GREEN ROOF DESIGN AND PRACTICES:

A CASE OF DELHI

A thesis submitted to the

College of Architecture and Environmental Design
of Kent State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Masters of Architecture

By

Rohini Srivastava

August 2011
 Thesis written by
Rohini Srivastava

B.Arch., Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, 2007

M.Arch., Kent State University, 2011

Approved by

-------------------------------------, Advisor
Adil Sharag Eldin

-------------------------------------, Interim Associate Dean

Jonathan Fleming

-------------------------------------, Dean, College of Architecture and Environmental Design

Douglas Steidl
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………...iii

LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………vi

LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………..ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………….x

CHAPTER
1. GREY TO GREEN: A STRATEGY FOR DELHI ............................................... 1
1.1 Prelude .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Indian Architecture .............................................................................. 2
1.1.2 Green roofs – a sustainable Practice for Delhi .................................... 6
1.1.3 Office buildings ................................................................................... 7
1.2 Problem Statement ....................................................................................... 9
1.3 Objectives ................................................................................................... 10
1.4 Method........................................................................................................ 10
1.5 Scope .......................................................................................................... 11

2. AN INTRODUCTION TO GREEN ROOFS ...................................................... 14

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 14
2.2 Background ................................................................................................ 14
2.2.1 History of Roof Gardens ................................................................... 15
2.2.2 The Development of Green Roofs..................................................... 17
2.2.3 Contemporary use.............................................................................. 18
2.3 Green Roof Systems ................................................................................... 20
2.4 Green roof system components .................................................................. 23
2.4.1 Structural Layer ................................................................................. 23
2.4.2 Growing Media.................................................................................. 27
2.4.3 Vegetative Layer ............................................................................... 27
2.5 Benefit of a green roof installation ............................................................. 28
2.5.1 Storm water runoff management ....................................................... 29
2.5.2 Mitigation of Urban Heat Island ....................................................... 30
2.5.3 Habitat restoration and wildlife preservation .................................... 31
2.5.4 Roof life longevity............................................................................. 32
2.5.5 Aesthetic pleasure.............................................................................. 34
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 2.5.6 Food production ................................................................................ 35
2.5.7 Acoustic benefits ............................................................................... 36
2.5.8 Healthy work environment and Amenity value ................................ 36
2.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 37

3. THERMAL BENEFIT OF GREEN ROOFS- A CASE FOR DELHI ................ 39

3.1 Thermal benefits of green roof ................................................................... 39
3.2 Green Roofs for New Delhi........................................................................ 39
3.2.1 Climate of Delhi ................................................................................ 40
3.2.2 Best practices ..................................................................................... 42
3.3 A review of green roof studies ................................................................... 44
3.3.1 Mass Effect cooling ........................................................................... 44
3.3.2 Reduction of heat flux ....................................................................... 45
3.3.3 Evaporative cooling effect................................................................. 46
3.4 Green roof study for Delhi ......................................................................... 47
3.5 Need for further studies .............................................................................. 49

4. DETERMINING THE PARAMETERS.............................................................. 51

4.1 Aim of the Study ........................................................................................ 51
4.2 Preliminary study: heat gain through building envelope ........................... 51
4.2.1 Building Roof .................................................................................... 52
4.2.2 Openings………….. .......................................................................... 54
4.2.3 Findings……………. ........................................................................ 56
4.3 Green roof study for Delhi ......................................................................... 56
4.3.1 Green roof model description ............................................................ 57
4.3.2 Computational model ........................................................................ 58
4.3.3 Green roof simulation ........................................................................ 59
4.4 Discussion .................................................................................................. 70

5. ARCHITECTURAL APPLICATIONS .............................................................. 72

5.1 Green Roof design process ......................................................................... 72
5.2 Potential for green roofs in office buildings ............................................... 73
5.3 Green roof retrofit ...................................................................................... 74
5.3.1 Building Selection for the retrofit ..................................................... 75
5.3.2 Building description .......................................................................... 75

iv
 5.3.3 Green roof modeling ......................................................................... 78
5.3.4 Conclusion……. ................................................................................ 82
5.4 A case for new buildings ............................................................................ 84
5.4.1 Reduction in solar exposure .............................................................. 86
5.4.2 Lower level of solar gain ................................................................... 89
5.4.3 Resistance to heat transfer through the envelope .............................. 91
5.4.4 Increase heat loss through envelope using green roofs ..................... 92
5.5 Building Views ........................................................................................... 93
5.6 Cooling load benefit ................................................................................... 94
5.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 96

6. CONLUSIONS .................................................................................................... 97
6.1 Comparison of benefits with conventional roofs ....................................... 97
6.2 Summary of findings .................................................................................. 99
6.2.1 Building design.................................................................................. 99
6.2.2 Green roof components ................................................................... 100
6.3 Impact of the study ................................................................................... 101
6.4 Limitations................................................................................................ 102
6.5 Future work .............................................................................................. 103

APPENDIX
A. List of Vegetation………………………………………………………...104

REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………....107

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
1.1 The Jagadambi Temple, Khajuraho……………………………………….. 2
1.2 Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneswar…………………………………………… 2
1.3 Man Mandir, Rajput palace Gwalior………………………………………. 3
1.4 Diwan-i-Khas, Delhi………………………………………………………. 3
1.5 The Victoria Memorial Hall……………………………………………….. 3
1.6 A bungalow, New Delhi…………………………………………………… 4
1.7 A Bungalow, Ahmedabad…………………………………………………. 4
1.8 Chandigarh Capitol Complex……………………………………………… 4
1.9 Gandhi Labor Institute…………………………………………………….. 5
1.10 The India International Centre, New Delhi………………………………... 5
1.11 The Connaught Place area, New Delhi……………………………………. 5
1.12 Gateway Tower, Gurgaon…………………………………………………. 5
1.13 The average daily Heat flow through a vegetated and unvegetated roof….. 8
2.1 The section drawing of the Hanging Garden of Babylon.………………… 15
2.2 Roof garden of the papal palace Pienza…………………………………… 16
2.3 View of Hermitage roof Garden…………………………………………… 16
2.4 Derry and Toms Roof Garden…………………………………………….. 17
2.5 Sod house in Gothenberg, Nebraska………………………………………. 18
2.6 A house in Norway………………………………………………………… 18
2.7 MAG Shopping Mall roof…………………………………………………. 19
2.8 The School of Art and Design, Nanyang University Singapore…………... 20
2.9 Illustration of Green roof systems and an overview of their characteristics. 21
2.10 Green Roof Assembly……………………………………………………... 23
2.11 Extensive Green Roof System……………………………………………... 25
2.12 Image of a root barrier……………………………………………………... 25
2.13 Images of different kinds of drainage matting…………………………….. 26
2.14 Images of different types of filter fabrics………………………………….. 26
2.15 Evapo transpiration and Shading on a Green Roof………………………... 28
2.16 Section through a green roof designed showing wildlife benefit………….. 31

vi
2.17 The Ducks Unlimited National Headquarters and Conservation Center….. 32
2.18 Graph illustrating the surface temperature fluctuations on a green roof…... 33
2.19 Roof gardens outdoor space……………………………………………….. 34
2.20 Earth Pledge Kitchen Garden……………………………………………… 35
3.1 Map of India………………………………………………………………. 40
3.2 Temperature range for Delhi……………………………………………..... 41
3.3 All India annual mean temperature anomalies…………………………….. 42
3.4 Indoor air temperature variations………………………………………….. 48
4.1 Tested configuration with building openings on North and South Façade... 52
4.2 Plot of rise in air temperature of various floors of a four storey building…. 53
4.3 A Plot of solar gain through various floors of a four storey building……... 53
4.4 External Conduction gain of a four storey building with 15% wall opening 55
4.5 Solar Gain of a four storey building with a 2:3 building configuration…… 55
4.6 The energy balance for a green roof………………………………………. 58
4.7 Relation between data collected from DesignBuilder & Delhi study…….. 59
4.8 Used sign Conventions……………………………………………………. 59
4.9 Heat balance of the roof with various roofing materials for a 2:3 ratio….... 61
4.10 Heat Gain through the roof for various wall materials……………………. 62
4.11 Cooling loads for various building aspect ratios…………………………... 62
4.12 The optimal building orientation for Delhi………………………………... 63
4.13 The effect of variation in building orientation………………...…………... 64
4.14 Typical Green Roof construction…………………………………………. 64
4.15 Annual Heat Balance of green roof with varying growing media thickness 66
4.16 Annual Cooling requirement with varying growing media thickness…….. 66
4.17 Heat Gain through roof for varying plant height………………………….. 67
4.18 LAI assumption for foliage………………………………………………... 68
4.19 Heat Gain through roof for varying Leaf Area Indices……………………. 68
4.20 Annual Heat balance of a green roof for varying leaf albedos…………….. 69
4.21 The effect of varying stomatal resistances of the vegetation……………… 70
5.1 View of TCI office, Gurgaon……………………………………………… 76
5.2 Section through the central fountain court of TCI office, Gurgaon……….. 76

vii
5.3 East side elevation…………………………………………………………. 77
5.4 View of central court………………………………………………………. 77
5.5 South – West Elevation of TCI office……………………………………... 78
5.6 Comparison of heat balance of roof for TCI building……………………... 79
5.7 Comparison of energy consumption of the TCI building…………………. 79
5.8 Comparison between the fuel consumption of TCI building……………… 81
5.9 Comparison between the chiller electricity load of the TCI building……... 82
5.10 Comparison of the design cooling load for the top most floor of the TCI… 83
5.11 Passive techniques used…………………………………………………… 85
5.12 Stereographic diagram representing the Direct Solar Radiation…………... 86
5.13 The chosen orientation for the building…………………………………… 87
5.14 Study of solar radiation incident on various building configurations……... 88
5.15 Section through the light well highlighting the self shading character……. 89
5.16 Screen protecting the South West façade………………………………….. 90
5.17 The section through a green roof…………………………………………... 91
5.18 South West Building View showing the screens…..……………………… 93
5.19 West South Elevation…………………………………………………….. 94
5.20 East North Elevation……………………………………………………… 94
5.21 North West Elevation..……………………………………………………. 94
5.22 South East Elevation……………………………………………………… 94
5.23 Comparison of Design cooling load……………………………………….. 95

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

1-1 The contribution of land cover in residential and non residential areas……… 7
2-1 Green roof system attributes …………………………………………………. 22
2-2 Influence of substrate depth on rainfall runoff ………………………….......... 30
2-3 Public & private benefits of Green roofs depending on scale ……………….. 37
3-1 Identification of best Passive Cooling & Heating strategies for New Delhi….. 43
6-1 A comparison of benefit between a green roof and a conventional roof……… 98

ix
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank my thesis advisor, Dr. Adil Sharag Eldin, for the intellectual support, and

creation of an environment of learning and growth, and patience through the course of

my studies at the Kent State University.

I would like to extend my gratitude to Prof. Jonathan Fleming for his continued

educational support and encouragement from the early stages of this study.

I am thankful to Dr. Oscar Rocha and the Department of Biological Sciences for

providing valuable guidance and insight into the biological aspect of this investigation.

Lastly, I am extremely grateful to my parents, family and friends for their constant

support during the course of this thesis and my studies at the Kent State University.

x
 1

CHAPTER 1

GREY TO GREEN: A STRATEGY FOR DELHI

1.1 Prelude

In the Indian culture it is believed that the processes of the cosmos are directly related to

the human existence and that influence can be seen in the architecture (Gast, 2007).

People have been respectful of their environment for centuries and this integration can be

seen in the building tradition. Typical principles include climate responsive design, use of

local and sustainable materials, water harvesting and others, all of which have been

refined over time. With increase in the development of housing and commercial

buildings, designing with the environment is often disregarded leading to immense

pressure on energy resources, water, land, air and degradation of the environment.

The ninth Plan of the Government of India attempts to address the issue and stresses the

improvement of urban areas as economically efficient, socially equitable and

environmentally sustainable entities (Majumdar, 2001). Often this is not achieved, as

growth and spread of cities requires the replacement of forests and green areas of the

urban center by buildings, concrete roads, and parking lots. Presence of hard surfaces,

along with loss of vegetative cover results in alteration of water and air quality, creation

of Urban Heat Island, increase in pollution levels and increased energy Consumption

(Cantor, 2008). The introduction of vegetation in the urban fabric may help to mitigate

these ill effects but space limitations around a building often pose a restriction.

Vegetation may be superimposed onto the horizontal and vertical surfaces of the
 2

building. Green roofs and walls respond to this opportunity and can bring green spaces

into urban areas while offering thermal benefits and energy savings for the user.

1.1.1 Indian Architecture

Sustainable design techniques and various socio cultural determinants of the nation have

contributed to the plurality and unique architecture of India (Gast, 2007). The absence of

a centralized rule in ancient India and coexistence of various schools of thought like

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism shaped the architectural vocabulary (Lopez, 2003). The

cave and stone architecture (figure 1.1, 1.2) utilize local materials and were determined

by the cosmological connotations, myth and discourse (Gast, 2007).

Figure 1.1: The Jagadambi Temple, Khajuraho (Tillotson, 1990) Figure 1.2: Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneswar
(Lang, Desai, & Desai, 1997)

With the coming of the Persians in the 7th Century A.D much of that changed and a sense

of opulence and ostentations marked the building practices (Cooper & Dawson, 1998).

This continued until the Mughal period and the emergence of a new movement called the

Indo Islamic style. The architectural style incorporated Islamic and pre Islamic

expression into the architectural vocabulary (Evenson, 1989). An example of this is the

Moghul Emperor Akbar’s city of Fatehpur Sikri, where vernacular expressions were
 3

adapted into Islamic vocabulary as a climate responsive strategy. The inclusion of deep

overhangs (figure 1.3), courts (figure 1.4) and water bodies helped achieve a cooling

effect (Lopez, 2003).

Figure 1.3: Deep overhang overlooking the courtyard of Man Mandir, Rajput palace Gwalior (Tillotson, 1990)
Figure 1.4: The shaded interiors of the Diwan-i-Khas, Delhi overlooking the court (Tillotson, 1990)

The arrival of the European colonialists in the 17th century coincided with the decline of

the Mughal era and revival of Hinduism (Gast, 2007). The architecture became a

statement of imperial power with its grandeur and stylistic elements borrowed from the

Christian religion and European Classicism. Modern thought, brought by the British,

included a new vocabulary of materials, technology, methods and processes.

Construction during this time was an adaptation of the Indian form in the colonial works

brought from Europe (figure 1.5) (Evenson, 1989).

Figure 1.5: The Victoria Memorial Hall (now National Art Gallery), Chennai contains elements from the Indian
and colonial styles (Lang, et al., 1997).
 4

In major centers like Delhi colonial domestic and administrative building incorporated

the Graeco Roman classical tradition with the north Indian Haveli. The Anglo- Indian

style was used for government offices, schools, colleges and the bungalow (Evenson,

1989). The distinct Bungalow architecture (figure 1.6, 1.7) developed as a response to hot

climate of the region. By integrating covered verandahs of the traditional house into the

Bungalow private courtyards transformed into semi-public verandah for summer cooling.

Figure 1.6: A bungalow, New Delhi; Figure 1.7: A Bungalow, Ahmadabad (Lang, et al., 1997)
(Lang, et al., 1997) showing the wide usage of flat roofs during the colonist era.

Post independence Le Corbusier’s design for the city of Chandigarh (figure 1.8) became

the symbol of modern Indian architecture and exploration for a national identity. The

climate responsive principles like extended overhangs and deep recesses lent a new

architectural vocabulary.

Figure 1.8: Chandigarh Capitol Complex (Bhatt & Scriver, 1990)

 5

In the 1980’s, modernism expressed the realities of Indian society. Many architects felt it

needed to be appropriated to the Indian context. Practitioners like Charles Correa,

Balkrishna Doshi, J.A Stein (figure 1.9,1.10) attempted to incorporate ‘Indianness’ into

modern architecture to bring about ‘modern Indian architecture’ (Gast, 2007).

Figure 1.9: Gandhi Labor Institute by B.V Doshi Figure 1.10: The India International Centre, New Delhi
(Lang, et al., 1997) by Stein(Lang, et al., 1997)

In 1991, the liberalization of the economy influenced urban Indian architecture (Gast,

2007). The Indian economy was allowed to integrate with global realities and demand,

supply and profitability became the determinants of architecture. Economic globalization

and the affluence of the industrialists translated into glass and aluminum facades (figure

1.11, 1.12) with universalized expressions of corporate and retail buildings leading to

unsustainable building practices. Indiscriminate use of glass led to greater reliance on

mechanical air conditioning and energy consumption. Leading to inclusion of concepts of

sustainability and energy efficient building design, that trend continues today.

Figure 1.11: The Connaught Place area, New Delhi (author) Figure 1.12: Gateway Tower, Gurgaon
 6

1.1.2 Green Roofs – a Sustainable Practice for Delhi

Green building initiatives have popularized the use of green roofs as a strategy to

minimize the negative environmental impact of buildings on ecosystems. Green roof is an

environmental, social and economical use of the building roof. Green roofs may be

installed at any height with an access provided for its maintenance. The planted spaces,

may be used to provide human enjoyment and environmental enhancement or energy

savings for the users (Osmundson, 1999).

