Optimization of Axial Pump Characteristic Dimensions and Induced Hemolysis For Mechanical Circulatory Support Devices

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ASAIO J. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2018 November 05.
Published in final edited form as:
ASAIO J. 2018 November 1; 64(6): 727–734. doi:10.1097/MAT.0000000000000719.
Optimization of Axial Pump Characteristic Dimensions and

Europe PMC Funders Author Manuscripts
Induced Hemolysis for Mechanical Circulatory Support Devices

Theodosios Korakianitis*, Mohammad A. Rezaienia+, Gordon M. Paul+, Eldad J. Avital+,
Martin T. Rothman++, and Sahand Mozafari+
*ParksCollege of Engineering, Aviation and Technology, Saint Louis University, St. Louis,
Missouri, United States
+Schoolof Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London E1
4NS, United Kingdom
++Department of Cardiology, Barts and the London NHS Trust, London Chest Hospital, London
E2 9JX, United Kingdom
Abstract
The application of axial pumps as ventricular assist devices (VAD) requires significant
modifications to the size and characteristics of industrial pumps due to the difference in flow fields
of industrial and medical pumps. Industrial pumps operate in the region of Reynolds number
Re=108 whereas axial blood pumps operate in Re<106. The common pump design technique is to
rely on the performance of previously designed pumps using the concept of fluid dynamic
similarity. Such data are available for industrial pumps as specific speed-specific diameter (ns-ds)
graphs. The difference between the flow fields of industrial and medical pumps makes the
industrial ns-ds graphs unsuitable for medical pumps and consequently several clinically available
axial blood pumps operate with low efficiencies. In this paper, numerical and experimental
techniques were used to design 62 axial pump impellers with different design characteristics
suitable for VADs and mechanical circulatory support devices (MCSD). The impellers were
manufactured and experimentally tested in various operating conditions of flow, pressure and
rotational speed. The hemocompatibility of the impellers was numerically investigated by
modelling shear stress and hemolysis. The highest efficiency of each pump impeller was plotted
on an ns-ds diagram. The non-dimensional results presented in this article enable preliminary
design of efficient and hemocompatible axial flow pumps for VADs and MCSDs.
Introduction
The design process of axial pumps is based on the similarity law of fluid dynamics. Two
machines have equal efficiencies if they 1) are geometrically similar, 2) have similar velocity
triangles at similar points in the flow path, 3) are performing in the same range of Reynolds
number (Re) and 4) have working fluids with the same thermodynamic quality1. Cordier2
collected experimental dimensionless characteristics of numerous pumps of different types
and plotted them in an ns-ds graph based on their highest efficiency. The graphs show iso-
efficiency curves of numerous industrial pumps based on their specific speed (ns) and
specific diameter (ds), characteristic dimensionless numbers indicative of the rotational
speed and rotor diameter respectively. Each data point shows the highest efficiency of a
Korakianitis et al. Page 2
pump corresponding to its dimensionless numbers. The Reynolds number, Re, is a

