Peneles Acustico Micelio PDF

sustainability
Review
Physico-Mechanical and Thermodynamic Properties
of Mycelium-Based Biocomposites: A Review
Carolina Girometta 1 , Anna Maria Picco 1, *, Rebecca Michela Baiguera 1 , Daniele Dondi 2 ,
Stefano Babbini 3 , Marco Cartabia 1,3 , Mirko Pellegrini 3 and Elena Savino 1
1 Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Pavia, Via S. Epifanio 14, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
[email protected] (C.G.); [email protected] (R.M.B.);
[email protected] (M.C.); [email protected] (E.S.)
2 Department of Chemistry, University of Pavia, Viale Taramelli 10, 27100 Pavia, Italy; [email protected]
3 MOGU S.r.l., Via S. Francesco, 61, 21020 Inarzo, VA, Italy; [email protected] (S.B.); [email protected] (M.P.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-0382-984874

Received: 16 December 2018; Accepted: 2 January 2019; Published: 8 January 2019
Abstract: Reducing the use of non-renewable resources is a key strategy of a circular economy.
Mycelium-based foams and sandwich composites are an emerging category of biocomposites
relying on the valorization of lignocellulosic wastes and the natural growth of the living fungal
organism. While growing, the fungus cements the substrate, which is partially replaced by the
tenacious biomass of the fungus itself. The final product can be shaped to produce insulating
panels, packaging materials, bricks or new-design objects. Only a few pioneer companies in the
world retain a significant know-how, as well as the ability to provide the material characterization.
Moreover, several technical details are not revealed due to industrial secrecy. According to the
available literature, mycelium-based biocomposites show low density and good insulation properties,
both related to acoustic and thermal aspects. Mechanical properties are apparently inferior in
comparison to expanded polystyrene (EPS), which is the major synthetic competitor. Nevertheless,
mycelium-based composites can display an enormous variability on the basis of: fungal species and
strain; substrate composition and structure; and incubation conditions. The aim of the present review
is to summarize technical aspects and properties of mycelium-based biocomposites focusing on both
actual applications and future perspectives.
Keywords: mycelium; fungi; biocomposite; foam; sandwich; lignocellulose; physical properties;

mechanical properties; thermal properties
1. Introduction
Due to the increasing demand for “green” materials and productive processes, extensive literature
has been developed about the so-called biocomposite and bio-based materials. Such terms basically
aim to highlight the derivation of the raw materials from biological sources, although the intervention
of a further biological activity by living organisms is not excluded in the transformation process of
the materials themselves. Far from being a univocal definition, biocomposites have been referred
to by Dicker et al. (2014) [1] as composite materials, where a bio-polymer or bio-derived polymer
is reinforced by natural fibers. It should be noted that natural fibers are completely or partially
constituted of biopolymers. Moreover, the term “fiber” has a different meaning in chemistry, materials
engineering and botany [2–5]. Analogously, bio-based materials are defined as materials containing
at least one component that is biologically produced and completely biodegradable [6]; thus, such a
definition does not exclude the presence of other synthetic components [7].
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AAmajor
majorattractive
attractivefactor
factorofofbiocomposites
biocompositesisisthe thepossibility
possibilitytotoexploit
exploitbiological
biologicalwastes
wastesand/or
and/or
residue, such as husks, waste fibers, and residual stems. Waste and
residue, such as husks, waste fibers, and residual stems. Waste and residues are thus valorized rather residues are thus valorized
rather
than than discarded,
discarded, according according to the principles
to the principles of the circular
of the circular economy economy
[6,8]. [6,8].
Early explorations in the use of fungi as biomaterials
Early explorations in the use of fungi as biomaterials began began duringduringthe 1990s
the by the Japanese
1990s by the
scientist Shigeru
Japanese scientistYamanaka, who researched
Shigeru Yamanaka, mycelium for
who researched the production
mycelium for the of paper andofbuilding
production paper
materials [9]. Since then, mycelium-based composites have been
and building materials [9]. Since then, mycelium-based composites have been investigated forinvestigated for commercialization
[10,11] and explored
commercialization for their
[10,11] potential in
and explored forseveral conceptual
their potential in projects (such as theprojects
several conceptual recent exhibition
(such as
“Fungal Futures”: www.fungal-futures.com, 2016, NL) [12]. Research
the recent exhibition “Fungal Futures”: www.fungal-futures.com, 2016, NL) [12]. Research in Europe in Europe on mycelium-based
oncomposites has been
mycelium-based initiated has
composites by Maurizio Montalti,
been initiated in collaboration
by Maurizio Montalti, in with Utrecht University
collaboration with Utrecht (the
Netherlands), testing mycelium technology with the local waste
University (the Netherlands), testing mycelium technology with the local waste streams of the streams of the European
agricultural
European industry. industry.
agricultural This experimentation was funded
This experimentation wasfirst by the
funded Creative
first by the Industry
Creative Fund
Industry NL
(Stimuleringsfonds) and later from national and European institutions
Fund NL (Stimuleringsfonds) and later from national and European institutions for research (NWO, for research (NWO,
EEC-H2020)[13,14].
EEC-H2020) [13,14].
Fungi (apart
Fungi (apart from fromyeasts)
yeasts)are areorganisms
organismsable ableto togive
givecohesion
cohesionto toincoherent
incoherentmaterials
materialsdue
dueto tothe
the
production of a mass of microscopic filaments (called hyphae) that
production of a mass of microscopic filaments (called hyphae) that form the mycelium. Fungi neverform the mycelium. Fungi never
producetrue
produce true tissues;
tissues; nevertheless,
nevertheless, hyphae hyphae can can display
displaydifferent
differenttypes
typesand andspecializations
specializationsrelated
related to
substrate degradation and the development of reproductive structures
to substrate degradation and the development of reproductive structures [15,16]. According to the [15,16]. According to the
availableliterature,
available literature,mycelium
myceliumin inbiocomposites
biocompositesisiscoupled
coupledalmost
almostexclusively
exclusivelywith withother
other(non-fossil)
(non-fossil)
materialsderived
materials derived fromfrom biological
biological processes,
processes, such
such as asplant
plantmaterials,
materials,totoexploitexploitthe
thenatural
naturalgrowth
growth of
of the fungal organism on these substrates. Since the variability of the degradative processes inis
the fungal organism on these substrates. Since the variability of the degradative processes in fungi
enormous,
fungi lignocellulosic
is enormous, substrates
lignocellulosic are colonized
substrates by a plethora
are colonized of species.
by a plethora Nevertheless,
of species. the most
Nevertheless,
the most efficient degradation of the lignocellulosic compound is well-known to be carried out
efficient degradation of the lignocellulosic compound is well-known to be carried out by by
wood-decay fungi (WDF) mostly belonging to Basidiomycota.
wood-decay fungi (WDF) mostly belonging to Basidiomycota. Wood-decay species can degrade Wood-decay species can degrade
cellulose,hemicelluloses
cellulose, hemicelluloses andandlignin lignin by enzymatic
by enzymatic or non-enzymatic
or non-enzymatic mechanisms, mechanisms, of which
of which selectivity
selectivity is both species-specific and environmentally determined
is both species-specific and environmentally determined [17]. The substrate matrix thus is forced[17]. The substrate matrix thusandis
forced and penetrated by the hyphae, which develops inside as an increasingly
penetrated by the hyphae, which develops inside as an increasingly tight net. Over time, the substrate tight net. Over time,
isthe substrate
replaced is replaced
partially partially
by the fungal by theand
biomass fungal biomass mycelium
the resulting and the resulting
is able to mycelium is ablethe
strongly cement to
strongly cement the substrate itself, resulting in
substrate itself, resulting in a biocomposite material (Figure 1). a biocomposite material (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Cultivation bags with mycelial growth in progress (A) and final biocomposite (B,C).
Figure 1. Cultivation bags with mycelial growth in progress (A) and final biocomposite (B,C).
Pictures by C. Girometta and R.M. Baiguera.
Pictures by C. Girometta and R.M. Baiguera.
The fungal colonization of the substrate is often inhomogeneous as confirmed by SEM imaging
The
(Figure 2).fungal colonization of the substrate is often inhomogeneous as confirmed by SEM imaging
(Figure 2).
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2019, 11, FOR PEER REVIEW 3 3ofof23
22
Figure 2. Stereomicroscopy and cryo-SEM images of different biocomposites. TRN (A–D) = T. multicolor
Figure 2. Stereomicroscopy and cryo-SEM images of different biocomposites. TRN (A–D) = T.
on straw without heat pressing; TRH (E–H) = T. multicolor on straw with heat pressing; PCH (I–L) =
multicolor on straw without heat pressing; TRH (E–H) = T. multicolor on straw with heat pressing;
P. ostreatus on cotton with heat pressing. Arrows indicate aerial hyphae (a), mycelium (b), substrate (c),
PCH (I–L) = P. ostreatus on cotton with heat pressing. Arrows indicate aerial hyphae (a), mycelium
fused hyphae (d) and air-voids (e). Scale bars represent 1 mm (A,B,E,F,I,J) 100 µm (H), 50 µm (C,G,K),
(b), substrate (c), fused hyphae (d) and air-voids (e). Scale bars represent 1 mm (A,B,E,F,I,J) 100 μm
20 µm (L) and 10 µm (D). Reprinted with permission of Apples et al. (2019) [18].
(H), 50 μm (C,G,K), 20 μm (L) and 10 μm (D). Reprinted with permission of Apples et al. (2019) [18].
The surprising performances of mycelium-based biocomposites have been explored particularly
The surprising performances of mycelium-based biocomposites have been explored
to produce new materials for packaging, thermal and acoustic insulation and a broad variety of design
particularly to produce new materials for packaging, thermal and acoustic insulation and a broad
objects and furniture [19–21].
variety of design objects and furniture [19–21].
Biocomposites production involves low embodied energy, the resulting materials are
Biocomposites production involves low embodied energy, the resulting materials are
biodegradable, and they have a potential for cost-effectiveness [22,23]. Few recent research studies have
biodegradable, and they have a potential for cost-effectiveness [22,23]. Few recent research studies
demonstrated the competitive performances of non-pressed, foam-like mycelium-based composites,
have demonstrated the competitive performances of non-pressed, foam-like mycelium-based
compared to conventional materials like expanded polystyrene (EPS) or other foams [6,24,25] or
composites, compared to conventional materials like expanded polystyrene (EPS) or other foams
to other bio-based composites such as hempcrete [6]. Altogether, mycelium-based materials have
[6,24,25] or to other bio-based composites such as hempcrete [6]. Altogether, mycelium-based
demonstrated their potential to replace the use of less environmentally friendly materials, such as
materials have demonstrated their potential to replace the use of less environmentally friendly
bioplastics or wood composites [26]. The resulting materials are fully natural and compostable, thus
materials, such as bioplastics or wood composites [26]. The resulting materials are fully natural and
potentially supporting the transition toward a circular economy, where the value of materials and
compostable, thus potentially supporting the transition toward a circular economy, where the value
resources is maintained in the economy for as long as possible and the generation of waste is minimized
of materials and resources is maintained in the economy for as long as possible and the generation of
(EU action plan: COM/2015/0614) [27]. Moreover, a unique feature of mycelium-based composites
waste is minimized (EU action plan: COM/2015/0614) [27]. Moreover, a unique feature of
is the wide diversity of technical and aesthetic properties that can be achieved through minimal
mycelium-based composites is the wide diversity of technical and aesthetic properties that can be
variations in the fabrication process, such as the substrate or fungal strains employed. Only a few
achieved through minimal variations in the fabrication process, such as the substrate or fungal
companies in the world have gained a truly competitive know-how and the economical/technical
strains employed. Only a few companies in the world have gained a truly competitive know-how
faculty to provide the complete characterization of the products however. Moreover, several details
and the economical/technical faculty to provide the complete characterization of the products
concerning the material technology and the productive process are kept covered by industrial secrecy
however. Moreover, several details concerning the material technology and the productive process
and are not published in any paper. Thus, technical literature provided by reviewed publications is
are kept covered by industrial secrecy and are not published in any paper. Thus, technical literature
quite poor, whereas greater attention has been paid to design and ethical aspects.
provided by reviewed publications is quite poor, whereas greater attention has been paid to design
The aim of the present review is to critically summarize the available knowledge pertaining to the
and ethical aspects.
physical, mechanical and thermodynamic characterization of mycelium-based biocomposites with
The aim of the present review is to critically summarize the available knowledge pertaining to
regard to the actual and potential applications. This work can be useful to direct future research
the physical, mechanical and thermodynamic characterization of mycelium-based biocomposites
with regard to the actual and potential applications. This work can be useful to direct future research
activities to obtain new materials that can be used for increasingly diversified applications, particularly
in packaging, building insulation and interior design.
2. Materials and Properties

