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Coordinates: 90°N 0°E

Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceans.[1] It spans an area of
approximately 14,060,000 km² and is also known as the coldest of all the oceans. The International
Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers call it the
Arctic Mediterranean Sea. It is sometimes classified as an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean,[2][3] and it
is also seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean.

The Arctic Ocean includes the North Pole region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere, and
extends south to about 60°N. The Arctic Ocean is surrounded by Eurasia and North America, and the
borders follow topographic features; the Bering Strait on the Pacific side, and the Greenland Scotland
Ridge on the Atlantic side. It is mostly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in
winter. The Arctic Ocean's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and
freezes;[4] its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans, due to low evaporation, heavy
fresh water inflow from rivers and streams, and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic
waters with higher salinities. The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%.[1] The US
National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea
ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years, showing a
The Arctic Ocean, with borders as delineated
continuous decline in sea ice extent.[5] In September 2012, the Arctic ice extent reached a new record by the International Hydrographic Organization
minimum. Compared to the average extent (1979-2000), the sea ice had diminished by 49%.[6] (IHO), including Hudson Bay (some of which is
south of 57°N latitude, off the map).

Contents
History
Geography
Extent and major ports
United States
Canada
Greenland
Norway
Russia
Arctic shelves
Underwater features Decrease of old Arctic Sea ice
Exclusive economic zone 1982-2007

Biggest seas in Arctic Ocean

Geology
Oceanography
Water flow
Sea ice
Climate
Biology
Natural resources
Environmental concerns
Arctic ice melting
Clathrate breakdown
Other concerns
See also
References
Further reading
External links

History
Human habitation in the North American polar region goes back at least 50,000–17,000 years ago, during the Wisconsin glaciation. At this time,
falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge that joined Siberia to northwestern North America (Alaska), leading to the
Settlement of the Americas.[7]

Paleo-Eskimo groups included the Pre-Dorset (c. 3200–850 BC); the Saqqaq culture of Greenland (2500–800 BC); the Independence I and
Independence II cultures of northeastern Canada and Greenland (c. 2400–1800 BC and c. 800–1 BC); the Groswater of Labrador and Nunavik, and
the Dorset culture (500 BC to AD 1500), which spread across Arctic North America. The Dorset were the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture in the
Arctic before the migration east from present-day Alaska of the Thule, the ancestors of the modern Inuit.[8]

The Thule Tradition lasted from about 200 BC to AD 1600 around the Bering Strait, the Thule people being the prehistoric ancestors of the Inuit
who now live in Northern Labrador.[9]

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For much of European history, the north polar regions remained largely unexplored and their geography
conjectural. Pytheas of Massilia recorded an account of a journey northward in 325 BC, to a land he called
"Eschate Thule", where the Sun only set for three hours each day and the water was replaced by a congealed
substance "on which one can neither walk nor sail". He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as
"growlers" or "bergy bits"; his "Thule" was probably Norway, though the Faroe Islands or Shetland have also
been suggested.[10]

Early cartographers were unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land (as in Johannes
Thule archaeological site
Ruysch's map of 1507, or Gerardus Mercator's map of 1595) or water (as with Martin Waldseemüller's world
map of 1507). The fervent desire of European merchants for a northern passage, the Northern Sea Route or the
Northwest Passage, to "Cathay" (China) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such as Johann
Homann featured an extensive "Oceanus Septentrionalis" at the northern edge of their charts.

The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond the Arctic Circle in this era added only small islands, such as
Novaya Zemlya (11th century) and Spitzbergen (1596), though since these were often surrounded by pack-ice,
their northern limits were not so clear. The makers of navigational charts, more conservative than some of the
more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank, with only fragments of known coastline sketched
in.

