Lithosphere vs.

Asthenosphere

Lithosphere or Lithospheric Plate:

The outer layer of the earth which is solid,
strong and has high seismic velocity than
layer located just below (asthenosphere),
is known as Lithosphere.
The thickness of the lithosphere is somewhat
100km. It includes the entire crust as well
as the upper part of upper mantle.
The lithospheric plate deforms in an essentially
elastic manner.

Asthenosphere:
Below the lithosphere (at depths between 100 to 200km or more even 700km), the rock of the
upper mantle appears to become plastic.
That is, it becomes weaker and capable of flow and may be partially molten (1-10%). The seismic
velocity decreases and it is the source of basaltic magma.
This zone is known as the asthenosphere or Low Velocity Zone (LVZ).
Lithosphere vs. Asthenosphere

Lithosphere Asthenosphere

Thickness 0-100km 100-200km

(in some cases 700km)
a. It is cooler and brittle layer a. It is hotter than the
which comprises entire lithosphere and the rocks
crust and part of upper are partially molten and
mantle. show plastic nature.
Temperature, b. The rocks of the b. The rocks of this zone are
brittleness lithosphere are unable to capable to flow.
and other flow.
features
c. This is the source of c. This is the source of
Granitic magma. basaltic magma.
d. Seismic velocity is high d. Seismic velocity is low.
than asthenosphere.
Plate

Plates or lithospheric plates are strong, fairly rigid outer layer of the earth
including the crust and the upper part of the upper mantle which may extends
up to a depth of about 50 to 140km.
Plate boundaries

A. Zones of Divergence (spreading)

B. Zones of Convergence (subduction)
C. Fracture zone (Transform fault)
Mantle

The mantle constitutes the largest internal sub-

division of the earth by both mass and
volume and extends from the Moho (at a
mean depth of about 21km to the core
mantle boundary (at a depth of 2885-
2891km).
It is generally believed to be
– Chemically homogeneous
– Apart from the abundances of minor and
trace elements
– And formed of silicate minerals.
The mineralogy and structure of the silicates
change with depth and gives rise to transition
zone between 410 to 660km depth which
separates the Upper and Lower mantle.
Mantle materials are only rarely brought to the
surface in Ophiolite complex, in kimberlite
pipes and xenoliths in alkali basalts.
The Upper Mantle Composition

The oceanic crust is mostly made up of material of a basaltic composition derived

from the upper mantle. This suggests that the upper mantle is composed of either
peridotite or eclogite.

The main difference between these two rock types is that peridotite contains
abundant olivine and less than 15% garnet, whereas eclogite contains little or no
olivine and at least 30% garnet. Both possess a seismic velocity that corresponds to
the observed upper mantle value of about 8 km/s.

Recent evidence (such as the Pn velocity, Poisson’s ratio from P and S velocities and
the presence of peridotites in the basal sections of ophiolite sequences etc.)
strongly support that the upper mantle is peridotitic.

Although estimates of bulk mantle composition vary in detail, it is generally agreed

that at least 90% of the mantle by mass can be represented in terms of the oxides
FeO, MgO, and SiO2, and a further 5–10% is made up of CaO, Al2O3, and Na2O.
The Mantle Low Velocity Zone (LVZ)

Below the crust at the depth of 100 to 200km,

the upper part of the upper mantle where
seismic wave velocities suddenly change, is
known as the mantle low velocity zone.
The materials of these zone is semi solid or
partially molten, capable of flow and source
of basaltic magma.
Characteristics of LVZ:
In the low velocity zone seismic effects are more
pronounced for S waves than for P waves. This
zone is characterized by
Low seismic velocities
High seismic attenuation and
A high electrical conductivity
Causes of existence of LVZ:
Anomalously high temperature phase
change
A compositional change
The presence of open cracks of fissures
Partial melting
Role of LVS in Global tectonics

LVZ plays the most important role in Global tectonics

Seismic wave velocities decrease at low velocity zone which indicate the physical nature of
the rocks of this zone is semi solid and density is relatively lower than the lithosphere.
The lithosphere is solid and brittle layer. So, the low velocity zone is providing a relatively
low viscosity region upon which lithospheric plates can slide with very little friction.
LVZ generates the convection current and thus mid oceanic ridge, mountain arc, sea floor
spreading can be resulted. Thus, the LVZ is the most important zone which controls the
dynamic features of the crust as well as the whole earth.
The Mantle Transition Zone

There are two major velocity discontinuities in

the mantle at the depths of 410km and
660km. The former marks the top of the
transition zone and the later it’s base.
The discontinuities are not sharp and occur over
a finite range in depth.
The transition zone represents a change in
composition between an upper mantle
dominate by Mg2SiO4 in the form of Olivine
and the lower mantle is rich in silica
composed of MgSiO3 with pervoskite
structure (spinel structure).
The recognition of the transition zone is
representing a series of phase changes
rather than compositional changes. It means
that convection currents in the mantle must
be capable of crossing the transition zone.
The Lower Mantle Composition

The Lower mantle is probably relatively homogeneous in it’s mineralogy,

having an essentially perovskite structure.