According to the species, fungi can degrade the cellulose or lignin compound of plant biomass in
a preferential manner, whereas hemicellulose is usually attacked by all the species. Most fungi are
selective and degrade both cellulose and lignin, despite being shifted toward a cellulose preference or
lignin preference. Such a preference is both species-specific and environmentally determined [17,28,29].
The variety of methods in the productive process of fungal biocomposites basically relies on the
colonization of a substrate that is shaped contemporarily or subsequently to the mycelial growth.
Once the colonization is carried out, the biocomposite material is pressed and dried by different
protocols of pressure and temperature, as shown in Figure 3 [30].
Figure 3. Diagram showing the production and life cycle of mycelium-based materials. The picture
also shows how these materials comply with circular thinking. Reprinted with permission of ©MOGU,
https://www.mogu.bio/ [31].
A strict categorization is not possible, however, as only two main categories of mycelium-based
composites have been developed: foams (Figure 4) and sandwich composites (Figure 5).
Mycelium-based foams (MBFs hereafter) are low-density materials emerging from the colonization of
aoflignocellulosic
a lignocellulosic substrate
substrate by fungus.
by the the fungus.
This This results
results in a highly
in a highly anisotropic,
anisotropic, fibrousfibrous structure
structure where
where the fungal biomass and residual substrate coexist in a unique matrix, as
the fungal biomass and residual substrate coexist in a unique matrix, as previously discussed. previously discussed.
Discussed in
Discussed in material
material science,
science, “solid
“solid foam”
foam” is usually the
is usually result of
the result of gas
gas bubble
bubble dispersion
dispersion into
into aa
solid matrix. Mycelium-based composites do not fit exactly into such a definition but, despite this,
solid matrix. Mycelium-based composites do not fit exactly into such a definition but, despite this,
they are
they are often
often placed
placed inin the
the foam
foam category
category due
due toto their
their high
high porosity
porosity and
and slight
slight rigidity.
rigidity.
Basically, MBFs
Basically, MBFs lack
lack final
final pressing
pressing (either
(either heat
heat oror cold);
cold); nevertheless,
nevertheless, the
the biomaterials
biomaterials referred
referred
to as “mycelium bricks” or “panels” can be included in the category of MBF, although
to as “mycelium bricks” or “panels” can be included in the category of MBF, although pressing and pressing and
density can
density can be
be notably
notably higher
higher with
with respect
respect to
to other
other products
products [32–35].
[32–35].
Figure 4. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam. Reprinted with permission of

