Module 7: Problem-Based Learning

MODULE 7

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

 Define problem-based learning
 Justify the adoption of PBL in your subject area
 Describe the features and benefits of PBL
 Explain the procedure of implementing PBL
 Identify the different role of tutor and students involved in PBL

MODULE OUTLINE

7.5 What is problem-based learning?

7.2 Why problem-based learning?
7.3 History of problem-based learning
7.4 Theoretical foundations of problem-based learning
7.5 The aims of problem-based learning
7.6 Features of problem-based learning
7.7 Designing and developing triggers
7.8 The problem-based learning process
7.9 Role of the tutor
7.10 Characteristics of a good tutor
7.11 Role of students
7.12 Evaluation of problem-based learning
Key Terms
Summary
References

This module discusses the implementation of problem-based learning as an

instructional strategy in higher education. Problem-based learning which began in
teaching medical students is spreading to other disciplines in universities and colleges.
While some have considered it more as an educational fad others have successfully
adopted the teaching strategy in their respective disciplines such as in management,
engineering, education, dentistry, nursing and others.
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”Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much

just by sitting in class listening to teachers, memorizing
prepackaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They
must talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate
it to past experiences, apply it to their daily lives. They must
make what they learn part of themselves”.

─ Arthur W. Chickering
“Seven Principles for Good Practice” (1987)

7.1 What is a Problem-Based Learning?

While few will disagree with Arthur Chickeringson that „learning is not a
spectator sport‟, universities and colleges have not been able to break away from this
approach to learning. The onslaught of the information age and the rapid expansion of
information that is easily accessible to students make it just impossible for students to
learn everything in the short duration they are in college or university. They need to
learn how to learn and become self-directed learners. Perhaps, the solution is
Problem-Based Learning or PBL in which students meet together in a small group
with a tutor to discuss a set problem. Initially students explore the problem using their
prior knowledge and experience followed by the formulation of hypotheses. Then
they determine what they already know and what further information is needed to
understand and solve the problem (Kiley, Mullins, Peterson and Rogers, 2000).
Students independently research and gather information that confirms or
disconfirms their hypotheses and generate new understandings. PBL has been
described as “learning that results from working with problems” (Rhem, 1998. p.1).
Even though there is the word “learning” in PBL, it is an instructional and curriculum
strategy in which students are engaged with ill-structured contextualised problems and
are given the task of finding solutions to the problems.
Is PBL the same as problem-solving? It is not the same. In the traditional
didactic lecture or tutorial; students are presented with problems or exercises to which
they recall and apply previously learned methods and procedures. In other words, the
student works forward from the past to the solution to demonstrate the applicability of
theory to practice and usually there is one right answer. This is an effective teaching
technique, but it is not PBL. In a PBL curriculum, the problem comes first and it is in
discussion of the problem that students work out what they need to learn.
With so many terminologies floating around such as „active learning‟,
„cooperative learning‟, „collaborative learning‟, inquiry-based learning‟, discovery
learning‟, some academics have become cynical and regard PBL as another
educational fad. In actual fact, PBL may be regarded as “all the above”. PBL
encourages active learning in which students work cooperatively and collaboratively
delving deeply in the solution of a problem or case which will require them to conduct
research (inquiry) and search (discover) for information from multiple sources.
Despite scepticism about PBL, there is growing interest in the instructional strategy
and gaining popularity in teaching different disciplines in higher education.
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It has been suggested that PBL is an appropriate teaching strategy because it

mimics the way the mind actually works. In PBL, learning is seen as a continuous
process in which the student actively participates in the teaching-learning process
rather than being a passive recipient of facts, concepts and principles. How effective
is PBL? Generally, there is research evidence to suggest that PBL has resulted in a
higher quality of learning. However, if one is measuring outcomes in terms of the
amount of facts learned, then research supporting PBL has not been conclusive. This
may discourage some instructors not to adopt PBL. But, it should be emphasised that
in education and psychology, it is difficult to establish conclusively the effectiveness
of a particular method of instruction because of the numerous intervening variables
that cannot be controlled in an experiment.

“An authentic PBL education would require the student to go through

the same activities during learning that are valued in the real word. The
intent is to challenge the student with problems that will be faced in
practice both as a stimulus for learning and a focus for organising what
has been learned for later recall and application to future work”.

(Source: H.S.Barrows. 1996. Problem-based learning in medicine and

beyond: A brief overview. Bringing problem-based learning to higher
education: Theory and practice. San Franciscc: Jossey-Bass Inc. p.3)

7.1 ACTIVITY
a) What do students like most about your teaching?
b) When does learning become a chore for your students?
c) What does Barrows mean by “an authentic PBL
education” in the statement above?