The lowest 200km of mantle is characterized by a decrease in seismic velocity,

which is probably related to an increased temperature gradient at the
mantle core boundary.

The lower mantle is about 5% more dense than oxide mixture with
approximate bulk composition of garnet peridotite.

Two explanations have been offered for the increase in density in the lower
mantle:
i. Mineral transformations
ii. An increase in the Fe/Mg ratio
The Core

The core occurs at a depth of 2891 km and occupies

the center of the Earth.

The core–mantle boundary (Gutenberg

discontinuity) generates strong seismic reflections
and thus probably represents a compositional
interface.

The outer core, at a depth of 2891–5150 km, does

not transmit S waves and so must be fluid.

This is confirmed by the generation of the

geomagnetic field in this region by dynamic
processes and by the long period variations
observed in the geomagnetic field.

A fluid state is also indicated by the response of the

Earth to the gravitational attraction of the Sun and
Moon.
The Core

The boundary between the outer core and

inner core at 5150 km depth is sharp, and not
represented by any form of transition zone.

The inner core is believed to be solid for

several reasons.

1. Certain oscillations of the Earth,

produced by very large earthquakes, can
only be explained by a solid inner core.

2. A seismic phase has been recognized

that travels to and from the inner core as
a P wave but traverses the inner core as
an S wave.

3. The amplitude of a phase reflected off

the inner core also suggests that it must
have a finite rigidity and thus be a solid.
The Core

Shock wave experiments have shown that the major constituents of both the inner and
outer core must comprise elements of an atomic number greater than 23, such as iron,
nickel, vanadium, or cobalt. Of these elements, only iron is present in sufficient
abundance in the solar system to form the major part of the core.

By considering solar system abundances, it appears that the core should contain about
4% nickel. This iron–nickel mixture provides a composition for the outer core that is 8–
15% too dense and it must therefore contain a small quantity of some lighter element
or elements.

Seismic velocity and density are consistent with a composition of pure iron that
constitute the inner core.

There are several candidates for the light elements present in the outer core, which
include silicon, sulfur, oxygen, and potassium.
 The Rheology of the Crust and Mantle

• Rheology is the study of

deformation and the flow of
materials under the influence of
an applied stress

• Where temperature, pressure,

and the magnitudes of the
applied stresses are relatively low,
rocks tend to break along discrete
surfaces to form fractures and
faults. In contrast, rocks tend to
deform by ductile flow where
these factors are relatively high.

• Measures of strain are used to

quantify the deformation.
 Some terminology

• Stress (σ) is defined as the force exerted per unit area of a surface and is measured in
Pascals (Pa).
• The state of stress within a medium is conveniently specified by the magnitudes and
directions of three principal stresses (σ1, σ2, and σ3), that act on three planes in the
medium along which the shear stress is zero.
• The magnitude of the difference between the maximum and minimum principal stresses
is called the differential stress.
• Deviatoric stress represents the departure of a stress field from symmetry.
• The value of the differential stress and the characteristics of deviatoric stress both
influence the extent and type of distortion experienced by a body.
Some terminology

• Strain (ε) is defined as any change in the size or shape of a material. Strains are usually
expressed as ratios that describe changes in the configuration of a solid, such as the
change in the length of a line divided by its original length.

• Elastic materials follow Hooke’s law where strain is proportional to stress and the strain is
reversible until a critical stress, known as the elastic limit, is reached.

• This behavior typically occurs at low stress levels and high strain rates. Beyond the elastic
limit, which is a function of temperature and pressure, rocks deform by either brittle
fracturing or by ductile flow.

• The yield stress (or yield strength) is the value of the differential stress above the elastic
limit at which deformation becomes permanent. Plastic materials display continuous,
irreversible deformation without fracturing.
Brittle deformation

• Brittle fracture is believed to be caused

by progressive failure along a network
of micro- and meso-scale cracks.

• The cracks weaken rock by producing

local high concentrations of tensile
stress near their tips.

• The crack orientations relative to the

applied stress determine the location
and magnitude of local stress maxima.

• Fracturing occurs where the local stress

maxima exceed the strength of the
rock.
 Ductile deformation

• The mechanisms of ductile flow in crystalline solids have been deduced from studies of
metals, because they flow easily at low temperatures and pressures.

• In general, where the temperature of a material is less than about half its melting
temperature (Tm in Kelvin), materials react to low stresses by flowing slowly, or
creeping, in the solid state.

• At high temperatures and pressures, the strength and flow of silicate minerals that
characterize the crust and mantle have been studied in laboratory.

