NDT Training Program ULTRASONIC METHOD Education In Nondestructive Testing te The American Society for Nondestructive Testing C )PREPARED BY: George L. Pherigo Director of Education American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. REVIEWED AND EDITED BY THE FOLLOWING MEMBERS OF THE EDUCATIONAL COUNCIL OF ASNT: Boyd W. Brown ‘Argonne National Laboratory Kinney C. McKee! General Electric Co, W. C. Morrey Ebasco Services Philip A. Oikle Yankee Atomic Electric Co. Allen Reynolds Stone & Webster Corp, Ward D. Rummel Martin Marietta Corp. A. J. Schwarber Lawrence Livermore Laboratories Albert L. Smith Westinghouse Hantord Co. John L. Summers Fockwell international Paul H. Todd, Jr. Martin Maretta Corp. Published by Te American Society for Nondestructive Testing 4153 Ailingate Plaza Caller #28518 Columbus, Oho 43228 Copyright® 1980 by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. All rights reserved. Portions of this manual have been taken trom the General Dynamics Corporation's Classroom Training Handbook CT-6-4, Ultrasonic Testing, and Programmed Instruction Handbooks PI-4-1, Introduction. and Pl-a-4, Ultrasonic Testing. These portions are subject to General Dynamics Carporation’s copyright 1967. Printed in the United States of AmericaUltrasonic Method NDT Training Program Students Guide Introduction Related Reading Outline. Lesson 1. Quiz. Lesson 2.... Worksheet. Quiz... Lesson 3... Worksheet #1. Quiz. Quiz. Lesson 5. 53 Worksheet #1.. 61 Worksheet # 63 Quiz 65 Quiz Continued.. Lesson 6... Worksheet #1.. Worksheet #1.. Quiz... i Table of Contents Lesson Worksheet #1 Quiz... 2Bee Lesson 8.. Quiz... Lesson 9.. Worksheet #1. Quiz. Lesson 10. Worksheet #1 Worksheet #1. Worksheet #2. Quiz... Lesson 11 Worksheet #1 Worksheet #1.. Quiz... Lesson 12, Wort Quiz Quiz, 151 157 159 161 Lesson 13.INSTRUCTOR'S GUIDE NDT TRAINING PROGRAM ULTRASONIC METHOD INTRODUCTION TO THE ULTRASONIC TRAINING PACKAGE ‘The training materials in this package are designed to provide a basic knowledge ot the fundamentals of ultrasonic testing, The training program should contain the following classroom hours to adequate: ly present the information suggested in the ASNT publication, SNT-TC-14, Recommended Practice, June 1980 edition. Level 1 training will include lectures on all 14 lessons with an average of approximately 2.9 hours per lesson. Emphasis by the instructor should be given to lessons 1-8 which cover the basic principles and applications of the ultrasonic method, If the training program is aimed at meeting the guidelines for Level |, the instructor can follow the lec: ture guide closely with very littie elaboration or explanation. If advanced training is to be given, the in- structor should require additional outside reading with class discussions and should present personal information to elaborate on the lecture guide outline. Each program can be easily expanded and is. limited only by the instructor's experience and expertise. ‘The materials in this course are designed for use in a typical classroom training situation with an ideal class size of 5-25 students. The instructor will lecture on all lessons with the aid of the lecture guide transparencies provided. CONTENTS OF TRAINING PACKAGES ‘The instructor selected to teach the course need not be a professional educator. However. the in- structor should have expertise in the ultrasonic method. The instructor should be tamiliar with all materials before attempting to teach the course The following breakdown of the materials and their functions should be caretully studied 1, STUDENT PACKAGE — Each package contains the following A. Student's Guide which describes the course and provides a lesson outline. B. 1 Classroom Training Handbook which serves as the major text for the training course (CT-6-4) C. 14 Individual lecture guide packets which provide an outline of the ultrasonic test instruc- tion D. 1 packet of exams (One exam is furnished for each of the 13 lessons in the training course.) 