7.2 Why Problem-Based Learning?

The world of work and daily life has changed a great deal. Gone are the days
when someone tells you what do. Graduates entering the world of work need to be
experts, leaders, managers, creators and innovators. What is learned in university or
college rapidly becomes obsolete and so students must prepare to learn throughout
their lifetime. According to Spencer (2000), to hold a job in today‟s world, an
individual should be equipped with the following basic abilities:
1. Learn to learn
2. Communicate and collaborate with others
3. Think creatively to solve novel problems
4. Be technically competent
5. Understand the opportunities and constraints of the global economy
6. Lead as well as follow, always taking initiative
7. Manage one‟s career to develop new skills and knowledge
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The teaching methodologies adopted in many colleges and universities are not
as effective in developing the above seven abilities. The “teacher-talk-and-student-
listen” methods of instruction have not been effective in developing higher order
thinking skills. Students retain little of what they have learned after a few weeks and
they rarely apply what they have learned to real-world problems. More importantly,
students do not have much practice in thinking for themselves or framing problems
that interest them. As a result, students enter the world of work ill-equipped. PBL as
an alternative instructional strategy has shown to provide opportunities for students to
use what they already know, determine what they need to know, develop people
skills, and improve their writing and speaking abilities.

7.2 ACTIVITY
Do you agree with the argument that problem-based learning
would be able to equip graduates with the basic abilities
for today‟s world proposed by Spence (2000)?

7.3 The History of Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning began in the medical school at McMasters University

in Canada in the 1970s. Some have argued that conceptually, PBL is far older than
that and can be traced to the time of Socrates who introduced the Socratic questioning
method. In the 1930s John Dewey talked about “engagement” and the need for active
learning in education. The discovery method was popularised by Jerome Bruner in the
1960s. Initially, PBL was introduced to meet the rapidly changing demands of
medical education with the explosion in medical information and new technology.
Interest focused on promoting a student-centred curriculum, a multidisciplinary
approach to medical education and lifelong learning in professional practice.
Teaching discipline specific content such as anatomy, physiology, biochemistry and
pharmacology separately, using a “traditional” lecture approach was not providing
learners with a context for application of the content. Further confounding this
traditional approach was the rapidly changing knowledge base in science and
medicine, which was driving changes in both theory and practice (Savery, 2006).
Following the McMasters University experience, the PBL approach was
adopted in other medical schools and became an accepted instructional approach in
the United States, Canada and in Europe, especially in the United Kingdom. Concern
was expressed by some medical educators whether the physician trained using PBL
was as well prepared for professional practice compared to a physician trained using
traditional approaches. Extensive research was conducted to answer this question. For
example, Albanese and Mitchell (1993) conducted a meta-analysis of 20 years of
PBL evaluation research concluded that the PBL approach was equal to traditional
approached in terms of conventional tests of knowledge (i.e. performance on medical
board examinations). However, students who studied using PBL exhibited better
clinical problem-solving skills. Anecdotal reports from PBL practitioners suggest that
students are more engaged in learning the content (Top and Sage, 2002). There is also
evidence to suggest that motivation, relevancy, hands-on practice, active learning, and
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contextual learning are more obvious in a PBL environment than in traditional curricula
(Camp, 1996). Students taught using conventional educational methods have been less
successful in applying concept and principles to problems they later face in their job. Also,
their self-directed learning strategies are not as well developed and they also face difficulty in
being effective collaborators. Interestingly, many of these problems appear to be resolvable
with a shift to a PBL method (Camp, 1996). However, it should be noted that some
research comparing the two instructional approaches also suffer from methodological
flaws and it is difficult to convincingly show the superiority of PBL over traditional
curricula.
The adoption of PBL has expanded into primary and secondary schools,
colleges and universities and professional schools (Top and Sage, 2002). Besides,
medical education, PBL is being used in teaching engineering, business and
management, education, veterinary science, nursing, economics, information
technology, architecture and others. Interest in PBL is increasing and is perhaps one
of the few innovations in education that is gaining momentum. There is always the
fear that like earlier innovations in education, it will meet the same fate as its
counterparts and fade into the background.

SELF-CHECK 7.1
a) Trace the origin of problem-based learning.
b) Why do you think PBL is more widely used in medical
education compared to other disciplines?

