately elongate; abdomen keeled;
River basin in Telangana State, India. 10 pre-pelvic and eight post-pelvic scutes; mouth
terminal; second supra-maxilla equal to, or as long as
Material and Methods maxilla blade; teeth absent or minute; gill rakers of first
While conducting ichthyological surveys in Telangana gill 19–21 (Whitehead 1972; Talwar & Jhingran 1991);
State, we collected a single specimen of a fish that dorsal fin inserted above pelvic origin with two simple
resembled C. soborna with a dragnet operated by a (Talwar & Jhingran 1991) and 13–14 branched rays
local fisher at Talai Village, Kumaram Bheem Asifabad (Hamilton 1822; Talwar & Jhingran 1991); pectoral with
District. The voucher specimen was photographed, 12–13 rays (Hamilton 1822; Talwar & Jhingran 1991);
labeled, and fixed in 4% formalin (Jayaram 2010), and pelvic fin insertion in advance of dorsal fin origin with
deposited in the Natural History Museum, Department one simple and seven branched rays (Talwar & Jhingran
of Zoology, University College of Science, Osmania 1991); anal fin with two simple and 12–13 branched rays
University, Hyderabad, Telangana State, India (NHMOU). and two rays in a distinct finlet (Talwar & Jhingran 1991);
Morphometric measurements were taken using caudal fin deeply forked with 18 rays and faint dark
Mitutoyo digital calipers following Jayaram (2010) and edges (Hamilton 1822); scales small; lateral line absent;
Armbruster (2012), and the fish was subsequently lateral series scales 40 to 42 (Jayram 2010).
identified as C. soborna following Whitehead (1972, The present specimen matches the general
1985), Talwar & Jhingran (1991), and Jayaram (1981, description provided by Hamilton (1822), Talwar &
2010). Jhingran (1991), and Jayram (2010). Morphometric
measurements and meristic counts are presented in
Corica soborna Hamilton, 1822 Table 1. Minor variations with respect to simple and
(Image 1) branched rays could likely be due to the manner in which
counts were taken by previous researchers with those
Materials examined: NHM.OU.F-993, 05.i.2019, made in the present study. In the present specimen,
a stream near Talai Village, Pranahita sub-basin of dorsal fin is inserted above pelvic origin, with three
Godavari, Kumarambheem Asifabad District, Telangana, simple and 13 branched rays; pectoral fin with one
India, 19.2960N & 79.9520E, 110m, coll. Kante Krishna simple and 13 branched rays; pelvic fin with one simple
Prasad & Md. Younus. and seven branched rays; anal fin with three simple and
Distinguishing characters: Corica soborna is a small 11 branched rays and two branched rays in the finlet;
Image 1. Lateral view of the preserved specimen of Corica soborna (NHM.OU.F-993). © K. Krishna Prasad


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Table 1. Morphometric characters and meristic counts of Corica caudal fin deeply forked with 18 principal rays and 12
soborna from Godavari River basin, Telangana State, India.
procurrent rays; lateral series scales 41; and 22 gill rakers
Morphometric Characters
Specimen voucher on lower arch of first gill.
NHM.OU.F-993
Habitat: One individual of Corica soborna was
Total length (mm) 50.5
collected in an eighth-order stream (Strahler 1957)
Standard length (mm) 41.6
of six-meter depth, with rapid water flow (1.2 m/s)
Head length (mm) 9.0
and bedrock, submerged boulders, sand, silt and
% of Standard length
detritus swamp as substrates. Riparian vegetation on
Body depth 20.4
the left bank of the stream was occupied with shrubs
Head length 21.6 and scattered trees of Tectona grandis, Cassia fistula,
Head depth 16.9 Albizia amara, and Acacia leucophloea, and right bank
Head width 9.2 with cultivated lands. Co-occurring fish fauna included
Eye diameter 7.9 Amblypharyngodon mola, Barilius barila, Chanda nama,
Snout length 6.4 Channa marulius, C. striata, Glossogobius giuris, Labeo
Inter orbital width 4.8 calbasu, Macrognathus pancalus, Mastacembelus
Dorsal fin base length or
14.6
armatus, Mystus bleekeri, M. vittatus, Puntius sophore,
dorsal fin width
Rasbora daniconius, Sperata seenghala, and Systomus
Pre-dorsal distance 50.8
sarana.
Dorsal fin length 19.1
Dorsal fin origin to hypural
distance
46.2 Discussion
Pectoral fin length 17.3 The present record of Corica soborna in the Godavari
Pelvic fin length 13.7
River basin extends its distribution to the middle of
peninsular India. This species is currently known from
Caudal peduncle length 11.0
few locations in the Ganga basin from Uttar Pradesh to
Caudal peduncle depth 9.2
West Bengal in India, and in Bangladesh (Mahananda,
Pre-pelvic distance 49.0
Ken, and Sone river drainages), as well as in the
Pre-anal distance 70.7
Bharathapuzha River (in Ponnani Estuary) in Kerala.
Anal fin base length 17.7
The presence of C. soborna in the Godavari River basin
Anal fin length 12.1 suggest that this species may be more widespread in
% of Head length peninsular India than previously thought. In addition
Head depth 78.3 to the inland waters of India and Bangladesh (Rahman
Head width 42.5 1989, 2005; Payne et al. 2004; Wahab 2007; Alam et al.
Eye diameter 36.6 2013; Arefin et al. 2018), C. soborna also occurs in the
Snout length 29.8 estuaries of Southeast Asian countries (Fig. 1) including
Inter orbital width 22.2 Indonesia (Hardenberg 1936; Whitehead 1967, 1972),
Meristic counts Malaysia (Whitehead 1967, 1972), and Singapore
Scales in Lateral Series 41
(Herre & Myers 1937; Whitehead 1967). This species
Transverse scale rows 9
has also specifically been recorded from Mekong and
Bangpakong rivers in Thailand (Taki 1978; Suvatti 1981);
Pre pelvic scutes 10
however, Chaudhry (2010) doubted the validity of
Post pelvic scutes 8
these records. The discontinuous distribution of this
Pre-dorsal scales 17
species may suggest data-deficiency in surveys and
Pre-pelvic scales 14
non-availability of verified checklists from other parts
Pre-anal scales 23
of southern and Southeast Asian countries, indicating
Dorsal fin rays iii+13 ‘Wallacean shortfall’.
Pectoral fin rays i+13 Alteration, fragmentation, and destruction of critical
Pelvic fin rays i+7 habitats as a result of the construction of irrigation and
Anal fin rays + (finlet) iii+11+(2) hydropower projects in the middle and upper reaches
Principal caudal fin rays 18 of the Godavari, as well as indiscriminate fishing could
Procurrent caudal fin rays 12 be detrimental to the survival of the newly detected
population of C. soborna in Telangana State. We

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Figure 1. Global distribution of Corica soborna. Verified records in green circles, present record in red circle, and unverified records as red
question mark. Numerical numbers in the circles represent ID numbers mentioned in Table 2.
Table 2. Global distribution of Corica soborna. Location names in brackets are historic names.
ID Location River Basin/ Estuary Country Source

Aiyargunj, Mahananda River, Bangladesh (Aiargunj, Hamilton 1822; Britz 2019
1 Ganga Bangladesh
Mahananda River, India)*
2 Dehri-on-Sone, Sone River, Bihar Ganga India Motwani & David 1957
3 Dighwara, Ganga River, Bihar Ganga India Karamchandani 1962
4 Goribaba, Ken River, Banda, Uttar Pradesh Ganga India Srivastava et al. 1970
5 Rajmahal, Ganga River, Jharkhand Ganga India Kamal & Ahsan 1978**
6 Ponnani Estuary, Kerala Bharathapuzha India Bijukumar & Sushama 2000
7 Talai, Kumarambheem Asifabad District, Telangana State Godavari India Present Study
8 Halda River, Chittagong, Bangladesh Karnaphully Bangladesh Alam et al. 2013
9 Narsunda River, Kishoreganj District, Bangladesh Surma-Meghna Bangladesh Arefin et al. 2018
10 Padma River, Bangladesh Ganga Bangladesh Payne et al. 2004
11 Kapuas River, West Kalimantan (S.W. Borneo) Kapuas Indonesia Whitehead 1967, 1972
12 Musi River, South Sumatra, Indonesia (S.E. Sumatra) Musi Indonesia Whitehead 1967
13 Padang Tikar Bay, Indonesia Estuary Indonesia Hardenberg 1936; Whitehead 1967
14 Pamangkat, Indonesia (Pemangkat, S.W. Borneo) Estuary Indonesia Whitehead 1967, 1972
15 Perak River, Malaysia (Malaya) Perak Malaysia Whitehead 1967, 1972

Herre & Myers 1937; Whitehead
16 Singapore Estuary Singapore
1967
*Type locality; **Kamal & Ahsan (1978) report C. soborna being collected from various locations of Ganga River in Patna and Bhagalpur districts in Bihar, and Sahibganj
District in Jharkhand, India.