Figure2019,
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11, x FOR of mycelium-based foam. Reprinted with permission of Karana et al.
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Karana et al. (2018) [36].
(2018) [36].
Sandwich composites are characterized by a scaffolded structure where the external layers are
jointed due to the gluing action of the mycelium growing in the core material. Additional glue can be
added to enhance the material cohesion. The core material is similar to an MBF included between
two layers of lignocellulosic material, which are colonized in turn and glued to the core itself,
resulting in a single block.
Figure 5 shows laminate skins are made of a variable number of plies, to condition for
colonization by mycelia and glue perfusion (if applied) to be unhampered [37,38].
Figure 5. Typical structure scheme of a mycelium-based sandwich composite. Modified from

Figure 5. Typical structure scheme of a mycelium-based sandwich composite. Modified from Jiang et
Jiang et al. (2017) [22].
al. (2017) [22].
The numeric values reported for physical, mechanical and thermal parameters in both MBFs
and mycelium-based sandwich composites (MBSCs) are reported in Table 1.
Table 1. Physical, mechanical and thermal values available in literature for mycelium-based
composites. MBF = mycelium-based foam; MBSC = mycelium-based sandwich composite.
Sandwich composites are characterized by a scaffolded structure where the external layers are
jointed due to the gluing action of the mycelium growing in the core material. Additional glue can be
added to enhance the material cohesion. The core material is similar to an MBF included between two
layers of lignocellulosic material, which are colonized in turn and glued to the core itself, resulting in a
single block.
Figure 5 shows laminate skins are made of a variable number of plies, to condition for colonization
by mycelia and glue perfusion (if applied) to be unhampered [37,38].
The numeric values reported for physical, mechanical and thermal parameters in both MBFs and
mycelium-based sandwich composites (MBSCs) are reported in Table 1.
Table 1. Physical, mechanical and thermal values available in literature for mycelium-based composites.
MBF = mycelium-based foam; MBSC = mycelium-based sandwich composite.
Thermal Young’s Compressive Flexure Tensile

Density
Conductivity Modulus Strength Strength Strength Material Ref.
(g cm−3 )
(W m−1 K−1 ) (MPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
0.183 ± 15.1 - - 41.72 ± 13.49 10.91 ± 4.41 49.90 ± 20.00 MBF [24]
0.25 - - - - - MBF [34]
0.05–0.06 0.078–0.081 - - - - MBF [35]
0.10–0.14 - 66.14–71.77 670–1180 - 100–200 MBSC [37]
0.16–0.28 - - - - - MBF [39]
0.07–0.22 0.10–0.18 123–675 * 1–72 * 7–26 * - MBF [40]
0.10–0.24 - 2–97 - 50–860 10–240 MBF [18]
0.16–0.28 0.05–0.07 5.39–58.63 29–567 - - MBF [41]
- 4.27–8.35 - - - - Other [42]
0.3–0.55 - - - - - MBF [43]
0.19–0.59 - - - - - MBF [44]
0.29–0.35 - - 156–340 - - MBF [45]
0.29–0.34 - - 125–311 - - MBSC [45]
* Values are not comparable with literature as normalized by the authors to a standard polystyrene density.
2.1. Properties of Mycelium-Based Foams (MBFs)

MBFs have been suggested as competitors for traditional polystyrene and polyurethane foams
since they offer a sustainable alternative for small packaging. Despite the production still being limited
to a few companies in the world, the productive process is improving quickly, resulting in high-quality
materials at reasonably low costs [46,47].
2.1.1. Density
The low density is regarded as a major factor in the competitiveness of MBFs (Table 1). Besides the
desirability of low weight for packaging purposes, density affects other important material properties,
both from a physical-mechanical and a thermodynamic point of view.
The control of density and its homogeneity within the material are still problematic aspects in
MBFs, as it is strongly related to substrate composition and structure. Logically, the higher the fraction
of grains in the substrate, the higher the final density is in comparison to protocols that increase
the fraction of fibers, husks or wood pulp [39,48]. Correspondingly, Holt et al. (2012) [40] observed
that density can be lowered by using liquid cultures for inoculum (rather than grain spawn) and by
avoiding particles over 2 mm in diameter in the substrate.
Since the density of natural fibers ranges between 1.2 and 1.5 g cm−3 , and the density of wood
is between 0.3 and 0.88 g cm−3 , the decrease in density of the final MBF strongly depends on the
porosity [43]. It is interesting to note that Islam et al. (2017) [49] reported a density of 0.03–0.05 g cm−3
for a novel biomaterial made of compressed mycelium only. This value is quite similar to EPS which
has a density of 0.022–0.030 g cm−3 . This means that the replacement of plant biomass by fungal
biomass decreases the density of the composite material.
Apart from fungal colonization and biomass replacement, pressing (either cold or heated) is
a major variable affecting the final density in MBFs. Panels typically are shaped by pressure of
about 30 kN, which obviously increases the density itself in comparison to non-pressed materials [18].
A significant proficiency concerning mycelium-based materials is retained by a few companies and
laboratories only, which represents the best available technology (BAT). Based on the literature
reviewed here, BAT results in a density for pressed MBFs that is approximately 20% of non-EPS
and 17% of commercial natural fibers, as shown in Table 1.
2.1.2. Thermal and Acoustic Insulation

Foams are generally regarded as good insulators and MBFs also have been suggested for thermal
insulation, such as to produce panels to place in a wall core (Figure 6), and they are the most cited
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Figure 6.
Figure Panels from
6. Panels from growth
growth of Trametes multicolor
of Trametes multicolor and Pleurotus ostreatus
and Pleurotus ostreatus on
on different
different substrates.
substrates.
TBN = T. multicolor on sawdust; TRH = T. multicolor on straw with heat pressing; TRN = T. multicolor
TBN = T. multicolor on sawdust; TRH = T. multicolor on straw with heat pressing; TRN = T. multicolor
on straw without heat pressing; PCH = P. ostreatus on cotton with heat pressing; PCC = P. ostreatus
on straw without heat pressing; PCH = P. ostreatus on cotton with heat pressing; PCC = P. ostreatus on on
cotton with
cotton with cold
cold pressing;
pressing; PCN P. ostreatus
PCN == P. ostreatus without pressing; PRH
without pressing; PRH = P. ostreatus
= P. ostreatus on
on straw
straw with
with heat
heat
pressing; PRC = P. ostreatus on straw with cold pressing; PRN = P. ostreatus on straw without pressing
pressing; PRC = P. ostreatus on straw with cold pressing; PRN = P. ostreatus on straw without pressing
(PRN). Reprinted with permission of Apples et al. (2019) [18].
(PRN). Reprinted with permission of Apples et al. (2019) [18].
Aside from the thermal conductivity, the highly specific heat capacity (7.4–10.2 kJ kg−1 k−1 ) also
Aside from the thermal conductivity, the highly specific heat capacity (7.4–10.2 kJ kg−1 k−1) also
has been reported in comparison to commercial materials [35,50–53].
has been reported in comparison to commercial materials [35,50–53].
The development and characterization of a novel, fungus-based material for thermal insulation
The development and characterization of a novel, fungus-based material for thermal insulation
resulted in a patent in the USA by Amstivslavski et al. (2017) [41] on the basis of the results previously
resulted in a patent in the USA by Amstivslavski et al. (2017) [41] on the basis of the results
published by Yang et al. (2017) [48]. The authors developed a scaffolded structure by reiterated layer
previously published by Yang et al. (2017) [48]. The authors developed a scaffolded structure by
deposition, each layer being constituted by a colonized substrate. Inter-layer cohesion is provided by
reiterated layer deposition, each layer being constituted by a colonized substrate. Inter-layer
the cementing action of the mycelium growth. Table 1 shows the thermal conductivity is the lowest
cohesion is provided by the cementing action of the mycelium growth. Table 1 shows the thermal
discussed in literature, particularly in the dried samples. While a residual moisture fraction usually is
conductivity is the lowest discussed in literature, particularly in the dried samples. While a residual
tolerated for other applications of MBFs, this work notes the need for complete drying to improve the
moisture fraction usually is tolerated for other applications of MBFs, this work notes the need for
complete drying to improve the insulation properties. Curiously, Holt et al. (2012) [40] reported
higher conductivity values, despite the density of the tested material being lower. Velasco et al.
(2014) [42] correspondingly reported the evidence of a decrease in the thermal conductivity of clay
bricks when adding spent mushroom compost (SMC) over 10%. Nevertheless, the data provided by
the same authors about the SMC itself are unexpected and quite confused, lacking a unity of
insulation properties. Curiously, Holt et al. (2012) [40] reported higher conductivity values, despite
the density of the tested material being lower. Velasco et al. (2014) [42] correspondingly reported
the evidence of a decrease in the thermal conductivity of clay bricks when adding spent mushroom
compost (SMC) over 10%. Nevertheless, the data provided by the same authors about the SMC itself
are unexpected and quite confused, lacking a unity of measurement, moisture percent in the tested
sample and directly verifiable sources.
MBFs, as a whole, have good potential as thermal insulators in comparison to a wide variety of
commercial materials commonly adopted in engineering, yet the thermal conductivity is generally
higher. MBFs, by relying on the BAT, already can be regarded as competitive towards unconventional
insulation materials, although a decrease of about 33% in thermal conductivity is required to be fully
competitive with commercial materials [50,54].
Besides thermal insulation, MBFs have been tested for acoustic insulation as well.
Pelletier et al. (2013) [43] tested panels using different substrates and reported an acoustic absorption
of over 70–75% at 1000 Hz, even by the worst performing samples. Comparisons among audio
spectra show the highest absorption occurred when the substrate was composed of 50–50%
switchgrass–sorghum.
Since the study focused Since
on the study focused
damping on damping
the dominant road the dominant intra-wall
frequencies, road frequencies,
panels intra-wall
might be
panels
applied for joint thermal-acoustic insulation [46]. Extra wall insulation has been proposed ashas
might be applied for joint thermal-acoustic insulation [46]. Extra wall insulation been
well, as
proposed as well, as the surface roughness in panels increases acoustic
the surface roughness in panels increases acoustic absorption (Figure 7). absorption (Figure 7).
A B
Figure 7. Comprehensive look