This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In
England and other European nations, the myth of an "Open Polar Sea" was persistent. John Barrow, longtime
Second Secretary of the British Admiralty, promoted exploration of the region from 1818 to 1845 in search of
Emanuel Bowen's 1780s map of the this.
Arctic features a "Northern Ocean".
In the United States in the 1850s and 1860s, the explorers Elisha
Kane and Isaac Israel Hayes both claimed to have seen part of this
elusive body of water. Even quite late in the century, the eminent authority Matthew Fontaine Maury
included a description of the Open Polar Sea in his textbook The Physical Geography of the Sea (1883).
Nevertheless, as all the explorers who travelled closer and closer to the pole reported, the polar ice cap
is quite thick, and persists year-round.

Fridtjof Nansen was the first to make a nautical crossing of the Arctic Ocean, in 1896. The first surface
crossing of the ocean was led by Wally Herbert in 1969, in a dog sled expedition from Alaska to
Svalbard, with air support.[11] The first nautical transit of the north pole was made in 1958 by the
submarine USS Nautilus, and the first surface nautical transit occurred in 1977 by the icebreaker NS
Arktika.

Since 1937, Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations have extensively monitored the Arctic
Ocean. Scientific settlements were established on the drift ice and carried thousands of kilometers by
ice floes.[12] The Arctic region showing the Northeast
Passage, the Northern Sea Route within it,
In World War II, the European region of the Arctic Ocean was heavily contested: the Allied and the Northwest Passage.
commitment to resupply the Soviet Union via its northern ports was opposed by German naval and air
forces.

Since 1954 commercial airlines have flown over the Arctic Ocean (see Polar route).

Geography
The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 km2
(5,427,000 sq mi), almost the size of Antarctica.[13][14] The coastline is 45,390 km (28,200 mi)
long.[13][15] It is the only ocean smaller than Russia, which has a land area of 16,377,742 km2
(6,323,482 sq mi). It is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia, North America, Greenland,
and Iceland. It is generally taken to include Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea,
East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Iceland Sea, Norwegian Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait,
Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, White Sea and other tributary bodies of water. It is connected to the
Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea and
Labrador Sea.[1]

Countries bordering the Arctic Ocean are: Russia, Norway, Iceland, Greenland (territory of the
Kingdom of Denmark), Canada and the United States.

Extent and major ports

There are several ports and harbors around the Arctic Ocean[16]

United States
A bathymetric/topographic map of the Arctic Ocean
In Alaska, the main ports are Barrow (71°17′44″N 156°45′59″W) and Prudhoe Bay
and the surrounding lands.
(70°19′32″N 148°42′41″W).

Canada

In Canada, ships may anchor at Churchill (Port of Churchill) (58°46′28″N 094°11′37″W) in Manitoba, Nanisivik (Nanisivik Naval Facility)
(73°04′08″N 084°32′57″W) in Nunavut,[17] Tuktoyaktuk (69°26′34″N 133°01′52″W) or Inuvik (68°21′42″N 133°43′50″W) in the Northwest
Territories.

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Greenland

In Greenland, the main port is at Nuuk (Nuuk Port and Harbour) (64°10′15″N 051°43′15″W).

Norway

In Norway, Kirkenes (69°43′37″N 030°02′44″E) and Vardø (70°22′14″N 031°06′27″E) are

ports on the mainland. Also, there is Longyearbyen (78°13′12″N 15°39′00″E) on Svalbard, a
Norwegian archipelago, next to Fram Strait.

Russia

In Russia, major ports sorted by the different sea areas are:

Murmansk (68°58′N 033°05′E) in the Barents Sea

Arkhangelsk (64°32′N 040°32′E) in the White Sea
Labytnangi (66°39′26″N 066°25′06″E) Salekhard (66°32′N 066°36′E), Dudinka (69°24′N
086°11′E), Igarka (67°28′N 86°35′E) and Dikson (73°30′N 080°31′E) in the Kara Sea
Tiksi (71°38′N 128°52′E) in the Laptev Sea
Pevek (69°42′N 170°17′E) in the East Siberian Sea

The Arctic region; of note, the region's southerly border

Arctic shelves on this map is depicted by a red isotherm, with all
territory to the north having an average temperature of
The ocean's Arctic shelf comprises a number of continental shelves, including the Canadian less than 10 °C (50 °F) in July.
Arctic shelf, underlying the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and the Russian continental shelf,
which is sometimes simply called the "Arctic Shelf" because it is greater in extent. The Russian
continental shelf consists of three separate, smaller shelves, the Barents Shelf, Chukchi Sea Shelf and Siberian Shelf. Of these three, the Siberian
Shelf is the largest such shelf in the world. The Siberian Shelf holds large oil and gas reserves, and the Chukchi shelf forms the border between
Russian and the United States as stated in the USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement. The whole area is subject to international territorial
claims.