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and its branches. Archibald Constable & Company, Edinburgh, with keys to all Indo-Pacific Genera. Journal of the Marine Biological
405pp. Association of India 9(2): 223–280.
Hardenberg, J.D.F. (1936). On a collection of fishes from the estuary Whitehead, P.J.P. (1972). A synopsis of the Clupeoid fishes of India.
and the lower and middle course of the river Kapuas (W. Borneo). Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India 14(1): 160–256.
Treubia 15: 225–254. Whitehead, P.J.P. (1985). FAO species catalogue. Clupeoid fishes
Herre, A.W.C.T. & G.S. Myers (1937). A contribution to the ichthyology of the world (suborder Clupeioidei), Part-1. An annotated and
of the Malay Peninsula. Bulletin of the Raffles Museum 13: 5–75. illustrated catalogue of the herrings, sardines, pilchards, sprats,
Jayaram, K.C. (1981). The freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan, shads, anchovies and wolf-herrings. United Nations Development
Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka-a handbook. Zoological Survey of Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
India, Kolkata, xxii+475pp. Nations, Rome. Fisheries Synopsis Number (125)7: 1–303. http://
Jayaram, K.C. (2010). The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian Region. 2nd www.fao.org/3/ac482e/ac482e00.htm
edition. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi, xxxi+616pp.
Threatened Taxa

OPEN ACCESS
#4750 | Received 08 December 2018 | Final received 12 July 2020 | Finally accepted 27 November 2020
N
o
t
e Strobilanthes affinis (Acanthaceae): a new addition to the flora of Manipur,
India
Sanjeet Kumar 1 & Rajkumari Supriya Devi 2
1
Ambika Prasad Research Foundation, First Floor, Sarswati Tower, Laxmisagar, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, 751006 India.
2
Biodiversity & Conservation Division, Regional Centre, Ambika Prasad Research Foundation, Imphal, Manipur 795001, India.
1
[email protected] (corresponding author), 2 [email protected]
The genus Strobilanthes Blume (1826: 781) from the appeared like a small hill at the periphery of a human
family Acanthaceae (Wood & Scotland 2009) is a genus inhabitation which might have been used in the past
of perennial flowering herbs and shrubs with about 453 as a sacred place where local deities may have been
species worldwide (Biju et al. 2017; Mabberly 2017; worshipped. It was a moist shady place with huge aged
Thomas et al. 2019, 2020; Wood et al. 2019). In India, the trees sheltering and nurturing vegetation beneath. A
genus is represented by ca. 150 species (Scotland 1998; significant patch of blue coloured herbs with a height
Gopalan & Chitra 2008; Karthikeyan et al. 2009; Wood of 45–85 cm were blooming with bright blue coloured
2014; Biju et al. 2017), and it is found mostly in evergreen flowers in the area of around 4.5–6.5 m2 on the slopes of
forests. The name Strobilanthes is derived from the a small hillock. After careful observation in the field, the
Latin word “Strobilos” meaning cone and “anthos” first author confirmed that the specimen belongs to the
meaning flower or shoot. For the first time, the genus genus Strobilanthes but confused it with S. auriculata or
was scientifically described by Christian Gottfried Daniel S. jeyporensis. After a detailed study of the specimen’s
Nees Von Esenbeck in the 19th century for the plants morphology (Image 1) and pollen morphology (Image 2),
which bloom after long intervals, while some species of and comparison with S. kunthiana, it was confirmed that
Strobilanthes bloom annually (Preethi & Suseem 2014; the collected species was S. affinis. This specimen was
Josekutty et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Augustine et al. 2017). again confirmed by professor John Wood, University of
The genus is distributed in the tropical regions of Asia Oxford, United Kingdom. After confirmation, literature
starting from Afghanistan through India and Southeast survey and critical characterization, it was noticed that
Asia to Australia (Josekutty et al. 2018). During 2017– collected plant had been earlier reported from China
2018, while surveying floral diversity around Imphal, (Wood et al. 2003) and the species was also collected
Manipur, when the weather was clear and the vegetation by J.D. Hooker and T. Thomson from Meghalaya as S.
was on the verge of blooming, an exciting view of a blue acrocephala more than 10 decades ago. Therefore, it
patch of herbs was recorded. The site was an isolated was concluded that the present specimen that was
place near an abandoned old temple-like structure. It collected is identified as S. affinis and reported here for
Editor: K. Haridasan, Pallavur, Palakkad, Kerala, India. Date of publication: 26 December 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Kumar, S. & R.S. Devi (2020). Strobilanthes affinis (Acanthaceae): a new addition to the flora of Manipur, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(17):
17366–17369. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.4750.12.17.17366-17369
Copyright: © Kumar & Devi 2020. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this
Funding: Core works of APRF, India.
Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to the director, Institute of Bioresources and Sustainable Development (IBSD), Imphal; Dr. S.B. Ummalyma, Dr.
S.S. Thorat, & Dr. B.G. Somkuwar, IBSD, Imphal; and the local communities of the study area. The authors are also thankful to Smt. Padma Mahanti, director,
Directorate of Environment and Climate Change, Thiruvananthapuram and Smt. Lekshmi R, Eravikulam National Park, Munnar, Kerala.
17366
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Strobilanthes affinis - new addition to the flora of Manipur Kumar & Devi
the first time from Manipur as an extended distribution. Description: Herbs, 50–82.5 cm tall with many
During our field survey of the flora of Manipur (24.916 branches. Stems angular (quadrangular) with white
N & 93.961 E, 803m), some unidentified species of the pubescent, hairs. Leaves ovate-elliptic, 7–5 x 4–3 cm to
genus Strobilanthes were collected. The specimens 9–0 x 6–3 cm. Leaves simple, petiole, 3.5–4.3 cm long.
were packed in cloth bags and brought to the laboratory Inflorescences axillary or terminal,3.0–7.5 cm. Each
for analysis. The relevant floras were consulted for inflorescence has two flowers that have bloomed, after
confirming its identity. A thorough review of the drying another couple of flowers bloom. Flowers size,
literature, detailed morphological and consultation of 1.9–2.3 cm long, 1.2 x 1.2–2.0 x 1.8 cm wide. Floral
herbarium provided by professor Wood revealed that bracts imbricate with large-celled trichomes. Corolla
the specimen was Strobilanthes affinis (Griff.) Terao violet or bluish-violet. Stamens 4 and glabrous, 5.0–2.2
ex J.R.I.Wood J.R.Benn. The mounting of herbarium mm. Fruits capsule, pubescent, four seeded, 4.0–7.0
specimens was accomplished using standard taxonomic mm. Seeds brown ovate (Image 1).
procedure (Jain & Rao 1977; Bridson & Forman 1998). Flowering & Fruiting: August—March
The voucher specimens (APRF-MAN-BCD/2018-0004) Distribution: China and India (Manipur, Meghalaya).
were deposited in the “APRFH” Herbaria, Ambika Prasad Specimen examined: APRF-MAN-BCD-2018-004,
Research Foundation, Odisha, India. The photographs India, Manipur, Imphal, 24.9160N & 93.9610E, 803m,
of the diagnostic characteristics were taken by Stereo Kumar Sanjeet 012 (Holotype APRFH) (Image 4).
Microscope, (Leica MC 120 HD). Habitat & Ecology: The collected species is
Strobilanthes affinis found on a small hill top of Manipur
Taxonomic enumeration State. The collected area lies in the Indo-Burma
Strobilanthes affinis (Griff.) Terao ex J. R. I. Wood J. Biodiversity Hotspot region. It was observed that
R. Benn the habitat is Moist-deciduous vegetation. The most
Image 1. Floral parts and morphology of collected Strobilanthes affinis. © Sanjeet Kumar

J TT
In the present study, however, it was observed that it

flowers from August to March. It was also observed that
Sida acuta is the main associate flora of the collected
species. As it is found only one region of Manipur, it
should be assessed for threat status using categories of
IUCN, and take necessary conservation action.
References
Augustine, J., E.J. Josekutty & P. Biju (2017). Strobilanthes

sainthomiana - a new species of Strobilanthes Blume (Acanthaceae)
from Western Ghats, India. Taiwania 62(1): 63–66. https://doi.
org/10.6165/tai2017.62.63
Biju, P., E.J. Josekutty, D. Rekha & R.I. John (2017). Strobilanthes
jomyi (Acantheceae), a remarkable new species from South
Image 2. Pollen of collected Strobilanthes affinis India. Phytotaxa 332(1): 075–080. https://doi.org/10.11646/
phytotaxa.332.1.8
Bridson, D. & L. Forman (1998). The Herbarium Handbook. Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK, 334pp.
common associated herbs and climbers are Passiflora Gopalan, R. & V. Chithra (2008). Strobilanthes pothigaiensis
foetida, Solanum nigrum, Sida cordifolia, Cissampelos (Acanthaceae) - a new species from Southern Western Ghats, India.
Kew Bulletin 63(3): 499–501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12225-008-
pareira, and Phyllanthus reticulatus with some tree 9042-x
species like Bombax ceiba and Pongamia pinnata. It was Jain, S.K. & R.R. Rao (1977). A Handbook of Field and Herbarium
found in 6.09 x 9.14 – 4.57 x 7.01 m area of a hill top of Methods. Today & Tomorrow Printers & Publishers, New Delhi,
157pp.
said region. Josekutty, E.J., P. Biju & J. Augustine (2016). Strobilanthes malabarica
Remarks: The most unique characters of collected (Acanthaceae), a new species from South Western Ghats, India.
specimen are four exerted stamens (Image 3). Wood et Webbia 71(2): 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/00837792.2016.1205
818
al. (2003) described it from China and recorded that the Josekutty, E.J., P. Biju, J.R.I. Wood & J. Augustine (2018). Strobilanthes
flowering period is only from September to November. kannanii- a new species of Acanthaceae from the Western
Image 3. Four exerted stamens Strobilanthes affinis (Griff.) Terao ex J.R.I. Wood J.R. Benn. © Sanjeet Kumar

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Ghats, India. Nordic Journal of Botany e01689: 1–5. https://doi.