7.4 Theoretical Foundation of Problem-Based Learning

Constructivism is both a philosophy and psychological theory whose roots can

be traced to the work of 18the century philosopher Giambattista Vico. He held the
view that humans can only know or understand something only what they have
constructed themselves. He stressed that „to know‟ means to know how to make. One
knows a thing only when one can tell what components it consists of and what one
has constructed. This viewpoint is a rejection of the belief that knowledge has to be a
representation of an essential reality or it is „out there‟ prior to having been
experienced.
Rather, it holds the position that knowledge is something which is personally
constructed by individuals in an active way, as they try to give meaning to socially
accepted and shared notions. As argued by von Glasersfeld (1989) that knowledge is
the result of an individual‟s construction and not something that somehow resides
outside the knower. For example, when you see a car, your understanding of the car
does not come from the car but comes from inside you mind. You give meaning to
what you see. It may be a sports car, it may be a sedan, it may be Japanese car or it
may be a German car. If that be the case, knowledge cannot be given from one mind
to another.
When applied to education, it is the learner who interacts with objects and
events and thereby gains an understanding of the features held by such objects or
events. The learner, therefore, constructs his or her own conceptualisations and
solutions to problems. Students learn by fitting new information together with what
they already know and they learn best when they actively construct their own
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understanding (see Figure 7.1). Thus, learning is placed on the student rather than the
teacher or the instructor. Constructivists view learning as the result of mental
construction where learner autonomy and initiative is accepted and encouraged.
Learners are encouraged to invent their own solutions and to try out ideas and
hypotheses They are given the opportunity to build on prior knowledge.
According to von Glasersfeld (1989), all good teachers know that guidance
which they give to students necessarily remains tentative and cannot ever approach
absolute determination, because in constructivism there is always more than one
solution to a problem and different solutions might be approached from different
perspectives

Figure 7.1 Two Students Constructing Knowledge Differently

Problem-based learning is based on constructivism which encourages and

accepts learner autonomy and initiative, sees learners as creatures of will and purpose,
encourages learner inquiry, acknowledges the critical role of experience in learning.
nurtures learners natural curiosity, takes the learner's mental model into account,
encouraged prediction, analysis and synthesis, encourages learners to engage in
dialogue with other students and the teacher, considers how the student learns,
considers the beliefs and attitudes of the learner provides learners the opportunity to
construct new knowledge and understanding from authentic experience, involves
learners in real world situations and supports collaborative learning and reflection.
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SELF-CHECK 7.2
What is the theoretical basis of problem-based learning?

7.5 The Aims of Implementing Problem-Based Learning

What is the attraction of PBL? What does one hope to achieve with the
introduction of PBL that traditional methods are unable to do so effectively? Henry
Barrows, considered as the “father of PBL” proposed the following aims for
implementing PBL is an instructional method in universities and colleges (1986,
1996). See Figure 7.1.

Active Learning

Construction of Knowledge

Development of Reasoning
Strategies

AIMS OF Development of Self-Directed

PBL Learning Strategies

Effective Collaborators

Increasing Motivation for

Learning

Multidisciplinary Approach

Figure 7.2 Aims of Implementing PBL in Higher Education

 ACTIVE LEARNING – The student is not a passive recipient of information

(as would happen in a mass lecture) but rather actively participates in the
learning process which may involve giving opinions, searching for
information, making oral presentations, analysing information and so forth.
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 CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE – The student uses his or her prior

knowledge and combines it with existing information to produce new
information or reconstruct existing information to produce new information
 DEVELOPMENT OF REASONING STRATEGIES - Through constant
contact with real life problems (authentic problems), students will develop
abilities to perceive a problem and appreciate its features, formulate and
analyse critically possible hypotheses and finally make decisions about
appropriate actions to solve the problem.
 EFFECTIVE COLLABORATORS – The student works with other students in
a group and collectively solves the problem. In other words, the student learns
social skills such as knowing how to behave in groups, how to work together
and to help each other get an understanding of what they are learning.
 DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING STRATEGIES – The
student learns to be a more effective self-directed learner who is aware of the
importance of personal learning needs and is able to acquire knowledge
through self-study almost independently.
 INCREASING MOTIVATION FOR LEARNING – When students perceive
the problems studied as relevant, are able to use their prior knowledge and
given the opportunity to actively participate the learning process; they will be
motivated to learn.
 MULTISCIPLINARY APPROACH – The problem posed encourages
students to draw from various sources of information; such as content from
different topics or disciplines towards solution of a problem.

The aims of PBL are similar to the goals of most undergraduate and
postgraduate programmes in universities and colleges, irrespective of discipline. Do
you agree? The advantage is that PBL is more likely to realise these goals more
effectively compared to conventional instructional methods practiced in higher
education. The key objective of PBL is to stimulate higher order thinking, where
students analyze, synthesize and evaluate information instead of simply knowing and
comprehending information. Collaboration is an indispensable component of PBL
which is an ability that has to be cultivated because in the working world students will
be regularly working as members of teams.

7.3 ACTIVITY

To what extent are the aims of PBL consistent with the goals
of teaching and learning in your institution?

