Module: Positive and Negative Effects of Religion

Date Submitted: _____________ Rating: _____________

Objectives:
* Identify the positive and negative effects of religions
* Justify that religion can have positive or negative effects on society
LESSON/LECTURE:
The lines in the picture, taken from John Lennon’s song entitled “Imagine,” encourage the listener to
think of a world where nationalities and religions do not exist, for history has shown us that so many wars
have been fought in the name of nationality and religion. The song suggests that instead of being caught
up in the barriers and divisiveness brought by nationality or religion, we should consider the possibility of
living in a world at peace.
Religion has become a very important aspect in the development of civilizations and cultures. In
fact, most ancient societies based their worldviews on religion, and it has been proven to be beneficial to
the attainment and maintenance of social stability and cohesiveness. However, as time went by, religion
has also become the basis of conflicts between societies, even within societies. While religion has
promoted solidarity among societies, it has also been the reason behind the outbreak of particular wars in
history. In this lesson, we will discuss the positive and negative effects of religion, as well as examples of
historical events caused primarily by religion.

1
Motivational Activity

2 pts each!

1. What are the possible consequences if a society has no religion?

Give at least 5 possible consequences.

CONCEPT MAP
RELIGIONS

NEGATIVE
EFFECTS
POSITIVE
EFFECTS

Promotes Social
Harmony Affirms Social Hierarchy

Provides Moral Values

Causes Discrimination

Provides Social Change

Triggers Conflicts and
Fights

Explains the Unknown

Serves as an Economic Tool
for Controlling the Masses

Gives Positive Goal in Life

Impedes Scientific Success
and Development

Gives People a Sense of

Belonging Obstructs the Use of Reason

2
Dating back to the emergence of ancient societies, religion has already played an important role in the lives of our
ancestors. In Mesopotamia, for example, the Sumerians organized their settlement into temple communities,
wherein the temple was found at the center of their communities and the veneration of their gods and goddesses
govern their daily lives. They believed that the lands which they tilled were owned by the deities that is why they
offered part of their harvest to their priest, who was also their leader and who was seen as people’s intermediary to
higher beings. In the absence of an organized religion, their concept of morality was based on the belief that right
actions earn the approval of the gods and goddesses and wrong actions may cause punishment. Hence, the
importance of ritual practices to appease the supernatural beings whom they considered as having control over their
lives.

POSITIVE EFFECTS OF RELIGION

There is no doubt that religion has an important role in society. In fact, it has become so closely intertwined with
other institutions such as political and economic systems that religious beliefs sometimes became the basis of
political legitimacy. This is the very reason why the principle of separation of state and religion was established in
many countries.
However, religion has served purposes beneficial to society in general. In one way or another, it inspires values that
cultivate peace, compassion and kindness. Religion upholds traditions of shaping human's spirituality and
embracing the goodness in each individual.