org/10.1111/njb.01689
Josekuty, E.J., Biju, P. & J. Augustine (2017). Notes on the extended
distribution of two threatened species of Strobilanthes Blume
(Acanthaceae) in Kerala, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 9(5):
10236–10239. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3186.9.5.10236-
10239.
Karthikeyan, S., M. Sanjappa & S. Moorthy. (2009). Flowering plants
of India-dicotyledons (Acanthaceae-Avicenniaceae). Botanical
Survey of India, Kolkata, India, 60pp.
Mabberley, D.L. (2017). Mabberley’s Plant-book. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK, 1102pp.
Preethi, F. & S.R. Suseem (2014). A comprehensive study on an
endemic Indian genus- Strobilanthes. International Journal of
Phytochemical Research 6(3): 459–466.
Scotland, R.W. (1998). One new and one rediscovered species of
Strobilanthes Blume (Acantheceae). Botanical Journal of the
Linnean Society 128: 203–210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-
8339.1998tb02116.x
Thomas, S., B. Mani, S.J. Britto & P.A.V. Pillai (2019). Strobilanthes
tricostata, a new species of Acanthaceae from the Western Ghats,
India. Phytotaxa 413(3): 244–250. https://doi.org/10.11646/
phytotaxa.413.3.5
Thomas, S., B. Mani, S.J. Britto & P.A.V. Pillai (2020). A new species
of Strobilanthes (Acanthaceae) from the Western Ghats, India.
Taiwania 65(2): 167–171. https://doi.org/10.6165/tai.2020.65.167
Wood, J.R.I. (2014). New names and Combination in Indian
Acanthaceae. Novon: A Journal for Botanical Nomenclature 23(3):
385–395. https://doi.org/10.3417/2013046
Wood, J.R.I. & R.W. Scotland (2009). New and little-known species of
Strobilanthes (Acanthaceae) from India and South East Asia. Kew
Bulletin 64(1): 3–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12225-009-9098-2
Wood, J.R.I., D. Borah, L. Yama & P. Mipun. (2019). Strobilanthes
twangensis (Acanthaceae), a new species from the East Himalayas.
Kew Bulletin 74: 41. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12225-019-9829-Y
Wood, J.R.I., J.R. Bennett & R.W. Scotland (2003). Notes on
Strobilanthes: The Sympagis group. Kew Bulletin 58: 131–173.
Image 4. Herbarium image of Strobilanthes affinis. https://doi.org/10.2307/4119358
Threatened Taxa

OPEN ACCESS
#6141 | Received 12 May 2020 | Final received 08 December 2020 | Finally accepted 10 December 2020
N
o
t
e A new species of the genus Opius Wesmael, 1835 (Hymenoptera:
Braconidae: Opiinae) from Kashmir Himalaya, India
Zaheer Ahmed 1 , Ahmad Samiuddin 2 , Altaf Hussain Mir 3 & Mohammad Shamim 4
Entomology Research laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Kashmir, Srinagar-Jammu & Kashmir 190006, India.
1,3
2
Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, 4 Entomology Section, Department of Zoology,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh 202002, India.
1
[email protected], 2 [email protected] (corresponding author), 3 [email protected], 4 [email protected]
Abbreviations: AOL—Anterior ocellar line | POL—Posterior ocellar line flavicornis, O. (G) caucasi against Chromatomyia
| OOL—Ocello ocular line | OOD—Ocellus diameter | F—Flagellomere
| T1—First metasomal tergite | MDZUK—Museum Department of
horticola, and O. (A) nowakowskii against Phytomyza
Zoology, University of Kashmir. thysselini (Yu et al. 2012). The genus is represented
by 51 species spread over 11 subgenera (including
four species of subgenera Utetes from India, i.e., Opius
Opiinae is one of the largest subfamily of Braconidae (Utetes) mudigerensis; Opius (Utetes) poonchicola;
(Hymenoptera: Ichneumonoidea) with 39 genera Opius (Utetes) parempiformis; Opius(Utetes) minicorpus
and 2,061 described species worldwide. Species (Fischer, 1966, 1980, 1987, 1996, 2005, 2012; Samiuddin
of the subfamily Opiinae are solitary koinobiont et al. 2009). In the present work a new species Opius
endoparasitoids of larvae of cyclorraphous Diptera, (Utetes) hazratbalensis sp. nov. from Kashmir, Himalaya
but oviposition may take place in the egg of the hosts has been described and illustrated.
(egg-larval parasitoids). They play significant role in the The specimens were collected by using sweeping
control of dipterous pests such as fruit flies (Tephritidae) net. Slides and card mount specimens were examined
and leaf-miner flies (Agromyzidae) (Wharton 1984, under the binocular microscope. The ocular micrometer
1997; Schuster & Wharton 1993). The parasitoid larvae was used to measure (linear side of 100 divisions) fitted
complete their development within the host larvae, in one of the two eye pieces of the binocular. The
pupate and emerge as adults (Li et al. 2013). Opius ocular micrometer was calibrated with the help of stage
Wesmael is the largest genus of subfamily Opiinae and micrometer under 8x,10x magnifications. Photographs
also one of the largest in the family Braconidae, with 33 were taken at different magnifications (4–16x) by the
subgenera and 1,202 described species (Yu et al. 2019). camera attached to Stereozoom binocular (SMZ1500)
Some species of Opius have great potential in biological and Nikon SMZ 25. The terminology and the venation
control of Agromyzid leaf miners. O. tirolensis is were followed by Achterberg (1993) and for surface
recorded as a biological control agent against Phytomyza sculpture Eady (1968) has been followed.
ZooBank: urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:5E270366-48B8-40A9-88F2-48B172B070F8
Citation: Ahmed, Z., A. Samiuddin, A.H. Mir & M. Shamim (2020). A new species of the genus Opius Wesmael, 1835 (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Opiinae) from
Kashmir Himalaya, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(17): 17370–17373. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6141.12.17.17370-17373
Copyright: © Ahmed et al. 2020. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this
Funding: None.
Acknowledgements: We thank Dr. Mohd Kamil Usmani, professor and head, Entomology section, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University for providing
laboratory facilities.
17370
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Opius (Utetes) hazratbalensis sp. nov. Ahmed et al.
Opius (Utetes) hazratbalensis sp. nov. mandible; clypeus concave, rugose and densely setose,
(Image 1 A–G) length of clypeus 2x its width; antennae 47-segmented,
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:DBDA5D24-0C95-47DD-B8DB-DAF7DAAD65AE length of scape 1.3x its width, length of pedicel 1.16x
its width, basal flagellar segments relatively long, first
Material examined: Holotype: MDZUK ZoKU Art/ segment (F1) 3.2x as long as wide, length of F2 5.3x: F3-F4
06180, 15.v.2019, female, University campus, Hazratbal, 5x: F5-F6 4.3x: F7-F12 4x: F13-F22 3.3x: F23-F26 3x: F27-F34 4.5x:
Jammu & Kashmir, India; coll. Zaheer Ahmed. In near F35-F44 4x: and F45 4.5x their widths respectively.
future it will be deposited in the Department of Zoology, Mesosoma: Length of mesosoma 1.8x its width
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. and 2.2x , 2.7x as high as head (95:30) and 1.15x wide
Paratype: 1 female, same data as holotype. as head (52:60), mesonotum 2.3x as long medially, as
Female: Body length 5.95mm; forewing 6.07mm. wide between tegulae; dorsal surface of scutellum
Head: The width of head in dorsal view 1.7x its punctate, laterally striate; median lobe of mesoscutum
length and 1.3x its height; occipital carina complete; reticulate, lateral lobe smooth, polished; notauli
length of eye in lateral view 1.3x its width and 2.7x its deep, crenulate anterio-medially, remaining rugose;
temple; temple smooth, OOL:POL:AOL:OOD=3:3:14:3; mesopleuron anterio-medially granulate remaining
vertex anterio-medially smooth, remaining rugose and smooth, metapleuron reticulate rugose; mid pit present;
sparsely setose, width of vertex 2.7x its length; frons precoxal sulcus absent; scutellar sulcus deep and broad
smooth, shiny and densely setose near antennal sockets, with two median carinae; metanotum concave, smooth;
width of frons 4.3x its length; face punctate reticulate propodeum coriacious entirely without five sided areola.
with median longitudinal groove and densely setose, Wings: Length of forewing 2.7x its width; pterostigma
width of face 1.6x its length; tentorial pits deep and long cylindrical, length of pterostigma 10.2x its width
wide; intertentorial line 2.6x tentorio-ocular line; malar (72:7), length of vein 1-R1, 1.1x length of pterostigma;
suture present, length of malar space 1.7x basal width of vein r arising 1/3rd of pterostigma; m-cu and cu-a
A B C
E G
D
Image 1. Female Opius (Utetes) hazratbalensis sp. nov. (magnifications 4–16x): A—adult female | B—dorsal head | C—frontal head | D—
mesosoma dorsal | E—metasoma lateral | F—hindwing | G—forewing. © Zaheer Ahmed

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Opius (Utetes) hazratbalensis sp. nov. Opius (Utetes) mudigerensis, Fischer
1. Body length 5.95mm 1. Body length 4mm

2. Basal flagellar segments relatively long, first segment (F1) 3.2x as long as 2. Basal flagellar segments relatively short, first segment (F1) 2x as long as
wide wide
3. Mesonotum 2.3x as long medially as wide between tegulae 3. Mesonotum 1.2x wider between tegulae than longitudinally
4. First tergite 1.75x longer than wide at hind (posteriorly) 4. First tergite 1.25x longer than wide at hind (posteriorly)
5. Propodeum without five-sided areola 5. Propodeum with five-sided areola
6. Hind tibia 3.4x as long as ovipositor sheath 6. Hind tibia as long as ovipositor sheath
Key to the Indian species of the subgenus Utetes
1 Antennae 24–28 segmented; T1 1.2x–1.5x as long as wide; ovipositor sheaths as long as T1 in lateral view (12:12); body length
1.9–4 mm ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2
Antennae 47 segmented; T1 1.7x as long as wide; ovipositor sheaths short as compared to T1 in lateral view (8:12); body length
5.95mm ……………………………………………….......……………………………………......................... Opius (Utetes) hazratbalensis sp. nov. female
2 F1 2x as long as wide …………………………………………………………………………….....…….. Opius (Utetes) mudigerensis Fischer, 1980, female
F1 4–6x as long as wide ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
3 F1 6x as long as wide; clypeus 3x as wide as high; sternaulus with some notches.....Opius (Utetes) parempiformis Fischer, 2012, female
F1 4–5x as long as wide; clypeus 1.5x–2x as wide as high; sternaulus densely crenulated ….………………………………………….....………… 4
4 Face as wide as high; propodeum with a broad pentagonal area ....……………..……… Opius (Utetes) minicorpus Fischer, 2012, female
Face 1.25x as wide as high; propodeum with basal carina, pentagonal area and costulae, irregularly sculptured …………......…..……..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..Opius (Utetes) poonchicola Fischer, 2012, female
postfurcal; SR1+3-SR slightly curved; r: 2-SR:S-R1+3-SR = Etymology: The new species name refers to its type
11:20:115; vein 3-SR 1.7x as long as 2-SR; 1-CU1: 2-CU1: locality.
3-CU1 = 5:27:3; length of hind wing 4.2x its width; 1M: Discussion: Opius (Utetes) hazratbalensis sp. nov.
1-r-m: 2-SC+R= 26:4:5 closely resembles with Indian species Opius (Utetes)
Legs: Hind coxa rugose, 1.5x as long as wide; length mudigerensis Fischer, 1980. However, it differs from
of hind femur, tibia and basitarsus 5.5x, 9.3x and 7.5x mudigerensis in having body length 5.95mm; basal
their width respectively; length of hind tibial spurs 0.06x flagellar segments relatively long, first segment (F1)
hind basitarsus. 3.2x as long as wide; mesonotum 2.3x as long medially
Metasoma: Length of metasoma 2.4x its width and as wide between tegulae; first tergite 1.75x longer than
4.4x its height; first metasomal tergite 1.75x longer than wide at hind (posteriorly); propodeum without five
wide at hind (posteriorly); length of first metasomal sided areola and ovipositor sheath short in lateral view,
tergite 2.6x its apical width, apical width 1.5x its basal hind tibia 3.4x as long as ovipositor sheath.
width, its surface longitudinally striate throughout the
length; dorsope present; spiracles present medially; References
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Schuster, D.J. & R.A. Wharton (1993). Hymenopterous parasitoids Interactive Catalogue, Vancouver.
of leafmining Liriomyza spp. (Diptera: Agromyzidae) on tomato in
Florida. Environmental Entomology 22: 1188–1191.
Threatened Taxa