7.6 Features of Problem-Based Learning

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is an active way of learning that teaches

students problem solving skills while at the same time allowing them to acquire basic
knowledge. It is a student-centred approach with teachers as facilitators rather than
Module 7: Problem-Based Learning

disseminators. The problem, scenario or case posed is open-ended and “ill-structured”

(as against a structured problem) which becomes the initial stimulus for learning. The
problem will have to be designed so that students will be intrinsically interested in the
subject matter. When a student is intrinsically interested in learning, there is
likelihood that he or she will put in more effort. In the PBL setting, emphasis is on
“learning” (deep learning) as opposed to only mere recall (surface learning). Also,
PBL encourages students to be “self-directed learners” rather than depending on the
instructor telling them every small detail. Conventional teaching methods in higher
education tend to be “deductive” while PBL tends to be inductive (see Figure 7.2).

Deductive approach

Facts, concepts Students study Problem given for

and principles are content students to apply
presented by the concepts & principles
instructor

Inductive approach

Problem is Students identify Solve the problem

presented what to do and the with relevant content
content needed and evidence

Figure 7.2 Deductive and Inductive Teaching Approach

 Learning is student-centred because students are given the freedom to study

those topics that interest them the most and to determine how they want to
study them. Students would identify their learning needs (what they know and
what they need to know), help plan classes, lead class discussion and assess
their own work and their classmates‟ work (Reynold, 1997).
 Students also develop their metacognitive abilities in which they learn to be
aware or alert as to what information they already know about the problem,
what information they do not know and need to know to solve the problem and
the strategies to use to solve the problem. To be effective problem-solvers and
self-directed learner, students need to be able to articulate such thoughts.
 It is possible that in the initial stages, many students do not have well
developed metacognitive thinking abilities; and so the tutor has also to be a
“cognitive coach” (Arambula-Greenfield 1996). The cognitive coach models
his or her thought processes so that students can see the inquiry strategies used
as well as helping students to clarify and go about answering the research
questions leading to the solution of the problem.
 To encourage students become self-directed learners, the tutor creates a
classroom environment in which students engage in reflective reasoning and
able to express themselves freely without fear of being reprimanded or fear of
being wrong.
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 Groupwork is an essential aspect of PBL. Why? It helps students to develop

learning communities in which they feel comfortable developing new ideas
and raising questions (Allen, Duch & Groh, 1996). It also enhances the
communication skills of students and their ability to manage group dynamics.
Furthermore, groupwork is interesting which can motivate students to engage
actively in the learning process. However, it should be kept in mind that
groups do not always work effectively [Refer to Chapter 2 on how to manage
groupwork]. The tutor may need to help students how to discuss effectively in
groups because not ally students are familiar with groupwork.

You mean I have to identify That‟s right. I just design

the problem, determine what I the problem, select some
know and do not know and resources and facilitate
solve the problem as a group! your learning.

7.3 ACTIVITY
a) Give examples of how you have used the inductive
approach in teaching your subject area.
b) Is groupwork important in the subject you teach?
c) In the caricature above, why do you think the student
appears to be unhappy on this role in PBL?

7.7 Designing and Developing Triggers

The key to PBL is the “trigger” which has been variously defined as problem,
scenario and case. The trigger is the focus for learning which represents the challenge
students will face during internship, practical training or when they join the world of
work after graduation. The trigger has to be presented in the same way that it occurs
in the real world. The key to successful PBL is the amount of effort put in the creation
of a trigger. As an instructor, you should develop a problem or case that really is
meaningful to students. Writing a good trigger may be a difficult task for instructors
in the initial stages of adopting PBL for their courses. The following are some
guidelines on how to write good triggers:
 A good trigger should be “ill-structured” which means that it should be open-
ended which will require students to explore many alternatives (multiple
solutions) before deciding on a particular solution (Shelton & Smith, 1998).
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 A good trigger should provide opportunity for students to solve problems