7. Comprehensive look (A) and detail (B) of Mogu 3D wave panels for acoustic insulation.
insulation.
Reprinted with permission of
of ©MOGU,
©MOGU, https://www.mogu.bio/ [31].
https://www.mogu.bio/ [31].
2.1.3. Thermal Properties and Fire Safety

2.1.3. Thermal Properties and Fire Safety
Only a few studies deal with the behavior of the final mycelium-based composites toward
Only a few studies deal with the behavior of the final mycelium-based composites toward fire,
fire, combustion and/or pyrolysis. According to Jones et al. (2018) [44], MBFs show time that is
combustion and/or pyrolysis. According to Jones et al. (2018) [44], MBFs show time that is similar to
similar to ignition in comparison to extruded polystyrene (XPS) foam, but significantly shorter than
ignition in comparison to extruded polystyrene (XPS) foam, but significantly shorter than
particleboard. Ignition temperature has been reported to range between 200 ◦ C and 400 ◦ C but,
particleboard. Ignition temperature has been reported to range between 200 °C and 400 °C but,
interestingly, mycelium does not show intrinsic flame-retardant properties and only acts as a cement
interestingly, mycelium does not show intrinsic flame-retardant properties and only acts as a cement
instead [22,49]. According to Jones et al. (2018) [44], this is due to the passivation of the MBF occurring
instead [22,49]. According to Jones et al. (2018) [44], this is due to the passivation of the MBF
when its superficial layers turn to char (primarily amorphous carbon). Char is, in fact, known to delay
occurring when its superficial layers turn to char (primarily amorphous carbon). Char is, in fact,
smoke production and spread, as well as decreasing thermal conductivity [55].
known to delay smoke production and spread, as well as decreasing thermal conductivity [55].
Moreover, the composition itself of the fungal cell wall suggests a potential improvement in fire
Moreover, the composition itself of the fungal cell wall suggests a potential improvement in fire
properties in mycelium-based biocomposites with respect to plant materials only.
properties in mycelium-based biocomposites with respect to plant materials only.
The chitin component of the fungal cell wall probably is regarded as a pivotal factor. Chitin is a
The chitin component of the fungal cell wall probably is regarded as a pivotal factor. Chitin is a
polymer of N-acetyl glucosamine, of which long chains aggregate in turn to make fibrils. Chitin fibrils
polymer of N-acetyl glucosamine, of which long chains aggregate in turn to make fibrils. Chitin
have been reported to build the main basal layer of the cell wall, yet they are also bonded to all the
fibrils have been reported to build the main basal layer of the cell wall, yet they are also bonded to all
macromolecules in the upper layers. Aside from H-bonds, chitin has been reported to be covalently
the macromolecules in the upper layers. Aside from H-bonds, chitin has been reported to be
bonded to polysaccharides and thus to peptides [56,57]. Chitosan represents the de-acetylated form
covalently bonded to polysaccharides and thus to peptides [56,57]. Chitosan represents the
of chitin; yet, acetylation and de-acetylation in these polymers are indeed flexible concepts, that
de-acetylated form of chitin; yet, acetylation and de-acetylation in these polymers are indeed flexible
concepts, that is, 100% acetylation is not expected in fibrils regarded as chitin [58,59]. All told,
chitosan seems to be more versatile than chitin for industrial and bioengineering applications;
basically, it represents the most important chitin derivative, much easier to obtain and to couple
with other molecules as amorphous [60,61]. Several studies report chitosan as a promising additive
in flame retardants, mostly relying on the stabilization of materials at high temperatures [62,63]. To
is, 100% acetylation is not expected in fibrils regarded as chitin [58,59]. All told, chitosan seems to
be more versatile than chitin for industrial and bioengineering applications; basically, it represents
the most important chitin derivative, much easier to obtain and to couple with other molecules
as amorphous [60,61]. Several studies report chitosan as a promising additive in flame retardants,
mostly relying on the stabilization of materials at high temperatures [62,63]. To cite some examples
close to mycelium-based biomaterials, it is known for at least a decade that adding chitosan in the
phosphorylation process of cotton fabrics enhances flame retardancy [64]. Analogous results have
been reported by Pan et al. (2015), Fang et al. (2015) and Liu et al. (2018) [65–67] with respect to a
multi-layer coating made of various chitin derivatives. Layer-by-layer deposition of flame retardants
in a chitosan matrix also has been suggested for foams such as polyurethane [68]. According to thermal
and thermogravimetric analyses, chitin and its derivatives are more than a matrix embedding flame
retardant particles or platelets. Depending on the molecular weight, the main derivative peak for
weight loss in chitosan occurs at about 300 ◦ C, whereas chitin peak is submitted by most authors to
occur at about 350–400 ◦ C [69–72]. To compare, the polymers building the main fraction of the plant
substrates in mycelium-based biocomposites have a lower thermal stability. To be exact, pure crystalline
cellulose has a narrow main peak at about 350 ◦ C, which is higher than hemicelluloses; the latter,
moreover, display a broad range for weight loss (200–375 ◦ C) [73]. Thermal degradation in lignin occurs
through a broad temperature range as its complex molecular structure requires several subsequent
steps; however, the main weight loss is usually found in the range of 300–450 ◦ C [74–76]. Moreover, the
performance of an intimate mixture of the mentioned molecules, such as a typical plant stem, behaves
differently with respect to its separate components; that is, the typical thermogravimetric analysis
(TGA) curve for a wood sample shows the major weight loss peak placed at about 500 ◦ C [76,77].
Thus, the cementing action by chitin is expected to positively affect the thermal stability of the
mycelium-based biocomposite.
Analogously to chitin, hydrophobins have been suggested as natural flame retardants for fabric
coating. Hydrophobins are low-weight proteins found in fungi only; due to their hydrophobic
nature, they basically act by self-assembling to create an amphipathic membrane. Found in the
fungal organism, hydrophobins are involved in several functions related to cell wall morphogenesis,
hydrophobicity and substrate adhesion, both in aqueous and aerial environments [78,79]. Thus,
although the comprehensive biomass provided by hydrophobins is negligible, these proteins represent
an important driver in the physical properties of mycelia. Correspondingly, it has been reported that
Schizophyllum commune develops thicker and closer mats if the hydrophobin gene is deleted [80].
Hydrophobins have been reported to favor the production of thermally stable carbonaceous
structures (char) when applied on cotton fabrics. The proposed mechanism basically relies on favoring
the dehydration of cellulose rather than depolymerization. Reducing the release of volatile species
hampers complete combustion and favors charring instead [81].
The heat release rate (HRR) is regarded as particularly important in modelling the growth
and spread of fires, whereas TGA can provide additional information on the volatilization of
combustion or pyrolysis compounds. While imposing the same incident thermal heat flux (50 kW m−2 ),
Holt et al. (2012) [40] and Jones et al. (2018) [44] reported similar values, both for average HRR
(55–75 and 33–107 kW m−2 respectively) and peak HRR (66–116 and 79–185 kW m−2 , respectively).
This means that the peak occurs within the first minute after ignition. Predictably, Jones et al. (2018) [44]
reported the highest HRR values when increasing the grain fraction in the substrate, due to its
well-known calorific power (1434 kJ kg−1 ) in comparison to the SMC (about 580 kJ kg−1 ) reported by
Velasco et al. (2014) [42].
According to the same authors, the inclusion of glass powders (an industrial waste) remarkably
lowers the whole HRR profile and increases the time to flashover; conversely, glass powder
inclusion increases the CO released and should, therefore, be investigated further before application.
Jones et al. (2018) [44] demonstrated the CO release displays a highly complex profile as a function of
time and tested matrix, that is, different substrates provide different profiles. Specifically, substrates
that are rich in grains display the CO peak at a low temperature and soon decrease due to further
oxidation, as consistently observed by Holt et al. (2012) [40].
Although the CO release profile is the most informative tool to test CO emissions, an adequate
proxy is the peak position, that is, the time/temperature where the highest CO emission occurs.
Due to the mentioned complexity of the release profile, the average emission datum is expected to be
misleading instead.
Analogously, the average mass loss rate reported by Holt et al. (2012) [40] is misleading as TGA
curves clearly show that mass loss in plant and fungal biomasses typically is concentrated in few
temperature ranges. Such ranges are narrow, according to the type of the tested material, and can be
negligible in comparison to the overall temperature range adopted to carry out the TGA, which is
typically 900 K [82–84].
Based on the above, the mass loss rate should be regarded as complementary information in the
light of TGA and especially differential TGA (DTGA). Nevertheless, TGA usually is carried out in
very small crucibles containing a few mm3 , (a mass ranging between 2 and 10 mg). Since the substrate
colonization and the fungal growth are highly non-homogenous in the millimeter scale, sampling can
introduce a significant error when analyzing the biocomposite; thus, separated TGA for substrate and
mycelium has been, up to now, preferred [44,82].
2.1.4. Mechanical Properties