OPEN ACCESS
#5740 | Received 28 January 2020 | Final received 10 November 2020 | Finally accepted 04 December 2020
N
o
t
e Larvae of the blow fly Caiusa testacea (Diptera: Calliphoridae) as egg predators
of Polypedates cruciger Blyth, 1852 (Amphibia: Anura: Rhacophoridae)
W.G.D. Chathuranga 1 , K. Kariyawasam 2 , Anslem de Silva 3 & W.A.Priyanka P. de Silva 4
Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
1,2,4
1
Postgraduate Institute of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
3
No 15/1, Dolosbage Road, Gampola, Sri Lanka.
1
[email protected], 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected], 4 [email protected] (corresponding author)
Habitat destruction and alteration have been of terrestrial Rhacophoridae eggs (Rognes 2015). These
identified as the most detrimental causes of amphibian flies are one of the major reasons for embryo mortality
decline (Kiesecker 2003). The effects of climate change of some rhacophorid genera, including Chiromantis,
and amphibian diseases, however, are emerging topics, Feihyla, Polypedates, and Rhacophorus (Lin & Lue 2000).
and have taken increased attention in conservation So far, seven known species of Caiusa (C. borneoensis
approaches regarding the amphibian fauna (Hayes Rognes, 2015, C. coomani Séguy, 1948, C. indica Surcouf,
et al. 2010; Li et al. 2013). Predatory pressure during 1920, C. karrakerae Rognes, 2015, C. kurahashii Rognes,
different life stages of amphibians is another factor 2015, C. violacea Séguy, 1925, and C. pooae Rognes,
that significantly affects populations (Chivers et al. 2015) have been identified as foam nest predators and
2001; Blaustein et al. 2012). Diverse invertebrate and predators of jelly-like egg masses of anurans (Lin & Lue
vertebrate fauna prey on eggs and tadpoles of aquatic 2000; Rognes 2015; Banerjee et al. 2018). The emerging
and terrestrial nesting anurans (De Silva 2001a,b; Lingnau larvae of these fly species consume eggs and developing
& Di-Bernardo 2006). According to Downie (1990), embryos in egg masses. There are knowledge gaps in
terrestrial foam nests of Rhacophoridae have evolved to our understanding of the fly-anuran interactions and
protect eggs and embryos from aquatic predators. Some the wider impact of these flies on anuran population
vertebrates (e.g., monkeys and snakes) and invertebrates dynamics.
(e.g., beetles, ephydrid flies, phorid ﬂies, spiders, ants, Sri Lanka is a tropical country with more than 120
and blow flies), however, have been identified as egg species of anurans, nearly 104 of which are endemic to the
predators of anuran foam nests (Vonesh 2000; Rödel et country (De Silva & Wijayathilaka 2019). Approximately
al. 2002; Menin & Giaretta 2003; Lingnau & Di-Bernardo 83 (69%) of the reported species belong to the family
2006; Banerjee et al. 2018). Blow flies of the genus Caiusa Rhacophoridae, including arboreal foam nesting
(Diptera: Calliphoridae) are one of the major predators Polypedates and Taruga species (Meegaskumbura et al.
Editor: Daniel Whitmore, State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart, Rosenstein, Germany. Date of publication: 26 December 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Chathuranga, W.G.D., K. Kariyawasam, A.D. Silva & W.A.P.P. de Silva (2020). Larvae of the blow fly Caiusa testacea (Diptera: Calliphoridae) as egg
predators of Polypedates cruciger Blyth, 1852 (Amphibia: Anura: Rhacophoridae). Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(17): 17374–17379. https://doi.org/10.11609/
jott.5740.12.17.17374-17379
Copyright: © Chathuranga et al. 2020. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of
this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: National Research Council Sri Lanka (Grant No: NRC 16-059) and
Amphibian Specialist Group/IUCN/ SSC Seed Grant.
Acknowledgements: Financial assistance from National Research Council Sri Lanka (Grant No: NRC 16-059) to W.A.P.P. de Silva. Amphibian Specialist Group/IUCN/
SSC Seed Grant to A. de Silva for threats to amphibians of Sri Lanka study.
17374
J TT
Dipteran egg predators of Polypedates cruciger Chathuranga et al.
2010). The majority (more than 75%) of anuran species from uninfected ones. Three severely infected spawns
in the country are categorized as threatened, mainly were carefully removed from the attached substrates
due to anthropogenic activities (Manamendra-Arachchi and brought to the Insectary, Department of Zoology,
& Meegaskumbura 2012; De Silva & Wijayathilaka University of Peradeniya for further investigations.
2019). Current conservation approaches are mainly At the laboratory, the foam nests were placed in
aimed at minimizing habitat destruction and other dechlorinated water in a tray and transferred to fine-
adverse human activities. Only a few studies, however, mesh mosquito rearing cages (50 × 50 × 50 cm) for
have reported the effect of amphibian diseases on the maintenance of the fly colonies (at 25°C temperature,
population structure of anurans in Sri Lanka (De Silva 75% relative humidity, and 12 D: 12 L photoperiodicity).
1999; Rajakaruna et al. 2007; Jayawardena et al. 2010; Emerged flies were euthanized at -20°C in a freezer and
De Silva 2011), and hardly any studies have investigated pinned for identification. Morphological identification
predatory pressure on different life stages of amphibians was done using the standard taxonomic key in Rognes
in the country. Morgan-Davies (1958) reported Caiusa (2015).
indica as predatory in foam nests of Polypedates To confirm the identity of the dipteran species, DNA
cruciger Blyth, 1852 (Anura: Rhacophoridae) in Sri barcoding was also performed. DNA was extracted from
Lanka. According to De Silva & De Silva (2000), a species some of the collected flies following Livak (1984). The
of Calliphoridae fly acts as an egg predator of P. cruciger mitochondrial Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI) gene was
frogs, however, these authors did not provide a species- amplified using the previously described primers C1-J-
level identification for the flies. Therefore, there are 1718F (5’-GGA GGA TTT GGA AAT TGA TTA GTT CC-3’)
some literature gaps in information about predatory and C1-N-2191R (5’-CCC GGT AAA ATT AAA ATA TAA
flies and their pressure on the developmental stages ACT TC-3’) (Simon et al. 1994). PCR amplification was
of anurans in Sri Lanka. Thus, detailed investigations done in a thermal cycler (Techne-Flexigene, England)
including systematic and quantified studies to assess following Nolan et al. (2007). Positive PCR products were
the damage caused by the egg predators to anuran eggs sequenced using an automatic DNA sequencer (Applied
are important in relation to conservation actions. In this Biosystems Series 3500, U.S.A.) in the Department of
study, we identified natural dipteran predators of foam Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of
nests of P. cruciger, an endemic Rhacophoridae species Peradeniya. The sequence trace files were manually
in Sri Lanka. Further, we quantified the egg mortality inspected using MEGA V7 (Kumar et al. 2016) and low-
of P. cruciger due to the infestation of the predatory quality sequences were excluded from the analysis. The
dipteran fly. DNA sequences were annotated using the GenBank
The study was conducted from May 2019 to August database (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/) and BLASTn
2019, at two localities [Gampola (7.1500N, 80.5550E) and tool. The newly generated sequences were deposited in
Peradeniya (7.2590N, 80.5970E)] in the Kandy District of GenBank under the accession numbers MN786865 and
Sri Lanka. Spawns were searched for in microhabitats MN786866.
with P. cruciger (i.e., man-made ponds, cement water The dissection and examination of male genitalia
tanks, domestic wells, tree-holes, and organically were done following Rognes (2009). The tip of the
managed agricultural lands). When a fresh spawn was abdomen (from tergite 4) was removed and transferred
located, it was observed and video recorded for about to a 10% potassium hydroxide solution, then heated
10-15 minutes to report spawn visitors. The location in a water bath for about 20 minutes. The abdomen
of the foam nest and the height from the ground level was then transferred to distilled water and rinsed with
to the nest were recorded. The spawns were examined 95% ethanol for 10 minutes to fix the integument. The
daily at both selected localities until the embryos male genital organs were separated using fine forceps,
developed into tadpoles. A plastic container filled with for preparation of microscopic slides. The separated
1,000ml of dechlorinated water was kept below each male genitalia were mounted using Canada Balsam, and
egg mass to collect emerging tadpoles. Observations photographs of the prepared slides were taken using
were made at 24-hour intervals and the developed an Olympus BX53 Digital Upright Microscope (Olympus
tadpoles were released to the respective water sources Corporation, Florida, USA).
after recording the number. A similar procedure was Morphological identification confirmed that the
followed for both infected and non-infected spawns. emerged flies belonged to Caiusa testacea Senior-White,
The presence of maggots, color changes, and the shape 1923 of the family Calliphoridae. According to Rognes
of the foam nests were used to distinguish infected nests (2015), the following morphological features were