Green roofs which are also known as eco roofs, planted roofs or vegetated roofs may be

beneficial for an individual building or a number of buildings at the urban scale, due to

the various benefits they offer. Vegetated roofs shade and prevent incoming solar

radiation from reaching the structure below (Castleton, Stovin, Beck, & Davison, 2010),

regulate the internal climate of the building by insulating it against extremes of climate

(Niachou & al, 2001), and provide a cooling effect through evaporation of water from its

vegetative and soil surfaces (Barrio, 1998). By reducing the heat flux through the roof,

cooling load and energy consumption of the building may be lowered, leading to

monetary savings for the owner.

At the urban scale, green roofs reduce the impact of urbanization, through filtration;

purification of air and percolation of moisture (Cantor, 2008). One study used

computational modeling technique to estimate this thermal benefit. It was estimated that

green roofs if placed on 50-60% of rooftops in densely populated cities may reduce the

summertime temperature substantially (Luckett, 2009). Cooler cities during peak demand

hours help reduce energy consumption and lower carbon emission levels (Weiler &

Barth, 2009).
 7

As rooftops make up a significant percentage of the reflective, non vegetated surfaces in

cities (table 1-1) (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008) and because green roofs utilize these

areas, their impact may be substantial in Delhi, the eighth largest metropolitan area in the

world (United Nations, 2009). Vegetated roofs may introduce green areas into urban

areas that would otherwise be devoid of greenery.

Table 1-1:The contribution of roof, pavement and vegetation land cover in residential and non residential areas
(Chicago, Houston, Salt Lake City and Sacramento) from Wong (2005)

Residential areas Non residential areas

Roofs 21-26% 21-24%
Pavements 28-32% 37-52%
Grass 30-43% 11-24%
Other 6-16% 10-17%
Trees 11-22% 4-12%
Total roof+pavement 50-56% 60-71%
Total grass+trees 48-54% 16-30%

The climate of Delhi also provides an opportunity to benefit from the cooling properties

of the green roof which are greatest in hot climates when the rate of evaporation is

highest. The energy savings and financial advantage from lower energy bills, apart from

the addition of green spaces into dense urban areas make green roofs a favorable passive

cooling strategy for Delhi.

1.1.3 Office buildings

When green roof design is considered for office buildings, Vegetated roofs may serve a

variety of functions and range of users. Planted roofs at the individual and the

organizational level may become places of recreation for the executives and workers and

areas for the entertainment of clients. Green roofs provide a unique identity to the office

by serving as visual amenities that detract from roof views (Osmundson, 1999). The

increase in workforce and improvement of office space design, the workspace may

accommodate for areas where users may relax and recharge with the visual assistance.
 8

Plants on the roof make use of the sun’s energy which keeps the upper floors cooler and

lowers outer surface temperatures and heat gain through the roof membrane. A low rise

building with a high roof to wall ratio benefits the most from a green roof compared to a

high rise building that loses energy through the building envelope and glazing (Weiler &

Barth, 2009). Since the cooling effect is greater on buildings with roof exposure or upper

floors of taller buildings, internal load dominated buildings can benefit from the thermal

load reduction. Medium sized office buildings fall in this category as they have relatively

large roof footprints compared to residential units.

By lowering indoor temperatures, green roofs may be able to reduce the energy

consumption and air conditioning costs in office buildings. This may be significant for

internal load dominated office buildings as they rely on mechanical cooling. In a study by

Environment Canada for a typical one storey building with a grass roof in Toronto a 25%

reduction in summer cooling loads compared to reference bare roof was observed (figure

1.13) (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). Another study at the National research council of

Canada over a two year period in Toronto revealed that living roofs were effective in

reducing indoor temperature. The daily maximum temperature underneath the green roof

was lower than membrane temperature of the bituminous reference roof.

Figure 1.13: The average daily Heat flow through a vegetated and unvegetated roof in Toronto, Canada between
January 2001 and December 2001(Nigel Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008)
 9

A major reason for the popularity of the green roof is the contribution they make to the

building insulation and energy savings. The first known study that recognized this

thermal benefit of a green roof was carried out in the late 1970s. Research by Prof Hans

Joachim Liesecke (at the institute for Green Planning and Garden Architecture,

University of Hannover) and by Dr Walter Kolb (at the Bavarian Institute for Viticulture

and Horticulture at Vietshochheim) established thermal load reduction, energy

conservation and reduction in the rate of storm water runoff achieved by the use of green

roofs (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). Apart from the thermal advantage, green roof

plants purify the air (Peck, 2008) and provide protection to the roof membrane by

reducing the direct solar exposure. Planted roofs may also impart a visual character to the

building roof and become complementary addition to the fundamentals of office design

identified by Kohn and Katz in 1900’s that are relevant today. Through the addition of a

green roof the needs of the individual employee, functioning of the organization and the

identity of the company within the building may be enhanced (Kohn & Katz, 2002).

1.2 Problem Statement

This thesis argues that green roofs play a critical role in reducing energy costs and

improving air quality in urban areas. The reduction is achieved by the increase in heat

capacity and shade provided to the building roof. The lower ambient temperatures and

heat gain through the roof may provide comfort to the occupants as the temperature

reduction decreases the need for mechanical cooling.

Past studies on planted roofs have established the thermal benefits in extreme climates by

emphasizing the reduction achieved in winter heating (Niachou & al, 2001) and summer
 10

cooling (Kumar & Kaushik, 2005). Theoretical models that relied on the analysis of

planted roofs specifically the growing medium (Eumorfopoulou & Aravantions, 1998)

and the canopy layer (Barrio, 1998) were used to estimate the cooling effect of green

roofs. The lack of experimental data for other climates such as composite climates, make

it difficult to evaluate the suitability of green roofs as a heat mitigation strategy for Delhi.

An assessment of a green roof’s performance in a composite climate is thus required to

quantify the energy savings. Computer simulations can account for the difference in

climate and variation in factors affecting the performance. The data collected will assist

designers in their future decisions and establish the role of green roof as a passive cooling

strategy for the region.

1.3 Objectives

The objectives of this study were manifold and a series of simulations were designed to

1. Evaluate the performance of a green roof in composite climate;

2. Establish factors that affect the performance of the green roof;

3. Assess the building energy savings and potential for a green roof retrofit in an

existing office building in Delhi

4. Use the findings from the previous sections as guidelines and develop a new office

design that had similar area, height and program requirements as the existing office

building that was modeled for the green roof retrofit.

1.4 Method

The comparison of heat gain and loss represented by the heat balance of a green roof and

a reference non vegetated roof was the beginning point for the study that helped establish
 11

the role of green roofs as a heat mitigating strategy for Delhi. Following this, the study

was carried out in two steps. In the first step, a thermal evaluation of the green roof based

on the factors that affect its performance was conducted. Parameters for evaluation were

identified through a literature review and followed up by computer simulations. The

modeling was done using EnergyPlus module in Design Builder software. The

simulations responded to a change in orientation, building configuration, construction

materials and foliage characteristics (height of plants, leaf area Index).

In the second part, architectural applications of green roofs were explored. For this, a

vegetated roof was modeled on an existing office building and the energy savings

recorded. Analysis of the heat balance of the roof for (1) with the green roof installation

and (2) without the green roof, concluded that green roofs alone may not lead to lower

heat gains and energy saving, building the case for a new office design. The new design

had requirements similar to the existing office (similar floor area, building height) and

was designed by incorporating findings from the first phase of the study and passive

strategies identified. On the basis of the results, observations guidelines were created for

future use.

1.5 Scope

This study is comprised of the evaluation and creation of guidelines for the use of

vegetated roofing systems in composite climates. The thesis is divided into three parts; in

the first part various green roof systems and their benefits are highlighted. The second

deals with the effect of different parameters on the performance of a green roof in Delhi

and the last section highlights the architectural application of green roofs in offices.
 12

Chapter 2 introduces the various green roofs concepts and traces their evolution from the

ancient past to the present reflecting that green roofs are not a new technology but a part

of ancient traditional practices. This chapter also describes contemporary green roof

systems and components along with the numerous benefits a green roof installation

offers.

Chapter 3 explores possibility of utilizing the thermal benefits of a green roof installation

for Delhi. Apart from a basic description of the climate, best passive practices for Delhi

have been identified. Through a detailed literature review it was also established that

green roofs incorporate passive strategies that are suitable for Delhi.

Chapter 4 discusses the simulation result of green roof systems modeled on a medium

size office in Delhi. The effect of varying several parameters such as orientation, building

materials, aspect ratio and foliage characteristics on the performance of the green roof

was studied and analyzed using the computer software Design Builder.

Chapter 5 demonstrates the architectural application of green roofs. The chapter has been

organized through a twofold approach; the first, deals with the application of a green roof

on an existing office building. The energy savings and reduction in fuel consumption

were noted by modeling a green roof on the existing building. The second, develops

guidelines for future use, demonstrated through design of an office building with similar

requirements (building program, area and height) as the existing office that was used for

the green roof retrofit modeling. The new office plan incorporates the passive practices

for Delhi (like a green roofs, shading, addition of thermal mass etc.) to increase the

energy savings and demonstrate how building design may impact in a total design

approach in lowering the thermal loads compared to the use of green roofs alone.
 13

Chapter 6 concludes the study with the evaluation of the green roof system in a

composite climate. It summarizes the findings from the previous section and proposes

guidelines for future practice.

Appendix A lists the vegetation that may be used on green roof installation in Delhi.
 14

CHAPTER 2

AN INTRODUCTION TO GREEN ROOFS

2.1 Introduction

Green roofs and roof gardens are terms that are often used interchangeably when

referring to a roof that supports vegetation. Professionals, however, draw a distinction

between the two types (Werthmann, 2007); roof gardens are installed for the access and

enjoyment of people. They are also costly to build, require intensive maintenance and are

heavy in weight due to the deep soil profiles. In contrast, green roofs are lightweight with

thin soil profiles and minimal maintenance requirements. They are cheaper to construct

as they are installed for environmental performance and visual improvement only. The

origin of green roofs can be traced back to the vernacular architecture of various regions,

while roof gardens have been documented as being built by the affluent class since

ancient times (Osmundson, 1999). Both green roofs and roof gardens have influenced the

modern day green roofing system.

2.2 Background

For centuries it has been common to use rooftops as a living space and as an extension of

the interior. In hot and cold climates vegetated roofs have been a means of protection

from the extreme weather (Luckett, 2009). Vegetation on the roof not only provides

insulation to the buildings but also additional thermal mass on the roof which offers

protection from fluctuations in weather. Soil covered huts in warm climates of Tanzania

are known to have reduced summer cooling requirements (Werthmann, 2007) while

Northern European countries are protected from the cold (Weiler & Barth, 2009). It was
 15

however, the development of new building materials; construction techniques that

encouraged use of greenery on flat roofs.

2.2.1 History of Roof Gardens

The first known historical reference to a roof garden above grade is for the stone temples

in the region of Mesopotamia (Werthmann, 2007). Civilizations in Mesopotamia built

roof gardens thousands of years ago on the landings of Ziggurats, or stepped pyramids.

The plantings of trees and shrubs softened the climb, provided shade and relief from the

heat (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008).

The next known successor to the roof gardens are the Hanging Gardens of Babylon built

by the Persians around the 500 B.C (Weiler & Barth, 2009). The roof gardens along with

being a visual delight cooled the hot landscapes and provided greenery (figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1 The section drawing of the Hanging Garden of Babylon, circa 500 B.C based on archeologist Robert
Koldewey’s description. From ROOF GARDENS: HISTORY, DESIGN, AND CONSTRUCTION by Theodore
Osmundson. Copyright © 1999 by Theodore Osmundson. Used by permission of W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, there were additional demands from the roof

gardens and that was to meet the demands of Christian ecclesiastical architecture and

wealthy families of the era (Osmundson, 1999). Palazzo Piccolomini, Pienza, Italy

(figure 2.2) and the Cloister garden at Mont-Saint-Michel at France are classic examples

of roof gardens that remain today (Osmundson, 1999). In Russia, under the czarist rule,

roof gardens were considered a luxury by the nobility. Catherine II of Russia (1729-96)
 16

commissioned the famous roof garden on the Winter Palace (figure 2.3) in Saint

Petersburg (Osmundson, 1999)

Figure 2.2: Roof garden of the papal palace, Pienza overlooking the river valley
Figure 2.3 The view of the Hermitage roof garden in the Winter Palace
Images from ROOF GARDENS: HISTORY, DESIGN, AND CONSTRUCTION by Theodore Osmundson.
Copyright © 1999 by Theodore Osmundson. Used by permission of W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

However it was the development of concrete as a roofing material in the mid 1800’s that

lead to widespread creation of rooftop gardens. Planners, architects of the time

envisioned cities with roof gardens on flat concrete roofs. The World Exhibition in Paris

1867 was one of the first demonstrations of a planted concrete roof in Western Europe

(Nigel Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). Created by Karl Rabbitz it was considered a

breakthrough in addressing issues related to modern day green roof gardens, like

waterproofing, drainage (Osmundson, 1999). Thereafter, apartments with planted

terraces, gardens and restaurants with roof gardens followed all over the world. Frank

Lloyd Wright, Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier further popularized the use roof gardens by

using them extensively in their buildings. Corbusier even included them in his five

elements towards a new architecture (Werthmann, 2007).

In the twentieth century, use of roof gardens was promoted through the modernist

movement. Roof gardens and terraces fulfilled the demand for a habitable outdoor space

at the roof level and at the same time alleviated the lack of hygienic green spaces
 17

associated with heavily urbanized areas (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). Gardens built

in the 1930s like The Derry and Toms garden (figure 2.4) in the Kensington section of

London and the gardens atop the Rockefeller Center roof in New York still influence

modern roof gardens (Osmundson, 1999).

Figure 2.4: The Spanish Garden at Derry and Toms Roof Garden. From ROOF GARDENS: HISTORY,
DESIGN, AND CONSTRUCTION by Theodore Osmundson. Copyright © 1999 by Theodore Osmundson. Used
by permission of W.W. Norton & Company, Inc

By end of the twentieth century, green roofs gained more importance as they offered

various advantages over conventional roofs and old buildings could benefit too.

2.2.2 The Development of Green Roofs

The popularity of modern day green roofs can be traced to the European countries where

environmentalists, radical groups and scientific research utilized the technology of the

time to develop green roof installations. Known to exist for centuries, in form of Sod

roofs in Scandinavia, vegetated roofs provided extra warmth and insulation in the cold,

wet climate (Snodgrass & Mclntyre, 2010). However the susceptibility to leaking,

extensive maintenance and frequent replacement, lead to eventual rejection of sod roofs

(figure 2.5, 2.6) in favor of new leak proof construction techniques.

 18

Figure 2.5: Sod house in Gothenberg, Nebraska

Figure 2.6: A house in Norway where roofs have been covered with sod for centuries.
Images from ROOF GARDENS: HISTORY, DESIGN, AND CONSTRUCTION by Theodore Osmundson.
Copyright © 1999 by Theodore Osmundson. Used by permission of W.W. Norton & Company, Inc

Other vernacular examples have been recorded in the traditional houses of tropical

regions of China and Japan. The summer rainfall was often damaging for the region, but

increase in summer humidity levels supported the growth of vegetation on roofs. Plant

roots helped in bonding and strengthening of the structure (Nagase, 2008) and protected

the thatch from washing away. Development of modern building materials reduced the

number of traditional green roofs as new roof assemblies were cheaper, easy to construct

and required less maintenance.

2.2.3 Contemporary use

Contemporary use of green roofs is often attributed to the development of modern

building materials and techniques, however the scarcity of land in northern Europe

popularized their use (Werthmann, 2007). In late 1960s groups involved in the counter-

culture movement of Germany experimented with new ways of living, which can be

described as ‘greening the city rooftops’ movement (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008).

Ecologists as well as writers, artists visualized what cities of the future would look like

with enormous amounts of greenery. They imagined tower blocks with greenery; flat

surfaces planted and plants hanging from balconies, rooftops. This accompanied by
 19

publication of books and articles on roof greening in the early 1970’s, created awareness

about the benefits of green roof systems (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008).

Today green roofs are being installed in many regions of the world depending on the

climate, culture and environmental reasons. In Europe where population is densely

concentrated, green roofs are designed as recreational open spaces (figure 2.7), in the

form of plazas and playgrounds over underground parking garages (Weiler & Barth,

2009). In this regard, Germany has been the center of green roof development throughout

the world for a considerable period. The rapid urban development led to loss of

vegetative cover in German cities and the green roofs compensated for the loss of

landscape. In England, eco roofs are designed to provide habitat for bird species in

populated areas (Gedge, 2003). In contrast, green roofs in North America are installed for

economical reasons, as a strategy for reducing energy consumption and long term savings

for the owner (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008).

Figure 2.7: A public park on top of a shopping mall; the MAG Shopping Mall roof, Geilingen, Germany (N.
Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008)

In hot humid climate of South East Asia and parts of South America, roof greening is

done to mitigate Urban Heat Island Effect (UHI).There is a growing interest in Singapore
 20

(figure 2.8) and Japan for the use of green roofs to overcome UHI and to provide green

spaces for the public (Weiler & Barth, 2009). The Japanese government has introduced a

requirement that new buildings with more than 10,760 ft² floor space should have 20% of

roof covered with vegetation (Nigel Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). The introduction of

new ordinances has popularized green roof installations. In Mexico, research is being

undertaken to counter the environmental problems experienced by Mexico City, one of

the largest metropolitan areas in the world (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008).

Figure 2.8: The School of Art and Design, Nanyang University Singapore. Photograph by Sidonie Carpenter (N.
Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008)

Multiple benefits offered by green roofs make them a favorable passive technique in

various geographic locations. Before these benefits may be understood, an understanding

of the green roof components and systems will help capitalize on the advantages offered.