2. INSTRUCTOR PACKAGE — Each package contains the following A. Instructor's Guide which provides instructions to the instructor in preparing for and admis istering this course. B. 1 Classroom Training Handbook (CT-6-4) which is used by the instructor as the main resource text. C. 14 Individual lecture guide packets which are identical to those received by the student. D. 14 Individual lecture guide transparency packets which are used by the instructor as a basis for the lectures. (See Part Ill of this guide) E. 1 packet of exam keys which provide the questions and answers for all exams in the 14 lessons, F. 1 Special pen for marking on the transparencies. G. Sample Certificates available trom ASNT Headquarters for purchase. H. (optional) 1 set of Ultrasonic Testing Filmstrips which would be extremely useful to the in: structor in providing continuity and professionalism to the presentation, 1. (@ptional) 1 Programmed Instruction Handbook Pi-4-1. J. (optional) Programmed Instruction Handbooks PI-4-4 (Vol. I, Il, Ill). This may be useful to the instructor as a review for most of the lecture guide packagelll, SUGGESTED USE OF INSTRUCTOR LECTURE GUIDE TRANSPARENCIES 1. The transparencies can be used on any standard overhead projector. 2. The information on the transparency is identical to the student lecture guide contained in the stu: ent packet, The “Lecture Guide Transparencies” are intended to serve as memory joggers for the instructor and should not be used as a strict outline or script. ‘A. The instructor should cover the overhead projector with a sheet of heavy paper and lower it under the transparency after each item is discussed. A special pen is enclosed for use as a pointer and writing on the transparent sheet. B. The instructor should elaborate and discuss supplemental information whenever it is perti- ent, C. Prior to the lecture, the instructor may wish to record some additional information on the lec- ture guides. This could either be done directly on the transparencies or on the instructor's set of lecture guides. D. Students should be encouraged to follow along in their set of lecture guides and write in adi- tional information when it is given. Discussions and questions should be encouraged as the instructor proceeds through the lessons. IV, SUGGESTED USE OF CLASSROOM TRAINING HANDBOOK 1. The Classroom Training Handbook (CT-6-4) is the major reference for this ultrasonic training ‘course. Additional information from The Programmed instruction Handbook (PI-4-4) is sometimes ‘Added to the lecture notes, and the instructor may wish to review this source. 2. Reading assignments should be given to the students to correlate with lectures. The Classroom Training Handbook (CT-6-4) follows the lessons in this training course in the following order: Pages Lesson 1 Applications, Training, and Certitication CT-6-4, Chapter 1 all SNT-TC-1A all Lesson 2 —_Ultrasonic Principle: CT-6-4, Chapter 2 25 102-8 Pi-4-4, Volume 1, Chapter 1 all Pl-4-4, Volume 1, Chapter 2 2-1 1026 Lesson 3 Equipment Controls CT-6-4, Chapter 2 2:8 102-16 Pl-4-4, Volume 1, Chapter 5 all Pl-4-4, Volume 2, Chapter 4 4-1 t0 4-60, Lesson 4 Wave Propagation, Reflection, and Refraction CT-6-4, Chapter 2 2:16 102-31 Pl-4-4, Volume 1, Chapter 3 all Lesson Couplants, Material Characteristics, Beam Spread CT-6-4, Chapter 2 2:26 10 2:36 Pi-4-4, Volume 1, Chapter 6 all Pi-4-4, Volume 2, Chapter 2 all Lesson 6 Attenuation, Impedance, and Resonance CT-6-4, Chapter 2 2:32 to end Pi-4-4, Volume 1, Chapters 2 & 4 all Pi-4-4, Volume 2, Chapter 4 4-61 to endLesson 7 ‘Screen Presentations, Angi UT Calculator CT-6-4, Chapter 3 3:3 t0 3.12 Pi-4-4, Volume 1, Chapter 5 all Pl-4-4, Volume 2, Chapter 5 all Pl-4-4, Volume 3, Chapter 3 3-60 to end Lesson 8 Transducers, Standard Reference Blocks CT-6-4, Chapter 3 3:12 to end Pl-4-4, Volume 2, Chapters 1&3 all Lesson 9 ‘Immersion Inspection CT-6-4, Chapter 4 4-1 to 4-18 Pi-4-4, Volume 3, Chapters 4&5 all Lesson 10 Contact Testing, Longitudinal & Shear Waves, Snell's Law CT-6-4, Chapter 4 4-19 t0 4:28 Pl-4-4, Volume 3, Chapters 1 & 2 all Lesson 11 Applications of Angle Beam Contact Testing CT-6-4, Chapter 4 4.19 10 4:31 Pl-4-4, Volume 3, Chapter 3 all Lesson 12 Nonrelevant Ultrasonic Indications CT-6-4, Chapter 4 4-32 to end Pi-4-4, Volume 3, Chapter 6 all Lesson 13 Classification of Discontinulties in UT CT-6-4, Chapter 7 TA 107-7 Pi-4-1, Chapters 1 through 7 all Lesson 14 Identification and Comparison of Discontinulties CT-6-4, Chapter 7 7-8 to end SUGGESTED USE OF EXAM AND KEYS 1. Itis suggested that the exam packet be removed before the student is issued his/her package of training materials. 