Question 1: Suppose, your friend suddenly took the decision to maintain a

ketogenic diet and she has already withdrawn carbohydrates from her meal. You
are a biologist and know the important functions of carbohydrates. Now write a
text to your friend in brief what would happen if there were no carbohydrates in
our cell so that she can get to know the importance of it. You can explain from a
bacterial cell perspective. (600 words)
In organic morphology, carbohydrates are molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen atoms in specific ratios. It’s hard to deny that carbohydrates play an important role in
the human body. But they remain one of the most debated topic in nutritional world. A large
group of critics believe eating fewer carbohydrates is the way to optimal health, while others
prefer higher-carb diets. Still, others insist balanced amount is the way to go.
Some of the key functions of carbohydrates are:
 Carbohydrates provide your body with energy by converting themselves into the fuel
molecule known as ATP.
 The extra carbohydrate is transformed to serve as stored energy in the form of
glycogen.
 Carbohydrates help preserve muscle and later provides energy during prolonged
starvation.
 They promote digestive health fiber by reducing constipation and lowering the risk of
digestive tract diseases.
 Carbohydrate also influences heart health and diabetes. Fiber which is a form of
carbohydrate is associated with reduced “bad” LDL cholesterol levels, a lower risk of
heart disease and increased glycaemic control.
 Although most absorbed glucose is used to make energy, some glucose is converted to
essential building blocks of important macromolecules.
Most of the carbohydrates in the foods you eat are digested and broken down into glucose
before entering the bloodstream. Glucose in the blood is taken up into your body’s cells and
used to produce a fuel molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through a series of
complex processes known as cellular respiration. Cells can then use ATP to power a variety
of metabolic tasks.
If your body has enough glucose to fulfill its current needs, excess glucose is stored for later
use. This stored form of glucose is called glycogen and is primarily found in the liver and
muscle. The stored glucose molecules later is released into the blood to provide energy
throughout the body and help maintain normal blood sugar levels between meals.
When glucose from carbohydrates is lacking, muscle can also be broken down into amino
acids and converted into glucose or other compounds to generate energy. This is one way the
body provides adequate energy for the brain, which requires some glucose for energy even
during periods of prolonged starvation.
Unlike sugars and starches, dietary fiber is not broken down into glucose. Instead, this type of
carbohydrate passes through the body undigested. There are two main category of fiber such
are soluble and insoluble.
Soluble fiber increases the bulk of your stool and softens it to help make bowel movements
easier. Furthermore, it reduced straining and pain associated with bowel movements. On the
other hand, insoluble fiber helps alleviate constipation by adding bulk to your stools and
making things move a little quicker through the digestive tract. Getting enough insoluble
fiber may also protect against digestive tract diseases.
Eating plenty of dietary fiber can benefit your heart and blood sugar levels as viscous soluble
fiber passes through the small intestine, it binds to bile acids and prevents them from being
reabsorbed. To make more bile acids, the liver uses cholesterol that would otherwise be in the
blood. Additionally, soluble fiber helps delay the absorption of carbs in your digestive tract.
This can lead to lower blood sugar levels following meals.
Some of the glucose is converted to ribose and deoxyribose, which are essential building
blocks of important macromolecules, such as RNA, DNA, and ATP. Glucose is additionally
utilized to make the molecule NADPH, which is important for protection against oxidative
stress and is used in many other chemical reactions in the body.
Long-term restriction of carbohydrates in the diet can lead to complications such as heart
arrhythmias, cardiac contractile function impairment, sudden death, osteoporosis, kidney
damage, and increased cancer risk, impairment of physical activity and lipid abnormalities. It
also directly influences the central nervous system and the brain functioning. It plays a
crucial part in influencing memory formation, decision-making, mood fluctuation, alertness,
and neural impulse relays. Other symptoms that may occur are:

 Abdominal pain
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Frequent urination
 General sense of fatigue and weakness
 Shortness of breath
 Excessive thirst
 Confusion
 Loss of consciousness
 Irritability
 Impulse decision-making,
 Difficulty in concentrating.
 Severe Headaches
 Shivering
 Constipation
 Heart Palpitations
 Bloating and Frequent Need to Pass Gas
 Temporary Hair Loss
 Elevated Cholesterol
As you can see, carbohydrates play a role in several important processes. They provide you
with energy for daily tasks and are the primary fuel source for your brain’s high energy
demands. Nevertheless, if you are following a low-carb diet or food is scarce, your body will
use alternative methods to produce energy and fuel your brain.
Question 2: Why does Liposome become a useful tool in cancer treatment? (400
words)
 Liposomes are microscopic vesicles composed of one or more lipid membranes surrounding
discrete aqueous compartments. It has an aqueous solution core surrounded by a hydrophobic
membrane, in the form of a lipid bilayer; hydrophilic solutes dissolved in the core cannot
readily pass through the bilayer. Hydrophobic chemicals associate with the bilayer. A
liposome can be hence loaded with hydrophobic and/or hydrophilic molecules. To deliver the
molecules to a site of action, the lipid bilayer can fuse with other bilayers such as the cell
membrane, thus delivering the liposome contents.

They are mostly composed of phospholipids, especially phosphatidylcholine, but may also

include other lipids, such as egg phosphatidylethanolamine, so long as they are compatible
with lipid bilayer structure. A liposome design may employ surface ligands for attaching to
unhealthy tissue. The major types of liposomes are the multilamellar vesicle, the
small unilamellar liposome vesicle, the large unilamellar vesicle (LUV), and the cochleate
vesicle. A less desirable form are multivesicular liposomes in which one vesicle contains one
or more smaller vesicles.
These vesicles can capture water-soluble drugs in their aqueous spaces and lipid-soluble
drugs within the membrane itself. Liposomes release their contents by interacting with cells
in one of four ways:
 adsorption
 endocytosis
 lipid exchange
 fusion
Liposome-entrapped drugs are distributed within the body much differently than free drugs;
when administered intravenously to healthy animals and humans, most of the injected
vesicles accumulate in the liver, spleen, lungs, bone marrow, and lymph nodes. Liposomes
also accumulate preferentially at the sites of inflammation and infection and in some solid
tumors; however, the reason for this accumulation is not clear.
Designing of liposomes is done to achieve the following optimized properties

1. Drug loading and control of drug release rate

2. Overcoming the rapid clearance of liposomes

3. Intracellular delivery of drugs

4. Receptor-mediated endocytosis of ligand-targeted liposomes

5. Triggered release

6. Delivery of nucleic acids and DNA

The discovery of liposome or lipid vesicle emerged from self-forming enclosed lipid bi-layer
upon hydration; liposome drug delivery systems have played a significant role in formulation
of potent drug to improve therapeutics. Recently the liposome formulations are targeted to
reduce toxicity and increase accumulation at the target site. There are several new methods of
liposome preparation based on lipid drug interaction and liposome disposition mechanism
including the inhibition of rapid clearance of liposome by controlling particle size, charge and
surface hydration. Most clinical applications of liposomal drug delivery are targeting to tissue
with or without expression of target recognition molecules on lipid membrane. The liposomes
are characterized with respect to physical, chemical and biological parameters. Drug
encapsulation in a liposomal or lipid drug delivery system improves the pharmacokinetic and
pharmacodynamics properties to such an extent that the drugs can be brought into regular use
Advantages of liposomes as a drug delivery system for antimicrobials are:

• Improvement and control over pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics

• Decreased toxicity

• Enhanced drug activity against intracellular pathogens

• Liposomes used as target selective

• Enhanced activity against extracellular pathogens

The application of liposomes has been broadened since its discovery in 1964. Liposomes
composed of a whole host of different lipids, manmade or naturally occurring, each having
their own uses, advantages and disadvantages. Liposomes are classified according to
production method, composition as well as size and shape. Liposomes as a drug delivery
system include benefits like improved pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, decreased
toxicity, enhanced therapeutic efficacy against pathogens and improved drug-target
selectivity. Liposomes have been in use as drug delivery systems in the recent years with a
few formulations commercially available, which show greater effectivity. Liposomes based
drug delivery has a great promise in the future.
References:
 https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-nutrition/s08-03-the-
functions-of-carbohydrates.html
 https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/carbohydrate-functions
 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14672862/#:~:text=Complications%20such%20as
%20heart%20arrhythmias,of%20carbohydrates%20in%20the%20diet.
 https://www.thediabetescouncil.com/side-effects-of-cutting-out-carbohydrates/

 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2672806/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liposome#:~:text=A%20liposome%20is%20a
%20spherical,(such%20as%20by%20sonication).
 https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/cdd/2007/00000004/00000004/art00006