2.3 Green Roof Systems

Traditional roof gardens restricted the planting to containers and planters or used a layer

of ordinary soil spread on the roof (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). The contemporary

roof greening systems are however much advanced as they use organic matter instead of
 21

soil for the plant growth. The modern green roofs are categorized by the substrate or

growing media depth (Table 2-1 and figure 2.9). There are three types of systems -

intensive (deep), semi-intensive (moderate depth) and extensive (shallow) (NCRA,

2007). These categories are derived from the contemporary German tradition of green

roofs (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008).

Figure 2.9: Illustration of Green roof systems and an overview of their characteristics. (Werthmann, 2007)

Intensive green roof systems use a wide variety of plant species. Designed to provide

access to people, they support a variety of vegetation from trees and shrubs to herbaceous

planting and lawns. Soil depth is at least 0.25 meter (10”) to support the various plant

species (Fig 2.9 describes the various green roof system along with their characteristics).

Saturated weight for intensive green is approximately 244.1 kg/m² (50 lb/sq ft) and varies

thereafter (NCRA, 2007). Intensive roofs are maintained on a rigorous level (Weiler &

Barth, 2009) and have more organic growing medium.

Semi intensive green roof systems use a combination of plant species that include small

shrubs, grasses and herbs and are limited to low slope structure of 2:12 or less (NCRA,

2007). A medium growth layer from 0.15 m (6”) to 0.25 m (10”) is required for plant
 22

propagation. Semi intensive green roof systems require less regular maintenance than an

intensive system but are limited in plant selection due to shallower soil depths. Their

saturated weights start at 170.9 kg/m² (35 lb/sq ft) and vary from there.

Extensive roofs are green roofs that are not meant for recreational use, but are intended to

be ‘ecological’. Such green roofs provide greenery on the building roof and help preserve

biodiversity at that height by providing natural habitat for plants, birds and insects.

Extensive roofs have a narrower range of plant species limited to herbs, low growing

grasses, mosses and drought tolerant succulents such as sedum (NCRA, 2007). Substrate

depths are relatively thin between 0.05 m (2”) to 0.15 m (6”) which are significantly

lower than intensive roofs (Peck, 2008). Saturated weights for extensive green roof

system are approximately in the range of 48.8 – 170.9 kg/m² (10-35 lb/sq ft). Extensive

green roofs do not require regular input of resources like water, labor as required by an

intensive roof and can be designed for steeper slopes (greater than 2:12) (NCRA, 2007).

These systems can often be installed on existing buildings without additional structural

costs and alterations, but an engineering analysis of the structure must be performed.

Careful selection of plants and growth medium ensures the success of a green roof

installation. Table 2-1 summarizes the characteristics of intensive, semi – intensive and

extensive green roof systems based on the green roof components like the growing media

and vegetation layer.

Table 2-1: Green roof system attributes. Courtesy of: Green Roofs for Healthy Cities (Peck, 2008)

Extensive Semi- Intensive Intensive

Depth of Growing Medium 0.15 m or less (6”) 25% above or below More than 0.15 m (6”)
0.15 m (6”)
Full Saturated weight 48.8 – 170.9 kg/m² 170.9 – 244.1 kg/m² 244.1 – 1,464.7 kg/m²
(10-35 lb/sq ft) (35-50 lb/sq ft) (50-300 lb/sq ft)
Plant Diversity Low Greater Greatest
 23

2.4 Green roof system components

Green roofs consist of both horticultural elements and traditional roofing components.

There are three distinct layers in a green roof from the bottom (Barrio, 1998) – elements

that provide structural integrity; an engineered growing medium (which may or may not

include soil) and the plant canopy (components selected as per particular application).

Figure (2.10) illustrates the various components in a green roof system.

1. Roof Deck,
Insulation,
waterproofing
2. Protection Layer –
root barrier
3. Drainage Layer
4. Root permeable
filter layer
5. Growing Media
6. Vegetation, Plants

Figure 2.1: Green Roof Assembly showing the various layers (Snodgrass & Mclntyre, 2010)

2.4.1 Structural Layer

The components of the structural layer consist of the roof deck (Snodgrass & Mclntyre,

2010); the protection layer to contain the roots and growing medium, while allowing

water penetration; a drainage layer and retention layer (sometimes with built in water

reservoirs); a root repellant filter layer (made up of filter mats to protect the growth

media from moving); along with the waterproofing membrane (Peck, 2008).

(i) Roof Deck, waterproofing and insulation - The most important layer on a green roof is

its decking, which can be concrete, wood, metal, plastic, gypsum or composite as it
 24

determines whether the structure is capable of taking the load of the green roof (Cantor,

2008). Installation of a green roof requires additional structural support based on the

increase in dead and live load (due to the growth medium); additional water retention.

Buildings with concrete decks are excellent contenders for green roofs as they can take

the additional weight of the green roofs and do not require extra support which is

otherwise for waterproofing a metal deck (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). A reliable

waterproofing layer and insulation on the deck (figure 2.11) contribute towards the

success of a green roof installation.

Waterproofing - The primary purpose of waterproofing is to keep the unwanted moisture

from rain and condensation away from the structure below. The waterproofing membrane

is the primary protective element of the slab and is typically below all the components of

a green roof system (figure 2.11) (Weiler & Barth, 2009). There are three major roofing

types for roofs – Built up membrane, single ply membrane and Fluid applied membrane

(Osmundson, 1999). It is important that selection of waterproofing membrane is in

accordance with specification of other components within the green roof system.

Insulation – The roof is the primary location for heat transfer and the insulation restricts

the transfer of heat energy through the roof by creating a barrier between spaces of

different temperature (Osmundson, 1999). The insulation acts as a thermal break and

reduces condensation on surfaces that are exposed to both hot and cold on opposite sides

(N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). Green roof systems add mass and insulation over the

structural decking, but cannot replace the insulation because their insulating properties

depend upon depth and moisture content of growing medium (Weiler & Barth, 2009).
 25

Figure 2.2: Extensive Green Roof System without insulation showing the roof deck, waterproofing membrane
(NCRA, 2007).

(ii) Protection Layer - As green roofs contain living and growing materials, a protection

layer and a root barrier are one of the most important elements of the assembly (Luckett,

2009). As roots grow they can penetrate the waterproofing membrane and create leak

locations. The root barrier (figure 2.12) placed above the membrane ensures that no roots

pass through and harm the membrane (NCRA, 2007). A protection course shields the

waterproofing membrane from damage after it has been installed.

Figure 2.3:Image of a root barrier (Weiler & Barth, 2009)

(iii) Drainage and retention Layer – A drainage course allows moisture to move laterally

through the green roof system. It prevents oversaturation, ensures root ventilation and

provides additional space for the roots to grow (figure 2.13). It is a porous, continuous
 26

layer over the entire roof surface just above the concrete slab (Snodgrass & Mclntyre,

2010). As moisture is essential for successful plant propagation, a moisture retention

layer retains or stores moisture for plant growth. It is an absorptive mat and which is

typically located above the drainage layer or above the aeration layer (NCRA, 2007).

Figure 2.4: Images of different kinds of drainage matting. From ROOF GARDENS: HISTORY, DESIGN, AND
CONSTRUCTION by Theodore Osmundson. Copyright © 1999 by Theodore Osmundson. Used by permission
of W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

(iv) Root Permeable filter Layer – The filter layer separates the growing medium from

the drainage layer and protects the medium from shifting and washing away. This layer

restricts the flow of fine soil particles and other contaminants while allowing water to

pass through freely to avoid clogging (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). They are often

made of tightly woven fabric and are in the form of filter cloth or mats (figure 2.14)

(Weiler & Barth, 2009).

Figure 2.5: Images of different types of filter fabrics used in a green roof installation. From ROOF GARDENS:
HISTORY, DESIGN, AND CONSTRUCTION by Theodore Osmundson. Copyright © 1999 by Theodore
Osmundson. Used by permission of W.W. Norton & Company, Inc
 27

2.4.2 Growing Media

The growing media or substrate in a green roof should strike a balance between good

moisture retention capacity and free draining properties of traditional soil (N. Dunnett &

Kingsbury, 2008). It should absorb and supply nutrients and retain its volume over time

to encourage plant growth. Traditionally, well drained sandy loam was used as the

growing medium for a green roof(Cantor, 2008). Its weight and ability to clog drainage

layers and fabric lead to use of organic matter as a growing media. Lighter less rich and

more porous mixes than soil reduce weight of the growing medium and save cost of

structural support (Snodgrass, 2006).

There are four factors that govern the suitability of a growth media. They are - water

holding capacity, degree of drainage, fertility for vegetation and density of the growing

media. The growing media should also be able to resist heat and other factors that

damage normal roof (Snodgrass & Mclntyre, 2010). As organic content; pH and nutrient

levels, weight, porosity, and water retention capacity of the growing media affect the

growth of plants (Weiler & Barth, 2009) it is important to select the substrate carefully.

2.4.3 Vegetative Layer

The selection of appropriate plants is essential to both the aesthetic and environmental

function of the green roof. There are various planting propagation methods like pre

cultivated mats, modular systems, plugs, cuttings and seeds, all of which vary by cost and

type of coverage desired (Earth Pledge, 2005). Selection of plants requires consideration

as traditional rules for ground level plant selection do not work on green roofs due to the

environmental and geographical location. Microclimate conditions on the roof like sun,

shade and wind patterns which do not affect the ground gardens influence the growth of
 28

plants on the rooftop (Earth Pledge, 2005). Thus, plant variety needs to be tougher and

less nutrient reliant than ones on the ground(Snodgrass & Snodgrass, 2006).

Plants cool the air around the rooftop through evapo-transpiration (figure 2.15) and

shading from the plant cover. Evapo-transpiration is the sum effect of

evaporation and plant transpiration from the surface of the vegetation that results in the

cooling of the surface as water evaporates from it. Reductions of up to 90% in solar gain

on roof area shaded by plant cover compared to un-shaded location can be achieved and

indoor temperature decrease of 3-4˚C (6-8 ˚F) may be attained (Peck, 2008).

Figure 2.6: Evapo transpiration and Shading on a Green Roof. Plant Shade reduces the sunlight that reaches the
roof. Evapo transpiration further cools a green roof by using heat to evaporate water from the growing medium
and plant surfaces (EPA, 2008)

Designers must select plants according to the zone in which the green roof system is

designed to avail all of the benefits vegetated roofs offer.

2.5 Benefit of a green roof installation

In addition to the thermal advantage which is the focus of this thesis, there are other

advantages of a green roof installation. A green roof is a valuable amenity that enhances

the worth of the structure it occupies and generates tangible benefits in the form of

financial returns as well as quantifiable environmental benefits. By utilizing wasted roof

 29

spaces multiple objectives may be achieved including storm water management; Urban

Heat Island Mitigation; longer life for roof membrane; habitation for urban wildlife and

aesthetic value addition etc.

2.5.1 Storm water runoff management

Storm water runoff contains pollutants and contaminants which it picks from

conventional roofs, paved areas and roads. In urban areas precipitation cannot permeate

through buildings, asphalt and concrete surfaces, therefore contaminated storm water

often joins existing rivers, streams and sewer lines instead of percolating through soils.

The increased quantity of runoff during storms overburdens the sewerage system leading

to its failure (Weiler & Barth, 2009). It may also increase the chances for flooding as the

amount of storm water exceeds the capacity of the drainage channel, increasing chances

of property and human damage.

Green roofs can be valuable assets that may help to mitigate water runoff problems by

lowering the rate of surface runoff. This is especially useful in urban areas with combined

storm and sanitary sewer systems. The absorption of rainwater by planted spaces also

reduces the chance of the storm water from getting contaminated by pollutants, dust etc.

Vegetated roofs moderate the peak in runoff from rooftops in most of the cases except for

intense storms. Even during intense storms, lower rate of runoff is recorded compared to

a conventional roof (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008).

At Portland, Oregon two years of storm water management study concluded, green roofs

with 0.04 m of substrate retained as much as 69 percent of all rainwater falling on it, with

100 percent retention for most warm weather storms (Hutchinson, Abrams, Retzlaff, &

Liptan, 2003). Another study conducted in Belgium showed that water retention
 30

increased with increase in substrate depth and presence of vegetation (Mentens, Raes, &

Hermy, 2003). Table 2-2 presents runoff data for different types of roof collected during

the study, highlighting the relation between substrate depth and runoff percentage.

Table 2-2: Influence of substrate depth and vegetation on the percentage of total rainfall running off a roof.
(Mentens, et al., 2003)

.Roof type Runoff(m) Runoff (%)

Standard 0.66 81
Standard with 0.05 m of gravel 0.63 77
Green roof with 0.05 m of substrate 0.40 50
Green roof with 0.10 m of substrate 0.36 45
Green roof with 0.15 m of substrate 0.32 40

A decrease in volume and rate of runoff into the drainage system reduces the pressure

from the treatment system and the bodies of water in which the system discharges the

runoff (Snodgrass & Mclntyre, 2010) and green roles may help achieve this.

2.5.2 Mitigation of Urban Heat Island

The loss of vegetative cover and increase in building activity in the form of pavements,

roads and buildings results in higher urban temperatures than the suburban and rural

areas. As impervious surfaces tend to be heat absorbing structures they increase urban

temperature. This specific urban phenomenon termed as the Urban Heat Island Effect

(UHI) (Solecki, et al., 2005), is identified by higher night time temperatures and

humidity. To cope with this heat, air-conditioning is required which can burden the

electric grid during peak hours, adding on to the UHI (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008).

As rooftops make up a significant percentage of the reflective non vegetated surfaces in

the city, heat gained through roofs can be substantial. Introduction of greenery through

green roofs in the urban areas can reduce impervious surfaces and soften streetscapes.

Plants use heat energy for evapo-transpiration to achieve a cooling effect. By reducing
 31

the heat gain through the roof ambient temperature is lowered leading to less energy

consumption (Earth Pledge, 2005). It is estimated that a decrease in internal building

temperature by 0.5˚C may reduce electricity consumption for air conditioning (which is

dependent on the building mass, volume and internal load profile) by up to 8 percent

(N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). Green roofs may be beneficial at night time also, as

they radiate less amount of heat as compared to a dark or hard surface.

Green roof is effective at reflecting solar radiation and reducing heat absorption when

compared to a conventional roof (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). Reduction of UHI is

difficult to quantify as large area of green roofs are required to make a substantial impact.

Studies show that implementation of green roofs at a large scale in urban areas can have a

significant impact on the reduction of UHI through lower air temperatures.

2.5.3 Habitat restoration and wildlife preservation

In urban areas where green spaces are lost at the ground level due to construction

activities, green roofs are a means of supporting greenery at the roof level. They can

sustain semi natural plant communities, create healthy, functioning habitat for certain

kind of wildlife (N. Dunnett, et al., 2007). As extensive roofs are not designed to be

accessed (figure 2.16) they are isolated from people, and can be undisturbed habitat for

plants, birds and insects (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008).

Figure 2.7: Section through a green roof designed for wildlife benefit, showing a variety of substrate
types and depth (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008)
 32

Habitats that are otherwise endangered in urban or rural regions may be conserved in

these locations. Studies from Europe on mature green roofs suggest that if green roofs are

properly designed, needs of birds and insects may be accommodated on those roofs. They

can play a pivotal role in preserving urban biodiversity for example in United Kingdom,

extensive green roofs are a part of the London biodiversity Partnership’s action plan to

restore bird population (Snodgrass & Mclntyre, 2010). In the North America green roofs

are designed to attract endangered species (figure 2.17) (Coffman & Waite, 2009).

Figure 2.178: The Ducks Unlimited National Headquarters and Conservation Center in Winnipeg, Canada
(Earth Pledge, 2005).

Research indicates that high level of diversity may be achieved on extensive green roofs.

The ability of green roofs to support biodiversity is being explored alongside the thermal

and hydrological studies but results are still in the nascent stage. If designed well green

roofs can become a part of the functioning habitat and green space network of the city.

2.5.4 Roof life longevity

One of the major benefits of green roofs is their contribution in prolonging the life of

both building insulation and roof surfaces (Weiler & Barth, 2009). Plants and the

growing media of the green roof moderate the temperature on the roof and protect the

roof’s waterproofing membrane. It shields roofing materials from ultra violet rays and
 33

higher temperature variation which cause degeneration of insulation and roofing felt.

Direct sun causes expansion and contraction of the membrane, thereby weakening it. It

also accelerates aging in bituminous materials and reduces their durability.

Exposed roof membranes absorb solar radiation during the day which raises its

temperature. The rise in temperature is dependent on the color of the membrane; a light

colored membrane is cooler as it reflects solar radiation. Figure 2.18 illustrates the rise in

temperature in black, white and a green roof. Other studies also show that exposed roofs

experience higher temperatures than green roofs. For example in a study for the city of

Toronto , Canada membrane on the non green roof reached close to 70˚C (158˚F) in the

afternoon while the membrane in green roof remained around 25˚C (75˚F) (N. Dunnett &

Kingsbury, 2008). The membrane on a conventional flat roof, if not protect by insulation,

must be replaced every fifteen or twenty years (Luckett, 2009). In direct contrast,

membranes under green roofs may remain intact after decades of use (Snodgrass &

Mclntyre, 2010).