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a b c d
e f g h
Image 1. Infected and non-infected foam nests of Polypedates cruciger and different life stages of Caiusa testacea flies: a—adult Polypedates
cruciger | b—uninfected fresh foam nest attached to a Polyscias scutellaria leaf | c—tadpoles from an uninfected foam nest | d—putrefying
foam nest due to C. testacea infection | e—C. testacea fly on a fresh foam nest | f—C. testacea 3rd instar larva | g—C. testacea pupae | h—
lateral aspect of adult C. testacea fly. © a,b—Anslem de Silva; c-h— W.G.D. Chathuranga.
identified for them. Cerci short, backwardly bent, and from healthy spawns (n=15), except one that produced
with a pronounced distal separation between the apices an exceptionally high number of tadpoles (approximately
in dorsal view. Base of cerci wide proximal to separation 800). When compared with the healthy spawns, none of
(Image 2A). In lateral view, surstylus rather broad and the embryos of the infected spawns (n=8) developed into
short, very gently curved below. Thoracic dorsum yellow tadpoles (Image 1d). According to our observation of
and tergites 4 and 5 of abdomen with slight darkening eight infected spawns, approximately 400 embryos were
and lack of metallic bluish sheen (Image 2D). A BLAST destroyed with a single nest infestation. An average of
search of the GenBank database showed a 96.92% 52 ± 9 C. testacea larvae pupariated (Image 1g) and 17
identity to available Caiusa testacea sequences together ± 8 emerged as adults from the three collected spawns
with a 100% query cover. (Image 1h). Accordingly, an average of 33% (17/52) of
A total of 24 spawns of P. cruciger were studied (Image the larvae were able to complete their life cycle from a
1a-1d). Observations were carried out on 10 spawns in single spawn. The 1st to 3rd instar larval stages of the
Gampola (including the three collected spawns) and 14 fly lasted around 6-7 days, while the puparial period
spawns from the Peradeniya study site. These spawns lasted 8-11 days. The life cycle of C. testacea was
were located at a height of 0.1–3.0 m above the ground. completed within 18 to 20 days. Emerged adult flies
Plant species such as Polyscias scutellaria (Araliaceae), were freeze-killed and pinned for identification. Larval
Nelumbo nucifera (Nelumbonaceae), Gliricidia sepium instars, puparia, and a few adults of C. testacea were
(Fabaceae), Echinodorus palifolius (Alismataceae), also preserved in 70% ethanol as voucher specimens
Persea americana (Lauraceae), and artificial substrates and deposited in the Zoonotic and Disease Ecology
including cement walls, metal wire mesh, ceiling sheets, Laboratory of the Department of Zoology, University
metal or plastic pipes just above a water source, were of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Different morphological body
the most common spawning sites of P. cruciger. Of the aspects of C. testacea, including taxonomic features, are
examined spawns, 16 (66.7%) were not infected while shown in Images 1h, 2A-2D.
eight (33.3%) were infected with fly larvae (Image 1f). Our study highlights the threat caused by C. testacea
All the infected spawns were reported from the Gampola flies to the foam nests of Polypedates cruciger frogs
study location, representing 80% of the total. and provides an indication of the major impact of these
During this study, we observed oviposition of C. flies on the population dynamics of P. cruciger. Even
testacea flies only three times (Image 1e) on fresh though studies have reported the impact of predatory
foam nests of P. cruciger, and the larvae of C. testacea pressure causing the population decline of amphibians
emerged from two-day-old infected spawns. An average (Lin & Lue 2000; Kiesecker 2003), it has not been listed
of 354 ± 67 embryos developed into tadpoles (Image 1c) as a priority factor in conservation approaches in Sri

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A B
C D
Image 2. Morphological features of Caiusa testacea flies: A—posterior aspect of the genitalia |B—lateral aspect of the genitalia | C—yellowish
thorax and abdomen | D—yellowish T4 and T5 with slightly darkened patch. © a,b—W.G.D. Chathuranga; c-d—Kumudu Wijesooriya.
Lanka. In this study, we provide data on the natural behavior and the life history of C. testacea.
predatory pressure of the calliphorid fly Caiusa testacea Rognes (2015) estimated that the time from the
on the population structure of the rhacophorid tree infestation of spawns by Caiusa flies to the completion
frog Polypedates cruciger. Further, our results provide of metamorphosis is nearly a week. In contrast, we
evidence of natural threats of Rhacophoridae anurans in observed a relatively longer developmental period,
Sri Lanka. where C. testacea flies complete metamorphosis within
The presence of these flies had been reported from three weeks. Lin et al. (2000) and Lin & Lue (2000)
Sri Lanka, India, and Nepal by Rognes (2015), however, described the oviposition behavior of Caiusa violacea
these flies had not been identified as egg predators of (as C. coomani). According to those authors, the flies
Sri Lankan Rhacophoridae species by any of the earlier lay their eggs when the outer surface of the foam
studies. Our results reveal that larvae of C. testacea flies nest is soft, within a few hours after the foam nest is
destructively consume eggs and embryos of P. cruciger. formed. Similarly, Banerjee et al. (2018) reported that
In an earlier study, Caiusa indica was identified as an Caiusa flies lay their eggs on foam nests seven hours
egg predator of P. cruciger in Sri Lanka (Morgan-Davies after the construction of the nest. Our study confirmed
1958); however, previous studies had not identified C. the oviposition of C. testacea flies on fresh foam nests
testacea as a predator of foam nests of Rhacophoridae, of P. cruciger (Image 1e), however, we were not able to
and this is the first study that reports on the feeding provide more specific information about the timeframe

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during which the flies are attracted to the nests. Our vital in assessing the threats of C. testacea flies on the
observations showed that larvae appeared within 2 population dynamics of P. cruciger in the country.
to 3 days after oviposition and that the life cycle was In summary, we report C. testacea as a predator
completed (to metamorphosis) within 18 days. of foam nests of P. cruciger frogs of the family
Rognes (2015) reported that most of the dipteran Rhacophoridae in Sri Lanka for the first time. More
predators of foam nests are able to respond to chemical importantly, we recognize the predatory pressure of
cues released from the fresh foam nests built by the these flies on spawns of P. cruciger, highlighting their
frogs. Thus, the gravid females of C. testacea flies needful consideration in conservation approaches
may respond to chemical cues of freshly formed foam concerning these frogs.
nests or chemical signals produced by P. cruciger frogs
during spawning. Our data could not, however, confirm
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Threatened Taxa

