CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM “With mind absorbed and heart melted in love” + Philosophical and metaphysical + Religious foundations and theistic ‘origins 75 paths 3 ‘+ Major philosophical systems 79 + The Hindu way of Life 97 + Tinduism in the modern world. 108 In the Indian subcontinent there has developed a complex variety of religious paths. Some of these are relatively unified religious systems, such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Most of the other Indian religious ways have been catego- rized together as if they were a single tradition named “Hinduism.” This term is derived from a name applied by foreigners to the people living in the region of the Indus River, and was introduced in the nineteenth century under colonial British rule as a category for census-taking, An alternative label preferred today Is Sanatana Dharma. Sanatana, “eternal” or “ageless,” reflects the belief that these ways have always existed. Dharma, often translated as “religion,” encompasses duty, natural law, social welfare, ethics, health, end transcendental realization. Dharma is thus a holistic approach to social coherence and the good of all, a concept corresponding to order in the cosmos. ‘The spiritual expressions of Sanatana Dharma range from extreme asceticism to extreme sensuality, from the heights of personal devotion to a deity to the heights of abstract philosophy, from metaphysical proclamations of the oneness behind the material world to worship of images representing a multiplicity of deities. According to tradition, there are actually 330 million deities in India. The feeling is that the divine has countless faces, The extreme variations within Sanatana Dharma are reflections of its great age. Few of the myriad religious paths that have arisen over the millennia have deen lost. They continue to co-exist in present-day India. Some scholars of religion argue that these ways are so varied that there is no central tradition that can be called Hinduism proper, In villages, where the majority of Indians live, worship of deities Is quite diverse and docs not necessarily follow the more reified and philosophical Brahmanic tradition that Is typically referred to as “Hinduism.” Since it is not possible here to trace all these diffuse, widely scattered strands in their complex historical development, we will instead explore the main facets of Sanatanave tle 108 religious sddhisin, n catego s term is region of colonial “eternal” Dharma, welfare, approach, erin the sceticism ty to the plicity of ndia, The its great nia have polars of tlon that is quite nsophical it Is not complex Sanatana a HINDUISM 73 Dharma thematically: its philosophical and metaphysical elements, then its The Indian devotional and ritual aspects, and, finally, its features as a way ‘of life, These are *mbeontinent ‘includes sree et totally separate categories, but we wil separate them somewhat for Sita sara aoe errand sl look at global and poliical aspects ofthe contersporary yin The nis practice of Hinduism. Wal for intone : ' : the ain stato al origi Patsian. Another Philosophical and metaphysical origins ee Carved ou of te ‘The Brahmanic tradition can be traced back to the Vedic age, thousands of years eastern ae of India Jao The metaphysical belies in tbe Vedas were elaborated into various schools m1, banning te ‘of thought by philosophers and sages. These beliefs were brought forth experi- et ee angles in tentially by various methods of spiritual discipline. AFGHANISTAN PAKISTAN Nehenio-Dar, ¢ 4 ol enolic s, | eee «tro 4 \ MYANMAR \ aun) o i tony j | — mate es ina dean 1 a i) ~74 HINDUISM » The Vedas include diymns praising the cow, whieh i stl Beloved and treated as sacred by Hindus: “The cow is our Mother, for she ves us her milk.” Bali has it own unique ways af carrying om the belie including this veneration of the cov in ‘a cremation ceremony “& Hymn to Agnt, p. 63 ‘Truth is one; sages call it by various names. Vedic age Many of the threads of Sanatana Dharma may have existed in the religions practiced by the aboriginal Dravidian peoples of India. There were also advanced urban centers in the Indus Valley from about 2500 ace or even earlier until 1500 nce. Major fortified cities with elaborate plumbing and irrigation systems and paved, right-angled streets have been found by archaeologists at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and Dholavira; the culture they represent is labeled the Indus Valley civilization. In the Aryan Invasion Theory of Western historians, first advanced by the influential German scholar