History Of Hinduism:

The earliest evidence for prehistoric religion in India date back to the late Neolithic in the
early Harappan period (5500–2600 BCE). The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era
(1500–500 BCE) are called the "historical Vedic religion". Modern Hinduism grew out of the
Vedas, the oldest of which is the Rigveda, dated to 1700–1100 BCE.The Vedas center on
worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. Fire-sacrifices,
called yajña were performed, and Vedic mantras chanted but no temples or icons were
built.The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to Zoroastrianism and other Indo-
European religions. The major Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, were compiled
over a protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE. They
contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed
with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and
devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against demons.

Three major movements underpinned the naissance of a new epoch of Hindu thought: the
advent and spread of Upanishadic, Jaina, and Buddhist philosophico-religious thought
throughout the broader Indian landmass. Mahavira (24th Tirthankar of Jains) and Buddha
(founder of Buddhism) taught that to achieve moksha or nirvana, one did not have to accept
the authority of the Vedas or the caste system. Buddha went a step further and claimed that
the existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary. Buddhism peaked during the reign of
Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd
century BCE. After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian
philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.
Charvaka, the founder of an atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in North India in the
sixth century BCE. Between 400 BCE and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded at the expense of
Buddhism.

Sanskritic culture went into decline after the end of the Gupta period. The early medieval
Puranas helped establish a religious mainstream among the pre-literate tribal societies
undergoing acculturation. The tenets of Brahmanic Hinduism and of the Dharmashastras
underwent a radical transformation at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise
of a mainstream "Hinduism" that overshadowed all earlier traditions. Though Islam came to
India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders and the conquest of Sindh, it
started to become a major religion during the later Muslim conquest in the Indian
subcontinent. During this period Buddhism declined rapidly and many Hindus converted to
Islam. Numerous Muslim rulers such as Aurangzeb destroyed Hindu temples and persecuted
non-Muslims; however some, such as Akbar, were more tolerant. Hinduism underwent
profound changes, in large part due to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja,
Madhva, and Chaitanya. Followers of the Bhakti movement moved away from the abstract
concept of Brahman, which the philosopher Adi Shankara consolidated a few centuries
before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible avatars, especially
Krishna and Rama.
The Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple in Delhi, according the Guinness World Records is
the World’s Largest Comprehensive Hindu Temple

Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective

was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as Max Müller and John Woodroffe.
They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United
States. At the same time, societies such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society
attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to
institute societal reform. This period saw the emergence of movements which, while highly
innovative, were rooted in indigenous tradition. They were based on the personalities and
teachings of individuals, as with Ramakrishna and Ramana Maharshi. Prominent Hindu
philosophers, including Aurobindo and Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON), translated,
reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new
iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as Vivekananda,
Paramahansa Yogananda, B.K.S. Iyengar and Swami Rama have also been instrumental in
raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West. Today modern movements, such as
ISKCON and the Swaminarayan Faith, attract a large amount of followers across the world.

Definitions

Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in declaration of faith or a
creed", but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena
originating and based on the Vedic traditions. The term Hindu in origin is a Persian word in
use from the time of the Delhi Sultanate, referring to any tradition that is native to India as
opposed to Islam. Hindu is used in the sense of "Indian pagan" in English from the 17th
century, but the notion of Hinduism as an identifiable religious tradition qualifying as one of
the world religions emerged only during the 19th century.

The characteristic of comprehensive tolerance to differences in belief, and Hinduism's

openness, makes it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western
conceptions. To its adherents, Hinduism is the traditional way of life, and because of the wide
range of traditions and ideas incorporated within or covered by it, arriving at a
comprehensive definition of the term is problematic. While sometimes referred to as a
religion, Hinduism is more often defined as a religious tradition. It is therefore described as
both the oldest of the world's religions, and the most diverse. Most Hindu traditions revere a
body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions. Some Hindu
religious traditions regard particular rituals as essential for salvation, but a variety of views
on this co-exist. Some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, of
sustenance, and of destruction of the universe, yet some Hindus are atheists. Hinduism is
sometimes characterized by the belief in reincarnation (samsara), determined by the law of
karma, and the idea that salvation is freedom from this cycle of repeated birth and death.
However, other religions of the region, such as Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, also believe
in karma, outside the scope of Hinduism. Hinduism is therefore viewed as the most complex
of all of the living, historical world religions. Despite its complexity, Hinduism is not only
one of the numerically largest faiths, but is also the oldest living major tradition on earth,
with roots reaching back into prehistory.

A definition of Hinduism, given by the first Vice President of India, who was also a
prominent theologian, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, states that Hinduism is not "just a faith", but
in itself is related to the union of reason and intuition. Radhakrishnan explicitly states that
Hinduism cannot be defined, but is only to be experienced. Similarly some academics suggest
that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges", rather than as a well-defined and
rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism, while others are not
as central but still remain within the category. Based on this, Ferro-Luzzi has developed a
'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism. Problems with the single
definition of what is actually meant by the term 'Hinduism' are often attributed to the fact that
Hinduism does not have a single or common historical founder. Hinduism, or as some say
'Hinduisms,' does not have a single system of salvation and has different goals according to
each sect or denomination. The forms of Vedic religion are seen not as an alternative to
Hinduism, but as its earliest form, and there is little justification for the divisions found in
much western scholarly writing between Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism. A definition
of Hinduism is further complicated by the frequent use of the term "faith" as a synonym for
"religion". Some academics and many practitioners refer to Hinduism using a native
definition, as Sanātana Dharma, a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law", or the
"eternal way".