Religion Promotes Social Harmony

Religion believes in supernatural beings and powers. It practices a set of rituals and ceremonious rites of passage
and rites of intensification. It also regards religious leaders such as priests, priestesses and shamans in high
esteem. These characteristics help advance social harmony by assimilating and stabilizing cultures and nations.
Religion provides divine authority to ethical and moral principles which also help promote unity among people.
Common participation in rituals together with basic uniformity of beliefs help promote social cohesiveness.
Belief in supernatural beings and the supposed divine powers they can wield to reward and punish people have
been a major concept in religion since ancient times. It helps lessen the feeling of helplessness among people who
believe that they are not alone in this world, that they need not rely on their capabilities alone, and that everybody
else is on the same boat, so to speak. Whenever people are afflicted with crisis, they tend to think that a greater
force or high being is there to help them, a belief people tend to share with others.
Equally important is the belief in religious leaders whose function was to mediate between the deities and the
people. In ancient Philippine society for example, spiritual leaders were called babaylanesor catalones, whose
functions were to intercede between the deities and people; to continue the rituals; to play as healers; and to act as
cultural leaders of the community. Most of thespiritual leaders were women; and if men wanted to become one, they
had to give up their sexuality to perform the prestigious role of being a babaylan. People from ancient societies (to
date) have a common belief in the need for intermediaries to communicate with the deities and the supernaturals.
Thus, this reinforced the call for spiritual leaders in every society, and the authority and respect people bestowed
upon them. These intercessors can be considered as one source of social solidarity. They provide crucial guidance
to people in their religious efforts, thereby maintaining group unity.
Another important characteristic of religion is the performance of common rituals and practices on a regular basis.
Such religious activities can be considered as one component which helps bind people together and reinforce their
identification with a particular group. Ritual participation often creates an atmosphere stimulated with emotions. The
elated feelings people may experience in such situations serve as a positive reinforcement because they feel good
as a result. Take the case of the Sufi Dervishes’ practice of whirling or spinning, wherein the aim is to reach the
source of all perfection by abandoning one’s ego or personal desires through listening to music, focusing on God,
and spinning one’s body in repetitive circles. This kind of ritual provides people of a particular religion with a positive
feeling by doing something together for a common purpose—that is, the glorification of god. Furthermore, even
attendance in Masses provides people with a common ground, despite differences in social statuses and political
ideologies.
Xiao, or filial piety, on the other hand, is a significant aspect of Confucianism which promotes social harmony.
Filial piety refers to the attitude of obedience, devotion, and care of one’s parents and elder family members. It
serves as the basis of moral conduct which, in effect, leads to social harmony. Since political and social harmony
were the primary concerns of Confucianism, filial piety helps achieve this goal by maintaining order in society.
Children are expected not only to obey but defer to parents’ judgments, as well as to perform the proper rituals for
them. In this way, social harmony is achieved since conflicts are avoided.
Jainism also has a key concept which helps promotes social solidarity, which is called ahimsa, or the concept of
non-violence. For the followers of Jainism, ahimsa is not only a worldview but a way of life. The killing and
consumption of animals is strictly prohibited, for it is central to the idea of ahimsa that they must minimize their
violent impact on the environment. Treating other people with respect is also a way of practicing ahimsa. Followers
of Jainism have a particular stand on issues, such as international conflict, economic equality, abortion, and even
civil rights. They make sure that they live their lives without doing any form of violence to other life forms, especially
to humans.

3
Religion Provides Moral Values
Perhaps one of the most significant functions of religion is that it encourages moral values. It provides a systematic
model of the universe, which in effect determines organized human behavior. By providing moral values, one is
ableto distinguish right from wrong, good from evil. It also provides a system of reward and punishment that
administers and standardizes people’s behavior in society. Some people believe that it is sometimes more effective
than the laws implemented by the state, since most people give more importance to the reward and punishment in
the afterlife.
In ancient societies, notions of right and wrong were not yet as clear-cut as the morality imposed by organized
religions. People then acted according to what they thought would please or displease the gods and goddesses.
During those times, rituals were very important because it is through these that they invoke the pleasure or wrath of
the deities. For example, before planting, farmers would perform a kind of ritual, led by their spiritual leaders, to ask
for blessings from the deities so that their harvest would be bountiful. When calamity destroyed their crops, they
would interpret it as a sign that they must have done something which displeased the deities, and would again
perform a ritual to appease them. When they had a productive harvest, they would again perform a ritual to extend
their gratitude to the deities whom they believed to be responsible for their good fortune.

Religion Provides Social Change

Since religion is a source of moral values, religion provides social change. It can be very effective in lobbying and
campaigning for certain social issues using its own moral teachings as the basis of argument. For example, the
Church in the US has been active in the campaign for civil liberties as well as the antislavery movement. In the
Philippines, much credit has been given to the Catholic Church for the success of the People Power Revolution in
1986 when Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin urged the people to join the protest rally to oust the dictator, former
president Ferdinand Marcos. Another example would be Gandhi’s satyagraha, or passive resistance, which paved
the way for India’s independence from the British in the 20th century. Satyagraha advocates the belief that
nonviolence of the mind can lead to the realization of the real nature of an evil situation and that by refusing to
cooperate with evil, truth can be asserted. This concept employed by Gandhi in the early 20th century became
instrumental in the Indian struggle against the British and became a model for other protest actions in other
countries. In general, religion has the potential to institute social change, especially in the issues concerning poverty,
reproductive health, gender equality, and religious discrimination.