2. Exams can be given at the end of the lecture or at the beginning of the next lecture period. The number of exams given at one time will depend on the number of lessons covered. Exams can be corrected in class and should be discussed briefly with the students. Don't permit lengthy argu: ‘ments about interpretation of questions, etc. 3. The exam questions in this package are not intended for use in the certification of NDT personnel ‘They are simply teaching tools to aid the instructor in presenting the material. If examinations for certification are needed, it s suggested that the instructor obtain a copy of SNT-TC-1 and follow this recommended practice (Paragraph 8, SNT-TC-1A) 4, If the instructor so chooses, the exam results could be used to arrive at a percentile score that could be recorded on the students’ certificate of completion along with the number of course hours. Blank certificates are available from ASNT.vi VIL. vill SUGGESTED USE OF RADIOGRAPHIC FILMSTRIPS (optional) 1. The filmstrips are professionally produced and will add depth and clarity to the instructor's pre ‘sentation. The ultrasonic filmstrips are available trom the ASNT catalog and consist of 8 separate strips each with an audio cassette. The use of the filmstrips are optional but can be used to sup. plement the lessons as follows UT-Lesson 1 Filmstrip # Introduction _—_ Advantages and limitations of UT UT-Lesson2 Filmstrip #1 ‘Theory of UT and basic terminology UT-Lesson3 Filmstrip 45 Pulse-echo testing systems UT-Lesson4 Filmstrip #3 Wave propagation and Snell's Law UT-Lesson5 Filmstrip # 2 (1st 3/4) Piezoelectricity and beam spread UT-Lesson6 UT-Lesson7 UT-Lesson 8 Filmstrip # 2 (last 1/4) ‘Transducer construction Filmstrip #6 Use of calibration blocks UT-Lesson9 Filmstrip # 4 (last 1/4) ‘Advantages and limitations of immersion testing compared to contact testing UT-Lesson 10 Filmstrip # 4 (1st 3/4) ‘Methods and techniques of contact testing UT-Lesson 11 ~ Filmstrip #7 Special applications and nonrelevant indications SUGGESTED USE OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION HANDBOOKS (optional) 1. The instructor may wish to read Pi-4-4 as a personal review of the ultrasonic testing funda- mentals. 2. Some information in the leciure guides was taken from the programmed instruction handbooks, 3. As some students may learn more effectively from the programmed instruction approach, the in: structor may also wish to assign reading from Pl-4-4 (Vol. I, Il, and Ill. 4. The programmed instruction handbooks contain many questions and answers that may be of use to the instructor. DEMONSTRATIONS ANDIOR LAB EXERCISES 1. It is highly recommendes that the instructor make every effort to provide the student with some practical experience in ultrasonic testing, The depth of practical exercises will depend on the time, equipment, and facilities that are available. 2. As a minimum, the instructor should bring an ultrasonic instrument and search unit into the classroom for demonstration purposes. 3. The instructor should use whatever resources are available to collect sample parts that will repre- sent a variety of applications 4, If time, equipment, and facilities are available, each student should be given as much hands-on experience as possible Where practical. a variety of lab stations should be set up. each with a ait- ferent ultrasonic application. The student should then be rotated through each station with as many resource people as possible available to help answer specific questions Ultrasonic equip: ‘ment manufacturers may be helpful in supplying a variety of test equipment. 