characteristic dimensionless number that compares the inertia forces to the viscous forces in
the fluid and indicates to what extent fluid flow is laminar or turbulent.
The equations and symbols for specific speed, specific diameter and Reynolds number are
presented in Table 1. In the above Ns is the rotor speed (rad/s), Q the volumetric flow rate
(m3/s), D the diameter (m), 𝜌 the density of the working fluid (kg/m3), Δp the pressure
difference (N/m2) from inlet to outlet of the pump, 𝜑 and 𝜓 are flow and pressure
coefficients, μ and ν are dynamic (Pa.s) and kinematic viscosity (m2/s) of the fluid
respectively, C is the velocity (m/s) based on the cross section area and D is the hydraulic
diameter (m).
The Cordier diagram was first presented in 1953 and following Balje’s work in which
industrial pumps were plotted on the diagram3. It has been used as a tool for the initial
design phase in turbomachinery. Even with the advent of CFD design, Cordier diagrams are
embedded in common CFD software such as Ansys Vista CPD. Balje’s diagram however
corresponds to industrial pumps operating in the turbulent regime of Re=108, whereas axial
flow blood pumps operate in Re<106 4. Therefore conditions 2 and 4 of the similarity law
are not satisfied in this application and the conventional diagram is not suitable for blood
pumps. Smith et al.4,5 collected non-dimensional data of 37 rotary blood pumps including 7
axial, 2 mixed flow and 28 radial pumps. The non-dimensional characteristics were plotted
on an ns-ds diagram to enable preliminary design of axial, centrifugal and mixed flow pumps
for ventricular assist devices (VADs) and mechanical circulatory support devices (MCSD).
Although the study was a pioneering work based on reliable experimental data, however, it
mostly investigated centrifugal pumps and only a few data points of axial pumps were
presented. Our recent paper6 reported a non-dimensional investigation which collected
numerical data of 88 efficient centrifugal pumps and presented the data on a Cordier
diagram. The graph is a specific tool to make a first estimation at the size, type and
performance of centrifugal blood pumps.
This paper is a corresponding and similar contribution targeted at axial blood pumps. 62
axial flow pump impellers are designed based on existing dimensionless experimental data4,
numerical techniques and conventional pump design methods1. The impellers were then
manufactured and a single loop test rig (O-loop) was designed and developed to test the
pump impellers in different operating conditions. The pump impellers were then modelled
and studied with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to investigate the effect of design
characteristics on the hemocompatibility of the device by modeling the induced hemolysis.
Prior study by Giersiepen et al7on the hemolysis in a simple shear flow experiment showed
that the haemolysis can be related to the shear stress and the exposure time through a power
law equation. Based on the proposed power law equation, two types of computational
models are used to computationally simulate the hemolysis7. The first is the Eulerian model
in which the haemolysis index (HI) is integrated across the entire fluid domain at a single
instant. The second approach is the Lagrangian model in which the HI is integrated along
the red blood cell paths from the inlet to the outlet. The pros and cons of each methods have
been evaluated comprehensively in a study conducted by Taskin et al8.The study reported

high percentage errors for both methods and that they could not accurately predict the
hemolysis. However, the Eulerian approach showed high correlation coefficients showing
that it may be used for the comparison of different impellers by predicting the relative
hemolysis. For this study, the highest efficiency of each pump was plotted in the previously
produced ns-ds graph6 to improve the diagram and enable preliminary design of centrifugal
and axial pumps for MCSDs. The Normalised Index of Hemolysis (NIH) was simulated for
each pump using the Eulerian approach. The effects of a change in rotor speed, blade
number and the blade angle on the haemolysis and efficiency were investigated.
Materials and Methods

In this paper axial rotors with varying outlet angle and number of blades are tested
computationally and experimentally. 62 rotor designs are tested computationally, yielding
measures of haemolysis, and 62 corresponding rotors are then fabricated and tested
experimentally in a blood analogue (glycerol) solution yielding measures of efficiency. The
experimental efficiencies are then plotted on the Cordier diagram.
Impeller design
The required pressure rise and flow rate of the pump was defined from previous literature[9,
10]. Some design parameters are assumptions made by the designer based on experience and
previously designed pumps. 62 axial pump impellers with varying outlet angle and number
of blades are designed. The outlet angle (β2) varied in the range 2°-40° and the number of
blades was 2, 4 and 6. The diameter was 22 mm. Due to interference at the hub, only five
outlet angles could be fabricated for all numbers of blades; 20°, 25°, 30°, 35° and 40°.
The blades were divided into three sections (hub, tip and the mean effective diameter) and
the velocity triangles were used to find the inlet angle and the twist on each section. The
design procedure was developed as a MATLAB code that generates three-dimensional (3D)
coordinates of the blade sections9–13.The profile and isometric view of a representative
impeller with 2 blades and a 20° outlet angle is shown in Figure 1.
In general, the relatively high specific speed in the axial pumps dictates a smaller hub
diameter, which leads to a greater flow area and thus greater flow rate and therefore a lower
pressure rise. In this study, the hub to tip diameter ratio was determined based on our
previous simulation results. To do so, the ratios of 0.15, 0.3 and 0.45 were simulated and the
optimum ratio was selected. The simulations showed a relatively low pressure rise for the
impeller with a 0.15 ratio because the blades were so thin. These impellers required higher
rotational speeds in order to produce the design point pressure rise. The impeller with a 0.45
hub ratio had difficulty producing the required flowrate at low outlet angles due to the
smaller flow area. So, the value of 0.3 was selected for the hub-to-tip ratio in this work.
Experimental Testing
Five impellers with high outlet angles (20°, 25°, 30°, 35° and 40°) were manufactured with
2, 4 and 6 blades (15 in total) in order to study the effect of blade number on the
performance of the pumps. The experimental O-loop includes several parts: a pump housing,
a hand operated Hoffman clip valve to change the resistance, an electromagnetic flow meter