Religion Reduces Fear of the Unknown

Religion was developed from man’s need to have a sense of origin and destination; to discover where they came
from and where they are bound to go to when they die. Religion provides answers for phenomena and questions
that science or reason cannot explain. Myths about the origin of people abound with stories of groups of people
being created by gods and goddesses, perpetuating the notion that people came from supreme beings and will
eventually go back to them in the afterlife. More importantly, religion hasprovided assurances as to where spirits will
go when people die, reducing people’s fear of death as something undesirable. The belief in the afterlife has
become very important in most religions because it has become the basis for their daily conduct or how they live
their lives. For the Hindus, for example, how they follow their dharma (moral and social obligation) determines what
will happen to them in the afterlife: as long as they follow their dharma, they will reap good karma (karma refers to
moral consequences of one’s act) which will eventually liberate their souls from bad karma, leading them to attain
moksha, or the reunion of Brahman or universal soul and atman or individual soul (this will be further discussed in
the lesson on Hinduism). Hence, following the duties and obligations of the caste where a Hindu belongs became
the basis for what will supposedly happen to their soul in the afterlife. Among the Christians, obeying the Ten
Commandments and being good to others will earn a reward of eternal life in heaven; doing the opposite will lead to
eternal damnation in hell. Among the Muslims, there are certain circumstances which will guarantee them a place in
heaven, like dying in jihad (a struggle against unbelievers) or performing the hajj (Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca). On
the other hand, early Filipino animists believed that the afterlife is but a continuation of life on earth; in some parts of
the Philippines, there were pieces of evidence that when a datuor chieftain dies, he was buried in a ship called
balanghay, together with his slaves and most precious belongings which he would still need in the afterlife.
In general, religion has provided people with answers to the unknown such as the origin of life and the concept of
afterlife. Explanations provided by religions have reduced fears and anxieties among individuals and some religions
have even made death a better alternative to living in uncertainty.
GUIDE QUESTION
How does religion encourage moral values?

Religion Gives Positive Goals in Life

People were inspired by the stories of different prophets from their own religious affiliations, like that of Moses,
Siddharta Gautama, and Muhammad. These people showed how ordinary people like them were given important
missions in life, and how they struggled to carry out their respective missions. Moses was ordered to liberate the
Hebrews from slavery in Egypt and lead them back to the promised land; Mohammed was chosen to challenge the
supremacy of the ruling class in the desert by preaching equality and founding the Islamic religion; while Siddharta
Gautama gave up his wealth and power to find the solution for sickness, poverty, old age, and death. Their narra-
tives—perpetuated through religion—may give people a sense of meaning in life; that they are not placed in this
world without a purpose; that each and everyone has a mission to fulfill and it is up to them to fathom what their
missions in life are.

4
Religion Gives People a Sense of Belonging
Just as family, ethnicity, or nationality give people a sense of belonging, so does religion. For some, religion
provides people with personal identity as part of a group with similar worldviews, beliefs, values, practices,
andlifestyles. It provides communities with prospects to recognize and offer vital action and service to provide the
needs of the larger community. Belonging to a particular religion—whose members share the same beliefs, practice
the same rituals, and worship the same god—gives individuals a sense of being in the right place with the right
people. It also provides them with a sense of security because other people who belong to the same religious group
will tend to support and help each other in times of crisis. A religious group or community can provide counsel, help
the sick and underprivileged, and give other services on a more personal level than the government. Members of a
religious community can have the assurance that they can rely on other people’s help in times of need. They can
also expect to have other people rejoice with them in times of success. Religion can provide a sense of personal
identity and belonging.
A good example of religion giving people a sense of belonging is the Sikh principle of Seva, also known as Sewa,
from the word Karsevawhich means “selfless service.” Sikhs are expected to perform work or service without
expecting anything in return. They are encouraged by their Guru (Guru GranthSaib) to perform selfless service with
the belief that by so doing, they are not only promoting good community relations but also paving the way for the
moral uplifting of a person, thus strengthening his or her sense of belonging to the community. They are taught to
reach out to serve and uplift all of humanity to show their devotion to their god.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF RELIGION