Beliefs:

Hinduism refers to a religious mainstream which evolved organically and spread over a large
territory marked by significant ethnic and cultural diversity. This mainstream evolved both by
innovation from within, and by assimilation of external traditions or cults into the Hindu fold.
The result is an enormous variety of religious traditions, ranging from innumerable small,
unsophisticated cults to major religious movements with millions of adherents spread over
the entire subcontinent. The identification of Hinduism as an independent religion separate
from Buddhism or Jainism consequently hinges on the affirmation of its adherents that it is
such. Hinduism grants absolute and complete freedom of belief and worship. Hinduism
conceives the whole world as a single family that deifies the one truth, and therefore it
accepts all forms of beliefs and dismisses labels of distinct religions which would imply a
division of identity. Hence, Hinduism is devoid of the concepts of apostasy, heresy and
blasphemy.
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to), Dharma (ethics/duties),
Samsāra (The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and
subsequent reaction), Moksha (liberation from samsara), and the various Yogas (paths or
practices).
Concept of God

Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism,

panentheism, pantheism, monism, atheism, agnosticism, gnosticism among others; and its
concept of God is complex and depends upon each particular tradition and philosophy. It is
sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting
the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization. Most Hindus believe that
the spirit or soul — the true "self" of every person, called the ātman — is eternal.According
to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this
Atman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Hence, these schools are
called non-dualist. The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realize that one's
ātman is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul. The Upanishads state that whoever becomes
fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self realizes an identity with
Brahman and thereby reaches moksha (liberation or freedom). Dualistic schools (see Dvaita
and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality, and they
worship him or her thus, as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect. The
ātman is dependent on God, while moksha depends on love towards God and on God's grace.
When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle),
God is called Ishvara ("The Lord"), Bhagavan ("The Auspicious One") or Parameshwara
("The Supreme Lord"). However interpretations of Ishvara vary, ranging from non-belief in
Ishvara by followers of Mimamsakas, to identifying Brahman and Ishvara as one, as in
Advaita. In the majority of traditions of Vaishnavism he is Vishnu, God, and the text of
Vaishnava scriptures identify this Being as Krishna, sometimes referred to as svayam
bhagavan. There are also schools like the Samkhya which have atheistic leanings.

Devas and avatars

The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or devī in feminine form;
devatā used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), "the shining ones", which may be translated
into English as "gods" or "heavenly beings". The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture
and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and mythological stories about them
are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are,
however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a supreme personal god, with many Hindus
worshiping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations (ostensibly separate deities) as their
iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal. The choice is a matter of individual preference, and of regional
and family traditions. Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of
God to Earth in corporeal form to restore dharma to society and to guide humans to moksha.
Such an incarnation is called an avatar. The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu and
include Rama (the protagonist in Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic
Mahabharata).

Karma and samsara

Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed, and can be described as the "moral law of
cause and effect". According to the Upanishads an individual, known as the jiva-atma,
develops sanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The linga
sharira, a body more subtle than the physical one but less subtle than the soul, retains
impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the
individual.[86] Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral, and never-failing karma intrinsically
relates to reincarnation as well as to one's personality, characteristics, and family. Karma
binds together the notions of free will and destiny.

This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. The
notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita
states that:

“ As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes,

similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G.
2:22) ”
Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth so as to enjoy the
pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara through moksha is
believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace. It is thought that after several reincarnations,
an atman eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).

The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is understood in several
different ways: as the realization of one's union with God; as the realization of one's eternal
relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and
knowledge of the Self; as the attainment of perfect mental peace; and as detachment from
worldly desires. Such realization liberates one from samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth.
Due to belief in the indestructibility of the soul, death is deemed insignificant with respect to
the cosmic self. Thence, a person who has no desire or ambition left and no responsibilities
remaining in life or one affected by a terminal disease may embrace death by Prayopavesa.
The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought.
For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies
itself with an individual but as identical with Brahman in all respects. The followers of Dvaita
(dualistic) schools identify themselves as part of Brahman, and after attaining moksha expect
to spend eternity in a loka (heaven), in the company of their chosen form of Ishvara. Thus, it
is said that the followers of dvaita wish to "taste sugar", while the followers of Advaita wish
to "become sugar".