Underwater features

An underwater ridge, the Lomonosov Ridge, divides the deep sea North Polar Basin into two oceanic basins: the Eurasian Basin, which is between
4,000 and 4,500 m (13,100 and 14,800 ft) deep, and the Amerasian Basin (sometimes called the North American, or Hyperborean Basin), which is
about 4,000 m (13,000 ft) deep. The bathymetry of the ocean bottom is marked by fault block ridges, abyssal plains, ocean deeps, and basins. The
average depth of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038 m (3,406 ft).[18] The deepest point is Molloy Hole in the Fram Strait, at about 5,550 m (18,210 ft).[19]

The two major basins are further subdivided by ridges into the Canada Basin (between Alaska/Canada and the Alpha Ridge), Makarov Basin
(between the Alpha and Lomonosov Ridges), Amundsen Basin (between Lomonosov and Gakkel ridges), and Nansen Basin (between the Gakkel
Ridge and the continental shelf that includes the Franz Josef Land).

Exclusive economic zone

Exclusive economic zones in Arctic Ocean :[20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31]

Number Country Area (Km2)

1 Russia - Laptev Sea to Chukchi Sea 2,088,075
2 Russia - Kara Sea 1,058,129
3 Russia - Barents Sea 1,199,008
4 Norway - Mainland 935,397
5 Norway - Svalbard Island 804,907
6 Norway - Jan Mayen Island 292,189

7 Iceland - Mainland 756,112

8 Greenland - Mainland 2,278,113
9 Canada - East Coast 2,276,594
10 Canada - Arctic 3,021,355
11 United States - Arctic 508,814
- Other 1,500,000
Total Arctic Ocean 14,056,000

Note: Other Consist of Gulfs, Straits, Channels and other parts that don't have specific name and exclude EEZ. Also, some of these areas listed in
the table are located in the Atlantic Ocean.

Biggest seas in Arctic Ocean

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Top large seas:[32][33][34]

1. Barents Sea - 1.4 million km2 8. Amundsen Gulf

2. Greenland Sea - 1.205 million km2 9. White Sea - 90,000 km2
3. East Siberian Sea - 987,000 km2 10. Pechora Sea - 81,263 km2
4. Kara Sea - 926,000 km2 11. Lincoln Sea - 64,000 km2
5. Laptev Sea - 662,000 km2 12. Prince Gustaf Adolf Sea
6. Chukchi Sea - 620,000 km2 13. Queen Victoria Sea
14. Wandel Sea
7. Beaufort Sea - 476,000 km2

Geology
The crystalline basement rocks of mountains around the Arctic Ocean were recrystallized or formed during the Ellesmerian orogeny, the regional
phase of the larger Caledonian orogeny in the Paleozoic. Regional subsidence in the Jurassic and Triassic led to significant sediment deposition,
creating many of the reservoir for current day oil and gas deposits. During the Cretaceous the Canadian Basin opened and tectonic activity due to
the assembly of Alaska caused hydrocarbons to migrate toward what is now Prudhoe Bay. At the same time, sediments shed off the rising Canadian
Rockies building out the large Mackenzie Delta.

The rifting apart of the supercontinent Pangea, beginning in the Triassic opened the early Atlantic Ocean. Rifting then extended northward, opening
the Arctic Ocean as mafic oceanic crust material erupted out of a branch of Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The Amerasia Basin may have opened first, with the
Chulkchi Borderland moved along to the northeast by transform faults. Additional spreading helped to create the "triple-junction" of the Alpha-
Mendeleev Ridge in the Late Cretaceous.