Figure 2.18: Graph illustrating the surface temperature fluctuations on a green roof, a reflective white
roof, and an unprotected black roof between 5 and 9 June 2008. On hot days, temperature on green
roof remains cooler than white roof and a black roof(Werthmann, 2007)
 34

2.5.5 Aesthetic pleasure

Green roofs can play an important role in providing recreational spaces in urban regions

where there is little ground level green areas. As these spaces are visible from many

vantage points, it adds to the visual character of the urban fabric (Werthmann, 2007).

Green roofs that are accessible to the public or private owners add to the enjoyment of the

property and provide more interest for the people living or working in neighboring high

rise buildings, adding color and texture (Getter & Rowe, 2006).

With the move towards compact and high density cities, there is immense pressure on

green spaces at the ground level and high cost of acquisition for ground space makes it

difficult to plan for ground level green areas. Roof spaces are highly underutilized

resources in urban and suburban areas and have enormous potential in providing urban

dwelling with recreational space (figure 2.19) (Earth Pledge, 2005). Recreational spaces

at the roof level have controlled access making them safe from vandalism and other

social problems common in public green spaces at ground level (Weiler & Barth, 2009).

Figure 2.199: Roof gardens provide outdoor space that is away from noise & pollution (N. Dunnett &
Kingsbury, 2008)

The provision of roof gardens, filled with greenery rather than paved surface, may

become a positive selling point for the developers in future.

 35

2.5.6 Food production

Roof surfaces offer the opportunity for growing food, particularly in high density urban

areas where garden space may be limited (figure 2.20). Food producing plants can

substitute for ornamental plants in conventional roof gardens. Herb species are also

known to perform well in free draining soils of extensive roofs and may become a viable

option (Earth Pledge, 2005). In Haiti, Colombia, Thailand, Russia rooftops have been

used to produce a range of fruits and vegetables (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008).

Figure 2.10: Earth Pledge Kitchen Garden, midtown Manhattan. The green roof is planted with over sixty
species of sedum, flowers and edibles like tomatoes, alpine strawberries etc (Earth Pledge, 2005).

Weight bearing capacity of the roof is a consideration for the successful plant growth.

Soil depth of 0.3 – 0.45 m (12-18”) may be required along with frequent irrigation

(Weiler & Barth, 2009). One of the examples of green roof food production is the

Fairmont Hotel in Vancouver, Canada. The garden provides for all the herbs

requirements of the hotel thereby making a yearly saving of Canadian $25,000-30,000.

Apart from the food they also provide outdoor recreational space for the guests (Weiler &

Barth, 2009). The use of roof space for food production is still a new concept, but may

become a commercial possibility in the future as no additional land purchase cost is

associated with food production.

 36

2.5.7 Acoustic benefits

Hard surfaces of urban areas reflect sound and are unable to absorb it. Green roofs due to

the nature of substrate and vegetation absorb sound waves (Getter & Rowe, 2006). They

are beneficial in two ways; they provide sound isolation due to the high mass and low

stiffness and to a lesser extent reduce noise pollution through surface absorption

(Connelly & Hodgson, 2008). The depth of the green roof assembly acts as a acoustical

barrier, the substrate blocks lower sound frequencies while the plants stop the higher

frequency (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008) thereby reducing noise of traffic, airplanes.

In a study at the Frankfurt airport, Germany a 0.10 m (4”) deep green roof was able to

reduce noise levels by 5dB (N. Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). The installation of a green

roof atop Gap’s office in California which is situated next to a freeway and airport was

designed to dampen noise transmission (Burke, 2003).

2.5.8 Healthy work environment and Amenity value

Cooler temperatures on green roofs in hot weather makes them a valuable outdoor space

for people who live or work in the building below (Snodgrass & Mclntyre, 2010). Green

roofs act as recess spaces in offices where people come and relax during break time and

connect with the outdoors. In residential units green roofs help in improving the quality

of life for the residents, as they provide spaces for recreational activities. In an

observation in Portland, of the various activities that could be performed on green roofs

atop apartment blocks, exercise, barbecuing, lounging were most popular (N. Dunnett &

Kingsbury, 2008). In urban areas this may be the only outdoor space for people to use,

and an extensive roof with sedum designed with landscaping elements like stepping

stones, patio may make it a multifunctional low cost roof garden.

 37

2.6 Conclusion

The loss to natural habitats and the ill effects associated with rapid expansion of built

environment may be minimized by installation of green roofs. Ecoroofs are one of the

few passive techniques that accomplish multiple goals simultaneously. Apart from the

energy reduction benefit at the private or small scale level, green roofs also add to the

aesthetic value of the property. At the large urban or public scale, green roofs act as the

link between private spaces of the built environment, and the public spaces surrounding

the site and community while achieving storm water runoff rate reduction, UHI

mitigation, biodiversity and habitats. Table (2-3) categorizes the green roof benefits by

assigning them economic, social, environmental and aesthetic values.

Table 2-3: Public & private benefits of green roofs depending on scale of the development

Scale of Values associated with the Construction

development Economic Social Environmental Aesthetic
- Reduction in - Outdoor - Clean air, free of - Aesthetic
Private energy costs gathering space pollution pleasure for
Development the owner.
(apt/single
family dwelling)
- Reduction in - healthy work - Microclimate - Communal
energy costs environment formation and
- Water neighborhood
- Moderation of - lower air management appreciation
Public internal pollution thus system
Development temperature health benefits - Storm water
(Institutional, for users runoff reduction
Municipal - Protection from
infrastructure, - bio UV radiation
Industrial and remediation: - Urban heat
Ecological) Native grasses Island
& plants rid Mitigation
the soil of - Ecosystem
contaminants restoration
- Providing
habitats for
native plants,
birds and
insects.
 38

Since the benefits of green roofs operate at a range of scale, some advantages may be

gained only if relatively large numbers of green roofs are implemented and their effect

will be apparent at the larger neighborhood or city scale. Based on the scale of the project

value to the green roof benefit may be attached.

As residential and nonresidential roofs represent up to 21% to 26% of urban surfaces,

they provide an opportunity to reclaim unused spaces. By developing a battery of tests

and simulations, the viability of green roof in particular situation may be assessed. This

information would assist firms and designers in making the best decision and optimizing

the green roof benefits.

 39

CHAPTER 3

THERMAL BENEFIT OF GREEN ROOFS- A CASE FOR DELHI

3.1 Thermal benefits of green roof

Green roofs in urban areas offer a building and its surrounding environment many

benefits. Apart from improving the performance of the roofing system through shading,

insulation, evapo-transpiration and additional thermal mass it also cools the environment.

It regulates the temperature through the year by reducing the heat gain and loss from the

building. Lower gains through the building roof lead to lower energy consumption and if

widely adopted green roofs can benefit the urban environment of Delhi.

3.2 Green Roofs for New Delhi

Delhi is one of the largest metropolis in the world with more than 12.25 million

inhabitants and nearly 22.2 million residents in the National Capital Region urban area

(UN, 2009). The demand for new infrastructure and greater energy requirement often

leads to chaotic building activities and an unsustainable development. Escalated land

prices and shortage of vacant parcels of land in the capital contribute to this and make

planning for open vegetated spaces and parks difficult.

Green roofs present an opportunity to bring green spaces into the city, lower the ambient

heat island effect and subsequently reduce the outdoor temperatures and heat gain

through the building. A number of studies have examined the potential energy savings

from using green roofs on buildings for extreme climates. The energy savings are

however dependent on the climate, location and the solar radiation incident, that govern

heat gain through the building envelope.

 40

3.2.1 Climate of Delhi

North India is dominated by the Gangetic plain covering 359400 sq km, which is one of

the most fertile lands in the world (Oliver, 1997). This area is bound by the Himalayan

ranges to the north, the Deccan plateau in the south, the Thar Desert and the dry plains of

Rajasthan and Haryana in the west. The climate can be classified as composite or

monsoon type. Delhi (28° 53’ N latitude) belongs in this zone and has a distinguishable

hot,dry period of almost three months, a colder period of a shorter duration and an in

between hot humid, monsoon season of about two months (figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Map of India showing location of New Delhi (IMD, 2011)

Summers start in early April and peak in April - June, with average temperatures nearing

32oC (90oF). Monsoon which is the period between the two distinct seasons starts in late
 41

June and lasts until mid-September and with the onset of winters in November. Winters

in Delhi are generally mild and average winter temperatures recorded are in the range of

12-13oC (54-55oF) (Oliver, 1997). Figure 3.2 shows the various seasons and average

temperature range for Delhi.

Figure 3.2 Temperature range for Delhi (courtesy- Climate Consultant software)

The India Metrological Department for the period of 1901-2009 noted that annual mean

temperature for the country rose by 0.56˚C (Figure 3.3) over the period. The annual mean

temperature have been above normal since 1990 (normal based on period, 1961-1990)

(Attri & Tyagi, 2010). The rise in temperature was significant over northern plains where

considerable urban development has been recorded. The rise in temperature was

attributed to the high levels of pollution in the region (Attri & Tyagi, 2010).

Unsustainable building practices in urban areas have been known to cause pollution and

increase in temperature. Inclusion of passive techniques in the building design and use of

efficient mechanical systems may help counter this increase. Some of the passive

practices that are suited for the climate of Delhi are discussed in the following section.
 42

Figure 3.3: All India annual mean temperature anomalies for the period 1901-2009 (based on 1961-
1990 average) shown as vertical bars (The solid blue curve show sub-decadal time scale variations
smoothed with a binomial filter) (Attri & Tyagi, 2010).

3.2.2 Best practices

Solar radiation incident on a geographical location governs the heat gain through the

building envelope (Davis, 1979). As the solar radiation received is dependent on the

altitude and weather, and is the maximum for two broad bands between 15 °N and 35 °S

latitude (Konya, 1980) hence each location requires a unique climate based solution.

With Delhi in this band, large amount of heat is gained through the building envelope and

in the absence of passive design results in greater reliance on mechanical systems.

Resistive passive cooling strategies are beneficial for the region during the hot season.

Based on Delhi’s climate, various passive techniques have been identified in table 3-1.

With high amount of solar radiation incident on Delhi, air conditioning will always be

required in the warmer months. However the reduction in the indoor temperatures may

help achieve lower thermal loads and energy savings for the building. The design of
 43

window overhangs based on the latitude, operable sunshades (extended in summer,

retracted in winters) along with the use of plant materials on walls and roofs (through

native plants) can reduce the transfer of direct radiation through the envelope. Use of

high mass surfaces and shading of the internal surfaces helps keep the building cool on

hot days and dampens the day-to-night temperature swings.

Table 3-1: Identification of the best Passive Cooling and Heating strategies for New Delhi

Best Practices Summer (cooling) Monsoon Winter (heating)

- Avoid heat gain due to solar
radiation and infiltration
(through shading devices,
reflective barriers; vegetation;
orientation; building form) - Reduce moisture: - Winter insulation
Resistive - Minimize Heat transfer Dehumidification and wind protection
strategies through building envelope,
roofs
(use of thermal mass to
retard heat gain; use of
shading devices; orientation
and form of the building )
- Evaporation
(direct evaporative cooling)
- Mass effect cooling
(Thermal mass through earth
contact- direct and indirect
earth sheltering)
- Ventilation
(Night time ventilation; solar - Ventilation - Direct Gain systems
Promotive chimneys; wind towers; wind Enhance air (Southern Exposure
strategies catchers) movements, of walls, roof and
- Radiation (Earth air tunnel) windows)
(Radiative roof pond;
courtyards; cool ponds)

Greening the roof is a passive cooling technique that combines a number of the above

discussed passive techniques and takes advantage of the different processes. Vegetation

on the roof reduces the incoming solar radiation through shading, evapo-transpiration and

other physiological processes. The thermal mass of the roof lowers the temperature

fluctuations and contributes to the cooling potential of green roofs. The various benefits
 44

apart from the potential energy savings offered by the green roof make it a passive

technique that may become part of the urban area.

3.3 A review of green roof studies

Investigations have been performed in the past to highlight the success of green roofs in

reducing the ambient temperature, heat flux and potential energy savings that may be

achieved. Contribution of green roofs in energy conservation can be substantial as

building activities account for a large amount of energy consumption. A great portion of

which is utilized to maintain the internal building temperatures through mechanical

systems (Castleton, Stovin, et al., 2010) and by using a green roof these thermal loads

may be lowered. The following section summarizes the various studies that have been

carried out to assess the thermal benefits of green roofs highlighting the various passive

cooling principles they use.

3.3.1 Mass Effect Cooling

Del Barrio (1998) explored the thermal behavior of green roofs through mathematical

analysis to assess the summer cooling potential of green roofs in Athens, Greece.

Through the study of heat and moisture transfer in soil and radiant heat exchange in the

canopy layer, it was established that green roofs reduce the heat flux through the roof and

act as insulation devices (Barrio, 1998). Through the study it was established that the

thickness of the soil layer, its relative density, along with moisture content influences the

thermal benefits of the soil layer. It was also concluded that the air pockets in a less dense

soil leads to an increase in insulating properties and reduction in soil moisture content

contributes to an increase of heat flux through the roof.

 45

In another outdoor experimental setup at Athens, Niachou et al (2001) explored the

thermal properties and energy performance of a green roof by measuring surface, air and

internal temperature for two buildings. The roofs of the two buildings had similar

insulation properties but one had a green roof and the other did not. In the investigation,

field measurements were taken during the first phase and in the second thermal properties

and energy savings were modeled mathematically. It was found that without the green

roof the internal air temperature exceeded 30˚C (86˚F) for 68 percent of the period, but

with the green roof this percentage was reduced to 15 percent (Niachou & al, 2001).

Using the simulation program Transient System Simulation Program (TRNSYS) thermal

insulation of the green roof installation was varied and a reduction in energy consumption

observed. These savings were little for well insulated buildings compared to non

insulated buildings.

3.3.2 Reduction of heat flux

There are various advantages of using green roofs in hot climates. They can reduce the

heat flux through the roof and these benefits have been explored for the tropical climates

in a study conducted by Wong et al (2003). The field experiments were conducted on a

roof top in Singapore where the temperature at various depths of green roofs was

recorded. A variety of plants were used for the experiment and the authors were able to

calculate the thermal resistance of each plant. The thermal effects of a green roof were

further evaluated by calculating the heat flux through different types of roofs - bare hard

surface, bare soil, turf, tree, and shrub. Along with shading, plants lowered the surface

temperature of the roof. A decrease of up to 30˚C was recorded on a vegetated roof,

which varied according to the foliage density of the vegetation (Wong, Chen, Ong, & Sia,
 46

2003), confirming that it is much cooler on a green roof than a hard surface. The high

density of leaves ensures greater surface area for evapo-transpiration which results in

more ambient cooling.

The daily maximum temperature underneath the green roof was found to be significantly

lower than the daily maximum membrane temperature of the bituminous reference roof in

the research conducted by the National Research Council of Canada for the city of

Toronto. Green roofs were effective in reducing heat transfer through roof (Weiler &

Barth, 2009) and during the 660 day monitoring period the temperature of the green roof

exceeded 30˚C only on 18 days or 3% of the study duration. The temperature of the

reference roof was significantly higher and climbed above 50˚C on more than 219 days or

33%. Green roofs reduced the temperature fluctuation in the roof membrane by 5–7 °C

throughout the year (Liu & Baskaran, 2003) establishing their cooling potential.

3.3.3 Evaporative cooling effect

A decrease in surface temperature by around 30-60° C on site was noted in a field

measurement carried out during the summer months on a planted roof in Japan. Through

simple calculations, this reduction was estimated to lower the heat flux into the room

below by 50%. This reduction was attributed to the evaporative cooling effect of

vegetation on green roofs. The reduction in heat flux was obtained using field

measurements and confirmed by a wind tunnel experiment (Onmura et al, 2001). The

experiment and field results matched closely, proving that the cooling effect of green

roofs was indeed due to the evaporative cooling and thermal capacity of the layer.

Lazzarin et al (2005) evaluated the role of evapo-transpiration in achieving passive

cooling in a hospital building in North East Italy during the most dry and most wet
 47

periods of the season. Data from the experimental setup was utilized to create a finite

difference model. Through the modeling it was established that dry green roofs reduce

the incoming heat flux by 60% with respect to conventional roofs. Wet green roofs were

furrther doubled the heat loss through evapo-transpiration compared to dry green roofs.

The existing research is a step towards the assessment of the energy benefits of green

roofs. These findings can guide future enquiries in regions where green roofs are not

common and help their integration of green roofs into the local building vocabulary.

3.4 Green roof study for Delhi

Delhi is growing as a metropolis and the unrestrained urbanization has lead to loss of

natural resources of energy, water and ground cover, hampering eco-friendly habitat

development (Majumdar, 2001). With increased interest in passive techniques and energy

efficient building design, green roofs have been proposed to address the problems

generated by this urbanization. However, the planted roofs and walls are not part of the

local building practices and its construction has not been explored.

Past research on energy performance of green roofs is limited to the summertime effects

in hot and tropical climates. The studies are restricted to certain locations, climates and

species of plants hence, limited in scope. The findings cannot be applied universally and

to popularize green roofs as a passive cooling strategy for Delhi, data for its thermal

benefit should be available for all seasons. An evaluation of thermal performance may be

carried out using field experiments, mathematical modeling or computer simulations.

In the evaluation for thermal performance of green roofs in Delhi, a mathematical model

was created by Kumar et al (2005). The model was designed so that it could be combined
 48

with the building simulation code and through the model it was found that green roofs

reduce the indoor temperatures by up to 5.1˚C (figure 3.4) due to solar thermal shading.