to measure the flow rate, two pressure transducers to measure the inlet and outlet pressures,
a brushless DC motor (Maxon, EC max 22, 25 Watt) and a motor controller. The O-loop is
shown in Figure 2.
The pressure upstream and downstream of the impeller and the corresponding flow rate were
recorded at a 1 kHz sampling rate. The rotational speed was varied manually from 1000 to
10000 rpm in increments of 1000 rpm. Rotational speeds of 4000-7000 were closest to the
designed operating condition and consequently these results are selected for presentation
here. At each speed the resistance of the system was changed by the Hoffman clip from fully
open (no resistance) to fully closed (no flow). Measurements were taken at each quarter turn
of the clip. The experiments were repeated three times in order to minimize uncertainty and
verify the repeatability of the experiments.
Computational Model
The 3D coordinates of the blades were generated and imported to ANSYS Fluid Flow
(CFX). The incompressible Navier-Stokes equations were used to predict and calculate the
flow fields in the pumps. The model has one rotating domain and it is defined by creating
the fluid volume around the rotor surface. The rotational motion of the impeller is calculated
using Multiple Reference Frame (MRF). In this approach, the flow is assumed steady state,
the grid remains fixed and the relative velocity is calculated throughout the domain.
Boundary conditions were specified to define the rotational speed, inlet pressure and outlet
flow rate. At the inlet, a relative pressure of 0 Pa was defined. At the outlet, a flow rate of 5
L/min was imposed. The solution was considered converged when the residual fell below
10-4.
In this study the k-epsilon turbulence model is used. The model uses the scalable wall-
function approach14 to improve robustness and accuracy when the near-wall mesh is very
fine.
Although blood is a non-Newtonian fluid, for this part of the study blood was considered as
an incompressible Newtonian fluid due to shear rates higher than 100/s in blood pumps. In
this case the non-Newtonian properties of blood such as shear thinning and viscoelasticity
are negligible. A density of 1050 kg/m3 and viscosity of 0.0036 Pa.s were defined for the
working fluid15. A mesh independence study was performed, in a similar fashion to a study
conducted by Fraser et. al 16, to ensure a reliable result was obtained.
Shear Stress and Hemolysis Model

The shear stress induced on the fluid on each boundary is defined by:
1 1/2
6 ∑ ii
σ= (σ − σ j j)2 + ∑ ( σij σij ) (2)
Where i and j are perpendicular spatial dimensions. Shear-induced haemolysis was

computed using the Eulerian-scalar-transport approach8 in equation 3:

d(Δ f reeH b′)