Throughout the Cenozoic, the subduction of the Pacific plate, the collision of India with Eurasia and the continued opening of the North Atlantic
created new hydrocarbon traps. The seafloor began spreading from the Gakkel Ridge in the Paleocene and Eocene, causing the Lomonosov Ridge to
move farther from land and subside.

Because of sea ice and remote conditions, the geology of the Arctic Ocean is still poorly explored. ACEX drilling shed some light on the Lomonosov
Ridge, which appears to be continental crust separated from the Barents-Kara Shelf in the Paleocene and then starved of sediment. It may contain
up to 10 billion barrels of oil. The Gakkel Ridge rift is also poorly understand and may extend into the Laptev Sea.[35][36]

Oceanography

Water flow

In large parts of the

Arctic Ocean, the top
layer (about
50 m [160 ft]) is of lower
salinity and lower
temperature than the
rest. It remains relatively
stable, because the
Distribution of the major water mass in the Arctic Ocean. The section sketches
salinity effect on density
the different water masses along a vertical section from Bering Strait over the
geographic North Pole to Fram Strait. As the stratification is stable, deeper
is bigger than the
water masses are more dense than the layers above.
temperature effect. It is
fed by the freshwater
input of the big Siberian Density structure of the upper 1,200 m (3,900 ft) in the
and Canadian streams (Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Mackenzie), the water of which quasi floats on the Arctic Ocean. Profiles of temperature and salinity for
saltier, denser, deeper ocean water. Between this lower salinity layer and the bulk of the ocean the Amundsen Basin, the Canadian Basin and the
lies the so-called halocline, in which both salinity and temperature rise with increasing depth. Greenland Sea are sketched in this cartoon.

Because of its relative isolation from other oceans, the Arctic Ocean has a uniquely complex
system of water flow. It resembles some hydrological features of the Mediterranean Sea, referring to its deep
waters having only limited communication through the Fram Strait with the Atlantic Basin, "where the
circulation is dominated by thermohaline forcing”.[37] The Arctic Ocean has a total volume of 18.07×106 km3,
equal to about 1.3% of the World Ocean. Mean surface circulation is predominately cyclonic on the Eurasian
side and anticyclonic in the Canadian Basin.[38]

Water enters from both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and can be divided into three unique water masses. The
deepest water mass is called Arctic Bottom Water and begins around 900 metres (3,000 feet) depth.[37] It is
composed of the densest water in the World Ocean and has two main sources: Arctic shelf water and Greenland
Sea Deep Water. Water in the shelf region that begins as inflow from the Pacific passes through the narrow A copepod
Bering Strait at an average rate of 0.8 Sverdrups and reaches the Chukchi Sea.[39] During the winter, cold
Alaskan winds blow over the Chukchi Sea, freezing the surface water and pushing this newly formed ice out to
the Pacific. The speed of the ice drift is roughly 1–4 cm/s.[38] This process leaves dense, salty waters in the sea that sink over the continental shelf
into the western Arctic Ocean and create a halocline.[40]

This water is met by Greenland Sea Deep Water, which forms during the passage of winter storms. As temperatures cool dramatically in the winter,
ice forms and intense vertical convection allows the water to become dense enough to sink below the warm saline water below.[37] Arctic Bottom
Water is critically important because of its outflow, which contributes to the formation of Atlantic Deep Water. The overturning of this water plays a
key role in global circulation and the moderation of climate.

In the depth range of 150–900 metres (490–2,950 feet) is a water mass referred to as Atlantic Water. Inflow from the North Atlantic Current enters
through the Fram Strait, cooling and sinking to form the deepest layer of the halocline, where it circles the Arctic Basin counter-clockwise. This is
the highest volumetric inflow to the Arctic Ocean, equalling about 10 times that of the Pacific inflow, and it creates the Arctic Ocean Boundary
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Current.[39] It flows slowly, at about 0.02 m/s.[37] Atlantic Water has the same salinity as Arctic Bottom Water
but is much warmer (up to 3 °C [37 °F]). In fact, this water mass is actually warmer than the surface water, and
remains submerged only due to the role of salinity in density.[37] When water reaches the basin it is pushed by
strong winds into a large circular current called the Beaufort Gyre. Water in the Beaufort Gyre is far less saline
than that of the Chukchi Sea due to inflow from large Canadian and Siberian rivers.[40]