The comparison among data reported in literature for mechanical properties (Table 1) is hampered
partially due to different standard methods and adjustments [85,86].
Compressive strength is of major concern to test the potential of MBFs as an alternative packaging
material and, to a lesser extent, as a building material.
Velasco et al. (2014) [42] reported a linear decrease in break compression strength of fired clay
bricks when increasing the percent of SMC, which is actually an MBF; nevertheless, break compression
strength no longer decreased when SMC was approximately over 17%. Analogously, brick plasticity
linearly increased when the SMC percent increased, but it settled when SMC was over approximately
25% (the exact percent was not provided nor inferable).
According to literature, compressive strength in MBFs consistently ranges between 29 kPa and
567 kPa, the widest range being reported by Amstivslaski et al. (2017) [41]. López–Nava et al. (2016) [24]
reported that compressive strength of MBFs is always lower than several standard categories of EPS,
except for EPS type XI (ASTM C 578-04).
Nevertheless, Amstivslaski et al. (2017) [41] reported values that are fully competitive with several
EPS categories (II, IV, IX, and X) by inoculating Irpex lacteus into a more complex substrate, including
macerated sawdust pulp, millet grain, wheat bran and a natural fiber. Easily observable, both in
nature and laboratory conditions, I. lacteus is much more tenacious than Pleurotus spp., but less than
Ganoderma spp.
Despite relying on the results by Yang et al. (2017) [48], reference values in the patent
by Amstivslaski et al. (2017) [41] are slightly different, especially for the samples with
prolonged incubation.
Holt et al. (2012) [40] conducted a complete physical characterization, including compressive
strength. Unfortunately, a comparison with literature is impossible as data by Holt et al. (2012) [40]
were normalized to “a standard density of 32.04 kg m–3 since this is the density of the polystyrene
packaging the EcoCradle material can replace in the market”. Since the original density of each sample
is not provided, and the normalization procedure itself is unclear, the reader cannot recover a reliable
comparison term.
Variability in compressive performance by MBFs apparently is due to both the substrate matrix
and the fungal species inoculated. Holt et al. (2012) [40] mostly used milled cotton carpels and
cotton seed hulls; the strong cementation of such a material was not banal; nevertheless, mycelium of
Ganoderma spp. is well-known to display a tenacious consistency. Conversely, relatively low values
obtained by López–Nava et al. (2016) [24] are due to the mycelial features of Pleurotus spp., which is
significantly softer. Secondarily, the same authors only introduced wheat straw as a substrate, which is
not the favorite to maximize the matrix cohesion by fungal growth.
Residual water is a factor in affecting compressive strength and can be due to both absorption
by substrate and mycelium. Water absorption reported by López–Nava et al. (2016) [24] at different
times is remarkably higher than that characterized by Holt et al. (2012) [40]. This is consistent with
the higher water absorption by wheat straw in comparison to cotton carpels and hulls, as well as the
highly hydrated aspect of living Pleurotus mycelium.
Regarding the mere mycelial component, Haneef et al. (2017) [82] provided an overall
investigation on the physical and mechanical properties, just focused on Pleurotus ostreatus and
Ganoderma lucidum. According to the authors, the substrate strongly affects the mycelial composition in
polysaccharides, lipids and chitin, as well as the overall morphology and mechanical properties.
Mycelium displayed unexpected and apparently contradictory properties in comparison to its
composite. Particularly, P. ostreatus was found to be stiffer than G. lucidum which was suggested
to be due to its higher polysaccharidic content.
Islam et al. (2017) [49] tested the properties of a material resulting from the additive overlapping
of thin mycelial layers, where all the layers are parallel to support the load. Taking a micro-mechanical
point of view, this situation is very different in comparison to the highly anisotropic MBF matrix, as
known by the “rule of mixtures” [87]. Alternatively, each mycelial layer itself behaves as an anisotropic
matrix, due to the previously discussed structure of the fungal cell wall. Thus, different mechanical
behaviors should be expected in a multi-layer mycelial composite and in MBFs. Unfortunately,
Islam et al. (2017) [49] do not provide the name of the fungal species under examination, which is
covered by industrial secrecy.
Tensile strength of MBFs has been, up to now, poorly investigated, despite the very promising
values in comparison to the main standard categories of EPS. The major peculiarity in comparison to
other biomaterials is provided by two typical components of the fungal cell wall, more extensively
discussed above: chitin and hydrophobins. Pure chitin substrates have been reported to display a
tensile strength over 100 MPa by Hassanzadeh et al. (2013) [88]. Furthermore, the major role of chitin
in improving tensile performance can be inferred indirectly by considering the results concerning other
chitin-based materials, such as “chitin whiskers” and chitin nanofibers. Specifically, 2% chitin whiskers
can increase about 200% of the tensile strength in hyaluronan–gelatin nanocomposite scaffolds [89],
whereas introducing 10% chitin nanofibers increases the tensile strength approximately 65% in chitosan
films [90].
Discussed in the work by López–Nava et al. (2016) [24], MBFs composed of Pleurotus and wheat
straw reported higher values than all the EPS types. The ultimate tensile strength was reported in
the range of 100–300 kPa in the multi-layer mycelial material described by Islam et al. (2017) [49]
as it regards to the mycelial component, whereas it ranged between 200 and 1200 kPa according to
Haneef et al. (2017) [82]. Moreover, Haneef et al. (2017) [82] reported a smaller elongation at fracture for
P. ostreatus (4–9%) in comparison to G. lucidum (14–33%), since the higher proteic and lipidic fraction in
G. lucidum would act as a plasticizer. The aforementioned author basically refers to structural proteins
occurring in the cell wall; nevertheless, Appels et al. (2018) [80] demonstrated that the deletion of the
hydrophobins gene in S. commune indirectly enhances the tensile strength, as the fungi respond by
producing a closer and denser mycelial mat. Thus, Appels et al. (2018) [80] suggest that the mechanical
behavior of mycelium is more similar to thermoplastics when hydrophobins are not produced [91].
According to the same authors, the availability of less recalcitrant substrates (specifically,
potato-dextrose rather than cellulose) would stimulate the production of the aforementioned
plasticizers rather than rigid polymers. Nevertheless, the substrate was not found to significantly affect
the ultimate strength (0.7–1.1 MPa). This is consistent with Appels et al. (2018) [18], who tested tensile
strength, both in panels produced with P. ostreatus and Trametes ochracea (referred by the authors as T.
multicolor), by different protocols. The authors found that tensile strength was affected by neither the
species nor substrate; they pointed out the pressing instead was the major factor, and specifically, heat
pressing was reported to increase tensile strength in comparison to cold pressing or non-pressing.
Flexural strength is the stress at fracture from a bend or flexure test; it is also known as bend
strength, modulus of rupture or transverse rupture strength. This parameter is ambiguous since it
originally was conceived for brittle ceramics, graphite and semiconductors as a surrogate for tensile
strength. Specifically, it should be noted that: a) flexural strength decreases by increasing the specimen
size and consequently the crack probability; b) values attributed to flexural strength are higher than
corresponding values of tensile strength because only a fraction of the specimen volume is subjected to
tensile stress when performing a flexure test; c) porosity strongly contributes to lower flexural strength,
mainly because the load is applied on a smaller cross-sectional area [92].
Flexural strength of MBFs was investigated by both López–Nava et al. (2016) [24] and
Holt et al. (2012) [40]. The last ones did not provide comparable data. According to
López–Nava et al. (2016) [24], values of MBF are significantly lower (6–63 folds) than all the compared
EPS categories. Unlikely asserted above (b), the same authors found higher values for tensile strength
than for flexural; this is consistent with the remarkable porosity in mycelium-based biocomposites
(both MBF and MBSC), as asserted in (c).
Values reported by Appels et al. (2018) [18] are remarkably higher than EPS [91]. Consistently
with (b), the same authors refer to flexural strength values higher than for tensile strength; concerning
this peculiar (non-ceramic) material, the authors suggest this is due to the remarkable elasticity of
fungal skin in comparison to the substrate (Figure 8). Consistently, Tudryn et al. (2018) [93] report
a positive
[93] reportcorrelation between flexural
a positive correlation between stress at yield
flexural (as at
stress well as bulk
yield flexural
(as well modulus)
as bulk flexuraland branch
modulus)
density. Since different protocols were used in the mentioned study, it is
and branch density. Since different protocols were used in the mentioned study, it is moreovermoreover observed that
flexural strength increased from non-pressed to cold-pressed and hot-pressed panels.
observed that flexural strength increased from non-pressed to cold-pressed and hot-pressed panels. Since pressing
decreases
Since the porosity,
pressing decreases this
theisporosity,
consistentthis
with (c).
is consistent with (c).
Figure 8. 8. Higher
Higherresistance
resistanceofof the
the fungal
fungal skin
skin in comparison
in comparison to substrate.
to the the substrate. Theside
The top topremains
side remains
intact
intact
under under
flexuralflexural stress whereas
stress whereas the bottom
the bottom side is broken.
side is broken. (A) T. multicolor
(A) T. multicolor on strawon straw heat
without without heat
pressing;
pressing;
(B) (B) P.onostreatus
P. ostreatus on cotton
cotton with with heat
heat pressing. pressing.with
Reprinted Reprinted withofpermission
permission of (2019)
Apples et al. Apples[18].
et al.
(2019) [18].
The elastic deformation of materials is usually expressed by means of shear modulus and
Themodulus.
Young’s elastic deformation of materials is usually expressed by means of shear modulus and
Young’s
The modulus.
patent by Amstivslaski et al. (2017) [41] relies on the data by Yang et al. (2017) [48]; authors
The patent
observed by Amstivslaski
shear failure in denselyetpacked
al. (2017)
MBF[41] relies onwhereas
samples, the databulging
by Yangfailure
et al. (2017) [48];
occurred authors
when the
observed shear failure in densely packed MBF samples, whereas bulging failure occurred when the
same stress was imposed on loosely packed samples. Shear moduli observed by the authors were
lower than Young’s moduli, except for an overlapping range between 5.39 and 19.20 MPa. Both
shear modulus and Young’s modulus were always significantly higher in MBF than in EPS [94].
Consistently, Haneef et al. (2017) [82] reported Young’s modulus in the range of 3–11 MPa and 17–27
same stress was imposed on loosely packed samples. Shear moduli observed by the authors were
lower than Young’s moduli, except for an overlapping range between 5.39 and 19.20 MPa. Both
shear modulus and Young’s modulus were always significantly higher in MBF than in EPS [94].
Consistently, Haneef et al. (2017) [82] reported Young’s modulus in the range of 3–11 MPa and
17–27 MPa for G. lucidum and P. ostreatus pure mycelia, respectively. The two species are clearly
different in the consistency of the mycelial mat, G. lucidum being more tenacious; yet, the chemical
characterization performed in the same study did not satisfactorily clarify the relation between chemical
composition, structure and elasticity. Chitin is a striking factor in affecting the mechanical performance
of biocomposites; by testing different dry substrates, elastic modulus in chitin was reported to be 2.5
GPa by Hassanzadeh et al. (2013) [88]. Despite being conducted on basically different materials, several
studies provide a glimpse of this concern. The introduction of chitin nanofibers in chitosan films,
gelatin methacryloyl, has been reported to significantly increase Young’s modulus [88,90] for example.
Additionally, it has been suggested that the synergic interaction between chitin and other polymers can
increase elasticity with respect to the separate components [95]. An increase in mycelial mat tightness
and density has been reported to positively affect the Young’s modulus by Appels et al. (2018) [80].
Notably, the same authors observed such an increase in mycelial mat density as a response to deletion
of the hydrophobin gene. Hydrophobin-lacking fungal organisms might be enhanced to behave more
like thermoplastics, from a mechanical point of view.
The species under examination by Yang et al. (2017) [48], that is, I. lacteus, displays more similar
features to G. lucidum than to P. ostreatus [91]; yet, a characterization of I. lacteus pure mycelium is
not available. Surprisingly, Appels et al. (2018) [80] did not find a correlation between species (nor
substrate) and elastic modulus of panels, although the mycelial consistency of the tested species is
very different [96]. As mentioned above, concerning tensile strength, they suggest heat pressing as a
striking factor in elastic modulus increase.
2.2. Mycelium-Based Sandwich Composites