OPEN ACCESS
#6694 | Received 10 September 2020 | Final received 10 November 2020 | Finally accepted 12 November 2020
N
o
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e Blank Swift Caltoris kumara moorei (Evans, 1926) (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae)
in Dehradun Valley, Uttarakhand, India: a new record for
the western Himalaya
Arun Pratap Singh
Forest Entomology Division, Forest Research Institute, P.O. New Forest, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248006, India
[email protected]
Caltoris kumara (Moore, 1878) (Hesperiidae: specimen, however, it was recently identified by the
Hesperiinae: Baorini) is known to occur as three races. author based on wing morphology and its genitalia.
The nominate race C. k. kumara (Moore, 1878) occurs Distinctive morphological features of this individual
from northern Gujarat to southern India (Western Ghats (female; forewing length: 21mm; Image 1) being: no
–(Maharashtra southwards to Kerala, Bangalore, Tamil spot in upper forewing cell area, prominent large round
Nadu), Madhya Pradesh, and Chattisgarh). The second spots in 1b in the upper forewing inner edge which is
race C. k. moorei (Evans, 1926) is found from western visible as a diffuse spot on the underside (Wynter-Blyth
Nepal to Myanmar (Dawnas), through Sikkim, Arunachal 1957). The female genitalia was dissected (Image 2,
Pradesh, northeastern India besides West Bengal, Figure 1) and the species was identified and compared
Bangladesh, and southern Yunnan (China). While the with that of three other congeners [C. confusa (Evans,
third race C. k. lanka is restricted to Sri Lanka (Wynter- 1932); C. philippina (Herrich-Schäffer, 1869) & C. tulsi (de
Blyth 1957; Smith 1989, 2006; Zhang et al. 2010; Nicéville, [1884]] in the Caltoris group (Devyatkin 2010).
Kehimkar 2016; Gasse 2017). The species is known to In the female genitalia of C. k. moorei the postvaginal
prefer forested areas up to 1,950m and is in flight from plate (PPL) is distally concave, with its outer angles acute
January–December (Kehimkar 2016), however, the and lateral lobes of the antevaginal plate projections are
species has never been reported from Uttarakhand or only slightly narrower than PPL which is distinct from
even the western Himalaya (Singh & Sondhi 2016). others (Devyatkin 2010) .
On 21 September 2018 the author recorded C. k. The larval food plants of this species are known to
moorei (Evans, 1926) in the New Forest Campus of Forest be Poaceae (Robinson et al. 2010), Bambusa (Swinhoe
Research Institute, Dehradun (30.3410N & 79.9970E; 1913; Wynter-Blyth 1957), Bambusa vulgaris (Kalesh
670m), India. The butterfly was trapped in the window & Prakash 2015), Bambusa tuldoides (Nitin et al.
of the Forest Research Institute building. The specimen 2018), Imperata cylindrica (Wynter-Blyth 1957;
was collected, pinned, and preserved as an unidentified Robinson et al. 2010), Ochlandra scriptoria (Kalesh
Editor: B.A. Daniel, Zoo Outreach Organisation, Coimbatore, India. Date of publication: 26 December 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Singh, A.P. (2020). Blank Swift Caltoris kumara moorei (Evans, 1926) (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) in Dehradun Valley, Uttarakhand, India: a new record for
the western Himalaya. Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(17): 17380–17382. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6694.12.17.17380-17382
Copyright: © Singh 2020. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in
any medium by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: None.
Competing interests: The author declares no competing interests.
Acknowledgements: Help of Tribhuwan Singh (JRF) is acknowledged for dissection of the specimen genitalia.
17380
J TT
Blank Swift in Dehradun Valley Singh
Image 1. Blank Swift Caltoris kumara moorei (Evans, 1926) female collected from New Forest, Dehradun, Uttarakhand (lower western Himalaya)
on 21.ix.2018: a—dorsal view | b—ventral view. © Arun Pratap Singh
References
Davidson, J. & E.H. Aitken (1890). Notes on the larvae and pupae of
some of the butterflies of the Bombay presidency. Journal of the
Bombay Natural History Society 5: 349–375.
Devyatkin, A.L. (2010). Taxonomic notes on Oriental Hesperiidae,
4. A key to the continental species of Baoris Moore, [1881] and
Caltoris Swinhoe, 1893, based on the female genitalia (Lepidoptera,
Hesperiidae). Atalanta 41 (1/2): 239–244.
Evans, W.H. (1932). The Identification of Indian Butterflies. 2nd Edition.
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, x+454pp+32pl.
Kalesh, S. & S.K. Prakash (2015). Additions to the larval host plants of
butterflies of the Western Ghats, Kerala, South India (Rhopalocera,
Lepidoptera): Part 2. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society
112: 111–114.
Kehimkar, I. (2016). The Book of Indian Butterflies. BNHS, Oxford
University, Delhi Press, 497pp.
Nitin, R., V.C. Balakrishnan, P.V. Churi, S. Kalesh, S. Prakash & K. Kunte
(2018). Larval host plants of the butterflies of the Western Ghats,
India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 10(4): 11495–11550. https://doi.
© Arun Pratap Singh org/10.11609/jott.3104.10.4.11495-11550
Robinson, G.S., P.R. Ackery, I.J. Kitching, G.W. Beccaloni & L.M.
Image 2. Female genitalia organ of Blank Swift Caltoris kumara Hern¡ndez (2010). HOSTS - A Database of the World Lepidopteran
moorei (Evans, 1926) collected from the New Forest, Dehradun, Hostplants. Natural History Museum, London. http://www.nhm.
Uttarakhand (lower western Himalaya) on 21.ix.2018. ac.uk/hosts. Electronic version accessed on 05 November 2020.
Singh, A.P. & S. Sondhi (2016). Butterflies of Garhwal, Uttarakhand,
western Himalaya, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 8(4): 8666–
8697. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.2254.8.4.8666-869
& Prakash 2015), Ochlandra travancorica (Kalesh & Smith, C. (1989). Butterflies of Nepal (Central Himalaya). Tecpress
Prakash 2015), and Oryza sativa (Davidson & Aitken Service L.P., Bangkok, 352pp.
Smith, C. (2006). Illustrated Checklist of Nepal Butterflies. Craftman
1890). Amongst these the genus Bambusa is present Press, Bangkok, 129pp.
at a number of places in the New Forest Campus in Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957). Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay
plantations, botanical garden, bambusetum and also Natural History Society, Bombay, xx+523pp+72pls.
Zhang, Ya-Lin, G.-X. Xue & F. Yuan (2010). Descriptions of the female
as clumps in hedge-groves, thus it also likely that the genitalia of three species of Caltoris (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae:
species is breeding here but needs further investigation. Baorini) with a key to the species from China. Proceedings of the
This is the first record of this species from the state of Entomological Society of Washington 112(4): 576–584. https://doi.
org/10.4289/0013-8797.112.4.576
Uttarakhand, India and the western Himalaya.

J TT
Blank Swift in Dehradun Valley Singh
A B
C D
Figure 1. The female genitalia of four species of the genus Caltoris Swinhoe, 1893 (adapted from Devyatkin 2010): A—Caltoris philippina
(Herrich-Schäffer, 1869) | B—Caltoris tulsi (de Nicéville, [1884]) | C—Caltoris confusa (Evans, 1932) | D—Caltoris kumara moorei (Evans, 1926).
Threatened Taxa

OPEN ACCESS
#6005 | Received 17 April 2020 | Finally accepted 22 December 2020
N
o
t
First photographic record of the Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine e
Atherurus macrourus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Mammalia: Rodentia: Hystricidae)
from the Barak Valley region of Assam, India
Rejoice Gassah 1 & Vijay Anand Ismavel 2
1,2
The Makunda Christian Leprosy and General Hospital, Bazaricherra, Karimganj District, Assam 788727, India.
1
[email protected], 2 [email protected] (corresponding author)
An Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine Atherurus The species is distinguished by absence of crest,

macrourus (Linnaeus, 1758) was photographed on the back covered with rigid spines and tail bearing scales
25 February 2019 at 23.49h in semi-evergreen forest, with short spiny bristles in-between and ending in
close to Dosdewa Village in Karimganj District of Assam a cluster of alternately expanded and contracted
(92.4050N & 24.3580E) using a camera trap during papery hairs 8–10cm long giving a characteristic brush-
biodiversity documentation activities. This is the first like appearance which was clearly captured in the
photographic record of this species from the Barak photographs (Agarwal 2000). Being a shy, nocturnal,
Valley region of Assam (Image 1–3). The Asiatic Brush- and fossorial animal, it is very difficult to get diagnostic
tailed Porcupine is a species of rodent in the Hystricidae
family and is the smallest and rarest of the three species
of porcupines found in southern Asia (Molur 2020). In © Rejoice Gassah
India, this species occurs only in northeastern India
and has been reported from Namdapha National Park
of Arunachal Pradesh, Garampani Wildlife Sanctuary
of Assam, Intanki National Park in Nagaland, Ngengpui
Wildlife Sanctuary of Mizoram, and Khasi Hills of
Meghalaya (Talukdar et al. 2019); there are also records
from the other states (Choudhury 2013). In 2014, the
species was observed from the Gedu Territorial Forest
Division of western Bhutan (Dhendup & Dorji 2017).
Worldwide, it has also been reported from southern
China, northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Laos,
Vietnam, Malay peninsula, and adjacent islands (Molur
2020). Image 1. Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine Atherurus macrourus
Editor: Anwaruddin Choudhury, The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North East India, Guwahati, India. Date of publication: 26 December 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Gassah, R. & V.A. Ismavel (2020). First photographic record of the Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine Atherurus macrourus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Mammalia: Rodentia:
Hystricidae) from the Barak Valley region of Assam, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(17): 17383–17384. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6005.12.17.17383-17384
Copyright: © Gassah & Ismavel 2020. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this
Funding: The equipment (camera trap) used in this observation was funded by the Makunda Christian Leprosy and General Hospital.
Acknowledgements: The authors wish to acknowledge with thanks the utilization of camera trap, GPS and other equipment provided by the Makunda Christian
Leprosy and General Hospital for this observation.
17383
J TT
Brush-tailed Porcupine in Barak Valley Gassah & Ismavel
© Rejoice Gassah images of this species, except through camera trapping.

Porcupines are seen as a pest by farmers and are also
trapped and consumed as meat. Although this species is
classified as Least Concern (LC) in the IUCN Red List it is
protected in India under Schedule II – Part I of the Indian
Wildlife Protection Act. The presence of this species in
the Barak Valley of Assam is significant as it indicates
that good mammalian diversity occurs in this region,
inspite of rapid degradation of the forests.
References
Agarwal V.C. (2000). Taxonomic Studies of Indian Muridae and

Hystricidae Mammalia: Rodentia). Records of the Zoological Survey
of India Occassional Paper No. 180, 1
77pp.
© Rejoice Gassah
Choudhury A.U. (2013). The Mammals of North East India. Gibbon
Books and The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India. 432pp.
Dhendup T. & R. Dorji (2017). First record of the Asiatic Brush-
tailed Porcupine Atherurus macrourus Linnaeus 1758 (Mammalia:
Rodentia: Hystricidae) from western Bhutan. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 9(11): 10959–10960. http://doi.org/10.11609/
jott.3791.9.11.10959-10960
Molur, S. (2020). Atherurus macrourus. (amended version of 2016
assessment) The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020:
e.T2354A166518819. Downloaded on 16 April 2020. https://doi.
org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T2354A166518819.en
Talukdar, N.R., P. Choudhury & B. Singh (2019). Current Records of
porcupine in northeast India: distribution, habitat preference and
conservation. Tropical Ecology 60: 41–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s42965-019-00005-4
Image 2 & 3. Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine Atherurus macrourus Threatened Taxa