5. Where the instructor finds that all students are from a specific type of industry (e.g aitcratt, foun: ry, welding), the demonstrations anc lab work should be designed accordinglyLesson BASIC APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONICS ULTRASONICS IS A VERSATILE INSPECTION TECHNIQUE, IT IS USED TO TEST A VARIETY OF BOTH METALLIC AND NONMETALLIC PRODUCTS SUCH AS WELDS, FORGINGS, CASTINGS, SHEET, TUBING, PLASTICS AND CERAMICS. ULTRASONICS HAS AN ADVANTAGE OF DETECTING SUBSURFACE DISCONTI- NUITIES WITH ACCESS TO ONLY ONE SIDE OF THE SPECIMEN. THE OBJECTIVE OF ULTRASONIC TESTING IS TO ENSURE PRODUCT RELIABIL- ITY BY MEANS OF: 1, OBTAINING INFORMATION RELATED TO DISCONTINUITIES. 2. DISCLOSING THE NATURE OF THE DISCONTINUITY WITHOUT IMPAIRING THE USEFULNESS OF THE PART. 3. SEPARATING ACCEPTABLE AND UNACCEPTABLE MATERIALS IN AC- CORDANCE WITH PREDETERMINED STANDARDS. TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE TECHNICIAN AND SUPERVISOR BE QUALIFIED IN THE ULTRASONIC METHOD BEFORE THE TECHNIQUE IS USED AND TEST RE- SULTS EVALUATED. THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING RECOMMENDS THE USE OF THEIR DOCUMENT “RECOMMENDED PRACTICE NO. SNT-TC-1A.” THIS DOCUMENT PROVIDES THE EMPLOYER WITH THE NECESSARY GUIDE- LINES TO PROPERLY QUALIFY AND CERTIFY THE NDT TECHNICIAN IN ALL METHODS. TO COMPLY WITH THIS DOCUMENT THE EMPLOYER MUST ESTABLISH A “WRIT- TEN PRACTICE” WHICH DESCRIBES IN DETAIL HOW THE TECHNICIAN WILL BE. TRAINED, EXAMINED AND CERTIFIED. THE STUDENT IS ADVISED TO STUDY THE CURRENT EDITION OF SNT-TC-1A TO DETERMINE THE RECOMMENDED INITIAL NUMBER OF HOURS OF CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION AND MONTHS OF EXPERIENCE NECESSARY TO BE CERTIFIED AS. AN ULTRASONIC TESTING TECHNICIAN.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 1 CERTIFICATION OF NDT PERSONNEL IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE EMPLOYER AND IS USUALLY AT THREE LEVELS. LEVEL! PERFORM SPECIFIC CALIBRATIONS, SPECIFIC TESTS, AND SPECIFIC EVALUATIONS ACCORDING TO WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS. LEVEL Il SET UP AND CALIBRATE EQUIPMENT AND INTERPRET AND EVALU- ATE RESULTS WITH RESPECT TO CODES, STANDARDS AND SPECIFI- CATIONS. MUST BE ABLE TO PREPARE WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS AND REPORT TEST RESULTS. LEVEL Ill RESPONSIBLE FOR ESTABLISHING TECHNIQUES, INTERPRETING CODES, AND DESIGNATING THE TEST METHOD AND TECHNIQUE TO BE USED. MUST HAVE A PRACTICAL BACKGROUND IN THE TECH- NOLOGY AND BE FAMILIAR WITH OTHER COMMONLY USED METH- ODS OF NDT. THE SNT-TC-1A DOCUMENT RECOMMENDS THAT LEVEL | AND II NDT TECHNI- CIANS BE EXAMINED IN THE FOLLOWING AREAS: A. GENERAL EXAMINATION B. SPECIFIC EXAMINATION C. PRACTICAL EXAMINATIONUT Lecture Guide Lesson 1 ASNT PROVIDES A SERVICE TO THE INDUSTRY BY PROVIDING LEVEL Ill EXAMI- NATIONS IN THE BASIC AND METHOD AREAS. BECAUSE OF THE INDIVIDUAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE MANY INDUSTRIES USING NDT, THE SPECIFIC EXAMI- NATION IS STILL THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE EMPLOYER. THE FOLLOWING FLOW CHART INDICATES THE PATHS THAT CAN BE TAKEN TO BE CERTIFIED ACCORDING TO THE SNT-TC-1A DOCUMENT. [ASNT CERTIFICATION WITHOUT EXAMINATION" ‘Specte— penence ‘Base, Metnog 15 years Educato [ASNT CERTIFICATION BY EXAMINATION" Base, Metnod TCA, WRITTEN EXAMINATION BY THE EMPLOYER, \ EXAMINATION BY OUTSIDE AGENCY |] ‘CUSTOMER ACCEPTANCEKey Name. UT LESSON 1 quiz The selection of one test method over another is usually the decision of the Level | technician performing the test. ASNT provides a service for examining Level |, I! and I!! personnel in the General and Specific areas. ‘The responsibility of Issuing a certificate to the NDT technician Is always retained by the employer in compliance with the SNT-TC-1A document If the SNT-TC-1A document Is to be used as a recommended guideline, the “Written Practice” must be submitted to ASNT for approval