encountered by experts in the field (authentic problems). For example, having
to decide whether to retrench obsolete workers or retrain is a real-world
problem a managing director of a company may encounter.
 A good trigger should be complex enough to require collaboration and
thinking beyond recall. In other words, the trigger cannot be solved alone and
will require students to collaborate.
 A good trigger generates controversy and cause students to ask questions. It
requires students to make observations, conduct primary and secondary
research, ask questions, probe and investigate; i.e. reflection, thought and
deliberation.
 A good trigger is one that students view as professionally relevant and useful
in the future which will motivate them to work on them. It should be industry
relevant and mirror what students will encounter in the workplace to make
them real work ready,
 A good trigger must be interesting and challenging to motivate students to
solve them. Problems should provide sufficient opportunities for students to
conduct research and study on their own, building on prior knowledge and
promoting the transfer of knowledge to unique situations,
 A good trigger provides an opportunity for students to exhibit their creativity
in solving the problem.
 One approach to develop problems or cases is to work backwards from
examination questions. For example, an essay question in an examination can
be expanded into a larger case or problem that more ill-structured, requiring
multiple solutions.
 Another approach is to identify current debates in the field which can be
converted into a trigger which students can explore.
 A trigger that is developed should be pilot-tested with students to get
feedback before implementing it.
 The good trigger should allow students to integrate information from many
topics, disciplines or knowledge. This is because a real world trigger cuts
across disciplines and blurs the lines between topics, subjects and disciplines.
Triggers should not promote the isolation of topics, subjects or disciplines as
this is not realistic.
 The scope of the trigger must reflect the manpower, time and budget
constraints. The scope of the problem should not be beyond the resources
available to the student. For example, a problems that cannot be solved in the
given time.
 Triggers must be structured to encourage small group learning to solve the
problems. Students must learn to work in teams to solve the problem.

SELF-CHECK 7.3
a) What are the attributes of a good trigger?
b) Why is a trigger important in the successful implementation of
PBL?
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7.8 The Problem-Based Learning Process

Preparation Stage
 Select a problem or case. Make sure that the problem or case is reflective of
manpower requirement, time and budget constraints. In other words, do not
choose a problem that cannot be completed within the time available or too
demanding in terms of people required or time required or money required.
 Usually, the problem should be about one page in length and printed copies
made available for distribution
 Break up students into groups randomly (each group should be between 6-8
members)
 Provide a name list of members in each of the groups

Introduce Students to PBL

 Explain to students what is PBL and how it is different from other teaching
strategies.
 Tell students what they are expected to do.
 Establish general classroom norms that aims to make students comfortable in
the new learning environment
 Mistakes should be viewed as learning opportunities rather than indicators of
lack of ability.
o “The only wrong question is one that is not asked”
o “The only wrong answer is silence”.
 Students are told that they are very much on their own but the course tutor will
intervene when necessary.
 Students are told to develop classroom norms and ground rules for group work
such as attendance policies, schedule of meetings and so forth.

Steps in Implementing PBL

Many different models have been proposed for the PBL process. However, there are
some general steps unique to all the different models. The following is a generic PBL
process which is based on a combination of different models (Bufield & Ton Peijs
(2003; Spence, 2000).

Step 1: Step 2: Step 3:

Explanation Problem Definition Brainstorm

Step 6: Step 5: Step 4:

Group Meeting Reading & Research Re-examination

Step 7:
Report
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Step 1: Explanation of the Problem or Case

 Students are presented with the trigger
which may be a problem, case or scenario;
preferably in print form.
 The instructor begins with a mini-lecture
explaining the problem and to detect areas
of difficulty.
 The students read the description of the
problem or case or scenario, and then
identify the meanings of any words, terms
or concepts that are unclear. Other students
or the instructor could answer the queries.

Step 2: Define the Problem or Case or Scenario

 The tutor will introduce himself or herself by telling the group something
about his field and personal interests. Tutors may want to identify how they
wish to be addressed.
 Students will be asked to introduce themselves to the group. Students tell the
the group something about themselves that they do not already know.
 Focus on the problem. What is the problem that has to be solved?
 How can the team agree on what is to be solved?
 Create ental images of the situation
giving attention to the conditions,
constraints and criteria to accept a
solution.
 Students are encouraged to
contribute their views concerning
the nature of the problem.
 The tutor must make sure all to
contribute to the discussion.
 Accept the fact that different group
members may have different
perspectives of the problem.
Comparing these different views
helps to define the task ahead.
 Make sure the seating
arrangements allow for the free
flow of conversation and be sure
that everyone can establish eye
contact with everyone else in the
group. If this is not the case,
suggest seating changes.

Step 3: Brainstorm the Solution

 This is the most crucial step in the
problem solving process.
 Students test out a wide variety of
possible explanations or solutions
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for the problem based on their prior knowledge and prior experience. Play
around with the problem!
 Continue brainstorming until no more ideas are forthcoming. Do not prioritise
the the ideas or suggestions as all are treated as equally valid no matter how
strange they may appear at first.
 The secretary or scribe writes down all possible ideas that contribute towards
understanding, explaining and solving the problem on a white-board or a large
sheet of white paper.
 Only after all the ideas are written down can they be discussed in more detail
and priorities can be set.
 The tutor should discourage students from going into too much detail during
the brainstorming phase. This step is essential as it encourages students to
come up with different solutions to the same problem.
 The output is a list of possible explanations or solutions to the problem

Step 4: Re-Examination of Ideas

 Here the group re-examines the ideas raised in the
brainstorming in more detail to detect patterns and
solutions or ideas that are linked.
 Decide on what is known and not known and what
needs to be explored further.
 The group needs to narrow down solutions to a
limited number of tentative solutions.
 Decide on which issues everyone will tackle and
which will be divided up (some issues are so
fundamental to the whole area that all students
should read about them themselves).