Max Miiller in 1848, the highly organized cultures of the Indus Valley and the villages in other parts of the subcontinent were overrun by lighter-skinned nomadic invaders from outside India. The theory argues that the Vedas, the religious texts often referred to as the foundations of Sanatana Dharma, were the product of the invaders, and not of indigenous Indians, These invaders were identified as Aryans, said to be among the Indo-European tribes thought to have migrated outward (rom the steppes of southem Russia during the second millennium ace, ‘Today the Aryan Invasion Theory is contested by many scholars and by Hindu nationalists who refuse to believe that their religion is foreign-born. The Vedas sing the praises of the fadian subcontinent, and do not refer to any otheree ee HINDUISM 75 homeland. The term “Aryan* has been incorrectly used as a racial classification. thas no racial connotations, and is taken from the word arya, used in the Vedas to mean a noble person who speaks Sanskrit (the ancient language in wiich the Vedas were written) and practices the Vedic rituals. Contrary to the former theory of an invasion of the Indus Valley by outsiders with superior military hardware, current archaeological and linguistic research suggests that historical changes in the pre-Vedic Indus Valley habitations were the results of many small migrations rather than violent invasive conflict, and that evolution of religion in India was continuous rather than divided into distinctly different periods in which indigenous ways were replaced by imported ways If the Aryan Invasion Theory is not true, many ideas about the origins and evolution of Sanatana Dharma thet have been prevalent among historians of religion for the last 150 years must be re-examined. ‘The Indus script still has not been deciphered, so the religious meaning of artifacts such as tiny animal figurines and narrative scenes on seals and pottery is yet unknown. Representations of trees with what appear to be deity figures suggest that worship may have taken place in natural settings under trees considered sacred-—such as the peepul tree, which even in contemporary India is thought to be so sacred that it should not be cut down, even when its great trunk threatens walls and buildings. There are male figures apparently seated in ‘meditation, some of them with horns, which have been interpreted as evidence of ancient practice of yogic postures or worship of the deity Siva (or Shiva). There are also many decorated female figurines, which may indicate worship of a god dess. Researchers find evidence of many levels of religious practice, from local tig Veda calts to what may have been established state retigions of the elite. ‘The relationship between ancient Indus Valley spirituality and the Vedas is also not yet clear. And the Vedas themselves are the foundation’ of upper-caste Brahmanic Hinduism, but not necessarily of all forms of Sanatana Dharma. Although their origins and antiquity are still unknown, the Vedas themselves religions can be examined. They arc a revered collection of ancient sacred hymns com- advonced pring four pars. The eae ve the Samii, hymns of prose In worship of inti} 1500 | deities. Then appeared the Brahmanas, directions about performances of the — mypursy tems and ritual sacrifices to the deities, The Brahmanas explain the symbolic correspon- Sacred Texts Harappa, dences between the microcosm of the ritual process and the “real world” in wihich, the Indus rituals are performed. Some people went to the forests to meditate as recluses; their writings form the third part of the Vedas—the Aranyakas, or “forest treatises.” ed by the Last came the Upanishads, consisting of teaching from highly realized spiritual ultures of masters. They explain the personal transformation that results from psychic coverrun | participation in the ritual proce: gues that | ‘These sacred teachings seem to have been written down by the middle of the Sanatana first millennium scx, though we know that they are much older than their ms.These | earliest written forms. After being revealed to sages, they were transmitted orally ean tribes | from teacher to student and may then have been written down over a period faduing = of eight or nine hundred years, According to orthodox Hindus, the Vedas are not the work of any humans, They are the breath of the eternal, as “heard” by the sand by | ancient sages, or rishis, and later compiled by Vyasa. The name “Vyasa” means porn. The “Collector.” He was traditionally considered, to be one person, but scholars think any other it likely that