An MBSC is constituted by a core and two laminate skins, the former resembling an MBF and the
latter usually made of multiple layers of fabric or mycelial mat.
A critical discussion on the productive process and cost modeling for a typical manufacturing
system dealing with MBSC has been provided by Jiang et al. (2017) [22], and is basically summarized
in the following points: (1) mycelial mat or fabric is cut according to the desired shape to produce the
plies for laminate skins; (2) plies are impregnated with natural glue compatible with fungal growth;
(3) treated plies are shaped, sterilized and solidified; (4) mycelium is allowed to colonize the plies
to cement the laminate skins; (5) mycelium is inactivated by drying; (6) if necessary, natural resin is
infused to reinforce stiffness; (7) 23.34% of raw materials is discarded with respect to the final product
and glue infusion is the most critical step due to the high failure rate.
Concerning the above discussed biofoams, MBSCs present an additional heterogeneity factor as
laminate skins and core are very different materials, from a mechanical point of view.
Jiang et al. (2017) [22] show the fabric selected for laminate skins remarkably affects the fungal
colonization and consequently the mechanical properties. The authors, in fact, report a more efficient
colonization and a higher biomass production when using flax rather than jute or cellulose, at least in
the species under examination (unreported as covered by industrial secrecy). Thus, the fungus was
able to strongly cement the fabric layers, both to each other and to the core, by developing a tight
mycelial net.
Consistently, the ultimate strength and yield stress are almost double in samples made with flax
skins than in samples made with jute or cellulose skins. Specifically, ultimate strength has an average
value of almost 35 kPa in a flax MBSC, whereas jute and cellulose MBSCs have respective ultimate
strength values of 20 and 16 kPa; yield stress has an average value of 27 kPa in a flax MBSC, whereas
jute and cellulose MBSCs have respective ultimate strength values of 12 and 15 kPa.
Yield stress and ultimate strength studied in the same work are only referring to the core and
represent “the stresses above which permanent deformation and failure occur due to shearing”. Yet,
the laminated skins are susceptible for interlaminar shear failure, which was reported as the most
common failure beside core tensile.
Ziegler et al. (2016) [37] reported an MBSC with a core made of hemp pith and cotton mat, whereas
the surface binding fabric is made of a generic “natural fiber fabric such as burlap”.
Table 2 displays MBSCs showing considerably higher elasticity modulus, compressive strength
and, to a lesser extent, tensile strength in comparison to MBFs. This is due to the double compression
of the material (in the core colonization stage and after skin colonization) and to the reinforcement
operated by the laminated skins. Consistent with observations by Jiang et al. (2017) [22] concerning
failure modes, the increase in tensile strength is related to the presence of the laminated skins, and
yet the cementing action by mycelium might provide additional elasticity to the skins themselves.
Thus, an efficient colonization of the laminated skins might reduce the interlaminar shear failure.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that the substrates used by both Jiang et al. (2017) [22] and
Ziegler et al. (2016) [37] have a fibrous structure that favors the fungal colonization and the core
cohesion, different from the incoherent material (hulls, straw) often introduced in MBFs. Additionally,
the relative recalcitrance of any natural fiber to fungal degradation stimulates the fungus itself to
develop a more elastic mycelium, consistent with the previously discussed Haneef et al. (2017) [82].
The strong relation among skin colonization, achievement of fungal biomass and cementation of both
core and skin layers is suggested by Ziegler et al. (2016) [37] to be pivotal to explain the compressive
properties. Besides elasticity, the low compressive strength reported by the authors was related to the
porous structure, insufficiently colonized.
Table 2. Drying protocol and water uptake in dried samples. Semicolon indicates successive
steps within the same treatment. MBF = mycelium-based foam; MBSC = mycelium-based
sandwich composite.
Drying Protocol Response to Moisture Exposure Response to Water Immersion Material Ref.
Relative Weight Weight
T (◦ C) Time (h) Time (h)
Humidity (%) Increase (%) Increase (%)
150; 80 0.20; 24 60–80 3.15–11.63 192 43–508 MBF [18]
20; 80 0.20; 24 60–80 3.74–10 192 238–262 MBF [18]
80 24 60–80 5.80–10.96 192 246–281 MBF [18]
60 8 - - 3 10–48 MBF [40]
60 8 - - 75 6.4–30.7 MBF [40]
60 8 - - 168 93.5–198 MBF [40]
?; 25 48; 48 - - Not reported * 114.1–278.9 MBF [24]
82; 93; 250 12; 8; 0.20 - - - - MBSC ** [38]
110 24 - - 50 298.7 MBSC [37]
110 24 - - >50 340.3–350.5 MBSC [37]
(*) Authors refer to ASTM D 570-98(1985). (**) Data refer to the core material only.
Altogether, all the compressive, elastic and tensile parameters reported by Ziegler et al. (2016) [37]
for MBSCs are remarkably lower than the corresponding wood–polymer composites, balsa or
expanded polystyrene. Conversely, ultimate shear strengths reported by Jiang et al. (2017) [22]
are comparable with Styrofoam™ (EPS), although the density of the latter is 59–83 folds lower than
the mentioned MBSC.
Since a linear relation occurs between density and shear strength in EPS, this material seems to be
highly superior than actually available MBSCs, apart from environmental considerations [97,98].
2.3. Moisture as a Critical Factor in Affecting Properties in Mycelium-Based Composites