+ vρ . ∇(Δ f reeH b′) = S (3)
dt
1
Where ΔfreeHB′ is defined as a scalar variable equal to Δ freeHB α , and ΔfreeHB is defined
as plasma free haemoglobin, v is the mean inlet velocity (m/s), S is the source term defined
1
as S = ρ (HB . C . σ β ) α , in which HB is total blood haemoglobin, ρ is the blood density,
α=0.785, β=2.416, and C=3.62× 10−5 are constants7.
In order to express the degree of hemolysis, Normalized Index of Hemolysis (NIH) was
calculated from the equation 4, adopted from the study by Arora et al 17:
Δ f reeHb
NIH(g/100l) = 100 × × (1 − Hct) × k (4)
Hb
Where Hct is the hematocrit and k is the hemoglobin content of blood and these quantities
are 45% and ≈150 g/L respectively for a healthy person17.Based on the literature18, the
critical value of 0.01 (g/100L) has been established, where NIH higher than this value are
defined as having an unacceptably high level of blood trauma.
Results
Qdes and Hdes are the volumetric flow rate and pressure rise at the design point. Q/Qdes and
H/Hdes give the ratio of volumetric flow rate and pressure rise in a particular configuration
compared to the design point. η is the experimentally measured hydraulic efficiency.
Figure 3 shows the values of estimated NIH in 14 two-bladed pumps with different outlet
angles, rotating at 4000-7000 rpm. The critical NIH value has been marked with a dashed
line. Higher outlet angle and higher rotational speed both result in greater hemolysis. Figures
4 and 5 plot the efficiency and head ratio versus flow ratio for the same impellers at 6000
rpm. The pressure rise is higher for higher outlet angles, as expected from previously
reported experimental work1. Figures 6 and 7 show the efficiency and head ratio of three
impellers with the same characteristics with 2, 4 and 6 blades, also at 6000 rpm. In this case
fewer blades are more efficient. Figure 8 is the upgraded ns-ds diagram containing non-
dimensional data of more than 150 centrifugal6 and axial pumps.
Discussion
The non-dimensional approach of the study makes the results applicable to different
performance characteristics and not just specific values. This will allow approximate sizing
of blood pumps designed for the in-series configurations19–22 which may have different
operating conditions from existing VADs.

The following discussion will describe in more detail the effect of number of blades, outlet
angle and rotational speed. The authors acknowledge the existence of other important factors
that affect the performance of a blood pump such as blade-tip to housing clearance23,
radial24 and axial25 clearances in flow paths, manufacturability26, inlet and outlet shapes27
and, particularly for axial pumps, flow straighteners to improve efficiency28. These
parameters would be optimized after the initial sizing using the Cordier diagram created in
this work and consequently are not examined in this more fundamental investigation. It is
noted that flow straighteners, often included in axial MCSDs, will improve the efficiency of
operation by reducing vortices in the flow downstream of the pump.
Number of Blades
Based on the theoretical and experimental equations for slip factor, the ideal flow guidance
may be achieved by increasing the number of blades, so the flow leaves the impeller outlet at
the outlet angle. However, beyond a particular value, the slip factor decreases due to
increased blockage area. This value is considered a balance between the excessively high
surface friction in pumps with too many blades and unguided diffusion in pumps with too
few blades. The pressure rise results in Figure 7 show this effect. At QDes, the 2 bladed
impeller produced the lowest pressure rise among the three (≈0.9 HDes). The 4 bladed
impeller performed with the highest (≈1.2 HDes) and the head ratio decreased to 1.1 HDes for
the impeller with 6 blades. It is apparent from Figure 6 that efficiency is higher at a lower
number of blades. However, this is the result of a constant rotational speed which leads to
different values of pressure rise for the pumps, as shown in Figure 7. In order to compare the
efficiencies meaningfully the pumps must rotate at the various rotational speeds at which
they produce the design point pressure rise. For this purpose, the rotational speeds were
changed to 6400, 5300 and 5500 rpm for the 2, 4 and 6 bladed impellers respectively. The
impellers produced the design point pressure rise at these speeds and achieved design point
efficiencies of 18%, 19% and 16% respectively. This was implemented for the analysis of all
5 groups of impellers and overall showed very similar efficiencies for 2 and 4 bladed and
slightly reduced efficiencies for 6 bladed impellers.
Outlet Angle
The effect of blade outlet angle on the pump performance was examining results from a
group of 14 2-bladed impellers with a range of outlet angles. Figures 4 and 5 compare the
experimental efficiency and head ratio versus flow ratio for these impellers at 6000 rpm. The
results show that low outlet angles (β2<10°) do not reach the required flow rate and slightly
greater angles (10°<β2<15°) may deliver the design point pressure rise, but fail to meet the
required pressure rise at this rotational speed.
Increasing the rotational speeds for these pumps to reach the design point characteristics
may lead to high shear stress and increase the probability of hemolysis. Impellers with
higher outlet angles (β2>30°) may reach both design point flow rate and pressure rise at
relatively low speeds, however, the efficiency of the pump decreases at these outlet angles.