OPEN ACCESS
#6906 | Received 18 November 2020
B
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A look over on Red Sanders k
R
S. Suresh Ramanan e
v
ICAR- Central Agroforestry Research Institute, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh 284003, India. i
e
[email protected] w
One among the rare and highly valuable timbers of but there is a dark side. Many times, the fellers get shot
the Indian sub-continent is the Red Sanders. Its natural down by the forest officials or the forest officials get
distribution is confined to a very small region in India. injured or killed. There was a news story published in
Hyped as ‘Pride of Eastern Ghats’, its distribution is a leading English daily; The Hindu on 07 April 2015. It
restricted to Kadapa, Chittoor, Kurnool, and Nellore was about the 20 tree fellers from Tamil Nadu gunned
districts in Andhra Pradesh and a few patches in Vellore,
Tiruvannamalai, and Chengalpattu districts in Tamil
Nadu.
For a deciduous tree growing up to 15m height, with Red Sanders: Silviculture and Conservation
round symmetrical crown architecture, the tree typically T. Pullaiah, S. Balasubramanya & M. Anuradha (eds.)
dominates other vegetation in the forest. The tree 2019.
remains leafless for a short stint of time from February ISBN: 9789811376269
to March. This is followed by new green foliage and Publisher: Springer Singapore
bright yellow coloured racemose inflorescence in the Pages: viii+210pp.
subsequent months. The pods mature before the next
leaf fall. Red Sanders has a distinctive bark pattern
concealing the bright red coloured wood beneath it.
This deep red-coloured wood has a high price in the
international market because of which this tree is felled
rampantly, thus pushing this endemic species to the
verge of extinction.
From the 2000s, the Red Sanders has captured the
attention of the media due to the illicit felling and trade
network, especially the social implications of its illegal
trade network. It is believed that the locals and tribal
men nearby the forest regions are involved in felling of
the trees. Investigations, however, revealed that these
men are the mere puppet of the wildlife trade kingpins.
These mastermind kingpins engage the locals and tribal
men as daily labour for felling the trees. Having little
awareness nor any idea about the consequence of felling
Red Sanders trees, these labours simply fell the trees to
earn their daily wage.
There are dedicated forest staff to patrol and protect
the Red Sanders and this has proven to reduce the felling
Date of publication: 26 December 2020 (online & print)
17385
J TT
Book Review
by the Andhra Pradesh police department. Another here may not be familiar, still, they do have significance
story published in The New Indian Express (on 24 while identification of wood.
February 2018) reports that “Between January 2015 In my opinion, the chapters in this book can be
and December 2017, 10,558 Tamil Nadu residents were grouped into four sections. The first three chapters form
arrested by Andhra Pradesh police, forest department section I, aimed at introducing the species. Chapter four
and Red Sanders Anti-Smuggling Task Force (RSASTF)”. to six is more technical content on biochemistry and
This led to hatred, ethnicity controversy, insulting and pharmacology of Red Sanders. This forms section II.
even name-calling of the officials. Overall, it further Silviculture, the art and science of cultivating trees is the
added to the regional dispute existing between two centre-hub in forestry science. Chapters seven to eleven
states, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. deal with the silvicultural aspects of Red Sanders. This can
Is it a controversial tree? It is one more question be section III. The remaining chapters can be grouped as
in my mind when I began my quest to understand section IV dealing with a socio-economic and ecological
this tree. As a forestry graduate, I first encountered aspect such as genetic diversity, threats, conservation
this species in plantations raised in our college. It did and illegal trade networks. Except for chapter 15, titled
not have the appeal, nor the enchantment because as ‘Tree Improvement of Red Sanders’ can be placed
it was grown outside the natural geographical zone, after chapter 9, so that there is a coherence.
however, it was my first encounter with this species. At the beginning of the article, I was narrating about
Before my graduation, I did a six-month project work the media highlighting the conflict due to Red Sanders
on the characterization of Red Sanders. It was aimed tree felling. In Chapter 14, there is a long list of news
at understanding the phenotypical difference across stories published in different newspapers in India. This
different provenances. And personally visited some support my narration about the social significance of this
regions in Tamil Nadu where the tree was occurring species.
naturally. More I learned about the species, the more There is repetition of information and content which
questions popped up in my mind. Some of the questions I believe is inevitable in an edited book, especially when
remain a mystery to me, even today! it is about a single species. For instance, there is the
So, when I stumbled upon a monograph on Red redundancy of information on the natural distribution
Sanders, published by Springer, I was instantly curious of Red Sanders in many chapters. This does affect the
to open the book anticipating answers to my questions. readability of the content. However, there is a specific
The book under review pieced together by T. Pullaiah, need to mention the repetition of information even
S. Balasubramanya, and M. Anuradha is an important within the same chapter. In chapter three, there are
addition to the literature on Red Sanders. Three editors two sub-sections with the same heading – ‘Fluorescence
have meticulously worked to bring out this 15-chapter Analysis’. This is one example which indicates that the
book. Apart from the editors, there are other prominent book needs to be brushed up.
researchers and scientists who have also shared their If I need to recommend this book, I feel myself
work on Red Sanders in this book. at conflict. For this is not a textbook, nor mere
Now begins the story of the book, with a formal summarization of the information about Red Sanders
introduction chapter. It is intended for any beginner, but I feel it is a book written mainly for researchers.
giving exposure to Red Sanders as a tree – botanically. This monograph gives an idea about the research work
Chapter two is all about the taxonomy, one of the core carried out on Red Sanders and also points out the
areas of botanical science, and distribution of Red potential areas to work in future. More specifically, it
Sanders. The lead author of the first two chapters, Dr. T. implies understanding how certain species might be
Pullaiah’s experience is reflected here. I am sure, even unique and need more focus.
if you have not seen this tree so far, you might become
curious like me to know more. On finishing chapter Reference
three, the readers might be able to comprehend the
reasons – Why this tree is so valued for? Short, explicit The New Indian Express (2019). When tribals fall prey to red sanders
mafia in Andhra Pradesh. Accessed on 11 May 2020. https://www.
narration about the uses of Red Sanders’ wood and its newindianexpress.com/thesundaystandard/2018/feb/24/when-
parts are there in chapter three, along with beautiful tribals-fall-prey-to-red-sanders-mafia-in-andhra-pradesh-1778462.
html
photographs. Some typical wood characteristic features
are also enlisted in chapter 3. Some properties described
Threatened Taxa

Dr. Kailash Chandra, Zoological Survey of India, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India Prof. Chandrashekher U. Rivonker, Goa University, Taleigao Plateau, Goa. India
Dr. Ansie Dippenaar-Schoeman, University of Pretoria, Queenswood, South Africa
Dr. Rory Dow, National Museum of natural History Naturalis, The Netherlands Birds
Dr. Brian Fisher, California Academy of Sciences, USA
Dr. Richard Gallon, llandudno, North Wales, LL30 1UP Dr. Hem Sagar Baral, Charles Sturt University, NSW Australia
Dr. Hemant V. Ghate, Modern College, Pune, India Dr. Chris Bowden, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Sandy, UK
Dr. M. Monwar Hossain, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh Dr. Priya Davidar, Pondicherry University, Kalapet, Puducherry, India
Mr. Jatishwor Singh Irungbam, Biology Centre CAS, Branišovská, Czech Republic. Dr. J.W. Duckworth, IUCN SSC, Bath, UK
Dr. Ian J. Kitching, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, UK Dr. Rajah Jayapal, SACON, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Dr. George Mathew, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, India Dr. Rajiv S. Kalsi, M.L.N. College, Yamuna Nagar, Haryana, India
Dr. John Noyes, Natural History Museum, London, UK Dr. V. Santharam, Rishi Valley Education Centre, Chittoor Dt., Andhra Pradesh, India
Dr. Albert G. Orr, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia Dr. S. Balachandran, Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India
Dr. Sameer Padhye, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium Mr. J. Praveen, Bengaluru, India
Dr. Nancy van der Poorten, Toronto, Canada Dr. C. Srinivasulu, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
Dr. Kareen Schnabel, NIWA, Wellington, New Zealand Dr. K.S. Gopi Sundar, International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, USA
Dr. R.M. Sharma, (Retd.) Scientist, Zoological Survey of India, Pune, India Dr. Gombobaatar Sundev, Professor of Ornithology, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Dr. Manju Siliwal, WILD, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India Prof. Reuven Yosef, International Birding & Research Centre, Eilat, Israel
Dr. G.P. Sinha, Botanical Survey of India, Allahabad, India Dr. Taej Mundkur, Wetlands International, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Dr. K.A. Subramanian, Zoological Survey of India, New Alipore, Kolkata, India Dr. Carol Inskipp, Bishop Auckland Co., Durham, UK
Dr. P.M. Sureshan, Zoological Survey of India, Kozhikode, Kerala, India Dr. Tim Inskipp, Bishop Auckland Co., Durham, UK
Dr. R. Varatharajan, Manipur University, Imphal, Manipur, India Dr. V. Gokula, National College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
Dr. Eduard Vives, Museu de Ciències Naturals de Barcelona, Terrassa, Spain Dr. Arkady Lelej, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia
Dr. James Young, Hong Kong Lepidopterists’ Society, Hong Kong
Dr. R. Sundararaj, Institute of Wood Science & Technology, Bengaluru, India Mammals
Dr. M. Nithyanandan, Environmental Department, La Ala Al Kuwait Real Estate. Co.
K.S.C., Kuwait Dr. Giovanni Amori, CNR - Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Rome, Italy
Dr. Himender Bharti, Punjabi University, Punjab, India Dr. Anwaruddin Chowdhury, Guwahati, India
Mr. Purnendu Roy, London, UK Dr. David Mallon, Zoological Society of London, UK
Dr. Saito Motoki, The Butterfly Society of Japan, Tokyo, Japan Dr. Shomita Mukherjee, SACON, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Dr. Sanjay Sondhi, TITLI TRUST, Kalpavriksh, Dehradun, India Dr. Angie Appel, Wild Cat Network, Germany
Dr. Nguyen Thi Phuong Lien, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Dr. P.O. Nameer, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala, India
Vietnam Dr. Ian Redmond, UNEP Convention on Migratory Species, Lansdown, UK
Dr. Nitin Kulkarni, Tropical Research Institute, Jabalpur, India Dr. Heidi S. Riddle, Riddle’s Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary, Arkansas, USA
Dr. Robin Wen Jiang Ngiam, National Parks Board, Singapore Dr. Karin Schwartz, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia.
Dr. Lional Monod, Natural History Museum of Geneva, Genève, Switzerland. Dr. Lala A.K. Singh, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India
Dr. Asheesh Shivam, Nehru Gram Bharti University, Allahabad, India Dr. Mewa Singh, Mysore University, Mysore, India
Dr. Rosana Moreira da Rocha, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brasil Dr. Paul Racey, University of Exeter, Devon, UK
Dr. Kurt R. Arnold, North Dakota State University, Saxony, Germany Dr. Honnavalli N. Kumara, SACON, Anaikatty P.O., Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Dr. James M. Carpenter, American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA Dr. Nishith Dharaiya, HNG University, Patan, Gujarat, India
Dr. David M. Claborn, Missouri State University, Springfield, USA Dr. Spartaco Gippoliti, Socio Onorario Società Italiana per la Storia della Fauna
Dr. Kareen Schnabel, Marine Biologist, Wellington, New Zealand “Giuseppe Altobello”, Rome, Italy
Dr. Amazonas Chagas Júnior, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, Cuiabá, Brasil Dr. Justus Joshua, Green Future Foundation, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, India
Mr. Monsoon Jyoti Gogoi, Assam University, Silchar, Assam, India Dr. H. Raghuram, The American College, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India
Dr. Heo Chong Chin, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Selangor, Malaysia Dr. Paul Bates, Harison Institute, Kent, UK
Dr. R.J. Shiel, University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia Dr. Jim Sanderson, Small Wild Cat Conservation Foundation, Hartford, USA
Dr. Siddharth Kulkarni, The George Washington University, Washington, USA Dr. Dan Challender, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
Dr. Priyadarsanan Dharma Rajan, ATREE, Bengaluru, India Dr. David Mallon, Manchester Metropolitan University, Derbyshire, UK
Dr. Phil Alderslade, CSIRO Marine And Atmospheric Research, Hobart, Australia Dr. Brian L. Cypher, California State University-Stanislaus, Bakersfield, CA
Dr. John E.N. Veron, Coral Reef Research, Townsville, Australia Dr. S.S. Talmale, Zoological Survey of India, Pune, Maharashtra, India
Dr. Daniel Whitmore, State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart, Rosenstein, Prof. Karan Bahadur Shah, Budhanilakantha Municipality, Okhalgaon, Kathmandu,
Germany. Nepal
Fishes Other Disciplines
Dr. Neelesh Dahanukar, IISER, Pune, Maharashtra, India Dr. Aniruddha Belsare, Columbia MO 65203, USA (Veterinary)
Dr. Topiltzin Contreras MacBeath, Universidad Autónoma del estado de Morelos, Dr. Mandar S. Paingankar, University of Pune, Pune, Maharashtra, India (Molecular)
México Dr. Jack Tordoff, Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, Arlington, USA (Communities)
Dr. Heok Hee Ng, National University of Singapore, Science Drive, Singapore Dr. Ulrike Streicher, University of Oregon, Eugene, USA (Veterinary)
Dr. Rajeev Raghavan, St. Albert’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India Dr. Hari Balasubramanian, EcoAdvisors, Nova Scotia, Canada (Communities)
Dr. Robert D. Sluka, Chiltern Gateway Project, A Rocha UK, Southall, Middlesex, UK Dr. Rayanna Hellem Santos Bezerra, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, São Cristóvão,
Dr. E. Vivekanandan, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Chennai, India Brazil
Dr. Davor Zanella, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia Dr. Jamie R. Wood, Landcare Research, Canterbury, New Zealand
Dr. A. Biju Kumar, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India Dr. Wendy Collinson-Jonker, Endangered Wildlife Trust, Gauteng, South Africa
Amphibians
Reviewers 2017–2019
Dr. Sushil K. Dutta, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Due to pausity of space, the list of reviewers for 2017–2019 is available online.
Dr. Annemarie Ohler, Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris, France
Reptiles
Dr. Gernot Vogel, Heidelberg, Germany