The cooling loads were found to be much lower and the requirement was lower by up to

3.02kWh per day in comparison to conventional roofs (Kumar & Kaushik, 2005). Results

from the mathematical model were also validated against experimental data from a

similar rooftop garden in Delhi to establish the accuracy of the model.

The results obtained were used to calculate the variation in the canopy air temperature,

indoor air temperature and the heat flux through the roof to evaluate the thermal

performance of a green roof. Parametric study was carried out to ascertain the effect of

green roof components on the thermal performance of the green roof. By varying the

Leaf Area Index (LAI) which is the representation of the plan form area coverage of the

leaves and height of the vegetation, it was found that a green roof with high LAI was able

to maintain a lower average indoor temperature (Kumar & Kaushik, 2005). Larger LAI

reduce the canopy air temperature, solar flux and stabilize the indoor temperature.

(hr)
Figure 3.4: Indoor air temperature variations obtained using building simulation code in the Delhi.
(Kumar & Kaushik, 2005)
 49

Unlike many of the earlier predictive studies, the evaluation of the thermal performance

of green roof is not localized to the experiment site or dependent on numerical

techniques. The predictive model can be incorporated into the building simulation code

using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) techniques in MATLAB to provide results specific to

the location. However, it simplifies the effect of evapo-transpiration and soil thermal

properties (Castleton, Stovin, et al., 2010). The study is limited in its scope as it discusses

the cooling potential of green roofs only. Further investigation may help assess green

roof’s behavior in various seasons and assist in creating conditions for achieving the

maximum benefit from a green roof installation.

3.5 Need for further studies

The potential energy savings of green roofs is widely referred as an important benefit, but

it has not been studied in much detail for Delhi. Similar to a traditional roof, the heat gain

and loss (which may be referred as the energy balance of the roof) through the green roof

is determined by radiation from the sun. In a green roof, the solar radiation is balanced by

sensible (convection) and latent (evaporative) heat flux from soil and plant surfaces

combined with conduction of heat into the soil substrate.

In the previous Delhi study, green roof modeling was done using a mathematical model.

Sailor (2008) identified that existing mathematical models, simplified the energy transfer

through green roofs with respect to the effect of evapo-transpiration and soil thermal

properties. A new green roof energy balance model created by Sailor modeled the effect

of green roof on building (Castleton, Stovin, et al., 2010). The ‘ecoroof’ option in the

EnergyPlus software accounts for radiative heat exchange, convective heat transfer, soil
 50

conductance and storage, evapo-transpiration from soil, plants and moisture effects

(Castleton, V.Stovin, Beck, & Davison, 2010). The EnergyPlus model can be used to

record the thermal impact of green roofs according to the specific location and climate.

Since most of the past field studies have been limited to the evaluation of summertime

effects of green roofs with a focus on the surface temperature, annual heat gain data for

year may be collected for Delhi using the EnergyPlus model. The determination of the

most favorable building configuration, orientation and construction materials for a green

roof installation and the foliage characteristics that affect its thermal performance will be

extremely beneficial for the designers. This data can be collected through parametric

studies and this will help evaluate the role of green roofs in thermal load reduction.
 51

CHAPTER 4

DETERMINING THE PARAMETERS

4.1 Aim of the study

The objectives of this thesis are manifold, from evaluation of the success of green roofs

in reducing thermal load reduction in buildings; to establishment of the most favorable

building configuration, orientation and construction for a green roof installation; to

determination of the foliage characteristics that affect the thermal performance of green

roofs. To achieve these goals computer model of a green roof was simulated on a

building in Delhi.

For the purpose of this study a control building with a 100 sqm floor area and 50 percent

opening with a green roof was created. The building activity was defined as office with

no occupancy or internal gains and a split system (no air) HVAC system with a 24 hour

running cycle. The standard roof construction has a green roof (thickness = 0.200 meter;

thermal conductivity = 0.300 W/m-K) with a mud phuska (thickness = 0.075m; thermal conductivity =

0.519 W/m-K) and felt layer (thickness = 0.002m; thermal conductivity = 0.500 W/m-K) underneath,

on a concrete reinforced slab (thickness = 0.150m; thermal conductivity = 2.300 W/m-K). All green

roof studies were based on this control building and the results are described below.

4.2 Preliminary study: heat gain through building envelope

The thermal loads of a building are governed by its envelope which consists of the walls,

windows, floors and roofs. Passive techniques discussed (refer Table 3.1) help reduce the

heat exchange through the envelope and reliance on conventional sources of energy.

Before incorporating any passive technique into the building design it is important to
 52

analyze the factors that affect the gain through the envelope as majority of the heat gains

occur through it.

To ascertain the parameters that affect the performance of the building envelope a

preliminary investigation was carried out using the Virtual Environment program. A

model 4 storey building with 100 m² floor area and 15 percent wall openings on the

North and South sides was created in Delhi. Thereafter the effect of orientation, building

configuration and opening percentages on the building envelope studied. It was

concluded that certain building configurations and orientations maximize the heat gain

and by avoiding them thermal loads for the building may be reduced.

4.2.1 Building Roof

In the study for establishing the effect of orientation on heat gain through the roof, it was

observed that the indoor air temperature varied with the building floor. The top most

floor of the model building (figure 4.1) with 15% glazing on the North and South face

and roof as its top surface recorded the highest indoor temperature.

Figure 4.1: Tested configuration with building openings on North and South facade.
 53

The variation in building orientation from 0˚ to 90˚ increased the indoor temperature

further. Buildings with south exposure (0˚ notation in figure 4.2) record low gain as in

east and west openings were minimized in the model.

G = Ground floor G G+1 G+2 G+3

60
+ roof
Indoor Air Temperature (˚C)

50 1:1 1:2 1:3 1:4 2:3

40
30
20
10
0
0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚
Building Orientations

Figure 4.2: Plot of indoor air temperature of various floors of a four storey building with varying
orientations and building configurations (1:1; 1:2; 1:3; 1:4; 2:3).

The same trend of the top floor recording temperatures higher than the rest of the floors is

observed on varying building configurations, confirming the role of the building roof as a

source of heat gain. Change in building configurations from 1:1 building proportion, to

1:4 results in higher indoor air temperature. Building structures with large roof exposure

contribute to high indoor temperatures, solar gain (figure 4.3). Increase in the proportions

translates into additional roof, wall surface area exposure to sun leading to greater solar

gains. Elongated buildings are source of heat gain and need to be avoided or adequately

protected to lower the temperature and solar gains.

G = Ground G G+1 G+2 G+3

20 + Roof
Building Configuration
Annual Solar Gain

15
(WHr/m²)

1:1 1:2 1:3 1:4 2:3

10

0
0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚
Building Orientations
Figure 4.3: A Plot of solar gain through various floors of a four storey building with varying
orientations and building configurations.
 54

By varying the different parameters like orientation, building proportions it was observed

that the ideal configuration for a building in Delhi was a compact form with the aspect

ratio 2:3. In figure 4.3, buildings with 1:1 and 2:3 aspect ratios have lower solar gains

compared to other configurations. Buildings with tight footprints have small wall and

roof exposure to the exterior which allows adequate exposure to daylight and lower solar

gains through the day.

The roof of a structure has the greatest exposure to the sun. An unprotected roof surface

receives the heat from the sun and retains it during the day, and releases the stored heat

by radiation or convection afterwards (Fry & Drew, 1964).The transfer of the stored heat

into the internal spaces increases the temperature and heat gains leading to higher air

conditioning loads.

4.2.2 Openings

Design of building fenestration, particularly on the vertical surfaces, determines the

thermal performance of a building (Li & Lam, 2000), however, variation in the sun’s path

and its course through the day establishes the solar heat gain through it. In the northern

hemisphere during winter months, the sun’s path moves toward the South and sun angles

become low. Reverse is noted in summers when the sun rises and sets toward the North

and solar angles become higher.

The change in sun’s angle requires protection of windows in summers while direct

exposure in winters to lower energy consumption. Reduction in external conduction gain

and indoor air temperature is observed when the windows are on the North and South

façade (represented by 0˚ Orientation in figure 4.4) as low gains for all orientations and

building configurations is recorded. Openings on other faces such as the west, (refer to
 55

90° orientation) record high gains and should be avoided or minimized. When external

conduction for various building configurations is compared, compact forms (refer to 2:3

in figure 4.4) record lowest gains. As observed blocks with aspect ratios 1:2, 1:3, 1:4

record more gains due to higher wall surface area exposure.

-40 G G+1 G+2 G+3

Building configuration
External Conduction

-30
1:1 1:2 1:3 1:4 2:3
(WHr/m²)

-20

-10

0
0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚
Building Orientation
Figure 4.4: External Conduction gain of a four storey building with 15% wall opening for various
orientations and building configurations (1:1; 1:2; 1:3; 1:4; 2:3).

Since the compact ratio of 2:3 records the lowest external conduction the percentage of

openings was varied to ascertain the effect of glazing size on the heat gain for the

building. An increase in solar gain and external conduction is noted. Results (figure 4.5)

indicate buildings with lower percentage of openings are recommended. It can be

deduced that openings in a building are a major source of heat gain and need to be

carefully designed. By proper shading and use of high efficiency glazing solar gains may

be reduced (Johnson, 1991).

G G+1 G+2 G+3

40 Percentage of Opening
Solar Gain (WHr/m²)

30 15% 30% 45% 60% 75%

20

10

0
0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚
Building Orientation
Figure 4.5: Solar Gain of a four storey building with a 2:3 building configuration. The graph plots the
effect of varying opening percentages and orientations on the solar gain.
 56

4.2.3 Findings

The change in building configuration results in increase of roof and wall area along with

the opening proportions and greater gains through the building envelope. Compact

building configurations work best for Delhi as they register the lowest external

conduction and solar gains through the building envelope.

Along with smaller footprints, east and west exposure should be minimized and

resistance to heat flow through the building envelope increased. The roof and the glazing

facing the South and West should be adequately protected to reduce the radiant flux

entering the building. This may be achieved by shading of the glazing and roof and

addition of thermal mass to the building envelope. In the experiments it was established

that roofs are a major source of heat gain and by providing additional thermal mass the

heat gain through the roof may be reduced. The time lag in heat transfer offered by the

thermal mass along with shading of the building may aid a reduction in the air

conditioning load.

The green roof is an example of a passive system that uses all of the above techniques to

reduce summer gains. Apart from providing thermal mass and shading, it adds insulation

and utilizes the evaporative cooling offered by the vegetation to reduce heat flux.

4.3 Green roof study for Delhi

There is a need for comprehensive guideline that can assist designers in Delhi to assess

the potential benefit of a green roof with respect to the buildings they design. Using the

EnergyPlus green roof module, architects can assess the magnitude of energy savings and

evaluate the thermal effect of green roof on the building. EnergyPlus module is based on
 57

a quantitative and physically based building energy simulation which can represent the

effect of green roof construction on the building. The program does not account for the

effects of drainage layer and protection membranes, (Sailor, 2008) but the designer can

specify various aspects of the green roof construction like the growing media depth,

thermal properties, plant canopy density, plant height, stomatal conductance (ability to

transpire moisture) and soil moisture conditions (including irrigation and precipitation).

4.3.1 Green roof model description

The Energyplus engineering reference document states that the energy balance of a green

roof is dominated by radiation from the sun. This solar radiation is balanced by sensible

(convection) and latent (evaporative) heat flux from soil and plant surfaces combined

with conduction of heat into the soil substrate. The green roof model in the EnergyPlus

module accounts for the long wave and short wave radiative exchange within the plant

canopy; plant canopy effects on convective heat transfer; evapotranspiration from the soil

and plants; and heat conduction (and storage) in the soil layer. This energy balance is

illustrated in the diagram (figure 4.6).

Lf = latent heat flux of the foliage surface/ canopy

Hf = sensible heat flux of the foliage surface/canopy
Is = shortwave radiation
I ir = incoming long-wave radiation
Tg = ground surface temperature
z = height or depth (m)
αf = albedo (short wave reflectivity) of the foliage surface/canopy
αg = albedo (short wave reflectivity) of ground surface
εf = emissivity of foliage surface/ canopy
εg = emissivity of the ground surface
-8 2 4
σ = the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.699*10 W/m ºK )
σf = fractional vegetation coverage
 58

Figure 4.6: The energy balance for a green roof (Crawley, et al., 2001)

The energy budget analysis used in the EnergyPlus engine follows the Fast All Season

Soil Strength (FASST) model developed by Frankenstein and Koenig for the US Army

Corps of Engineers and other plant canopy models. The modeling software uses the

energy budget for the foliage layer (Ff) and budget for the ground surface (Fg)

simultaneously to determine the effect of green roofs.

4.3.2 Computational model

To scrutinize model assumptions and the EnergyPlus module the building model in the

Delhi study by Kumar et al (2005) was calibrated. A room size of 6 x 5 by 4 with

occupancy of 4 people, air change rate of 5 hˉ¹ for a window area of 2m² described in the

research was created using the EnergyPlus module in the DesignBuilder program. The

data collected from the simulation run was plotted against the heat flux values from the

Delhi study by Kumar (2005). On comparing the results of normalized temperature data

produced a near zero linear relationship. The linear relationship demonstrates a

reasonable reliability of the software and the graph in figure 4.7 reflects this relationship.
 59

4
Temperature (˚C)
2
0
-15 -10 -5 -2 0 5 10 15 20

-4 Study v/s DesignBuilder

-6
Linear (Study v/s
-8 DesignBuilder)
Temperature (˚C)
y = -0.1046x
Figure 4.7: Relation between data collected from DesignBuilder & Delhi study conducted by Kumar
(2005).

4.3.3 Green roof simulation

Since the simulation software provides results in heat balance or total cooling load, the

variables are used as proxy values for the heat gain and loss through the roof. The Heat

Balance of Roof represents all of the heat flows into and out of the zone which is given by

the sum of heat gains to the zone from external roof to inner surfaces. The surface

conduction data for the roof represents the heat conduction flow just below the surface of

the construction and includes all surface heat transfer mechanisms (convection, long and

short – wave radiation). The assumption in heat balance model is that room surfaces

(walls, windows, ceilings, and doors) have uniform surface temperatures; uniform long-

and short-wave irradiation; diffuse radiating surfaces and one dimensional heat

conduction. The sign convention (figure 4.8) used assumes all heat fluxes are positive

when energy is absorbed into the layer.

Gain (+ve)
Loss (-ve)

Gain (+ve)

Loss (-ve)

Figure 4.8: Used sign Conventions

 60

Total Cooling load is used as a proxy for determining the cooling potential of green

roofs. It is the rate at which total energy (sensible and latent) is removed from the mixed

outside and return air stream in order to bring the mixed air stream to the specified

temperature and humidity ratio of the supply air stream.

The following series of experiments were designed to evaluate the thermal performance

of green roofs while the building materials, aspect ratio, orientation, growing media

thickness and foliage characteristics were varied.

4.3.3.1 Variation in construction material

Using parametric studies the varying effect of roof treatment can be better understood.

The choice of building material may reduce energy consumption of the building and with

major heat gains taking place through the envelope, this impact may be substantial.

a. Roof material

Green roofs offer reduction in annual heat balance of the roof, which is confirmed by the

comparison of heat balance of four different roofing systems (figure 4.9), each with a

different outer layer and same wall material. The first system is a bare roof with an

asphalt-felt coating (Conductivity=1.150 W/m K; Density=2325.00 kg/m³), second is termed white

roof and has a white membrane (Conductivity=0.17 W/m K; Density=930 kg/m³), third is a white

marble roof (Conductivity = 2.77 W/m K; Density = 2600 kg/m³) followed by the green roof.

When compared with other roofing systems, green roof record the lowest heat flux

through the roof. By reducing the thermal peaks during summer months, green roofs

regulate the heat gain leading to reduction in indoor temperature fluctuations. However,

loss of heat (figure 4.9) to the outdoors in winters may be lowered by adding extra

insulation underneath the green roof.

 61

Bare Roof - asphalt coating

White Membrane Roofs
1
White Marble Roofs
Annual Heat Balance of the
0.8 Green Roofs
0.6
Roof (kWh/m²)

0.4
0.2
0
-0.2 J F M A M J J A S O N D
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Months

Figure 4.9: Annual Heat balance of roof with various roofing materials and similar brick wall for a 2:3
building configuration.

b. Wall materials

Green roofs provide insulation to the building roof, the choice of material for rest of the

building envelope components can further enhance or reduce this insulating effect

(Abdelrahman & Ahmad, 1991). The selection of clay brick, cement blocks may affect

the overall thermal performance. In order to maximize thermal benefit of a green roof the

effect of different wall materials on the heat balance of the roof was studied.

Heat balance of the roof with vegetative layer and brick wall (R value = 0.483 m²-K/W)

combination was found to be significantly lower than the green roof model with 0.200

meter concrete block (R value = 0.628 m²-K/W) and sandwich panel (R value = 2.045 m²-K/W)

walls. R-value indicates insulation’s resistance to heat flow, it may be concluded that the

higher the R-value, the greater the insulating effectiveness.

Brick and concrete blocks both have thermal mass and relatively low insulation value and

high heat capacity. After neutralizing the heat flux through the roof by using a vegetative

roof, it was observed that brick walls are most appropriate because the combination has

the lowest heat balance value. Brick walls with high heat capacity help in the quick

transfer of heat through the wall compared to other materials (figure 4.10).
 62

Concrete Block Wall+Green Roof

Sandwich Panels+Green Roof
Annual Heat Balance of 0.6
Brick Walls+Green Roof
0.4
roof (kWh/m²)

0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Time (Months)
Figure 4.10: Heat Balance of the green roof with various wall materials.