• There are several types of ductile flow that may occur in the crust and mantle. All are
dependent upon the ambient temperature and, less markedly, pressure. Increased
temperature acts to lower the apparent viscosity and increase the strain rate, while
increased pressure produces a more sluggish flow.
Lithospheric strength profile

The overall strength of the lithosphere

and its constituent layers can be
estimated by integrating yield stress
with respect to depth.

This integrated strength is highly

sensitive to -
(1) the geothermal gradient
(2) the composition and thickness of
each layer,
(3) the presence or absence of fluids.
Isostasy

The phenomenon of isostasy concerns the response of

the outer shell of the Earth to the imposition and
removal of large loads.

The outer shell of the Earth is relatively strong. But this

layer is unable to support the large stresses generated
by the positive weight of a mountain range or the
relative lack of weight of an ocean basin.

For such features to exist on the Earth’s surface, some

form of compensating mechanism is required to avoid
the large stresses that would otherwise be generated.

Isostasy (Greek isos means equal and stasis means

standstill) is the state of gravitational equilibrium
between Earth’s crust (or lithosphere) and mantle such
that the crust floats at an elevation that depends on
thickness and density.
Airy’s and Pratt’s Hypothesis

• Airy’s hypothesis assumes that the outermost shell of

the Earth is of a constant density and overlies a higher
density layer.

• Surface topography is compensated by varying the

thickness of the outer shell in such a way that its
buoyancy balances the surface load.

• A simple analogy would be blocks of ice of varying

thickness floating in water, with the thickest showing
the greatest elevation above the surface. Similarly,
mountain ranges would be underlain by a thick root,
and ocean basins by a thinned outer layer or anti-root.
The base of the outer shell is consequently an
exaggerated mirror image of the surface topography.

• Pratt’s hypothesis assumes a constant depth to the

base of the outermost shell of the Earth, whose density
varies according to the surface topography. Thus,
mountain ranges would be underlain by relatively low
density material and ocean basins by relatively high
density material.
Flexure of the lithosphere

• More realistic models of isostasy

involve regional compensation. A
common approach is to make the
analogy between the lithosphere
and the behavior of an elastic
sheet under load.

• Figure 2.30 illustrates the elastic

response to loading; the region
beneath the load subsides over a
relatively wide area by displacing
asthenospheric material, and is
complemented by the
development of peripheral bulges.
Isostatic rebound

• The equilibrium flexural response of the

lithosphere to loading is independent of
the precise mechanical properties of the
underlying asthenosphere as long as it
facilitates flow.

• The rearrangement of equilibrium after

removal of the load, a phenomenon
known as isostatic rebound, is controlled
by the viscosity of the asthenosphere.
Isostasy in reality
Isostasy in reality
Questions for lecture 2

1. Choose write answer. (6x0.5=3.0)

(a) Which of the following is not true?
i. The outer layer of the earth which is solid, strong and has high seismic velocity than layer located just below
(asthenosphere), is known as Lithosphere.
ii. The thickness of the lithosphere is somewhat 100km. It includes the entire crust as well as the upper part of
upper mantle.
iii. The lithospheric plate deforms in an essentially plastic manner. iv. None of these.
(b) Below the crust at the depth of 100 to 200km, the upper part of the upper mantle where seismic wave
velocities suddenly change, is known as the mantle zone.
i. Weathering zone ii. Low velocity iii. High velocity iv. Complex zone
(c) The outer core, at a depth of 2891–5150 km, does not transmit S waves and so must be .
i. Solid ii. Semi-solid iii. Liquid iv. Any of these
(d) Which is not correct for mantle?
i. Chemically homogeneous ii. Apart from the abundances of minor and trace elements
iii. Formed of silicate minerals iv. Mantle is made of pure iron
(e) hypothesis assumes that the outermost shell of the Earth is of a constant density and overlies
a higher density layer.
i. Patt’s ii. Airy’s iii. Hook’s iv. None of these
(f) Recent evidence (such as the Pn velocity strongly support that the upper mantle is made of .
i. Peridotitie ii. Eclogite iii. Both of them iv. None of them
Questions for lecture 1 (10 marks)

2. Fill in the blanks. (0.5x6=3.0)

(a) The mantle constitutes the largest internal sub-division of the earth by both mass and volume
and extends from the .
(b) Mantle materials are only rarely brought to the in Ophiolite complex, in kimberlite pipes
and xenoliths in alkali basalts.
(c) The upper mantle is composed of either or .
(d) Seismic wave velocities decrease at which indicate the physical nature of the rocks of
this zone is and density is relatively lower than the lithosphere.
(e) The core–mantle boundary or discontinuity generates strong seismic reflections
and thus probably represents a compositional interface.
(f) Elastic materials follow where strain is proportional to stress

3. What is mantle low velocity zone? How does this zone play role in plate tectonics? (2)

4. Differentiate between lithosphere and asthenosphere. (2)