Religion has often been named as the culprit behind divisiveness and conflicts among people. There is also a belief
that religion can be dangerous to society when used to advance the interests of a group of people at the expense of
other people eapecially those with different religious beliefs. Religious fundamentalism or the demand for a strict
adherence to orthodox theological doctrines is often considered as the reason behind most religious conflicts. Some
of the negative effects of religion which we will discuss in this lesson are: affirmation of social hierarchy; reason why
people fight each other; promotion of discrimination; obstruction of scientific success and development; and
hindrance to the use of reason.

Religion Affirms Social Hierarchy

Some religions affirm social hierarchy often favoring men and as a result, perpetuate the notions of class or gender
discrimination and oppression. Another example of religion reflecting the hierarchy of political structures would be
the Confucian emphasis on the relations between the ruler and the subject, with the former exercising authority over
the latter. The traditional caste system in India would also reflect how religion reflects political and social structures
since it propagated the idea that people had to be subdivided into certain social classes with particular social roles
and that the attainment of moksha (union of universal soul and individual soul) would depend on how they performed
their duties based on their designated class.

TRIVIA
Sewaor selfless sacrifice is an aspect of Sikhism that gives people a sense of belonging, one of the positive effects of religion. An example of sewawould be the
feeding program being undertaken by the Sikh people.

Religion Causes Discrimination

There are some who say that religion, after turning people against themselves, turn people against each other. This
happens when people do not tolerate religious ideologies different from the one they follow. Religious fanaticism can
lead to feelings of hatred, which could lead to racism, and eventually violence. Throughout history, religion has been
used by colonizers to justify their forcible occupation of territories. In a way, religion has made this world a more
complicated place to live in.
Religion can also be a source of discrimination, or the prejudicial treatment of different categories of people or
things, especially on the basis of race, religion, age, or sex. In Islam, the practice of wearing the hijab (a head
covering worn in public by Muslim women) is considered by many critics as a form of suppression against Muslim
women. Women have to cover their body, from head to toe, so as not to attract the attention of men—perpetuating
the notion that women are temptations that men should avoid. There are also religions which discriminate against
other religions on the basis of claiming to be the “right religion” and that only their followers will be saved in the
afterlife. Still, there are religions which discriminate against people from the lower class who they consider to be
sinful and dirty, just like the outcast or pariahs in India.

Religion Triggers Conflicts and Fights

Religion also has some aspects which make it susceptible to be a source of conflict and war. History witnessed
numerous lives sacrificed and lost in the name of religion. Wars have been fought in the name of religion, and this
phenomenon continues up to the present time. In Palestine, the Jews are in conflict with the Muslims; in Kashmir, it
is the Muslims against Hindus; in Sudan, it is the Muslims opposite Christians and animists; in Sri Lanka, it is the
Sinhalese Buddhists against the Tamil Hindus; in Indonesia, it is Muslims contra Timorese Christians. These are
only some of so many wars being fought in the name of religion, which means that so many resources are being
wasted and millions of lives are being lost.

5
Religion As An Economic Tool for Exploiting the Masses
According to the German philosopher Karl Marx, “religion is the opium of the masses.” This is in relation to his
critical approach to religion in which he proposed that the bourgeoisie keeps the proletariat in control through
religion. According to Marx, it maintains social inequality by propagating a worldview that justifies oppression. He
believed that religion can be effectively used by the ruling class to maintain a social order that is more favorable to
them. Whether one is Christian, Jewish, or Muslim, religious teachings justifying one’s acceptance of oppression as
a normal part of life on earth and as a means to get an everlasting reward in the afterlife can be seen as a bourgeois
tactic to maintain the status quo where they reap more resources and power in society. Thus, in Marx’s conflict
theory, the abolition of religion is also needed to liberate the masses from their oppressive state.