Step 5: Reading and Research

 Individuals will be assigned to seek out any available learning resources to
obtain the information that will contribute towards understanding, explaining
and solving the problem.
 Learning Resources
o Access textbooks, lectures and references supplied by the tutor.
o Library (physical or digital) and develop search strategies.
o Web sources (check for reliability of souces)
o Community resources
 Set deadlines for each group member.
 Schedule how often group members should meet to clarify and determine if all
members are on the right track.

Step 6: Group Meeting

 Each student is responsible for their assignment and must be prepared to
contribute to solving the problem by sharing what they have collected.
 After each group meeting, the group will formulate the next stage of the
assignments to be done.
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Step 7: Report on the Solution

 Having decided that information is adequate for the solution of the problem,
the group writes-up the solution.
 The solution is presented to the tutor.

The process of problem-based learning summarized above may vary across

disciplines and learning objectives. Also, the amount of time spent on a problem may
vary with learning objectives of the topic or course. For example, in some situations,
groups will meet for approximately two hours once a week for the duration of the
problem-based learning session. Students may be expected to spend 4-6 hours each
week on independent study outside the small group to research and elaborate upon
new information and concepts. As they return weekly to their small group, they will
bring this new knowledge and information to the group. It is possible that the tutor
may raise important issues and learning objectives that will have to be further
identified and discussed. New information built into the original problem may be
introduced by the tutor.

7.4 ACTIVITY
A Some instructors have argued that the PBL process is not
different from the problem-solving exercises or tasks that
students in their class engage in. Do you agree?

7.9 Role of the Tutor

The role of the tutor in the PBL class is different from the role of the tutor in other
small group teaching sessions. Most importantly the tutor is a facilitator and not a
provider of content or information. In fact,
it has been suggested that the tutor need
not necessarily be an expert in the subject
(which may be difficult for some
academics to accept!). The following is a
list of the many roles of the tutor in a PBL
class:
 The tutor is a coach who monitors
student progress through the
learning process.
 He or she activates or prompts
students to examine what they already know, i.e. their prior knowledge.
 The tutor guides students to identify the key issues in each case, problem or
scenario and to think about possibilities.
 The tutor must make sure that the group stays on target and focus on the key
issues to be studied; rather than going on off in all directions at once.
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 The tutor should not be afraid to join the group as a participant but should
not dominate the group with his or her opinions.
 The tutor should strike a balance between being too passive or too actively
involved in the discussion.
 The tutor should question students to facilitate learning.
o Uses questions to explain and define terminology. For example,
what is meant by carbon emissions? How does the level of carbon
emissions affect global warming?
o Uses questions to elicit students’ reasoning process. For example;
if a student asks; “Can you give us more information about global
warming?, the tutor might ask:
 “What are your reasons for asking that question?”
 “How would knowing the answer make a difference in your
understanding of global warming?”
o Uses questions to make connections. For example, the tutor might
ask, "What is the connection between carbon emissions and global
warming? How might issues about lifestyles of rich countries be
related to global warming?"
o Examples of comments a tutor might make (Barrows & Tamblyn,
1980; Sparks (1984).

“Hmmmmm”
“I see”
“I’m not sure that I follow you, would you mind repeating”
“Any other ideas”
“Why is that? How come?
“Why did you come to that conclusion?”
“Do you agree with what was just said?”
“Do you feel you need to look up that point?”
“How is this related to other information?”
“Have you considered or thought about……..”
“What are some concrete examples?”
“Are there other ways to examine this problem?”
“Before we wrap up, let us reflect on what we did”

 The tutor should periodically remind students about how much they are
learning. Be specific and give examples.
 The tutor must learn to tolerate silence. When communication stops or is
at a stand still, wait thirty seconds, someone is bound to talk. It may help
to ask the group why they are stuck or to ask someone to summarise.
 The tutor should attempt to check students’ understanding by asking
them to:
o draw a diagram to illustrate a concept
o create a grid showing relationships among concepts
o summarise the discussion
 The tutor should be aware of a talkative or enthusiastic group in which
everyone is enjoying themselves so much that they become unfocused and
fail to question or challenge assumptions.
Module 7: Problem-Based Learning

 The tutor should make a note of points that students seem uncertain
about and to make sure that they do not understand, the following
questions may be asked:
o Does everyone understand the information presented?
o Does everyone agree with this information or do you wish to know
more?
o Would it be valuable to distribute a summary sheet of this
information?
 If students in the group are struck, do not leave them guessing but instead
help them out, even if it means telling them what to do.
 The tutor should help students reflect on what has been discussed, because
reflection improves problem solving.
 The tutor should create and maintain a warm and safe environment in
which students will be willing to share experiences and ideas without fear
of being ridiculed.
 The tutor should be honest with students; if he or she does not know,
please say so and do nor bluff.
 Tutor should be themselves, “warts and all”

7.5 ACTIVITY
a) Discuss the role of the tutor in the PBL class.
b) How are questions used to facilitate learning in the
PBL class?