4.3.3.2 Variation in aspect ratio

The volume of space inside a building that needs to be heated or cooled and its

relationship with the area of the envelope enclosing the volume, affect the thermal

performance of the building, This parameter is known as the surface to volume ratio or

S/V and is determined by the building form.

In order to establish the optimum building configuration for a green roof installation a

study for Delhi with different roof configurations and constant surface to volume ratio

were modeled. The total cooling load for the various aspect ratios – 1:1; 2:3; 1:2; 1:3; 1:4

was recorded and compared. The comparison in figure 4.11 for various configurations

highlights that 2:3 configuration is advisable due to the lowest annual cooling load.

Total Cooling in kWh/m2

-300
-255
-241
-250 -226
-213
Annual Cooling load (kWh/m²)

-188
-200

-150

-100

-50

0
1_1 1_1.5 1_2 1_3 1_4

Aspect Ratio

Figure 4.11: Cooling loads for various building aspect ratios (1:1; 1:1.5; 1:2; 1:3; 1:4) as a proxy for
the thermal load reduction capabilities of green roofs.
 63

It was established that for any given building volume, the more compacts the shape, the

less wasteful it is in gaining or losing heat.

4.3.3.3 Change in Orientation

Building orientation is a significant design consideration, with regard to solar radiation

and wind. As solar radiation affects the energy balance of the green roof, orientation may

play a critical role. Building should be oriented to maximize solar gain in predominantly

cold regions, while the reverse is advisable for hot regions, (Majumdar, 2001) but that

may not be the case for composite climates. Investigating the effect of various building

orientations on the heat balance of the green roof, an optimal configuration that

maximizes the thermal benefit of green roof may be achieved.

By varying the orientation of the model office which had the green roof, a variation in

roof heat balance was observed. On the basis of this change the location of the opening

that maximizes this thermal benefit was identified to be the North and South orientation

(figure 4.12 and represented by 0˚ in graph in figure 4.13).

Figure 4.12: The optimal building orientation for Delhi with south glazing. This configuration is
represented by 0˚ in the following graph.
 64

In summers due the high sun angle substantial heat gains may occur through the roof. The

variation in the heat balance of the green roof may be attributed to solar gains through

western surfaces where afternoon sun causes overheating.

0 orientation 30 orientation 60 orientation 90 orientation

-8
Annual Heat Balance of the

-6
Roof (kWh/m²)

-4

-2

0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Time(Months)

Figure 4.13 The effect of variation in building orientation (0˚, 30˚, 60˚, 90˚) on the annual Heat Balance of the
roof.

By orienting the building to the south, solar heat can be captured in the winter and

blocked in the summers.

4.3.3.4 Green Roof Characteristics

Green roof assembly varies widely, but there are typically four layers (figure 4.14) a

protection layer above the roof to protect it from moisture, a drainage layer for excess

moisture to flow out, a growing media (Sailor, 2008) and top layer is the vegetation layer.

Figure 4.14: Typical Green Roof construction(Sailor, 2008).

 65

Plants regulate the rate of transpiration according to the season and reduce the solar

radiation reaching the soil surface (Jim & Tsang, 2010). They achieve this by reflecting a

part of the incoming solar radiation and since the role of the green roof canopy is to

provide shade the selection of plants is critical. Selection of vegetation with large foliage

development or a horizontal leaf distribution ensures low solar radiation transmission

(Sailor, 2008). Some of the characteristics that influence the cooling potential of the

green roof have been discussed below.

a. Thickness of growing media or substrate

The growing medium is the foundation of the green roof assembly as it provides the

nutrient base and location for the plants to grow. Typically made up of a combination of

sand, aggregate and organic matter it is also known as the substrate. The ideal growing

medium allows for the proper drainage, aeration and nutrient for the green roof plants.

Properties of the growing media such as its thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity

and density play a role in the performance of the green roof. The growing media on a

green roof is found above the drainage layer and is determined by water retention

capacity, weight, aeration and nutrient retention (Earth Pledge, 2005).

Depending upon the function of the roof, the layer of plants and its characteristics, the

growing medium and support system depth may vary. The weight of the substrate is a

determinant of the load on the roof (Weiler & Barth, 2009) and varying the depth of the

substrate may affect the roof design. A study of the effect of different media depths on

the green roof’s performance may help achieve an optimum thickness suitable for Delhi.

For the soil depth study the depth of the substrate was varied based on the industry

practices for an extensive, semi extensive and intensive green roof (discussed in detail in
 66

chapter 2). In figure 4.15 lower numbers 0.05m, 0.100 represent the depth of extensive

green roof systems, 0.150m and 0.200m the semi intensive while the higher values

signify the height of intensive green roofs. Preliminary simulation results indicate that an

extensive green roof system is suitable for Delhi.

.300 m .250 m .200 m .150 m .100 m 0.050 m

5
Annual Heat Balance of

0
Roof (kWh/m²)

D J F M A M J J A S O N D J
-5

-10

-15
Time (Months)

Figure 4.15: The effect of varying growing media thickness on the Heat Balance of a green roof.

It is noted that thicker substrate depth or intensive green roof systems have positive heat

balance, implying they retain heat. The greater heat flux through the roof translates into

higher demands for cooling (figure 4.16). It is therefore advisable to use short height

vegetation like indigenous variety of grasses which do not have deep roots and therefore

require less substrate depth for growth.

Cooling Load
-207
Annual Cooling Load

-210
-205
(kWh/m²)

-200
-194 -193
-195
-190 -189 -187
-190
-185
-180
-175
0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05
Growing Media Thickness (Meters)

Figure 4.16: Annual Cooling requirement for a building with a green roof when the soil thicknesses
are varied.

Since Delhi lags behind in the number of mature green roof installations compared to

Europe and United States (Snodgrass & Snodgrass, 2006) the understanding of the best

suited growing media and the ideal depth for Delhi may take time.
 67

b. Height of the vegetation

The height of the vegetative layer influences the heat gains and losses through the roof.

During the summers taller plants provide shade and the increased evapo-transpiration

contributes to the summer cooling. This property of shading is not desirable in the

winters as direct gain through the roof is the advantageous for lower heating loads. The

relationship between the height of the vegetative layer and the heat balance of the green

roof is illustrated below in figure 4.17.

2 0.2 m 0.4 m 0.6 m 0.8 m 1m

Annual Heat Balance of the

0
D J F M A M J J A S O N D J
Roof (kWh/m²)

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
Time (Months)

Figure 4.17: Heat Gain through roof for varying plant heights.

By varying the height of the vegetation from 0.2meter to 1.0meter, it was found that a

plant height of 1.0 meter increased the heat flux through the green roof (indicated by a

positive heat balance in figure 4.17). Negative heat balance may be seen in green roofs

that have plant heights in the range of 0.2m – 0.6m indicating lower heat flux through the

roof. The reduction in heat flux is beneficial because it is may lower the total annual

cooling load requirement for the building. This may not be the case in cooler winter

months when green roofs lose heat to the exterior, thereby increasing the heating loads.

c. Leaf Area Index

The LAI along with the leaf angle distribution determines the short and long wave

transmittance of the canopy, its effectiveness as a shadowing device (Barrio, 1998). The
 68

leaf area index is the projected leaf area per unit area of soil surface or a representation of

the plan form area coverage of the leaves. For example, if roof surface is beneath three

leaves, the corresponding LAI is 3 (figure 4.18). The values of LAI are dimensionless but

they vary depending upon the type of the plant, but are in the range of 0.5-5.0.

Figure 4.18: LAI assumption for foliage (Kumar & Kaushik, 2005).

To study the influence of foliage distribution on the heat balance of the green roof, the

LAI of the green roof was varied from 1 to 5 with 1 indicating the lowest LAI. Figure

4.19 shows an increase in the entering heat flux when the LAI is low. With lower leaf

area index (1, 2) the heat balance remains positive for the summer months implying that

major heat gains occur through the roof. Higher LAI like 4 or 5 is recommended for the

climate as it provides shade to the roof and regulates the heat flux through it.

10 LAI = 5 LAI = 4 LAI = 3 LAI = 2 LAI = 1

Annual Heat Balance

5
(kWh/m²)

0
D J F M A M J J A S O N D J
-5

-10
Time (Months)
Figure 4.19: Heat Gain through roof for varying Leaf Area Indices.

The increase in the LAI enhances the ability of the plant to retain air humidity, regulate

temperature changes and reduce canopy solar transmittance of summer gains. It may lead

to an increase in the winter heating energy consumption (represented by the negative

 69

magnitude of heat balance for LAI = 5) due to the shading effect and thus require

additional insulation in the cooler months.

d. Leaf Reflectivity or Albedo

Reflectivity or albedo is defined as the reflectivity of the surface to the solar energy

incident on the surface. In the EnergyPlus model, leaf reflectivity is defined as the

fraction of the incident solar radiation reflected by the individual leaf surface. The solar

radiation includes the visible spectrum, infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths (Sailor,

2008). High leaf albedo number (0.4) in figure 4.20 shows that the vegetation on the roof

reflects a considerable amount of solar radiation.

-40
Annual Heat Balance of the

-33.4
-35
-30.1 -31.2
-30
Roof (Kwhr/m²)

-25
-20
-15 -12.1
-10
-5
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Leaf Reflectance

Figure 4.20: Annual Heat balance of a green roof for varying leaf albedos.

The annual heat balance of the roof is considerably lower for 0.4 (40%) reflectance when

compared to other reflectance values modeled. The reduction in heat flux may also result

in lower cooling requirement for the building.

e. Stomatal Resistance

The process of water loss through plant respiration also known as transpiration is

controlled by the closing and opening of stomata (the intercellular openings between

epidermal (guard cells). The resistance to the diffusion of water vapor from these spaces

into the atmosphere is defined as the stomatal resistance in the EnergyPlus reference
 70

document (2010). It depends on factors such as light intensity, soil moisture content and

vapor pressure difference between inside leaf and the outside atmosphere. Measured in

units of s/m, the values vary in the range of 50.0-300.0 s/m in the EnergyPlus model.

Variation in the stomatal resistance demonstrates that foliage with high values of stomatal

resistance result in lower evapotranspiration rates than plants with low resistance. The

lower rate of transpiration translates into lower cooling loads (figure 4.21).

-202
Annual Cooling Load

-200
-201
-199 -200
(kWHr/m²)

-200
-199 -198
-198
-197
-197
-196
-195
50 100 200 250 300
Stomatal Resistance (s/m)

Figure 4.21: The effect of varying stomatal resistances of the vegetation on the annual cooling load.

The stomatal resistance of the leaf is the biophysical parameter that governs the rate of

transpiration through leaf stomata for a given environmental condition (Sailor, 2008).

Though relevant, but the lack of stomatal resistance values for various species make plant

selection based on this parameter difficult.

4.4 Discussion

The green roof simulation module described in the EnergyPlus model was tested for

Delhi’s climate by exploring the response to numerous parameters like the building

materials, orientation, surface to volume ratio and foliage characteristics. It was found

that green roofs act as a natural thermal shield and help maintain the temperature of the

building. The living ‘green roofs’ offer a natural cooling alternative by providing thermal

insulation and evaporative cooling.

 71

The modeling of the green roof and its variation provides an opportunity to explore the

energy implication of the green roof design. In Delhi, a compact (2:3 configuration)

South facing building with brick walls is best suited to have a green roof installation. In

order to maximize the thermal performance of the green roof, the vegetative layer height

should be limited to 0.5-0.6 meter, with high Leaf Area Index and reflectivity and low

stomatal resistance. In conclusion, the parametric studies present a quantitative estimate

of the potential energy savings from a green roof installation. The evaluation can assist

life cycle cost analyses of a green roof and help popularize them in the region.

Compared to conventional roofing systems the initial cost of installation, higher

maintenance requirements for vegetated roofs may outweigh their benefits. But past

studies and the parametric studies discussed in this chapter demonstrate the cooling

potential of green roofs and conclude that green roofs reduce heat flux through the roof.

An estimate of the energy savings achieved may be useful for facilitating their use in

Delhi.
 72

CHAPTER 5

ARCHITECTURAL APPLICATIONS

5.1 Green Roof design process

The green roof design process is no different from the process employed for any other

complex landscape architecture installation. The climate, design and building use dictate

the various choices for a green roof assembly (Osmundson, 1999). For any green roof

project there needs to be an integration of the available expertise and the experience of

the designing team. The design of even a small green roof requires an integration of many

different components and a coordinated team effort. The team should be aware of the

goal of the green roof installation (Luckett, 2009) and have the maximum information

before beginning with the design process. Even if an existing building is fitted with a

green roof, it is critical to determine the potential benefits to be provided by the green

roof, and offset them against the cost of construction, labor and regulatory requirements,

codes (Cantor, 2008).

The feasibility evaluation can be carried out through collection of green roof objectives,

loading considerations, existing and proposed conditions, building codes. This would

enable proper planning and help avoid changes and corrections at a later stage. During

the construction phase, sufficient care should be taken to protect the various components

of the green roof assembly (Peck, 2008). Since the layers of the green roof are built from

the bottom up each layer needs to be tested as it is built and thereafter protected. If the

design and program for the green roof calls for a variety of plant materials they need to

be procured, installed and maintained (Snodgrass & Mclntyre, 2010).

 73

5.2 Potential for green roofs in office buildings

Green roofs offer a new alternative for the conceptualization and construction of roof

level green spaces. In the past green roof installations have been limited to Europe

especially Germany, but are now becoming a part of the green building initiative in other

parts of the world. Vegetated roofs are being developed on a variety of structures, in the

form of parks, plazas on top of underground parking garages, roof gardens on hotels,

residential buildings, bridges, connected podiums and office buildings (Osmundson,

1999) due to the varied benefits they offer. The possible application of green roofs on a

wide variety of structures reflects their potential as a system that can be integrated into

the urban fabric of Delhi.

Vegetated roofs, especially in office buildings, may serve a variety of functions and range

of users. Plants on the green roof make use of the sun’s energy; keep the upper floors

cooler by reducing outdoor temperatures. Through photosynthesis plants remove carbon

dioxide from the air and lower the pollution levels around the building. The layer of

plants protects the underlying membrane from harmful ultraviolet rays and intense heat

which may otherwise cause its degradation.

In order to benefit from the thermal properties of green roof a building roof may be partly

or fully covered with vegetation. Through green roof design inter-office hierarchy may be

enforced. Controlled access may be designated for the private spaces for the office

executives, while other green roofs may be left open for the employees and visitors. They

can be places of recreation and serve as visual amenities that detract from outdoor roof

view of vents, pipes, mechanical equipment. Green roofs with landscaping patterns add to

the aesthetics and offer alternative views to the urban roof from neighboring buildings.
 74

5.3 Green roof retrofit

Green roofs offer numerous advantages over conventional roofs which may range from

the urban scale to community to individual. Apart from the reduction in storm water

runoff, cooling of cities (Stutz, December 2010) tremendous energy savings through the

year. The additional mass and insulation provided by the green roof may benefit older

buildings with poor existing insulation and that may result in energy savings in summer

cooling and winter heating (Castleton, Stovin, et al., 2010). With current building

practices requiring higher insulation levels for new buildings, addition of green roofs in

older buildings may help bring them up to date with the current.

Older buildings often have more reserve structural capacity compared to newer buildings

and therefore can be retrofitted. Stovin et al (2007) found in UK that medium size office

buildings with reinforced concrete roof can be retrofitted with a green roof without any

structural changes. The comparative study estimated that the capacity of a reinforced

concrete slab was much higher than profile steel decking highlighting that the load

capacity of the existing roof structure is the primary determinant of the suitability of a

green roof installation on an existing buildings (Stovin, Dunnett, & Hallam, 2007). The

addition of a green roof affects the size, view and access of the building, hence an

inventory of the roof conditions, loading requirements, building codes, occupancy

requirements and life cycle status of key components is essential (Castleton, Stovin, et

al., 2010) for a successful retrofit project.

Based on the scale of the project, a small retrofit project may or may not require direct

supervision from the architect, landscape architect and other consultants. It does require

an in - depth investigation into the existing condition and construction documents to

 75

ascertain if the structural members will be able to support the green roof. If strengthening

of the structure is required to support the green roof then the additional cost may

outweigh the various benefits. To ascertain the suitability of a retrofitting a green roof on

an existing building a quantitative evaluation of the energy savings achieved by the use of

a green roof needs to be carried out.

5.3.1 Building Selection for the retrofit

Architecture of India like the form of a house is determined by socio-cultural factors of

the society, economics, climate, materials, and technology (Rapport, 1969). The buildings

in the past respected their environment and relied on the use of local sustainable

materials. Various climate responsive strategies like water harvesting, use of dense and

compact structures helped counter the intense heat to which the northern region of India

is exposed (Sabikhi, 1985).

Twenty years ago a number of architects combined the traditional methods, principles

and traditional patterns of building placement (Evenson, 1989). An example of that may

be found in architect A.B Lall’s office building for Transport Corporation of India. The

three storey modern office building has been designed using traditional Indian design

principles and climate responsive solutions (Majumdar, 2001). It is planned to meet high

levels of environmental comfort, integration of systems and flexibility for future growth

and change. The building is on a rectangular plot in an institutional area near Delhi.