Religion Impedes Scientific Success and Development

Throughout history, religion has proven to impede scientific development. For example, it has often been said that
the Catholic Church used to teach that the world is flat and warned people against going to faraway places if they do
not wish to fall off the edge of the earth. Another example would be the claim that the earth is the center of the solar
system, also known as the Ptolemaic theory. Aristarchus, and later on, Nicolas Copernicus, proved that the sun is
the center of the solar system and all other planets move around it, hence advancing the heliocentric model.
Aside from these, some of the moral teachings of other religions are deemed by secular communities to be
detrimental to development. For example, some religions express their disapproval against reproductive health
programs that aim to empower couples in responsible family planning through education and access to legal and
medically safe birth control, claiming that such programs defies their religious doctrine and are, therefore, immoral.
Religion-based mortuary practices can also be detrimental to public health and sanitation. For example, during the
cholera outbreak in the Philippines in the nineteenth century, the Catholic practice of having the dead body of
cholera victims be brought first to the church for a Mass was seen as one reason why the cholera epidemic
continued to spread rapidly. Liberal-minded individuals during that time believed it would be much safer and hygienic
to immediately bury the dead instead of letting a lot of people be exposed to the dead body by observing religious
practices. The same dilemma can also be seen in the outbreak of the Ebola virus in Africa. The Muslim practice of
washing the dead’s body by relatives of the same gender is seen as contributory to the rapid spread of the Ebola
virus which can be transmitted through direct contact with the victim.

Religion Obstructs the Use of Reason

Many question the suitability of religious doctrines to the needs of the present and future generations. In order to put
these dogma to practice, religion should, therefore, evolve and learn to adapt to the ever changing world. Ancient
religious beliefs and practices which have proven to be inhuman should be replaced with sensible ones. Take the
case of the trepanning, or the ancient practice of boring holes in the human skull, a surgical procedure performed on
epileptics and the mentally ill, with the belief that through the hole the evil spirit will leave the person. During those
days they regard it as an attempt at exorcism, but at present the procedure is just unthinkable.

HISTORICAL EVENTS CAUSED BY RELIGION

In some regions in the world, religion has become very influential in almost every aspect of human activity—from
personal routines to diplomatic relations. Furthermore, in each country there are majority and minority religious
groups and sometimes the power struggle between these two groups escalate into historical developments which
oftentimes shock the world. Here are some of the historical events that are caused by religion.

6
Nicolas Copernicus, a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer, proved that the sun is the center of
the solar system, disproving the Ptolemaic theory advanced by the Catholic church, which claimed that the
earth is the center of the solar system.

Self-Immolation of a Buddhist Monk in Vietnam

Self-immolation, or the killing of oneself as a form of sacrifice, originally referred to as the act of setting oneself on
fire. But now it refers to a much wider range of suicidal choices such as leaping off a cliff, starvation, or ritual
removing of the guts (also known as seppuku). It is used as a form of political protest or martyrdom.
The case of self-immolation reported by the Western media was that of a Buddhist monk named ThichQuangDuc in
Vietnam in 1963, who set himself on fire in the middle of a street in South Vietnam. This was done in protest against
the religious discrimination being experienced by the Buddhists in Vietnam by the Roman Catholic regime of Ngo
Dinh Diem. Under his dictatorial regime, the minority Catholics enjoyed majority status and privileges while the
majority Buddhists were prohibited from practicing their religion in public. Prior to this, Buddhist monks were shot
dead after attempting to fly a Buddhist flag on Phat Dan, the birthday of Gautama Buddha, in South Vietnam. They
were allegedly killed by the dictator’s Catholic Army, but Diem put the blame on the Viet-Cong (Vietnamese
communists). This led to civil disobedience and major protests among the Buddhists. When ThichQuangDuc failed
to achieve reforms for the Buddhist population, he set himself on fire. According to the Buddhists, after this incident
and even after his cremation his heart remained intact, which they interpreted as a sign of his great compassion.
This event served as an important catalyst in overthrowing Diem’s government and the assassination of Diem and
his brother.