Dr. Raju Vyas, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
Dr. Pritpal S. Soorae, Environment Agency, Abu Dubai, UAE.
Prof. Dr. Wayne J. Fuller, Near East University, Mersin, Turkey The opinions expressed by the authors do not reflect the views of the
Journal of Threatened Taxa, Wildlife Information Liaison Development Society,
Zoo Outreach Organization, or any of the partners. The journal, the publisher,
the host, and the partners are not responsible for the accuracy of the political
Journal of Threatened Taxa is indexed/abstracted in Bibliography of Sys- boundaries shown in the maps by the authors.
tematic Mycology, Biological Abstracts, BIOSIS Previews, CAB Abstracts,
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cal Records. No. 12, Thiruvannamalai Nagar, Saravanampatti - Kalapatti Road,
Saravanampatti, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641035, India
NAAS rating (India) 5.10 [email protected]
PLATINUM The Journal of Threatened Taxa (JoTT) is dedicated to building evidence for conservation globally by
publishing peer-reviewed articles online every month at a reasonably rapid rate at www.threatenedtaxa.org.
OPEN ACCESS All articles published in JoTT are registered under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
unless otherwise mentioned. JoTT allows allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of articles in
any medium by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
December 2020 | Vol. 12 | No. 17 | Pages: 17263–17386

Date of Publication: 26 December 2020 (Online & Print)
www.threatenedtaxa.org DOI: 10.11609/jott.2020.12.17.17263-17386
Article Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) of the undivided Midnapore

District, West Bengal, India: a preliminary report
Genetic and reproductive characterization of distylous Primula reinii – Anirban Mahata, Niladri Prasad Mishra & Sharat Kumar Palita,
in the Hakone volcano, Japan: implications for conservation of the rare Pp. 17347–17360
and endangered plant
– Masaya Yamamoto, Honami Sugawara, Kazuhiro Fukushima, Occurrence of Corica soborna Hamilton, 1822 (Clupeiformes:
Hiroaki Setoguchi & Kaoruko Kurata, Pp. 17263–17275 Clupeidae) in the Godavari basin, India
– Kante Krishna Prasad, Mohammad Younus & Chelmala Srinivasulu,
Pp. 17361–17365
Review
A review about fish walking on land Notes

– Arumugam Kumaraguru, Rosette Celsiya Mary & Vijayaraghavalu
Saisaraswathi, Pp. 17276–17286 Strobilanthes affinis (Acanthaceae): a new addition to the flora of
Manipur, India
– Sanjeet Kumar & Rajkumari Supriya Devi, Pp. 17366–17369
Communications
A new species of the genus Opius Wesmael, 1835 (Hymenoptera:
Diversity, distribution and conservation status of the Adder’s-tongue Braconidae: Opiinae) from Kashmir Himalaya, India
ferns in Goa, India – Zaheer Ahmed, Ahmad Samiuddin, Altaf Hussain Mir &
– Sachin M. Patil & Kishore Rajput, Pp. 17287–17298 Mohammad Shamim, Pp. 17370–17373
An inventory of the native flowering plants in East Siang District of Larvae of the blow fly Caiusa testacea (Diptera: Calliphoridae) as egg
Arunachal Pradesh, India predators of Polypedates cruciger Blyth, 1852 (Amphibia: Anura:
– Momang Taram, Dipankar Borah, Hui Tag & Ritesh Kumar Choudhary, Rhacophoridae)
Pp. 17299–17322 – W.G.D. Chathuranga, K. Kariyawasam, Anslem de Silva &
W.A. Priyanka P. de Silva, Pp. 17374–17379
Crepuscular hunting of swiftlets (Family: Apodidae) by Besra (Family:
Accipitridae) in the urban areas of the Andaman Islands, India Blank Swift Caltoris kumara moorei (Evans, 1926) (Lepidoptera:
– Amruta Dhamorikar, Dhanusha Kawalkar, Prathamesh Gurjarpadhye Hesperiidae) in Dehradun Valley, Uttarakhand, India: a new record for
& Shirish Manchi, Pp. 17323–17329 the western Himalaya
– Arun Pratap Singh, Pp. 17380–17382
A study on diversity of mammalian species using camera traps and
associated vegetation in Mizoram University Campus, Aizawl, Mizoram First photographic record of the Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine
– J.H. Zothanpuii, Sushanto Gouda, Abinash Parida & G.S. Solanki, Atherurus macrourus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Mammalia: Rodentia:
Pp. 17330–17339 Hystricidae) from the Barak Valley region of Assam, India
– Rejoice Gassah & Vijay Anand Ismavel, Pp. 17383–17384
Short Communications
Book Review
Distribution of Syzygium travancoricum Gamble (Myrtaceae),
a Critically Endangered tree species from Kerala part of Western Ghats, A look over on Red Sanders
India – S. Suresh Ramanan, Pp. 17385–17386
– V.B. Sreekumar, K.A. Sreejith, M.S. Sanil, M.K. Harinarayanan,
M.P. Prejith & R.V. Varma, Pp. 17340–17346
Publisher & Host
Member
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Journal

26 December 2020 (Online & Print)

ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)

PLATINUM OPEN ACCESS

No. 12, Thiruvannamalai Nagar, Saravanampatti - Kalapatti Road, Saravanampatti,

EDITORS English Editors

Deputy Chief Editor Typesetting

Associate Editors Fundraising/Communications

continued on the back inside cover

#6532 | Received 08 August 2020 | Finally accepted 08 December 2020

Keywords: Distyly, morph bias, reproduction, genetic diversity, volcanism

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

INTRODUCTION biased populations (Barret 1989; Wilcock & Neiland

17264 Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 December 2020 | 12(17): 17263–17275

mid-April to early May. Although flower visitors are not

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17266 Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 December 2020 | 12(17): 17263–17275

Number of L-morph S-morph Total χ2 P

Flowering individuals 39 33 72 0.50 0.48

Flowers 51 48 99 0.09 0.76

Flowering individuals 34 18 52 4.92 0.03

Flowers 48 21 69 10.57 0.001

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17268 Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 December 2020 | 12(17): 17263–17275

Genetic diversity measurements P values of Wilcoxon test M-ratio

total 9.0 2.8 - 0.598 0.070 - - - -

population (0.227 and 0.114, respectively). As the analyses described below.

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Parameters KIN KOM Description

JMAX 4 4 Number of when the effective size has changed

DMAX 10 7 the maximal distance between alleles

RHOCORN 0 0 coefficient of correlation between effective population size in successive intervals

VARP1 3 3 variance of prior log-distribution of effective population size

VARP2 3 3 variance of prior log-distribution of time intervals

Diagonale 0.5 0.5 a smoothing parameter

Table S2. Genetic diversity measurements and population

Pop. code A AE HE FIS FST G’ST

KIN 6.0 3.3 0.637 0.020

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 December 2020 | 12(17): 17263–17275 17275

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

INTRODUCTION affection towards salinity and temperature variations

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Tribe (taxonomic rank) Genus Species References

17278 Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 December 2020 | 12(17): 17276–17286

Image 1. Blue-spotted Mudskipper Boleophthalmus boddarti. © A. Kumaraguru

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diameters, gonodosomatic index and levels of maturation consumed.

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of Mudskipper (Periophthalmus gracilis) Gills. In: Proceeding AcAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Histoire+Naturelle+des+Poiss