It the SNT-TC-1A guidelines are followed, the Level Ill technician should have a knowledge of other commonly used methods of NDT even though certification is needed only In the ultrasonic a 1 | technician performing an ultrasonic test (s permitted" to accept or reject instructions or procedures are given to him by a Level Wor Level Ill. {in accordance with SNT-TC-1A) To comply with the guidelines of SNT-TC-1A, all three levels of technicians must take “General”, "Practical" and “Specific” test If examinations are used to determine certification ‘The June 1980 Edition of SNT-TC-1A permits the employer to walve an examination for Level Ili personnel provided that documentation Is on file showing the technician's qualifications. ery employer that uses the SNT-TC-14 document establish a It is essential that “Written Practice.” If an employer does not have a Level Il! in his company, the services of an outside agency may be retained to perform these functions. An advantage of ultrasonics is that it reveals internal discontinuities with access to only one side of the part being inspected. Ultrasonic inspection techniques can be used without impairing the future julness of the material 12 possible pointsLesson 2 ULTRASONIC PRINCIPLES IN ULTRASONIC TESTING WE USE SOMETHING CALLED “ULTRASONIC VIBRA- TIONS.” WE MUST KNOW TWO FACTS ABOUT A VIBRATION: 1. A VIBRATION IS A BACK AND FORTH MOVEMENT. 2. A VIBRATION IS ENERGY IN MOTION. A DEPRESSION OF A SURFACE FROM ITS NORMAL POSITION IS CALLED A DISPLACEMENT. RUBBER BALL VIBRATIONS PASS THROUGH A SOLID MATERIAL AS A SUCCESSION OF PARTI- CLE DISPLACEMENTS. THIS CAN BE VISUALIZED AS SHOWN BELOW: bbb os THE STRUCTURE OF A MATERIAL IS ACTUALLY MANY SMALL PARTICLES OR GROUPS OF ATOMS. THESE PARTICLES HAVE NORMAL OR REST POSITIONS, AND CAN BE DIS- PLACED FROM THESE POSITIONS BY SOME FORCE. WHEN THE FORCE IS REMOVED, THE PARTICLES WILL TEND TO RETURN TO THEIR ORIGINAL POSI- TIONS.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 ENERGY IS TRANSMITTED THROUGH A SOLID MATERIAL BY A SERIES OF SMALL MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS WITHIN THE MATERIAL. THE TRANSMISSION OF ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS THROUGH A MATERIAL IS RELATED TO THE ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIAL. IF YOU TAP A METAL SURFACE, THE SURFACE MOVES INWARD, CAUSING A DISPLACEMENT. amen Zo ee Bae OPE st > suport vIEWA view SINCE THE METAL IS ELASTIC THE SURFACE WILL TEND TO MOVE BACK TO ITS ORIGINAL (REST) POSITION. THE SURFACE WILL ALSO MOVE THROUGH THE ORIGINAL POSITION AND MOVE TO A MAXIMUM DISTANCE IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION. THIS COMPLETE SEQUENCE OF MOVEMENTS IS DEFINED AS A CYCLE. : oa oe 4 PENCIL PENCIL THE TIME REQUIRED FOR SOMETHING TO MOVE THROUGH ONE COMPLETE CY- CLE IS CALLED THE PERIOD. EXAMPLE: IF THE SWINGING BALL ABOVE MOVES OVER PATH ABCDE IN ONE SECOND, THEN THE PERIOD OF THE CYCLE IS ONE SECOND.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 ‘THE NUMBER OF CYCLES IN A GIVEN PERIOD OF TIME IS CALLED THE FRE- QUENCY. EXAMPLE: IF THE BALL SWINGS THROUGH THREE COMPLETE CYCLES IN ONE SECOND, THEN THE FREQUENCY IS 3 CPS (CYCLES PER SEC. OND). IF YOU STRIKE A DRUM, IT HAS A FREQUENCY THAT IS LOW, APPROXIMATELY 50 CPS. THE TOP NOTE ON THE PIANO HAS A HIGHER FREQUENCY, APPROXIMATELY 4100 CPS. THE UNIT OF FREQUENCY USED TO DENOTE ONE CYCLE PER SECOND IS HERTZ (ABBREVIATED Hz). ONE CYCLE PER SECOND (CPS) IS EQUAL TO ONE HERTZ (Hz); 2 CPS = 2 Hz, ETC. SOUND TRAVELS IN METAL AS WELL AS IN AIR. SOUND IS A VIBRATION AND HAS A RANGE OF FREQUENCIES. MAN CAN ONLY HEAR VIBRATIONS (SOUND) UP TO ABOUT 20,000 Hz. HOWEVER, SOUND FROM AN ULTRASONIC TESTING UNIT IS ABOUT 5,000,000 Hz. (5 MEGAHERTZ). VIBRATIONS ABOVE THE HUMAN HEARING RANGE ARE CALLED ULTRASONIC. VIBRATIONS. THE TWO TERMS, SOUND AND VIBRATIONS, AS WE WILL USE THEM WILL MEAN THE SAME THING. THE BEST WAY TO DEFINE SOUND IS TO SAY THAT IT IS A VIBRATION THAT TRANSMITS ENERGY BY A SERIES OF SMALL MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 