Hemolysis
In general this shows a higher value of NIH for higher rotational speeds and higher outlet
angles. While all outlet angles showed sufficiently low hemolysis at 4000 and 5000 rpm,
angles higher than 35° and 20° cause excessive hemolysis at 6000 rpm and 7000 rpm
respectively. At a constant speed, the lower blade angles are suitable for this application, due
to the reduced probability of hemolysis. However, lower blade angles, produce much lower
pressure rise compared to higher angles. These impellers need higher rotational speeds in
order to reach the design point flow rate and pressure rise. The higher rotational speed will
increase the value of NIH and consequently there is a trade-off between the required
pressure rise and NIH value in the pumps. An optimum angle should to be determined to
produce the required pressure head, while minimising shear stress and thereby NIH.
Future study
There is significant interest in the field to modulate pump speeds, rather than operate at
constant speed, to generate vascular pulsatility and phasic volume unloading. If the pump is
pulsatile it is working at a range of operating conditions throughout a single cycle. The
diagrams in this work only show a single operating condition. This limitation could be
overcome using a measure of the pump’s efficiency in off-design condition, perhaps by an
average efficiency across the rpm variation expected in the modulation scheme. It would be
interesting in future to define these expected rpm ranges and examine whether the optimal
pumps for design point operation are the same ones that perform best across this range.
Conclusion
Numerical, theoretical and experimental techniques were used to characterize the
performance of 62 pump impellers. The non-dimensional characteristics of the tested axial
pumps were collected and added to a previously produced graph for centrifugal pumps.
Similar to Balje’s existing work for industrial pumps, the axial flow pumps show a reduced
dependence between ns and ds compared with their centrifugal counterparts. Hopefully,
other pump designers will design more axial and centrifugal pumps and add their test results
to the diagram. If blood pump developers analyse and add pump performance to this
diagram, a more precise and reliable version of this diagram will be produced in future.
Although there are many data points on this graph, it is still insufficient to predict a pattern
for iso-effciency lines. The completed chart would allow first estimation of the optimal axial
impeller geometry for any desired operating condition. This tool allows greater efficacy in
the initial phases of VAD design to reach optimal geometries, maximise efficiency and
minimise hemolysis.
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Figure 1.
The profile and isometric view of a representative impeller with 2 blades and 20° outlet
angle.

Figure 2.
Schematic diagram of the O-loop test rig.

Figure 3.
The simulated NIH for different outlet angles at four rotational speeds

Figure 4.
Efficiency versus flow ratio for different outlet angles at 6000 rpm.

Figure 5.
Head ratio versus flow ratio for different outlet angles at 6000 rpm.

Figure 6.
Efficiency versus flow ratio for 2, 4 and 6 blades at 6000 rpm.

Figure 7.
Head ratio versus flow ratio for 2, 4 and 6 blades at 6000 rpm.

Figure 8.
The upgraded ns-ds diagram containing nondimensional data of 150 centrifugal6 and axial
pumps.

Table 1
Nondimensional parameters
Parameter Symbol Equation
Ns . Q ϕ0.5
Specific Speed ns
ns = = 0.75
Δ p 0.75 ψ
ρ
Specific Diameter ds Δ p 0.25
D.
ρ ψ 0.25
ds = = 0.5
Q ϕ
Reynolds Number Re ρCD CD
= ν
μ

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Europe PMC Funders Group

Optimization of Axial Pump Characteristic Dimensions and

Induced Hemolysis for Mechanical Circulatory Support Devices

pump corresponding to its dimensionless numbers. The Reynolds number, Re, is a

ASAIO J. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2018 November 05.

Materials and Methods

ASAIO J. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2018 November 05.

Shear Stress and Hemolysis Model

Where i and j are perpendicular spatial dimensions. Shear-induced haemolysis was

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d(Δ f reeH b′)

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ASAIO J. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2018 November 05.

ASAIO J. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2018 November 05.

flows. International journal for numerical methods in fluids. 2005; 47(10-11):1323–1328.

ASAIO J. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2018 November 05.

ASAIO J. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2018 November 05.

ASAIO J. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2018 November 05.

ASAIO J. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2018 November 05.

ASAIO J. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2018 November 05.

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Parameter Symbol Equation

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