Widow Burning Among the Hindus in India

Sati, or the practice of self-immolation of a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre, is said to have originated 700 years
ago in India. It is believed to have started among the ruling class or rajputs in India, when the rajputwomen burnt
themselves to death after their men were defeated in battles to avoid being taken by the conquerors. Later on, it has
become a manifestation of wifely devotion. It has been outlawed by the British rulers in 1829 but rare cases still
continue to occur. In 2006, a Hindu woman was reported to have committed sati in Tuslipar village in the central
state of Madhya Pradesh. The woman, whose name was Janakrani, was said to have burnt herself to death on the
funeral pyre of her husband Prem Narayan. According to the villagers, after the cremation, the widow told them she
had to attend to some work, but when they went looking for her they found her dead on the pyre. Reports said that
nobody forced her to commit the act.

The Inquisition
Inquisition refers to the Roman Catholic Church groups charged with subduing heresy from around 1184, which
includes the Episcopal Inquisition (1184-1230s) and the Papal Inquisition (1230s). The Inquisition was a response to
large popular movements in Europe considered heretical or profane to Christianity, particularly Catharism (a
Christian dualist movement which espousedthe idea of two gods, one being good and the other evil) and
Waldensians (a Protestant Christian movement which advocated that apostolic poverty is the way to perfection) in
southern France and southern Italy.
The word “inquisition,” has somehow become associated with the word “torture.” This is because after 1252, torture
was used to punish the heretics. On May 15, a papal bull was issued by Pope Innocent IV, the Ad exstirpanda,
which authorized the use of torture by inquisitors. One common form of torture was the strappado, wherein the
hands were bound behind the back with a rope, and the accused was suspended this way, dislocating the joints
painfully in both arms.
7
THE GODHRA TRAIN INCIDENT IN 2002
In February 2002, a train was set on fire in which 59 people, including 25 women and 15 children, were killed. The
fire happened inside the Sabarmati Express train near the Godhra railway station in the Indian state of Gujarat.
Those who died inside the train were mostly Hindu pilgrims and activists returning from the holy city of Ayodhya after
a religious ceremony at the disputed Babri Masjid site. It took six years for the commission appointed to investigate
the said incident to conclude that the fire was committed by a mob of 1000-2000 people. Thirty-one Muslims were
convicted by the court for the incident and conspiracy for the crime.
The Babri Masjid site was a source of the Ayodha dispute, which was centered on access to the site traditionally
regarded by the Hindus as the birthplace of the Hindu deity Rama. Hindus accuse the Muslims of demolishing a
previous Hindu temple on the site to create the Babri mosque, which was destroyed by radical Hindu activists during
a political rally that turned into a riot on December 6, 1992. The Godhra train incident in 2002 was seen as a Muslim
retaliation for the demolition of the Babri mosque in 1992. The discovery in 2003 of Buddhist ruins underlying the
Hindu and Muslim layers at Ayodhya only made matters more complicated.
Although so many atrocities have been committed in the name of religion, we should bear in mind that more often
than not, there are other factors at play. Politics and economics often play a key role in religious conflicts. Sadly,
some political parties take advantage of religious conflicts to pursue their own interests, and that is winning in the
next elections. In India, for example, political parties have been accused of using Hindu-Muslim conflict to advance
their own interests by ruling in favor of those who will give them the highest votes.

8
Summary
• Religion can be described as a double-edged sword: it can have both positive and negative effects on society. It has played a
very important role in the development of societies by integrating and stabilizing them; however, it has also created conflicts.