ULTRASONIC TESTING IS THE PROCESS OF APPLYING ULTRASONIC SOUND TO A SPECIMEN AND DETERMINING ITS SOUNDNESS, THICKNESS, OR SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTY. THE ENERGY IS ORIGINATED IN SOMETHING CALLED A “TRANSDUCER” WHICH CAUSES MATERIAL DISPLACEMENT WITHIN THE SPECIMEN. A TRANSDUCER IS A DEVICE THAT CONVERTS ENERGY FROM ONE FORM TO. ANOTHER. EXAMPLE: ELECTRICAL ENERGY TO MECHANICAL, OR MECHANICAL TO ELECTRICAL. A SPEAKER IN A RADIO CONVERTS ELECTRICAL ENERGY TO A BACK AND FORTH MECHANICAL MOVEMENT. VIEW “A” BELOW ILLUSTRATES THE “PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT.” ELECTRICAL ENERGY |S APPLIED THROUGH TWO WIRES CONNECTED TO A CRYSTAL, CAUS- ING THE CRYSTAL TO VIBRATE. THE TERMS CRYSTAL AND TRANSDUCER ARE USED INTERCHANGEABLY IN THIS LESSON. CRYSTAL [ae rmansbucgr Ye | worarin ELECTRICAL ENERGY i ware view A VIEW 8 ELECTRICAL ENERGY CAUSES A PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTAL TO EXPAND AND CONTRACT, FORMING MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS. A PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER CAN ALSO CONVERT MECHANICAL ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY. THEREFORE, A TRANSDUCER CAN BOTH SEND AND RECEIVE ENERGY. SPECIMEN Zz Nore SOUND IS REFLECTED WITHIN SPECIMEN AND RETURNS TO TRANSDUCER ‘TRANSDUCER ‘UT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 ENERGY TRANSMITTED BY A TRANSDUCER CAN BE EITHER PULSED OR CON- TINUOUS. PULSED ULTRASOUND IS DEFINED AS SHORT GROUPS OF TRANSMITTED VIBRATIONS BEFORE AND AFTER WHICH THE TRANSDUCER CAN ACT AS A RECEIVER. STEEL, WATER AND OIL WILL TRANSMIT ULTRASOUND VERY WELL, BUT AIR PRESENTS A PROBLEM. TRANSDUCER on sTece ~~ SPECIMEN AIR IS A POOR TRANSMITTER OF ULTRASOUND BECAUSE THE PARTICLE DEN- SITY IS SO LOW THAT IT IS DIFFICULT TO TRANSMIT SOUND ENERGY FROM PARTICLE TO PARTICLE. THAT IS WHY WE PUT OIL OR GREASE BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE SPECIMEN. THE PARTICLE DENSITY OF A MATERIAL HELPS DETERMINE THE VELOCITY OF SOUND. THE VELOCITY OF SOUND WILL CHANGE AS IT MOVES FROM ONE MEDIUM TO ANOTHER AS SHOWN BELOW. THE ELASTICITY OF THE MATERIAL IS ALSO A FACTOR. 1.48 KM/SEC 0.33 KM/SEC 5.9 KM/SEC AIR WATER STEEL VISUALIZE THAT THE BALLS SHOWN ABOVE REPRESENT THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF AIR, WATER AND STEEL. THE IMPULSE MOVING THROUGH THE ROW OF BALLS CAN BE COMPARED TO A PULSE OF ULTRASONIC SOUND.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE OF THE VELOCITY OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MATERIALS IS SHOWN BELOW. Piston] t TRawspucer NU —— eS IT WILL TAKE LONGER FOR THE SOUND TO TRAVEL THROUGH THE WATER THAN THROUGH THE STEEL. THE SOUND VELOCITY IN STEEL IS APPROXIMATE- LY FOUR TIMES GREATER THAN IN WATER. A WAVELENGTH IS CONSIDERED TO BE THE DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO SUC- CESSIVE DISPLACEMENTS. VV VA TRANSDUCER iv ‘on THE WAVELENGTH CAN ALSO BE DEFINED AS THE DISTANCE A WAVE TRAVELS DURING ONE COMPLETE CYCLE. WAVE LENGTH: TRANSDUCER Yq Ep ® (OMOMOMO) ere VIEW B THE SYMBOL } IS USED TO REPRESENT A WAVELENGTH AND IS CALLED “LAMBDA”.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 THE ILLUSTRATION BELOW SHOWS A TRANSDUCER VIBRATING AT A FIXED FREQUENCY (f) AND TRANSMITTING SOUND WAVES INTO THE SPECIMEN. vELocty— reset ‘SOUND WAVES. —= THESE SOUND WAVES MOVE AT A FIXED VELOCITY (v) THROUGH THE SPECIMEN. THE WAVELENGTH CAN BE CHANGED IF THE FREQUENCY OF THE TRANSDUCER VIBRATION CHANGES. Vl ITY ot WAVELENGTH = —YELOCT f FREQUENCY EXAMPLE: YOU CAN SHORTEN THE WAVELENGTH BY INCREASING THE FREQUENCY. WAVELENGTH IS A RATIO OF A FIXED VALUE (VELOCITY) DIVIDED BY A VARIABLE (FREQUENCY). IN PRACTICAL SITUATIONS, THE SMALLEST DISCONTINUITY YOU CAN FIND WITH ULTRASONIC TESTING IS ABOUT 1/2 LAMBDA (WAVELENGTH). THEREFORE, TO DETECT SMALLER DEFECTS, YOU WILL NEED TRANSDUCERS THAT PRODUCE HIGHER FREQUENCIES. EXAMPLE: WHAT WOULD BE THE SMALLEST DISCONTINUITY THAT YOU COULD FIND IN A STEEL SPECIMEN WITH A VELOCITY OF 6KMISEC USING A