5.3.2 Building description

A prototype of the modern city office, the design of the building is based on the

traditional inward looking house (haveli) plan. All materials used in the building are

indigenous and attain a new aesthetic in the contemporary form (Majumdar, 2001). The
 76

orientation of the building is determined by the site and entrance contains a planted and

shaded forecourt (figure 5.1). The internal spaces orient around the central court which

helps shade and facilitate stack ventilation and reduce artificial lighting (Gast, 2007).

Figure 5.1 TCI office, Gurgaon emphasizing the rectilinear form and orientation along a central
courtyard.

The skin of the building is made up of a solid insulated wall with windows at lower level

and upper levels (Majumdar, 2001). Openings on the wall serve two purposes (figure

5.2), the small windows shaded by the deep reveal, allow insolation in winters and reduce

the mid summer sun. Larger windows at the ceiling level are designed for day lighting.

Figure 5.2 Section through the central fountain court of TCI office, Gurgaon (Majumdar, 2001).
 77

The entrance forecourt (figure 5.3) and central fountain court (figure 5.2), to which the

building envelope opens have a structural framework that provides support for the

retractable shading screens that are stretched according to the season. The body of water

in the recirculating water fountain flows over a large surface to maximize evaporation. It

acts as heat sink during the cooler months and helps shift the courtyard temperatures

towards the wet bulb temperature. Hence the glazing panels around the inner court (figure

5.4) are single glazed since the heat load from the courtyard side are lower (Majumdar,

2001).

Figure 5.3: East side elevation (Majumdar, 2001). Figure 5.4: View of central court (Majumdar,
2001).

After incorporating the day lighting requirements window areas are minimized to 18% of

the external wall area (figure 5.5). The larger daylight windows can be adjusted

seasonally to control direct insolation and reflect glare free light towards the ceiling for

distribution into the office spaces(Majumdar, 2001). The use of tight sealed two layers of
 78

glass provides additional insulation to the daylight windows. They have adjustable

Venetian blinds in a double window sandwich. The blinds are adjusted seasonally (thrice

a year) by the building maintenance staff to control direct insolation.

Figure 5.5: South – West Elevation of TCI office, Gurgaon (Majumdar, 2001).

Other features like planting scheme along the edges of the site and building materials

provide protection from the heat. The heavy mass construction is insulated from the

outside by 25 mm thick polyurethane foam protected by a dry red-stone slab cladding.

The roof has a 35mm thick insulation with a reflective glazed tile paving cover to

minimize the sol - air temperature on the surface (Majumdar, 2001).

5.3.3 Green roof modeling

In the previous chapter computer modeling was used to predict the heating and cooling

energy savings of a building with a green roof. Using the same procedure and the ecoroof

option in the EnergyPlus model a green roof was modeled as the outer layer of the

Transport Corporation of India (TCI) office roof. A comparison between the energy
 79

consumption for the office building with the original roof that consisted of a 35mm thick

insulation and reflective tile covering and a vegetated roof was carried out.

The annual heat balance for the two roofs (figure 5.6) show that without a green roof the

building roof is a net heat gainer in the summer months (positive heat balance), while

reverse is seen with green roofs. The negative heat balance for the green roof during

summer confirms that they reduce heat flux through the roof and energy use.

With green Roofs

4 Without Green Roofs
Annual Heat Balance of

3
Roof (kWh/m²)

2
1
0
-1 D J F M A M J J A S O N D J
-2
-3
-4
-5
Time (Months)
Figure 5.6: Comparison of heat balance of roof for TCI building with a green roof and without a
green roof.

For buildings that have well insulated roofs like the TCI office which has a 0.35m thick

insulation and reflective roof tile, the magnitude of thermal benefit ascertained by the

reduction in annual chiller electricity load may not be substantial. Improvements of up to

one percent reduction in chiller electricity load (refer to figure 5.7) in electricity

consumption was observed. Therefore for existing buildings various other factors need to

be considered before a green roof may be retrofitted.

Base Case TCI Building Base Case TCI Building with Green Roof
140 120.7 119.9
Annual load (kWh/m²)

120
100
80 68.9 68.0
60
40
20 4.8 4.6
0
Electricity Heat Generation (Gas) Chiller (Electricity)

Figure 5.7: Comparison of energy consumption of the TCI building with a green roof and without a green roof
 80

A green roof installation requires additional structural strength on the roof to take the

load of the assembly. Apart from the structural requirements, the initial cost of

construction and maintenance is high for green roofs and these factors may be prohibitive

for their use as a passive strategy to achieve cooling in old buildings. For an existing

structure it may be beneficial to explore the addition of high efficiency HVAC system to

conserve energy and achieve mechanical cooling together.

5.3.3.1 Benefit of high SEER HVAC system versus a green roof

Energy efficiency ratio (EER) is the ratio of net cooling capacity in kWh to total rate of

electric input in watts under designated operating conditions (ASHRAE, 2007). SEER

stands for seasonal energy efficiency ratio and it is the ratio of the total cooling output of

an air conditioner during its normal annual usage period for cooling energy divided by

the total electric energy input during the same period (ASHRAE, 2007).The higher the

unit's SEER rating the more energy efficient it is and lower the energy costs.

Three terms are used commonly to describe air conditioning systems- Coefficient of

performance (COP), EER, and SEER. EER, SEER are described above and COP is the

ratio of the rate of heat removal to the rate of energy input, in consistent units, for a

complete refrigerating system or some specific portion of that system under designated

operating conditions (ASHRAE, 2007). and is based upon the size of the air conditiong.

The EER is related to the COP, as COP is instantaneous measures (of power) while both

EER and SEER are averaged over duration of time (to measure the energy). The time

duration considered is several hours of constant conditions for EER, and a full year of

typical meteorological and indoor conditions for SEER.

 81

A comparison between the simulation run of the TCI building with a low COP HVAC

(Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning) system and with a high COP and SEER

system show that the annual system energy consumption especially of electricity of the

later is much lower (figure 5.8). In Delhi, commonly used air conditioning system is the

air cooled with the COP range of 2.78 – 3.8 (ASHRAE, 2007). A higher SEER rating of

the air conditioning unit implies energy efficiency and lower energy consumption for the

building. Since the building electric load is comprised of the lighting, miscellaneous

loads like electronic equipment and chiller load, use of an efficient HVAC system may

lead to lower energy costs for the user.

Electricity (High SEER) Electricity (Base Case) Gas (High SEER) Gas (Base Case)

140

120.7
Annual Consumption (kWh/m²)

120

100
86.6
80

60

40

20
4.8 4.8
0

Figure 5.8: Comparison between the fuel consumption of TCI building. The base case has a HVAC
system with COP = 2.7 and a more efficient HVAC system with COP=3.4 or SEER = 13.

A green roof was simulated on the TCI building model to ascertain benefit of a green roof

installation. Green roof was added to both the scenarios, on the low COP HVAC system

building and other with more efficient HVAC system with high COP. Assessment of

various set-ups in figure 5.9 highlights that chiller electricity load for the building with

high SEER value was lower than base case which had an inefficent HVAC system.
 82

Base Case - Without Green Roof Base Case - with Green Roof
With High SEER HVAC System With High SEER HVAC System and Green Roof

80
68.9
Chiller electricity load (kWh/m²)
68.0
70
60
50
34.7 34.3
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 5.9 Comparison between the chiller electricity load of the TCI building with and without a
green roof. The base case has a HVAC system COP = 2.7 while the other has an efficient HVAC
system COP=3.4.

It was noted that the addition of a green roof on both the scenarios one even with a

proficient HVAC system, lowered the chiller loads but the reduction was not substantial

(figure 5.9). However, through the various results a greater reduction in the electric load

especially a decrease in the chiller electricity load for the office building was observed

when high efficiency HVAC system are used compared to when a green roof was used.

5.3.4 Conclusion

In the research conducted for the retrofit of a green roof on a building, the design cooling

requirement for all the floors of the TCI building was evaluated individually. For the

lower floors of the TCI building the design cooling remained the same in both cases

when the building was modeled with a green roof and without a green roof. It was

however observed that the top most floor of the building recorded reduction in cooling

loads due to the presence of a green roof (figure 5.10). Overall, a slight improvement of

one percent in the chiller electricity load was observed (refer figure 5.7) when the fuel

consumption breakdown of the TCI buildings with a green roof and without a green roof

was compared.
 83

Base Case Base Case+green roof

80
DesignCooling Requirement (kW)

68.5
70

60
50.0
50

40

30

20

10

Figure 5.10: Comparison of the design cooling load for the top most floor of the TCI building with and
without a green roof. The base case has a HVAC system COP = 2.7 while other has an HVAC system
with COP=3.4

The major obstacle to the spread of green roofs is the initial cost of installation, which

can be anywhere from $15 to $35 per square foot, two to three times the cost of a non-

green roof (Stutz, December 2010). The advantage of lower chiller electricity load for the

top floor may be lost when energy consumption analysis is carried out and compared to

the similar values obtained from a high SEER HVAC system (fig 5.9). The use of a high

efficiency HVAC system in an existing building may be more economical and advisable

than the installation of a green roof for the purpose conserving energy.

As commercial and institutional buildings are normally repaired or refurbished every 15-

20 years (Castleton, Stovin, et al., 2010), a green roof installation may be an opportunity

to provide a facelift to the building together with user satisfaction and the thermal

benefits. But when these are compared to the life cycle cost, green roofs seem to be a

viable passive strategy for new construction only. It is also less expensive to build for a

certain capacity from the beginning than to retrofit an already completed structure later.
 84

5.4 A case for new buildings

Using experimental research, the effect of green roof (passive cooling strategy for roof)

on the building energy system was studied. It was observed that green roofs alone may

not be able to reduce the heat flux and cooling load of existing buildings. The cooling

effect achieved through the green roof installation, however, may be enhanced by the

design of rest of the envelope and incorporation of passive techniques. The external

building skin or envelope is the most dominant system amongst all of the subsystems of a

building (rest are load bearing structure, mechanical services and spatial services). The

envelope performs a number of functions and has substantial contribution to the building

energy consumption (Schittich, 2001).

The solar radiation transmitted through roofs and windows (or the envelope) may be

direct, diffuse, or reflected from exterior surfaces and it determines the thermal load of a

building. Till the late 1960’s and early 1970s internal comfort and the thermal load was

largely offset by high performance air conditioning systems (Schittich, 2001). An

awareness for energy conservation and provision of a healthy indoor environment lead to

a shift from high efficiency systems to the design of the external skin. Primary objective

of the building skin which consists of the roof and façade is to regulate the outdoor

conditions and ensure comfortable indoor conditions.

The design of the skin must respond to the external environment to lower building air

conditioning loads and associated energy costs. To demonstrate the effectiveness of

proper building envelope design an office building with the same area, height and

requirements as the Transport Corporation building was developed. By recognizing the

 85

climatic conditions of Delhi that range on both sides of the comfort zone, the office

design draws upon the external climate to supplement the air conditioning system.

The overall strategy was to minimize energy consumption of the building and reduce the

size of mechanical air conditioning through design of the envelope. This was achieved by

including various passive strategies that were discussed in chapter 3 into the building

design. The building structure has been designed to have a large roof exposure to

accommodate a green roof whose thermal benefits have already been established. The

development of the office design closely follows the experimental findings of chapter 4.

Figure 5.11 describes the various passive strategies that have been incorporated in the

design.

Strategies

Building Design Building Envelope

Aspect Ratio Orientation Façade Roof

- reduce solar - Maximize roof

exposure, shading area for green
- resist heat transfer roofs
through thermal - Increase heat loss
mass through
- design of openings evaporation
to lower solar gain - resist heat transfer
through thermal
mass

Figure 5.11: Passive techniques used

 86

5.4.1 Reduction in solar exposure

The winter sun path is much shorter and lower than the summer path, due to the winter

sun rising and setting south of east and west respectively. As a result the east and west

facades do not receive significant amount of irradiation in winter, while the same is not

true for summer months. The east and west facades become major recipients of summer

heat. By analyzing the overheated period chart for Delhi (figure 5.12) for the summer

months, it is observed that majority of the solar radiation is incident on the building

between 10 am in the morning to 3pm in afternoon, but the heat flux continues until later.

The exposure to solar radiation may be attenuated through the building envelope design.

It was discovered in the previous chapters that by controlling solar access heat gain

through the roofs and walls were substantially reduced. Through building orientation and

shape the objective was to maximize the solar penetration in cold periods, reduced it

during the hot dry period and increase ventilation in the hot humid periods.

Figure 5.12: Stereographic diagram representing the Direct Solar Radiation (in W/m²) for New Delhi.
(Sun Position -164.6˚, 59.4˚; HSA – 164.6˚; VSA 119.7˚) Courtesy WeatherTool
 87

5.4.1.1 Orientation

The amount of solar heat received by the surface of a building was minimized through

the manipulation of the orientation and shape of the building plan with respect to the sun

movement; height of the building exposed to the sun. In the previous chapter (sec 4.3.3.3)

it was established that the heat gain through the building envelope was reduced when the

building had a predominant southern exposure. The orientation of the office building has

been kept along the east west (figure 5.13), so as to have most of the openings fall on the

north and south faces. The windows on the east and west side are minimized and

protected by a screen. The orientation exposes the unit to morning sun and cuts the

afternoon sun through a screen provided on the south and west side.

Figure 5.13: The chosen orientation for the building

5.4.1.2 Building configuration

The surface to volume ratio (S/V) discussed in chapter 4 expresses the relationship

between outside building surface area and the enclosed space that can be used in order to
 88

compare differently shaped buildings containing equal volumes of space. Previously it

was found that the building aspect ratio of 2:3 is suitable for climate of Delhi. Through

simulations it was found that for any given building volume (figure 5.14) by neutralizing

the gains through the building roof by using a green roof, a more compact the shape

furthers the thermal benefit. A compact shape receives less solar radiation and is also able

to contribute to the building losses.

To demonstrate the above various configurations containing equal volume of space were

modeled and the amount of solar radiation incident on its surfaces compared. The

buildings blocks are represented by number 1 to 4 in figure 5.14. An analysis revealed

that Block 2 recorded the lowest solar radiation on South and North elevations

(identifiable by darker hue in first image).

4
1
3

2 2

3
1
4

Figure 5.14: Study of solar radiation incident on various building configurations to determining an
ideal form.

Being situated in the composite climate which sees extreme climatic variations, the

building adopts an inward looking compact rectangular self shading form with an aspect

ratio of 2:3 to limit external exposure. The height above ground has been kept at a

minimum to reduce contact with the outside. The entire building has been developed

around the courtyard which also behaves like a light well.

 89

5.4.2 Lower level of solar gain

Reduction in the solar gain through the building envelope may be achieved by use of

shading devices and design of openings. The roof area of the building has been

maximized to avail of the benefit of a green roof installation. The roof is completely

covered with vegetation to lower the ambient temperatures and heat balance of the roof.

5.4.2.1 Design of fenestration for ventilation and daylighting

The ideal exposure for Delhi is the South and the East and maximum openings have been

provided in this orientation (figure 5.13). Protection has been provided on the overheated

south western exposure to eliminate heat gains in summers. The building is developed

around a central court which acts as a light well (figure 5.15). The coupling of the spaces

with the courtyard allows for good ventilation and the court also behaves like a heat sink.

Figure 5.15: Section through the light well highlighting the self shading character of the South façade

The thermal performance of the building is the major parameter of design, however

adequate distribution of daylight within the internal spaces of the building has been

considered. Taking the daylight function into account a light well has been introduced

and the window areas minimized. The openings in the external walls are square shaped

and at two levels. Small windows at seating height provide for cross ventilation and
 90

views; larger windows at ceiling level designed as light shelves distribute glare free

daylight across the office floor. The windows are protected with a venetian blind.

5.4.2.2 Shading devices for fenestration

Reduction in solar gain through the building walls can be achieved by shading devices.

An effective means of shading walls and window openings is to extend or project the roof

to provide a useful overhang for the lower floors. Since the external wall areas are

exposed to low morning and afternoon sun the heat transfer through the wall is controlled

through shades and screens. The windows of the office building are provided sun shading

by the overhang of the upper floors (figure 5.15). The overhangs obstruct the high sun

angle and reduce the direct solar gain.

The south and west sides of the building are protected by additional screens (figure 5.16)

that project beyond the overhang of the upper floors. This prevents the summer heat from

entering, while allowing winter radiation to penetrate. A protective screen made up of

horizontal and vertical members shields the openings from the oblique South East and

North West sun angles, and at the same time allows cross ventilation.

Figure 5.16: Screen protecting the South West facade

5.4.2.3 Use of green roofs for shading roofs

The essential role of the canopy in green roof is to shade the structure below. It has been

established in the previous sections that building roofs are a source of heat gain for the
 91

building and therefore, need to be protected from direct solar radiation. Green roofs not

only provide shade (through vegetation) to the roof, but also add thermal mass. The

plants on the green roofs shade the roof membrane and reduce the ambient temperature.

The selection of plants with large foliage development or horizontal leaf distribution

(figure 5.17) on a green roof ensures a low solar heat transmission into the building as the

foliage provides an insulation cover of still air over the roof which impedes solar flux.

The evapo-transpiration of the plants utilizes the solar heat and helps cool the roof.

Figure 5.17: A section through the green roof showing how the vegetation shades the building roof. Image
courtesy Weiler (2009) and changes made to it by the author.

The roof area in the building design has been maximized to capitalize on the thermal

benefit green roofs offer. The building roof is completely covered with a green roof and

in return it shades the roof membrane and slab from direct solar gain. A combination of

tall and short height plants help in increasing the LAI. It section 4.3.3.4 it was concluded

that high LAI is recommended as it provides shade to the roof.