• Some of its positive effects are: it promotes social solidarity; it is a source of moral values; it nurtures positive goals in life; it
gives people a sense of belonging; and it fosters social change.
• Some of religion’s negative effects include: it affirms social hierarchy; it triggers conflicts and fights; it promotes discrimination;
it impedes scientific success and development; and it hinders the use of reason.
• Some of the world’s atrocities and conflicts were caused by religion such as the self-immolation of a Buddhist monk in
Vietnam; the practice of sati or widow burning in India; the Inquisition of the Catholic Church; and the Godhra train incident in
India.

ASSESSMENT

Identification. Choose from the list below. Write the correct answer on the blank.
a. Babri Masjid f. Indianization
b. Trepanning g. Sati
c. Devaraja h. Strappado
d. Mount Meru i. Babaylan or catalonan
e. Self-immolatio j. Ayodhya

______ 1. Hindu concept of god-king

_____ 2. The process of spreading Hindu-Buddhist influences from India to Southeast Asia
_____3. Place where the Hindu deities live according to Hindu cosmology
_____4. Spiritual leaders in ancient Philippine society who were mostly women
_____ 5. Name of the mosque destroyed by Hindu activists in India
_____ 6. Birthplace of Rama according to the Hindus
_____ 7. A form of torture used during the Inquisition
_____ 8. The Hindu practice of widow burning
_____ 9. The killing of oneself as a sacrifice
_____ 10. The ancient practice of boring holes in the human skull

9
REFERENCE

BOOKS
Haviland, William, et al (2005). Anthropology. The Human Challenge. Belmont, California: Wadsworth /Thomson
Learning.
Harris, Sam (2006). The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason. Great Britain: Free Press.
Hunt, Elgin & David Colander (2011). Social Science. An Introduction to the Study of Society. 14th edition.
Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.
Meister, Chad (2009). Introducing Philosophy of Religion. London & New York: Routledge.

INTERNET
Balgas, Tresa (2014). Muslim-American man wins nearly $1.2 million in job discrimination case.
http://archive.freep.com/article/20140228/NEWS05/302280130/Muslim-discrimination-beard/Retrieved November
20, 2014.
BBC News. India wife dies on husband’s pyre. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5273336.stm. Retrieved
September 3, 2014.
Boundless. “Religion and Social Control.” Boundless Sociology. Boundless, 27 Jun. 2014.
https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/religion-14/the-conflict-perspective-
107/religion-and-social-control-596-2095/Retrieved November 20, 2014.
Fagan, Patrick (1996). Why Religion Matters: The Impact of Religious Practice on Social Stability,” Heritage
Foundation Backgrounder No. 1064, www.heritage.org/research/religion/upload/bg_1064.pdf/Retrieved November
20, 2014.
O’Brien, Nancy Frazer. Embryonic stem-cell research immoral, unnecessary, bishops say. Catholic News Service.
http://www.americancatholic.org/news/stemcell/Retrieved November 20, 2014.
Pennachia, Robyn (2013). On the 50th Anniversary of Buddhist Monk Thich Quang Duc’s Self-Immolation.
http://www.deathandtaxesmag.com/200114/on-the-50th-anniversary-of-buddhist-monk-thich-quang-ducs-self-
immolation/. Retrieved September 2, 2014.
Subramanium, KS (2011). Truth Behind the Fire in Sabarmati Express.
http://www.mainstreamweekly.net/article2684.html. Retrieved September 3, 2014.
The Instiitute on Religion in an Age of Science (2003). The Positive Side of Religion.
http://www.iras.org/positivereligion.html. Retrieved on August 31, 2014.
The Unbounded Spirit. The Negative Effects of Religion on Society. http://theunboundedspirit.com/the-negative-
effects-of-religion-on-society/. Retrieved September 1, 2014.
8 Atrocities Committed in the Name of Religion. http://listverse.com/2008/04/02/8-atrocities-committed-in-the-name-
of-religion/Retrieved September 4, 2014

10