TRANSDUCER WITH A FREQUENCY OF 3 MEGAHERTZ (MHz). ye us y= SXIOCMISEC | 2 MILLIMETERS 3 MHz IF THE SMALLEST DEFECT DETECTABLE IS 1/2 LAMBDA, THEN THE ANSWER IS 1 MILLIMETER OR 0.040 INCHES.Nami UT LESSON 2 WORKSHEET A ‘The distance between two displacements Is called the WAVELENGTH. This Is the distance a wave advances while # particle makes one complete cycle. B. ‘The symbol used to represent a wavelength “ ) " Is called LAMBDA. c. The wavelength Is a ratio of a fixed value (VELOCITY) divided by a variable (FREQUENCY). WAVELENGTH = —_VELOCITY oe ht FREQUENCY t D. __ For the purpose of this exercise, consider that the smallest discontinully detectable using pulse echo testing Is one half lambda 2060" 1. What Is the smallest defect you can detect with a 2 MHz probe inspecting a steel spect men with a velocity of 6.0 x 10* cm/sec? (answer in inches) (1 mm equals .040°) 5 ewfoce éxse Zhe 3B millimeter s Wet 1g mag f.0Y0" = (ro =22Y” 2. What is the smallest defect you could detect it you increased the probe frequency to § MHz? (answer in inches) 2 5 emlece ay eae S WAL WLR me himorers aD £07"* 3. What probe below would detect the smallest defect if you were inspecting a steel! speci: men with a velocity of 5.9 x 10° cmisec? What is the smallest each of the below would detect? 0.0471 25 MHz 9.023 50 MHz Q.041 10.0 MHz 2 2 bm KX Ove {answer in inches) |. With everything else equal, would @ wavelength be longer in water or in steel? Sound moves FAasted in erect, THEREFCM= LOWER KMUELEMZEL. ible point 11 possible points .f bees bl b+ Is Key Name. UT LESSON 2 quiz 4. Relative to ultrasonic testing, air Is considered a good conductor and for this reason ultrasound will carry long distances in ait. 2. Particle density of a material has a direct relationship to the velocity of sound in that materi 3. The symbol used to represent a wavelength Is called “Shepdi 4. With everything else equal, the wavelength in water would be shorter than a wavelength in ste ball Is considered to be more elastic 5. To understand our definition of ultr than a lead ball. Man can hear sounds up to approxima solid material as a I than in water. jonics, @ ly 5,000,000 Hz. jes of particle displacements. Vibrations pass through The velocity of sound is slower In st The number of cycles In a given period of time Is called the frequency. 10. For the purposes of this lesson, 1/2 the wavelength is considered to be the smallest dis: continulty-that can be detected with ultrasonics. 11. Ifthe longitudinal velocity in aluminum is 6.5 x 10" cm/sec and you are using a 2.5 MHz probe, what is the smallest discontinuity you can detect? (3 pts) 12, The ability of a transducer to convert mechanical energy to electrical and electrical energy to mechanical is due to the effect. 13, The distance that an ult Is called travels while a particle makes one complete cycle 15 possible points aLesson 3 ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT CRT TIMER (RATE GENERATOR? RECEIVER, AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT PULSER cIRCUIT MARKER ‘cuRCUIT SWEEP circutT test SPECIMEN ™ DISCONTINUITY > POWER — 7 fails (70 EACH cIRCUI BACK REFLECTION THE ULTRASONIC PULSE ECHO INSTRUMENT GENERATES HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRICAL PULSES OF SHORT DURATION. THESE PULSES ARE APPLIED TO THE TRANSDUCER WHICH CONVERTS THEM INTO MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS THAT ARE APPLIED TO THE MATERIAL BEING INSPECTED. A LARGE PERCENTAGE OF THE SOUND IS REFLECTED FROM THE FRONT SURFACE OF THE TEST PART BACK TO THE TRANSDUCER. THE REMAINDER IS REFLECTED BY THE BACK SURFACE OR DISCONTINUITIES. THE SOUND REFLECTED BACK TO THE TRANSDUCER IS CONVERTED BACK TO ELECTRICAL PULSES, WHICH ARE AMPLIFIED AND DISPLAYED ON THE CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT) AS VERTICAL PULSES. THE A-SCAN DISPLAY INDICATES THE DEPTH AND THE AMPLITUDE OF THE SOUND REFLECTIONS FROM A DISCONTINUITY. THE AMPLITUDE IS A RELATIVE MEASURE OF THE AMOUNT OF REFLECTED ENERGY.UT Lecture Guide Tesson 3 THERE ARE TWO BASIC