many people were acting as compilers.76 HINDUISM * (62500-1500 | 2000-900 | 1500 €.1000-500 6.400 net~400 cx 1956-1707 1869-1948 | ‘nck €.8000-6000 | According to Tndian tradition, Vedas heard by rishi cartied orally 3102 | According to Indian tradition, beginning of Kall Yuga; Vishnwincamates as Vyasa, who writes down the Vedas Indus Valley civilization Supposed Aryan invasions of northern India arly Vedas frst written down, Upanishads systernatized by Vyasa 900-700 | Brakmanas written down, €.400 nes-200 cx | Ramayana (present form) Mahabharata (present form) by 200 | Patanjall systematizes Yoga Sutras [dian tradition, yoga practices are ancient, indigenous} cb 100-300 | Code of Manu compiled €300 | Tantras written down {Indian tradition, Tantras are as old as the Upanishads} 500-1500 | Purartas recorded | 600-1800 | Bhakti movement floirshes ‘711 | Muslim invastons begin 788-820 | or earlier, Shankara reorganizes Vedanta 800-900 | Bhagavata Purana written down, Mogul Empire 1828 | Brahmo Sama) revitalization 1836-1886 | Life of Ramakrishna 1857-1947 | British rule of india Life of Mahatma Gandhi 1875 | Arya Samaj reform 1947 | Independence, partition of india and Pakistan. 1948 | Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi 1992 | Demolition of Babri mosque 2002 Violence erupts again over attempts to build Ram Temple at AyodhyaHINDUISM. 77 , ‘The Vedas are thought to transcend human time and are thus as relevant today as they were thousands of years ago. The Gayarrimantra, a verse in a Vedic hymn, is still chanted daily by the devout as the most sacred of prayers: Aum [the primordial creative sound], ‘hu Bhuvah Svak [the three worlds: earth, atmesphere, and heaven], ‘Tat Savitur Varenyum, Bharyo Devasya Dheemahe fadoration of the glory, splendor, and grace that radiate from the Divine Light that illuminates the three worlds), Dhiyo Yo Nab Prachodayat fa prayer for liberation through awakening of the light of the universal intelligence}? The oldest of the known Vedie scriprures—and among the oldest of the world’s tiymn on Creation, existing scriptures—is the Rig Veda. This praises and implores the blessings of the p. 64 devas—the controlling forces in the cosmos, deities who consecrate every part ®° VeD4 of life. The major devas included Indra (god of thunder and bringer of welcome rains), Agni (god of fire), Soma (associated with a sacred drink), and Ushas (god- dess of dawn). The devas included both opaque earth gods and transparent deities of the sky and celestial realms. But behind all the myriad aspects of divinity, the sages perceived one unseen reality. This reality, beyond human understanding, ceaselessly creates and sustains everything that exists, encompassing, all time, space, and causation. ‘The Upanishads are thought to have developed last, around 600 to 400 nce, They represent the mystical insights of riskis who sought ultimate reality through Jie is stl significant in ‘contemporary rituals. ire ceremonies may De conducted by Hindu pans fo invoke the blessings ofthe Unseen. \ Yee woah with | |78 HINDUISM. ’ x Realize the Brahman, p65 A Hindu statue ‘ove the compassion of the Divine, thei meditations in the forest. Many people consider these philosophical and metaphysical reflections on Vedic religion the cream of Indian thought, among the highest spiritual literature ever written. They were not taught to the masses, but rather were reserved for advanced seckers of spiritual truth, The word Upanishad embraces the idea of the devoted disciple siting down by the teacher fo receive private spiritual instruction about the highest reality, loosening all doubts and destroying all ignorance. Emphasis is placed not on outward ritual performances, as in the earlier Vedic religion, but on inner experience as the path to realization and immortality ‘The rishis explain that the bodily senses are made for looking outward: the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin are enticed by sensory pleasures. But ultimately these are fleeting, impermanent. They pass away and then one dies, never having experienced what is of greater value because itis infinite, everlasting. What is real and lasting, they found, can be discovered only by turning away from transient ‘worldly things. They taught their pupils to tum their atiention inward and thus discover a transcendent reality from within, This unseen but all-pervading reality they called Brahman, the Unknowable: “Him the eye does not see, nor the tongue express, nor the mind grasp.? From Brahman spring the multiplicity of forms, including humans. The joy- ous discovery