The final defined water mass in the Arctic Ocean is called Arctic Surface Water and is found from 150–200
metres (490–660 feet). The most important feature of this water mass is a section referred to as the sub-surface
layer. It is a product of Atlantic water that enters through canyons and is subjected to intense mixing on the
The Kennedy Channel. Siberian Shelf.[37] As it is entrained, it cools and acts a heat shield for the surface layer. This insulation keeps the
warm Atlantic Water from melting the surface ice. Additionally, this water forms the swiftest currents of the
Arctic, with speed of around 0.3–0.6 m/s.[37] Complementing the water from the canyons, some Pacific water
that does not sink to the shelf region after passing through the Bering Strait also contributes to this water mass.

Waters originating in the Pacific and Atlantic both exit through the Fram Strait between Greenland and Svalbard Island, which is about 2,700
metres (8,900 feet) deep and 350 kilometres (220 miles) wide. This outflow is about 9 Sv.[39] The width of the Fram Strait is what allows for both
inflow and outflow on the Atlantic side of the Arctic Ocean. Because of this, it is influenced by the Coriolis force, which concentrates outflow to the
East Greenland Current on the western side and inflow to the Norwegian Current on the eastern side.[37] Pacific water also exits along the west coast
of Greenland and the Hudson Strait (1–2 Sv), providing nutrients to the Canadian Archipelago.[39]

As noted, the process of ice formation and movement is a key driver in Arctic Ocean circulation and the formation of water masses. With this
dependence, the Arctic Ocean experiences variations due to seasonal changes in sea ice cover. Sea ice movement is the result of wind forcing, which
is related to a number of meteorological conditions that the Arctic experiences throughout the year. For example, the Beaufort High—an extension
of the Siberian High system—is a pressure system that drives the anticyclonic motion of the Beaufort Gyre.[38] During the summer, this area of high
pressure is pushed out closer to its Siberian and Canadian sides. In addition, there is a sea level pressure (SLP) ridge over Greenland that drives
strong northerly winds through the Fram Strait, facilitating ice export. In the summer, the SLP contrast is smaller, producing weaker winds. A final
example of seasonal pressure system movement is the low pressure system that exists over the Nordic and Barents Seas. It is an extension of the
Icelandic Low, which creates cyclonic ocean circulation in this area. The low shifts to center over the North Pole in the summer. These variations in
the Arctic all contribute to ice drift reaching its weakest point during the summer months. There is also evidence that the drift is associated with the
phase of the Arctic Oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation.[38]

Sea ice

Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice that varies in extent and thickness seasonally. The mean extent of
the Arctic sea ice has been continuously decreasing in the last decades, declining at a rate of currently 12.85%
per decade since 1980 from the average winter value of 15,600,000 km2 (6,023,200 sq mi).[42] The seasonal
variations are about 7,000,000 km2 (2,702,700 sq mi) with the maximum in April and minimum in September.
The sea ice is affected by wind and ocean currents, which can move and rotate very large areas of ice. Zones of
compression also arise, where the ice piles up to form pack ice.[43][44][45]

Icebergs occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island, and icebergs are formed from glaciers in
western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. Icebergs are not sea ice but may become embedded in the
pack ice. Icebergs pose a hazard to ships, of which the Titanic is one of the most famous. The ocean is virtually
Sea cover in the Arctic Ocean,
icelocked from October to June, and the superstructure of ships are subject to icing from October to May.[16]
showing the median, 2005 and 2007
Before the advent of modern icebreakers, ships sailing the Arctic Ocean risked being trapped or crushed by sea
coverage[41]
ice (although the Baychimo drifted through the Arctic Ocean untended for decades despite these hazards).