7.10 Role of Students

The only stupid question is the one that is not asked.

Problem-based learning is a student-centred process and it is the responsibility of the

individual student to participate fully, not only for his or her own learning, but also to
aid the learning of others in the group. Although much time is spent alone in the
library or at the computer, the full benefits of PBL cannot be realised in isolation.

Respect

 listens, and indicates so with appropriate verbal or non-verbal behaviour

 verbal and non-verbal behaviour are neither rude, arrogant nor patronizing
 allows others to express opinions and give information without "putting down"
anyone
 participates in discussion of differences in moral values
 differentiates value of information from value of person
 acknowledges others' contributions
 apologizes when late or gives reason for being so
Module 7: Problem-Based Learning

Communication Skills

 speaks directly to group members

 presents clearly
 uses words that others understand
 uses open-ended questions appropriately
 identifies misunderstanding between self and others or among others
 attempts to resolve misunderstanding
 tests own assumptions about group members
 accepts and discusses emotional issues
 able to express own emotional state in appropriate situations
 non-verbal behaviour is consistent with tone and content of verbal
communications
 verbal or non-verbal behaviour indicates that statements have been understood
 recognizes and responds to group member's non-verbal communication

Responsibility

 punctual
 completes assigned tasks
 presents relevant information
 identifies irrelevant or excessive information
 takes initiative or otherwise helps to maintain group dynamics
 advances discussion by responding to or expanding on relevant issues
 identifies own emotional or physical state when relevant to own functioning or
group dynamics
 describes strengths and weaknesses of group members in a supportive manner
 gives prior notice of intended absence
 negotiates alternatives if unable to complete assigned tasks

Self-Awareness/Self-Evaluation

 acknowledges own difficulty in understanding

 acknowledges own lack of appropriate knowledge
 acknowledges own discomfort in discussing or dealing with a particular issue
 identifies own strengths
 identifies own weaknesses
 identifies means of correcting deficiencies or weaknesses
 responds to fair negative evaluative comment without becoming defensive or
blaming others
 responds to fair negative evaluative comment with reasonable proposals for
behavioural change
Module 7: Problem-Based Learning

7.11 Learning Resources

The successful implementation of PBL requires that students have access to

relevant learning resources which could consist of the following:
 Books, class notes, powerpoint slides and others.
 Dictionary and dictionary specific to the discipline (e.g. medical dictionary,
engineering dictionary, management dictionary) to clarify concepts and
terminology.
 Access to journal articles, reports, monographs. It is important to avoid
"guessing games" or wasting time tracking down an obscure reference. But, on
the other hand, it is important to develop skill in finding good information.
 Senior students and postgraduate students as resources
 Students should be familiar with various reference materials available on CD-
ROM/VCD
 Web resources – websites, articles, pictures, animations, graphics, video-clips,
audio-clips, and so forth.
 Academic staff who have a special interest in the area or who have indicated a
particular willingness to act as a reference source. Students who wish to use
faculty as a resource should prearrange a meeting, normally by making an
appointment. Students should be clear about the specific areas to be discussed
and should have done some background reading and preparation prior to the
meeting with an academic staff.
 By virtue of the multidisciplinary nature of many of the learning issues that
will evolve from the problems, students are well advised to address to consult
academic staff from other disciplines.

Part of the overall learning experience implicit in PBL is the development of skills
that will facilitate access to learning resources throughout your future professional
career.

7.12 Assessment in Problem-Based Learning

Macdonald and Savin-Baden (2004) list some of the forms of assessment that
have been used successfully with PBL and which also move away from the need to
have outcome-based examinations. To summarise, these include:
 group presentations
 individual presentations
 tripartite assessment
 portfolios
 self-assessment
 peer assessment
 viva voce examinations
 reflective (online) journal
 reports
 examinations
 electronic assessment
Module 7: Problem-Based Learning

1) Group presentations: Students can be asked to take on a role or work within

a particular context or scenario, ideally one that is as authentic as possible.
These may be difficult to mark and it needs to be made clear what is being
assessed; content or process or some combination of both.