As mycelium-based composites result from a biological process, an adequate moisture in the
substrate is needed to allow the fungus to grow and carry out their physiological functions. Once the
substrate colonization is supposed to be complete, most of the moisture has to be eliminated to
devitalize the fungal organism and to provide a functional final product. The available literature is not
focused on the optimal residual percentage of moisture either in MBFs or MBSCs; alternatively, this
parameter is strongly related to the composition of the substrate as well as the fungal species under
examination. Thus, the moisture before devitalization is generally believed to be about 59% [42] or
70–80% [16], but the only available reference for an “acceptable” residual percent in the final material
is indicated to be about 10–15% [16].
According to the BAT, and relying on commercialized products, moisture is not eliminated
completely from the final product. Highlighted by Amstivslaski et al. (2017) [41], exposure to moisture
rapidly decreases the performance of mycelium-based composites. Specifically, the same authors
mention the negative effect on tension and compression, although they do not provide further data in
support. Indeed, moisture was shown to negatively affect elastic modulus by Yang et al. (2017) [48].
Although Appels et al. (2018) [80] did not explicitly investigate the effect of residual moisture on the
mechanical properties, their results clearly show that heat pressing increases tensile strength, flexural
strength and elastic modulus. Table 2 reports the heating protocol (concerning the same authors)
suggests a much more enhanced drying than that occurring by a cool pressing or non-pressing protocol.
Thus, drying is related indirectly to the final properties.
Overall, despite the wide gaps in Table 1, the correlation between the drying protocol and
mechanical properties apparently is consistent with the rest of the cited literature. A prolonged
heating at high temperature thus is related to a high elastic modulus, flexure strength and tensile
strength [24,37,41].
Based on the above, the water uptake of final mycelium-based material is of major concern to test
the product quality and durability, plus it obviously affects the weight and is a source of deformation.
Table 2 shows water uptake both concerns atmospheric humidity and immersion in water, although the
latter is more prevalent in testing. According to Haneef et al. (2017) [82], a low water uptake in mycelial
mats is consistent with the hydrophobic nature of some fungal proteins and glycol-proteins, such as
hydrophobins. Apart from the mycelial mat itself, weight increase strongly depends on substrate; for
example, hemp pith uptakes much more water than a fiber cotton down woven mat [37]. Additionally,
different coatings might affect water uptake; according to López–Nava et al. (2016) [24], chitosan seems
to provide a remarkably lower water uptake than carrageenan and xanthan, although pure dried
chitosan also has been reported to be an efficient adsorber [59].
3. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Biodegradability of Mycelium-Based Composites