5.4.3 Resistance to heat transfer through the envelope

The amount of heat conducted into the building through its skin is dependent on the

thermal resistance of the material and its heat storage capacity (Majumdar, 2001). The
 92

absorption of solar radiation by the outer surfaces and its transmittance through the roof

and walls to the internal surfaces causes discomfort for the users.

5.4.3.1 Choice of insulating materials

The office building is designed for predominantly daytime use and the material selection

is governed by that. The addition of insulation will be of value when the average daily

temperatures outside the building envelope fall or rise above the comfort zone

(ASHRAE, 2007; Watson & Labs, 1983). In the study conducted for Delhi (chapter 4) it

was observed that brick walls with a green roof assembly furthered indoor comfort.

For the office building exposed brick walls that are 345 mm thick have been used on the

external surfaces. They have a time lag of about 8 hours, and an overall heat transfer

coefficient (U-value) of 1.9 W.m²˚C (Majumdar, 2001). Additional insulation is provided

by the double glazing low e windows that have been provided for the daylighting.

5.4.3.2 Use of thermal mass

It is necessary to insulate the roof as it receives majority of the solar radiation in summer

owing to the high sun angles of Delhi. A green roof has been used to provide additional

thermal mass to the roof which delays the heat flux into the building. In the previous

section (4.3.3.1) it was observed that green roofs have the lowest heat balance

establishing their success in mitigating solar gain through the roof. The additional mass

on the roof helps regulate the diurnal swings in temperature during day and night.

5.4.4 Increase heat loss through envelope using green roofs

5.4.4.1 Use of Vegetation to achieve a cooling effect

Proper selection and positioning of plants can improve the microclimate of a site. Green

roofs use vegetation to reduce the cooling load on buildings. The role of the canopy in a
 93

green roof is to provide shade to the structure below and lower solar gains through the

building roof. Best plants to use are native varieties that have adapted to the local climate

and soil as they require less water, fertilizer and chemicals for its growth. The thermal

mass of the soil damps out the temperature fluctuations in both summers and winters as a

result the structure is subjected to relatively small heating and cooling loads. Selection of

light soil may also help reduce thermal conductivity and lower the dead weight of the

roof.

5.5 Building Views

Figure 5.18: South West Building View showing the screens

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Figure 5.19: West-South Elevation

Figure 5.20: East North Elevation

Figure 5.21: North West Elevation

Figure 5.22: South East Elevation

5.6 Cooling load benefit

A comparison between the cooling loads for the TCI building (building that was modeled

for the green roof retrofit) the new office design was carried out to ascertain the reduction

in cooling achieved. By incorporating passive techniques into the building design a

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reduction of up to 36 percent in the design cooling load was noted. In figure 5.23 the base

case represents the TCI building without the green roof while the New Design + shade

represents the building design developed using passive design techniques. The reduction

in cooling load means a smaller HVAC system would be required for the new building

for the same building area as the TCI office building. This can lead to financial incentive

for the owner as there would be substantial savings in the cost of cooling equipment and

energy costs.

Base Case Base Case+green roof New Design New Design+shade

220

188.1
169.2
170
DesignCooling Requirement (kW)

145

120
120

70

20

-30

Figure 5.23: Comparison of Design cooling loads for building with same floor area.

The cooling load for the buildings with green roofs (refer base case+ green roof and High

SEER +green roof in graph 5.2) is lower than the counterpart buildings (Base case and

High SEER) which had no vegetation on the roof. This reduction of approximately 10

percent establishes that green roofs are successful in lowering the heat flux through the

roof and may be used a passive cooling strategy for Delhi in combination with other

techniques in the future.

 96

The comparative study confirms that in order to lower the thermal loads for a building,

passive design strategies need to be incorporated into the building design. For internal

load dominated office buildings, a reduction of 30 percent may be substantial as it can

considerably lower the energy consumption for the building and its associated costs.

5.7 Conclusion

The design strategy was not to control the thermal performance of the indoor spaces –

rather to integrate features that would shift its overall performance passively toward

comfort. Air conditioning will always be among the greatest expenses of a building

during its lifetime. It is largely dependent on the heat transfer through the building fabric

and the most effective strategy for reducing the thermal load and the subsequent energy

consumption, is through the design of the building envelope. That may be achieved

through the addition of thermal mass, insulation, shading to name a few. The current

exploration of sustainable building designs in modern Indian architecture affirms that the

future is likely to be dependent on high efficiency systems and green design.

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CHAPTER 6

CONLUSIONS

Over the last couple of years many new green roof installations have been built around

the world but little research into the performance of green roof systems in composite

climate has been conducted. The literature that exists consists primarily of studies carried

out in the extreme hot and cold climates. Green roofs are a substitute for natural

landscaped areas at ground level which are scarce in urban centers like Delhi. The

Landscape roofs offer many benefits, starting with the additional building insulation,

lower requirements for air conditioning and energy, mitigate the heat island effect, reduce

the total area of impervious dark surfaces in city to name a few. With emergence of Delhi

as a major urban center of India, green roofs can become a part of the local building

practices to improve the urban way of life.

6.1 Comparison of benefits with conventional roofs

The various experiments carried out through the course of this thesis have confirmed that

green roof installations have wide ranging advantages over traditional roofs. The benefits

of green roofs may be categorized under a range of scales. Some of the benefits are

appreciable only when a large number of green roofs are implemented at the larger

neighborhood or urban scale, while others may be availed at the individual building level.

Even when the advantages at the building level are not that substantial, green roofs add

value to the structure. Vegetated roofs provide an outdoor healthy space for the user, add

aesthetic value to the building, benefits that are not tangible. The following table (6-1)

compares the positive aspects of a green roof installation with a conventional roof.
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Table 6-1: A comparison of benefit between a green roof and a conventional roof. Basic formwork is courtesy
(Peck, 2008), minor additions have been made to it.

Benefit Green Roof Conventional Roof

Storm water volume retention 10-35% during wet season, 65- None
100% during dry season
Temperature mitigation In hot season Achieved with insulation
Improved water quality Retains atmospheric deposition None
and retards roof material
degradation. Reduced volume
reduce pollutant loadings
Urban Heat Island Mitigation Prevents temperature increases With Light colored roof ,e.g.
white roofs
Air Quality Filters air and increases None
evapotranspiration
Energy Conservation Insulate building roof Through Addition of insulation,
light colored roof and shading
reduction in energy consumption
may be achieved.
Vegetation Allows seasonal evapo- None
transpiration; photosynthesis,
Green Space Replaces green spaces lost to due None
to the building footprint
Habitat For bird and insects None
Other advantages Buffers noise, alternative None
aesthetic, offers passive
recreation
Total Costs Highly variable from $53.8- Highly variable from $21.52-
$129.12 m² new construction and $107.6 per m² new construction
$75.32-215.20m² retrofits and $43.04m² -$161.40 per m²
retrofits
Cost offsets Reduced storm water facilities, None
energy savings, higher rental
values, increased property values,
reduced need for insulation
materials, reduced waste to
landfill
durability Waterproof membrane protected With Little protection and
from solar and temperature exposure to elements, roofs may
exposure lasts more than 36 last less than 20 years.
years; membrane protected from
maintenance damages
.

The advantages of a green roof are often outweighed by the financial cost incurred in

their installation. They generate tangible benefits in the form of financial returns from

energy savings and smaller HVAC system, roof life longevity and the less quantifiable

social and environmental benefits such as storm water runoff reduction, UHI mitigation,
 99

habitat for urban biodiversity to list a few. A variety of design elements and green roof

components contribute towards the various advantages discussed above.

6.2 Summary of findings

One of the great advantages of green roofs is the reduction of summer cooling load.

Although the wet soil is a poor insulator, the transpiration from the plants and

evaporation from the soil cool the plants, soil and the air. In a three story building the

cooling load may be reduced by as much as 30 percent. With sustainable building design

practices being part of the modern day architecture of India it is evident that the future is

likely to involve green architecture and energy efficient design, and green roof

installations can contribute towards this goal.

6.2.1 Building design

Using parametric studies optimum design practices that enhance the thermal benefit of

green roofs in composite climate were identified. It was found that compact buildings that

have low surface to volume ratio like 1:1 and 2:3 (1:1.5) building configuration and are

along the north south axis perform the best. The lower surface to volume ratio ensures

minimum heat gain through the building envelope and low height buildings further this

reduction as the surface area exposed to the sun is minimized.

The impact of green roofs is highest in buildings that are up to four storeys high. In these

buildings the roof is still the major source of direct gain and installation of a green roof

provides shade, thermal mass to the roof and regulates the ambient temperatures. In

buildings taller than four floors, due to the large wall surface exposure, the envelope

becomes a substantial contributor to the building thermal gains. The gain through the
 100

building envelope often supersedes the thermal benefit obtained by installing a green

roof, thereby limiting the thermal role of green roofs in taller buildings.

After neutralizing the heat gains through the building roof using a green roof, the next

source of solar flux which is the building envelope needs to be addressed. Use of high

thermal mass or insulation providing materials and shading of the external surfaces can

lower the thermal gains of the building. Proper fenestration design with openings on the

North and South facing walls ensure winter heating and protection in the summer months

for reducing the heat gains. Self shading courtyards can further aide ventilation and

indoor daylighting and become a heat sink for the building.

6.2.2 Green roof components

If a new or an old building is being planned with a green roof, the designer should be

aware of the issues concerning the structural design, drainage and logistics and the native

plant species. Various considerations for the green roof components such as the

vegetation layer; growing media and the structural support layer are discussed below.

6.2.2.1 Vegetation

Plants are immensely useful in cooling of buildings and have been shown to enhance

human health and performance. Best plants to use are native varieties that have adapted

to the local climate and soil as those trees require less water, fertilizer and chemicals for

its growth. Plant species that have a dense summer canopy (high LAI) and an almost

branchless open winter canopy are beneficial as they increase the plant transpiration rate

and help retain the humidity in air. The multiple layers of leaves are ventilated by the

transpiration (evaporation) of water from the leaves in summers. Transpiration not only

cools the plants but also the air in contact with the vegetation. The cooling load on a
 101

building with vegetation was always found to be smaller as the plants help buffer against

the outdoor conditions compared to building surrounded by asphalt or concrete.

6.2.2.2 Substrate

A variety of substrate depths were modeled using the EnergyPlus module in the green

roof on the model office building. It was observed that extensive green roofs are

beneficial for Delhi as they have the lowest heat balance for the roof. For the vegetation

to flourish plants need the right amount of water, nutrient and drainage. The drainage and

retention layer complement the work of the soil as they regulate the moisture content by

getting rid of the excess water.

6.2.2.3 Structural support

The decision to incorporate a green roof into an existing or a new building requires an

evaluation of a number of factors. Not every structure may be capable of supporting the

extra load generated by the green roof. Therefore, an analysis of the structural capability

of the roof is required before any retrofit project is undertaken. The configuration of the

roof plays an important part in the design and it should be flat to support the green roof.

A new green roof design needs to take into consideration the higher dead load, deep soil

pockets and requirements of the vegetation.

6.3 Impact of the study

Data collected from various experiments conducted for evaluating the thermal

performance of a green roof may help designers with quantifying the benefits. Designers

will be able to incorporate green roofs with envelope or skin load dominated buildings.

The contribution of green roofs would be maximized, as the buildings that rely on
 102

mechanical cooling significantly will have reduced thermal loads through the roof, and

smaller sized HVAC systems.

If used with other passive strategies green roofs can contribute towards energy efficiency

in the building. Apart from reducing the cooling load for the building, green roofs

provide other intangible benefits like storm water management, outdoor green space, and

aesthetic value addition to the building roof. Some of these advantages may outweigh the

initial cost of construction.

The designer now has access to the various parameters like the building orientation,

construction materials, building configuration, foliage characteristics which affect the

performance of the green roof. The architect can therefore, design a new or a retrofit

green roof and capitalize on the thermal benefit.

6.4 Limitations

This study addresses the thermal performance of green roofs in composite climate only.

The geographic location for the composite climate was set as the metropolitan region of

Delhi and all the simulations were carried out for that location. The number of parameters

by which thermal performance of green roofs are evaluated are limited. The categories

used for the evaluation are orientation, building configuration, building materials and

plant characteristics. The heat balance of the roof and the resultant cooling load is used as

a proxy for determining the effectiveness of the green roof system. As the study relies on

computer software for the modeling of green roofs only an energy analysis is provided,

other benefits like food production, storm water mitigation, habitat for plants, animals,

opportunity for carbon sequestration are mentioned, but not covered in the study.
 103

6.5 Future work

In this thesis various factors that affect the green roof’s thermal performance were

studied. A detailed study of the substrate layer would help maximize this benefit as the

soil layer plays an important role in the cooling of the roof. The substrate layer supports

the vegetation and the evaporation of water from this layer helps achieve ambient

cooling.

An investigation of the effect of irrigation on the green roof during summer months may

be beneficial as it would help ascertain how the performance of the green roof varies with

wet soil. The plant species that are suitable for the region may also be determined by this

analysis. It may also help establish which kind of substrate and what depth would be

resistant to the harsh conditions.

In addition to the parameters used in this thesis, a battery of tests and simulations to

prove the viability of a green roof in a particular situation, which incorporate the above

aspects, may be beneficial. The list of experiments would assist professionals and firms

to optimize their information and make best decision.

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Appendix A

Green roofs may become an important contributor to the urban green movement. Native

plants species and grassland plants are particularly adaptable to this manmade habitat. A

native green roof will provide habitat for wildlife, especially insect pollinators adding to

the biodiversity value of these efforts. Based on the list of plants for a green roof created

by the National Park Service, New York (GNPC, 2011) and the guide to species of trees

found in Delhi (Krishen, 2006) a list of vegetation for green roof installation in Delhi has

been created.

List of vegetation suitable for a green roof in Delhi

1. Grasses: Grasses are the most abundant, widely spread, and useful of all flowering

plants. They provide the bulk of green herbage, dried fodder and a variety of valuable

byproducts such as fibers, paper, sugar, aromatic oils, and adhesives (Hubbard, 1954).

Technically known as graminoids, are herbaceous plants with narrow leaves growing

from the base. They have highly developed root-systems, close vigourous growth, and

ability to persist under adverse conditions. The special type of leaves enables the plants to

withstand close and frequent cutting.

Dry grasses: Carex pensylvanica– Pennsylvania sedge; Cyperus echinatus– Globe

flatsedge; Danthonia compressa– Northern oatgrass; Danthonia spicata– Junegrass;

Deschampsia fleuxosa– Common hairgrass; Eragrostis spectabilis– Purple lovegrass;

Schizachyrium scoparium– Little bluestem; Sorghastrum nutans– Indian grass.

Dry to Moist grasses: Andropogon virginicus– Broom sedge; Juncus tenuis– Slender

yard rush; Panicum clandestinum– Deertongue; Panicum virgatum– Switchgrass; Tridens

flavus– Tall redtop

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Moist to Wet grasses: Carex lurida– Shallow sedge; Carex scoparia– Broom sedge; Carex

vulpinoidea– Fox sedge; Juncus effusus– Smooth rush; Scirpus atrovirens– Bulrush;

Scirpus cyperinus– Woolgrass; Scirpus pungens– Chairmaker’s rush

2. Herbs: Herbs are defined as any herbaceous or woody plants that may be used for

flavor, fragrance, medicine, dyes, soaps etc (DeBaggio, 2009). Herbs grow best in soils

with excellent drainage properties. They require up to six hours of bright sun, and

moderate temperatures and should be watered thoroughly once a week by soaking the soil

to a depth of 8 inches ensuring the roots receive adequate moisture (Bremness, 1994).

Dry Herbs: Baptisia tinctoria– Wild indigo; Chrysopsis mariana– Shaggy golden aster;

Eupatorium hyssopifolium– Hyssopleaf thoroughwort; Euthamia tenuifolium– Coastal

plain flat-topped goldenrod; Monarda fistulosa– Wild bergamot; Oenothera biennis–

Common evening primrose; Opuntia humifusa– Eastern prickly pear; Pycnanthemum

tenuifolium– Narrowleaf mountainmint; Solidago caesia– Bluestem goldenrod; Solidago

canadensis– Common goldenrod; Solidago juncea– Early goldenrod; Solidago

nemoralis– Gray goldenrod; Solidago rigida– Stiffleaf goldenrod; Symphyotrichum

cordifolium– Bluewood aster; Symphyotrichum ericoides– White wreath aster;

Symphyotrichum laeve– Smooth blue aster

Dry to Moist Herbs: Eupatorium serotinum– Late flowering thoroughwort; Euthamia

graminifolia– Flat top goldenrod ; Geum canadensis– White avens; Penstemon digitalis–

Tall white beard tongue; Rudbeckia hirta– Black–eyed susan; Uvularia sessilifolia–

Bellwort; Verbena urticifolia– White vervain

Moist to Wet Herbs: Chamaecrista fasciculata– Partridge pea; Chelone glabra–

Turtlehead; Eupatorium fistulosum– Trumpetweed; Eupatorium maculatum– Spotted joe-

 106

pye-weed ; Helenium autumnale– Sneezeweed; Lobelia cardinalis– Cardinal flower;

Lobelia siphilitica– Indian tobacco; Ludwigia alternifolia– False loosestrife;

Pycnanthemum virginianum– Mountainmint; Solidago rugosa– Tall Hairy goldenrod;

Symphyotrichum novae–angliae– New England aster; Thalictrum pubescens– Late

meadowrue; Verbena hastate– Blue vervain.

 107

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