2) Individual presentations: Students are asked to present the components of

work they have researched for their contribution to the overall solution or
management of the problem scenario.

3) Tripartite assessment: Firstly, the group submits a report for which they
receive a mark. Secondly, the individual submits the piece of work they
researched. Finally the individual writes an account of the group process that
is linked to the theory of group work. These three components are added
together to form the overall individual mark. The advantage of this is that it
does not privilege some students who do less work and an individual student
will be responsible for gaining two-thirds of the marks and therefore most
students perceive this kind of grading as being fair.

4) Portfolios: These can be unwieldy if not managed well and may be difficult to
mark. They are fine if they are well designed. Portfolios have been used in a
number of programmes that educate students for the professions. In recent
years the requirements for these have been refined away from a vast quantity
of materials towards a more concise version that offers greater reflection and
criticality than before. Students should also be required to draw out
conclusions and synthesise the materials contained in the portfolio.

5) Self-Assessment: This works well with enquiry and Problem-based Learning,

but students must be equipped to undertake it through explanation and
experiencing the learning benefits on small tasks, before engaging in large
activities where marks „count‟. Self-assessment allows students to think more
carefully about what they do and do not know, and what they additionally
need to know to accomplish certain tasks (see Self-Assessment Form below).

6) Peer Assessment and Feedback:. Learning as it more closely replicates the

team-based situations in which most professionals will find themselves in the
future. This kind of assessment emphasises the cooperative or collaborative
nature of the PBL environment. However, many students find it difficult to
adapt to this approach having come from a more competitive, individualised
school environment.

7) Viva Voce Examinations: This is effectively and widely used in PBL.

However, they are best done in practice situations and, although they are very
effective, they can be costly, time consuming and extremely stressful for the
student. A major benefit is that they do allow the assessor to ask follow-up
questions, which is not possible in more formal, written formats.

8) Reflective Journal: (which may be online): Students hand them in or post

them online each week and receive a mark at the end of each term/semester.
Students tend to be more open and honest about their learning than one would
Module 7: Problem-Based Learning

expect and these can be criterion referenced. They might also be linked to
other electronic communications activities such as conferencing or providing
feedback to peers.

9) Reports: Written communication is an important skill for students to acquire.

Requiring written reports allows students to practice this form of
communication, particularly if the word allowance is short and it is used in the
final year, as it can promote succinct, critical pieces of work. Alternatively,
students might be asked to provide an Executive Summary for assessment,
accompanied by a portfolio of supplementary back-up evidence which could
be sampled rather than marked in full.

10) Examinations: Examinations need to be problem-based examinations. The

students should engage in pre-examination activities which reflect the type of
learning activities they have experienced previously, including working in
groups. Treat the examination as a time-constrained activity (anything from 30
minutes to a week) where the students may have to work individually with
new data or scenarios and have to make sense of the new situation. The
students should not have to do „revision‟ in the traditional sense of learning by
rote, though they will have to prepare for the examination. A second challenge
would be to have students spending a substantial proportion of the time
thinking, working with ideas and not simply writing down the facts they have
remembered.

11) Electronic Assessment: These approaches are becoming increasingly more

sophisticated and can be used for simulations, scenarios and other time-
constrained activities, often linked to a virtual learning environment providing
access to a range of resources and communications opportunities.
Module 7: Problem-Based Learning

SUMMARY

 Problem-based learning is a teaching method, in which students meet together

in a small group with a tutor to discuss a set problem.

 Students independently research and gather information that confirms or

disconfirms their hypotheses and generate new understandings. PBL has been
described as “learning that results from working with problems”.

 Problem-based learning began in the medical school at McMasters University

in Canada in the 1970s.

 The aim of PBL is to encourage active learning, construct knowledge, develop

reasoning skills, enhance self-directed learning, promote collaborative
learning, increase motivation and adopt a multidisciplinary approach.

 The PBL process: explanation, problem definition, brainstorming, group

meeting, reading & research, re-examination and report.

 Role of the tutor: facilitate, monitor, encourage reflection, activate prior

knowledge, prompt, make connections, check understanding and others.

 Role of student: respect, communication skills, self-awareness and

responsibility.

 Various types of learning resources should be provided for student: books,

articles, journal articles, reports, web resources (graphics, video clips, audio
clips) and others.

 Assessment of PBL include the following: group presentations, individual

presentations, tripartite assessment, portfolios, self-assessment, peer
assessment, viva voce examinations, reflective (online) journal, reports,
examinations and electronic assessment

 Assessment of PBL should focus on authentic though traditional assessment

techniques such as examinations may be used.

KEY TERMS

Problem-based learning Active learning Brainstorm

Tutor Trigger Learning resources
Facilitates Scenario Authentic assessment
Module 7: Problem-Based Learning

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