Climate
The Arctic Ocean is contained in a polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual
temperature ranges. Winters are characterized by the polar night, extreme cold, frequent low-level temperature
inversions, and stable weather conditions.[46] Cyclones are only common on the Atlantic side.[47] Summers are
characterized by continuous daylight (midnight sun), and air temperatures can rise slightly above 0 °C (32 °F).
Cyclones are more frequent in summer and may bring rain or snow.[47] It is cloudy year-round, with mean cloud
cover ranging from 60% in winter to over 80% in summer.[48]

The temperature of the surface water of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant at approximately −1.8 °C (28.8 °F),
near the freezing point of seawater.
Changes in ice between 1990 and
The density of sea water, in contrast to fresh water, increases as it nears the freezing point and thus it tends to 1999
sink. It is generally necessary that the upper 100–150 m (330–490 ft) of ocean water cools to the freezing point
for sea ice to form.[49] In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when
covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extreme temperatures seen on the Antarctic continent.

There is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the Arctic ice pack is also
covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April — about 20 to 50 cm (7.9 to 19.7 in) over the frozen
ocean.

The climate of the Arctic region has varied significantly during the Earth's history. 55 million years ago during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal
Maximum, when global climate underwent a warming of approximately 5–8 °C (9–14 °F), the region reached an average annual temperature of 10–
20 °C (50–68 °F).[50][51][52] The surface waters of the northernmost[53] Arctic Ocean warmed, seasonally at least, enough to support tropical
lifeforms (the dinoflagellates Apectodinium augustum) requiring surface temperatures of over 22 °C (72 °F).[54]

Currently, the Arctic region is warming twice as fast as the rest of the planet.[55][56]

Biology

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Due to the pronounced seasonality of 2–6 months of midnight sun and polar night[57] in the Arctic Ocean, the
primary production of photosynthesizing organisms such as ice algae and phytoplankton is limited to the spring
and summer months (March/April to September[58]). Important consumers of primary producers in the central
Arctic Ocean and the adjacent shelf seas include zooplankton, especially copepods (Calanus finmarchicus,
Calanus glacialis, and Calanus hyperboreus[59]) and euphausiids,[60] as well as ice-associated fauna (e.g.,
amphipods[59]). These primary consumers form an important link between the primary producers and higher
trophic levels. The composition of higher trophic levels in the Arctic Ocean varies with region (Atlantic side vs.
Pacific side), and with the sea-ice cover. Secondary consumers in the Barents Sea, an Atlantic-influenced Arctic
shelf sea, are mainly sub-Arctic species including herring, young cod, and capelin.[60] In ice-covered regions of
the central Arctic Ocean, polar cod is a central predator of primary consumers. The apex predators in the Arctic Three polar bears approach USS
Ocean - Marine mammals such as seals, whales, and polar bears, prey upon fish. Honolulu near the North Pole.

Endangered marine species in the Arctic Ocean include walruses and whales. The area has a fragile ecosystem,
and it is especially exposed to climate change, because it warms faster than the rest of the world. Lion's mane jellyfish are abundant in the waters of
the Arctic, and the banded gunnel is the only species of gunnel that lives in the ocean.

Natural resources
Petroleum and natural gas fields, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, fish, seals
and whales can all be found in abundance in the region.[16][45]

The political dead zone near the center of the sea is also the focus of a mounting dispute between the United
States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and Denmark.[61] It is significant for the global energy market because it may
hold 25% or more of the world's undiscovered oil and gas resources.[62] Minke whale

Environmental concerns

Arctic ice melting

The Arctic ice pack is thinning, and a seasonal hole in the ozone layer frequently occurs.[63] Reduction of the
area of Arctic sea ice reduces the planet's average albedo, possibly resulting in global warming in a positive
feedback mechanism.[45][64] Research shows that the Arctic may become ice-free in the summer for the first
time in human history by 2040.[65][66] Estimates vary for when the last time the Arctic was ice-free: 65 million Walruses on Arctic ice floe
years ago when fossils indicate that plants existed there to as recently as 5,500 years ago; ice and ocean cores
going back 8,000 years to the last warm period or 125,000 during the last intraglacial period.[67]

Warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh meltwater to enter the north Atlantic, possibly disrupting global ocean
current patterns. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's climate might then ensue.[64]

As the extent of sea ice diminishes and sea level rises, the effect of storms such as the Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 on open water increases, as does
possible salt-water damage to vegetation on shore at locations such as the Mackenzie's river delta as stronger storm surges become more likely.[68]

Global warming has increased encounters between polar bears and humans. Reduced sea ice due to melting is causing polar bears to search for new
sources of food.[69] Beginning in December 2018 and coming to an apex in February 2019, a mass invasion of polar bears into the archipelago of
Novaya Zemlya caused local authorities to declare a state of emergency. Dozens of polar bears were seen entering homes and public buildings and
inhabited areas.[70][71]

Clathrate breakdown

Sea ice, and the cold conditions it sustains, serves to stabilize methane deposits on and near the % Marine extinction intensity during the Phanerozoic
shoreline,[72] preventing the clathrate breaking down and outgassing methane into the
atmosphere, causing further warming. Melting of this ice may release large quantities of P–Tr
methane, a powerful greenhouse gas into the atmosphere, causing further warming in a strong
positive feedback cycle and marine genera and species to become extinct.[72][73]
Cap
O–S Tr–J K–Pg
Late D
Other concerns (H)

Other environmental concerns relate to the radioactive contamination of the Arctic Ocean from,
for example, Russian radioactive waste dump sites in the Kara Sea[74] Cold War nuclear test
sites such as Novaya Zemlya,[75] Camp Century's contaminants in Greenland,[76] or radioactive
contamination from Fukushima.[77] Millions of years ago
The Permian–Triassic extinction event (the Great
On 16 July 2015, five nations (United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark/Greenland) Dying) may have been caused by release of methane
signed a declaration committing to keep their fishing vessels out of a 1.1 million square mile zone from clathrates. An estimated 52% of marine genera
in the central Arctic Ocean near the North Pole. The agreement calls for those nations to refrain became extinct, representing 96% of all marine
from fishing there until there is better scientific knowledge about the marine resources and until species.
a regulatory system is in place to protect those resources.[78][79]

See also
Arctic Archipelago British Arctic Territories
Arctic Bridge Chukchi Plateau
Arctic cooperation and politics Extreme points of the Arctic
Arctic sea ice ecology and history International Arctic Science Committee

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Nordicity Subarctic
Seven Seas

References
17. "Backgrounder – Expanding Canadian Forces Operations in the
1. Pidwirny, Michael (2006). "Introduction to the Oceans" (https://web.ar Arctic" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080602062840/http://www.pm.
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Further reading
Neatby, Leslie H., Discovery in Russian and Siberian Waters 1973 ISBN 0-8214-0124-6
Ray, L., and Bacon, B., eds., The Arctic Ocean 1982 ISBN 0-333-31017-9
Thorén, Ragnar V.A., Picture Atlas of the Arctic 1969 ISBN 0-8214-0124-6

External links
Arctic Council (http://www.arctic-council.org/)
Arctic Environmental Atlas (https://web.archive.org/web/20050616080806/http://vitalgraphics.grida.no/arcticmap/) Interactive map
Arctic Great Rivers Observatory (ArcticGRO) (https://arcticgreatrivers.org/)
"Arctic Ocean" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xq.html). The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Daily Arctic Ocean Rawinsonde Data from Soviet Drifting Ice Stations (1954–1990) (http://nsidc.org/data/nsidc-0060.html) at NSIDC
NOAA North Pole Web Cam (https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/arctic-zone/gallery_np.html) Images from Web Cams deployed in spring on an ice floe
NOAA Near-realtime North Pole Weather Data (https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/arctic-zone/gallery_np_weatherdata.html) Data from instruments
deployed on an ice floe
International Polar Foundation (http://www.polarfoundation.org/)
"Daily report of Arctic ice cover based on satellite data" (http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/). nsidc.org. National Snow and Ice Data Center.
Marine Biodiversity Wiki (https://web.archive.org/web/20110723034802/http://www.marbef.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean)

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