Mycelium-based technology relies on a biological process very similar to the one occurring
in nature, the growth of fungal organisms on lignocellulosic substrates. According to the BAT,
edible and/or medicinal macro-species usually are adopted due to their morphological features
and cultivability; notably, they are far from being related to the production of mycotoxins or toxic
volatile/soluble metabolites [99,100].
Since these species grow on lignocellulosic substrates, a wide variety of agricultural and
agro-industrial wastes can be entered as feedstocks, as well as waste fabrics made of natural fibers.
Waste stems, part of stems, sawdust, husks, hulls, and peels, among others, provide suitable substrates,
depending on the species-specific preference and supply faculty of companies. Overall, such low-cost
materials are rescued and valorized as primary sources for feedstock flux [33,101].
Once the substrate optimal conditions are assessed, mycelial growth proceeds autonomously by
progressively degrading the substrate until the final steps (drying, pressing, and varnishing if applied).
Mycelium-based technology has been suggested as a model fitting all the pillars of a circular
economy according to the following statements [102]:
(1) waste materials are re-entered in a production process rather than being discarded; the final
product is in turn combustible or compostable;
(2) pure materials and energy are consumed to create products (panels, and package cases
for example) of which post-life has a quality significantly improved in comparison to
non-biodegradable products;
(3) a mycelium-based life cycle provides an optimization of resources and energy consumption in
comparison to traditional competitor products.
Based on this, the fulfillment of circular economy requirements is strictly related to the product
design, as each step of the production process must be consistent with the implementation of
sustainability and optimization goals. Regarding mycelium-based technology specifically, the pioneer
company Ecovative Design provides an example of successful system analysis where design is a
function of the requirements for LCA [36,103].
The main purposes of LCA are self-correction and self-training in design, production process
and management through a positive feedback loop. According to the available documentation on
the LCA of Ecovative products, three main critical factors are pointed out: (a) inoculum protocol;
(b) material configuration comparing different structural feedstocks to increase the strength/weight
ratio and to evaluate local supplies (which might lower transport cost); (c) drying protocol, by far the
main source (56%) for carbon footprint [104]. Based on the same data, the blend structure is the second
most important factor with concern to human health, ecosystem quality and resource consumption.
Unexpectedly, a pasteurization process and mixing seem to have a considerably lower impact as they
typically behave as a scale cost.
Accordingly, Jiang et al. (2017) [22] report that drying, forming and cutting are the main wrap
and failure items in a production process of mycelium-based sandwich structures, apart from gluing.
The same authors also highlight labor as a major factor in cost modeling; conversely, mycelium-based
technology requires both specialized researchers and workers, as specific automation has not been
achieved yet. Silverman (2018) [45] depicted mycelium-based materials with respect to other materials
commonly used for footwear soles; according to his LCA, a moderately embodied energy is required
to produce these materials in comparison to many plastics, honeycombs and synthetic foams.
Interestingly, the same author reports a competitive (and maybe underestimated) ratio between
embodied energy for primary production and compressive strength.
Biodegradability of mycelium-based composites has a pivotal function in LCA. As it is stated
already, the main competitor of mycelium composites is the EPS. From the chemical point of view,
mycelium-based materials are derivatives of polysaccharides, while the backbone of EPS contains
aromatics (petroleum-derived). More in detail, an important component in mycelium is chitin,
a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine that is linked to glucans. The chemical difference is reflected
by reactivity; in fact, glycosidic bonds can be degraded by enzimes, thus giving biodegradability, while
EPS results are non-biodegradable.
Mycelium-based materials are fully biodegradable on the condition that neither persistent glue,
varnish nor coating was added (particularly in MBSCs), although this treatment is expected to
significantly improve physical and mechanical properties [105]. To date, natural glues mostly have
been tested to prevent the fungus from failing in its growth as a consequence of xenobiotic stress [22].
Although a mycelial mat can be recalcitrant indeed to microbial degradation, cultivation practice
reports of frequent contamination by molds into bags, for example by Trichoderma spp. and, to a
lesser extent, Neurospora sitophila, Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp. and Mucor spp. Apart from the
degradation of the plant component (as well as plant-derived fibers), it can be observed that Trichoderma
is the main model genus representing mycoparasitic fungi due to its chitinolytic system. Since chitin
has been estimated to be one of the most abundant biopolymers in the world, the ecological function
of chitinases is enormous and they have evolved into a wide family, where fungal chitinases are only a
sub-family [106].
Analogously, bacterial degradation and damage by insects (dipteran, coleopteran) and mites
contribute to the natural biodegradation of mycelium-based composites [107,108]. It should be noted
that composting is meant to occur in moist conditions, where microbial degradation is favored.
4. Conclusions
Increasing attention has been paid to mycelium-based biocomposites as alternative materials to
synthetic packaging and insulation panels, as well as developing a new-concept bio-inspired design.
Since this is still a pioneering field, standardization in the productive process is still in progress
and only concerns the major companies. Overall, a bio-composite is not expected to show the same
reproducibility, in comparison neither to synthetic materials nor to mono-component natural materials,
as it regards to mechanical and thermodynamic parameters. Apart from the lignocellulosic substrate,
the characteristics of a mycelium-based biocomposite are strongly affected by the fungal species
selected and its ongoing growth. Thus, the consistency of the mycelium itself is in turn affected by
the composition and structure of the substrate. Mycelium-based biocomposites generally rely on a
wood-decay fungal species; well-known medicinal species such as G. lucidum and P. ostreatus have the
advantage to be cultivated and a rich technical literature is, therefore, available to optimize the growth
conditions. Other species such as I. lacteus, mostly neglected by non-mycologists, have reported very
promising results.
Nevertheless, the literature providing a satisfactory material characterization is still scarce. Due to
the wide range of available parameters, results are often incomparable among different studies.
Poor discussion is often provided about the results of the contingent study itself, as well as the
comparison to other conventional materials, such as EPS. This usually is regarded as the main synthetic
competitor to mycelium-based biocomposites, but the latter appears inferior as it concerns several
physical-mechanical parameters; as these two materials are completely different, more investigation
would improve the technical impact of the publications.
To conclude, mycelium-based materials, of which exploration has only recently begun, have
great potential. The improvement in know-how is expected to particularly improve the mechanical
properties and to standardize the productive process, whereas insulation and thermal properties
already have shown competitive results.
Author Contributions: G.C.: concept, bibliographic research, writing, editing; P.A.M.: concept, general
supervision, linguistic revision; B.R.M.: bibliographic research, images provision, editing; D.D.: supervision;
B.S.: supervision, figures provision; C.M.: bibliographic research, editing; P.M.: editing; S.E.: concept, general
supervision, bibliographic research, linguistic revision.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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sustainability

Keywords: mycelium; fungi; biocomposite; foam; sandwich; lignocellulose; physical properties;

Sustainability 2019, 11, 281; doi:10.3390/su11010281 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2. Materials and Properties

Figure 4. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam. Reprinted with permission of

Figure 5. Typical structure scheme of a mycelium-based sandwich composite. Modified from

Thermal Young’s Compressive Flexure Tensile

2.1. Properties of Mycelium-Based Foams (MBFs)

2.1.2. Thermal and Acoustic Insulation

Figure 7. Comprehensive look

2.1.3. Thermal Properties and Fire Safety

2.1.4. Mechanical Properties

2.2. Mycelium-Based Sandwich Composites

2.3. Moisture as a Critical Factor in Affecting Properties in Mycelium-Based Composites

3. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Biodegradability of Mycelium-Based Composites

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