of the rishis was that they coukd find Brahman as the subtle self or soul (atman) within themselves. One of the rishis explained this relationship thus: Jn the beginning there was Existence alone—One only, without a second. He, the One, thought to himself Let me be many, let me grow forth. Thus out of himself he projected the universe, nd having projected out of himself the universe, he entered into every being. All that is has its self in him alone. Of all things he isthe sutele essence. He isthe truth He is the Self. And that, .. THAT ART THOU. Chandogya Upanishad When one discovers the inner self, aiman, and thus also its source, Braluman, the self merges into lis transcendent source, and one experiences unspeakable peace and bliss. The Upanishads express several doctrines central to all forms of Sanatana Dharma. One is reincar- nation, In answer to the universal question, “What happens after we die?” the rishis taught that the soul Ieaves the dead body and enters a new one, One takes birth again and again in countless bodies—perhaps as an animal or some other life form—but the self remains the same, Rirth as a human being is a precious and rare opportunity for the soul to advance toward its ultimate goal of liberation from rebirth and merging with the Absolute Reality,HINDUISM 79 hiical and ‘An irfportant related concept is that of karma, It means action, and also the 1, among consequences of action. Every act we make, and even every thought and every he masses desire we have, shape our future experiences. Our life is what we have made it the word “And we ourselves are shaped by what we have done: “As a man acts, so does he e teacher become. ... A man becomes pure through pure deeds, impure through impure sening all deeds.”* Not only do we reap in this life the good or evil we have sown: they also ard ritual follow us after physical death, affecting our next incarnation. Ethically, this is a sthe path sirong teaching, for our every move has far-reaching consequences The ultimate goal, however, is not creation of good lives by good deeds, but a inputs’ the eyes, lean escape from the karma-tun wheel of birth, death, and rebirth, or samsara, Benares and rely these ‘To escape from samsara is to achieve moksha, ot liberation from the limitations _ Reiearnation pr having of space, time, and matter through realization of the immortal Absolute. Many hat is real lifetimes of upward-striving incarnations are required to reach this transcendence transient of earthly miseries, This desite for liberation from earthly existence is one of the yard and underpinnings of dassical Hinduism, and of Buddhism as well pervading enor the : : : Major philosophical systems The joy. He seltor | 1m addition to the Vedas, elaborate philosophical systems were developed long the rishis ago in India, They all have certain features in common: 1 All have deep roots in the Vedas and other scriptures but also in direct me personal experiences of the truth through meditation , | 2. All hold ethics to be central to orderly social life. They attribute suffering to us OUT the law of karma, thereby suggesting incentives to more ethical behavior; 5 3 All hold that the ultimate canse of suffering is people's ignorance of the Sel 1 into whch is omniscient, omnipotent, omnipresent, perfect, and eternal, on Two other major philosophical systems bor in India—Jainism and ; Buddhism—do not acknowledge the authority of the Vedas but nevertheless ae draw on many of the same currents as Sanatana Dharma, Prominent among ; the philosophical systems that are related to the Vedas are Samkhya, Advaita nari, and Vedanta, and yoga j merges | reriences Samkhya central The Samkhya system, though undatable, is thought to be the oldest in India. reincar- Its founder is said to be the semi-mythical sage Kapila. Its principles appear ns "What in Jainism and Buddhism from the sixth century nce, so the system probably : that the | preceded them and may be of pre-Vedic origin. ew one. Samkhya philosophy holds that there are two states of reality. One Is the EF ountless | Purusha, the Self, which is eternally wise, pure, and free, beyond change, ther life beyond cause. The other is Prakriti, the cause of the matcrial universe. All our rth as a suffering stems from our false confusion of Prakriti with Purusha, the eternal jortunity Self. A dualistic understanding of life is essential, according to this system, © goal of if we ate to distinguish the ultimate transcendent reality of Purusha fom vith the the temporal appearances of Prakriti, which bring us happiness but also misery and delusion.