Yoga:

A statue of Shiva in yogic meditation

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages
have taught for reaching that goal. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita, the
Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the
Upanishads. Paths that one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (moksha, samadhi
or nirvana) include:

 Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion)

 Karma Yoga (the path of right action)
 Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation)
 Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom)
 An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her
inclination and understanding. Some devotional schools teach that bhakti is the only
practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for most people, based on their belief that
the world is currently in the Kali Yuga (one of four epochs which are part of the Yuga
cycle). Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. Many schools believe that the
different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of
jnana yoga, is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of bhakti yoga), and
 vice versa. Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in raja yoga) must embody
the core principles of karma yoga, jnana yoga and bhakti yoga, whether directly or
indirectly.

Practices

Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking
blessings from Devas. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help
one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life. Hindus can engage in pūjā (worship or
veneration), either at home or at a temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons
dedicated to their chosen form(s) of God. Temples are usually dedicated to a primary deity
along with associated subordinate deities though some commemorate multiple deities.
Visiting temples is not obligatory, and many visit temples only during religious festivals.
Hindus perform their worship through icons (murtis). The icon serves as a tangible link
between the worshiper and God. The image is often considered a manifestation of God, since
God is immanent. The Padma Purana states that the mūrti is not to be thought of as mere
stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity. A few Hindu sects, such as the Ārya
Samāj, do not believe in worshiping God through icons.

Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in
art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the
scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. The syllable Om (which represents the
Parabrahman) and the Swastika sign (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to
represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as tilaka identify a follower of the faith.
Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus, chakra and veena, with
particular deities.

Mantras are invocations, praise and prayers that through their meaning, sound, and chanting
style help a devotee focus the mind on holy thoughts or express devotion to God/the deities.
Many devotees perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the
Gayatri Mantra or Mahamrityunjaya mantras. The epic Mahabharata extols Japa (ritualistic
chanting) as the greatest duty in the Kali Yuga (what Hindus believe to be the current age).
Many adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice.
Rituals:

The vast majority of Hindus engage in religious rituals on a daily basis.[108] Most Hindus
observe religious rituals at home.[109] but observation of rituals greatly vary among regions,
villages, and individuals. Devout Hindus perform daily chores such as worshiping at dawn
after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering
foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing devotional
hymns, meditation, chanting mantras, reciting scriptures etc.[109] A notable feature in religious
ritual is the division between purity and pollution. Religious acts presuppose some degree of
impurity or defilement for the practitioner, which must be overcome or neutralised before or
during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with water, is thus a typical feature of most
religious action.[109] Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice and
concept of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works, that will
accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world.[109] Vedic rites of fire-oblation
(yajna) are now only occasional practices, although they are highly revered in theory. In
Hindu wedding and burial ceremonies, however, the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras are
still the norm.[110] The rituals, upacharas, change with time. For instance, in the past few
hundred years some rituals, such as sacred dance and music offerings in the standard Sodasa
Upacharas set prescribed by the Agama Shastra, were replaced by the offerings of rice and
sweets.

Occasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious
customs. In Hinduism, life-cycle rituals include Annaprashan (a baby's first intake of solid
food), Upanayanam ("sacred thread ceremony" undergone by upper-caste children at their
initiation into formal education) and Śrāddha (ritual of treating people to feasts in the name
of the deceased).[111][112] For most people in India, the betrothal of the young couple and the
exact date and time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in consultation with
astrologers.[111] On death, cremation is considered obligatory for all except sanyasis, hijra,
and children under five.[113] Cremation is typically performed by wrapping the corpse in cloth
and burning it on a pyre.
Pilgrimage and festivals

Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism, though many

adherents undertake them Hindus recognise several
Indian holy cities, including Allahabad, Haridwar,
Varanasi, and Vrindavan. Notable temple cities include
Puri, which hosts a major Vaishnava Jagannath temple
and Rath Yatra celebration;and Katra, home to the
Vaishno Devi temple. The four holy sites Puri,
Rameswaram, Dwarka, and Badrinath (or alternatively
the Himalayan towns of Badrinath pilgrimages that is
held every four years; the location is rotated among
Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain. Another
important set of pilgrimages are the Shakti Peethas,
where the Mother Goddess is worshipped, the two
principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya.Two
comparatively recent temples of fame and huge
pilgrimage are Tirumala - Tirupati, home to the
Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; Sabarimala,where
Swami Ayyapan is worshipped. While there are
different yet similar pilgrimage routes in different parts
of India all are respected equally well according to the
universality of Hinduism.
Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year. The Hindu calendar usually prescribe their
dates. The festivals typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with
seasonal changes. There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in
certain regions of the Indian subcontinent. Some widely observed Hindu festivals are Maha
Shivaratri, Holi, Ram Navami, Krishna Janmastami, Ganesh Chaturthi, Dussera, Durga Puja
and Diwali.

, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri) compose the Char Dham (four abodes) pilgrimage
circuit. The Kumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu

Scriptures
Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different
persons in different times". The scriptures were transmitted orally in verse form to aid
memorization, for many centuries before they were written down. Over many centuries, sages
refined the teachings and expanded the canon. In post-Vedic and current Hindu belief, most
Hindu scriptures are not typically interpreted literally. More importance is attached to the
ethics and metaphorical meanings derived from them. Most sacred texts are in Sanskrit. The
texts are classified into two classes: Shruti and Smriti.