ULTRASONIC TEST SYSTEMS: ~ PULSE-ECHO sPeciMeN cATHODE-RaY TUBE courtany GC). o GENERATOR/INDICATOR Tal tdel An! InsTRUMENT COAKIAL CABLE PULSE-Ecwo SvSTEM THROUGH TRANSMISSION SPECIMEN TRANSDUCER CATHODE-RAY TUBE eauet aan \ COUPLANT ‘TRANSMITTING TRANSDUCER a ee GENERATOR/INDICATOR \ —— Discontinuity INSTRUMENT Coaxial casle. | > - + THROUGH TRANSMISSION SYSTEMUT Lecture Guae Lesson 3 PULSE-ECHO IS THE MOST WIDELY USED ULTRASONIC SYSTEM. SHORT EVENLY TIMED PULSES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES ARE TRANSMITTED INTO THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED. THESE PULSES REFLECT FROM DISCONTINUITIES IN THEIR PATH, OR FROM ANY BOUNDARY THAT THEY STRIKE. THE RECEIVED REFLECTIONS ARE THEN DISPLAYED ON A CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT). THE SAME TRANSDUCER CAN BE USED TO TRANSMIT AND RECEIVE. THROUGH TRANSMISSION REQUIRES THE USE OF TWO TRANSDUCERS, ONE FOR SENDING AND THE OTHER FOR RECEIVING. EITHER SHORT PULSES OR CONTINUOUS WAVES ARE TRANSMITTED INTO THE MATERIAL. THE QUALITY OF THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED IS MEASURED IN TERMS OF ENERGY LOST BY A SOUND BEAM AS IT TRAVELS THROUGH THE MATERIAL. THERE ARE TWO TEST METHODS NORMALLY USED IN ULTRASONIC TESTING “CONTACT TESTING” - WHERE THE TRANSDUCER IS COUPLED TO THE MATERIAL THROUGH A THIN LAYER OF COUPLANT. “IMMERSION TESTING” - BOTH THE MATERIAL AND THE TRANSDUCER ARE IMMERSED IN A TANK OF COUPLANT (USUALLY WATER). 2UT Lecture Guide Lesson 3 TO DETERMINE THE LOCATION OF DISCONTINUITIES WITHIN A TEST PART, THE CRT HORIZONTAL DISPLAY IS DIVIDED INTO CONVENIENT INCREMENTS SUCH AS CENTIMETERS, INCHES, ETC. AT A GIVEN SENSITIVITY (GAIN) SETTING, THE AMPLITUDE OF THE PIP IS DETERMINED BY THE STRENGTH OF THE SIGNAL GENERATED BY THE REFLECTED SOUND WAVE. THUS, THE CRT DISPLAYS TWO TYPES OF INFORMATION: 1. DISTANCE (TIME) OF THE DISCONTINUITY FROM THE TRANSDUCER 2. RELATIVE MAGNITUDE OF THE REFLECTED ENERGY FOCUS AND ASTIGMATISM CONTROLS - ADJUST THE SHARPNESS OF THE DIS- PLAYED SIGNALS. SENSITIVITY OR GAIN CONTROLS - DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF AMPLIFICA- TION THE SIGNALS FROM THE DISCONTINUITY RECEIVED. INCREASING THE SENSITIVITY (GAIN) INCREASES THE AMPLITUDE OF THE PIPS ON THE CRT SCREEN.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 3 TWO CONTROLS, THE “SWEEP LENGTH” AND “SWEEP DELAY” REGULATE HOW MUCH OF THE TEST PART IS DISPLAYED AT ONE TIME ON THE CRT, AND WHAT PORTION OF THE PART IS DISPLAYED. THE SWEEP LENGTH (MATERIAL CONTROL) EXPANDS OR COMPRESSES THE DISPLAY ON THE CRT AS SHOWN BELOW: same 40 Ft. 4 + i 1 Qu — | ‘ EXPANDED SWEEP COMPRESSED SWEEP view a views THE SWEEP DELAY CONTROL ALLOWS ONE TO MOVE THE VIEWING SCREEN ALONG THE DEPTH OF THE TEST PART. IN IMMERSION TESTING, THE SWEEP DELAY CAN BE USED TO REMOVE THE INITIAL PULSE FROM THE CRT. A= INITIAL PULSE 8 - FRONT SURFACE PIP (1ST BACK SURFACE REFLECTION PIP 23UT Lecture Guide Lesson 3 “PULSE REPETITION RATE” CONTROL REGULATES HOW OFTEN THE PULSE IS APPLIED. PULSE RATES VARY FROM 50 TO 1200 PULSES PER SECOND OR MORE. WHEN THE SWEEP IS LONG, THE PULSE RATE MUST BE LOWER TO ALLOW ENOUGH TIME FOR THE SWEEP TO BE DISPLAYED BEFORE ANOTHER PULSE IS TRANSMITTED. IN SOME INSTRUMENTS THE PULSE RATE IS ADJUSTED AUTOMATICALLY. INCREASING THE PULSE LENGTH INCREASES THE AMOUNT OF SOUND ENERGY APPLIED TO THE TEST PART, BUT DECREASES THE RESOLVING POWER OF THE EQUIPMENT. THE “PULSE ENERGY" MUST BE INCREASED TO OBTAIN DEEP PENETRATION OR TO PENETRATE COARSE GRAINED MATERIALS. THE “REJECT CONTROL” OR “SUPPRESSION CONTROL” IS USED TO ELIMI- NATE OR REDUCE “GRASS” OR VERY LOW AMPLITUDE PIPS ALONG THE BASE OF THE SWEEP LINE. THIS CONTROL MAY AFFECT THE VERTICAL LINEARITY OF THE PRESENTATION. A“FLAW ALARM” OR “GATING CIRCUIT” IS USED TO ESTABLISH ZONES ALONG THE SWEEP LINE WITHIN WHICH PIPS OF PREDETERMINED AMPLITUDE WILL ACTIVATE EITHER AN ALARM OR A RECORDING SYSTEM. ‘ALARM AMPLITUDE, START OF GATE END OF GATE vIEWA view 8 24UT Lecture Guide Lesson 3 “DISTANCE/AMPLITUDE CONTROL” - IN ULTRASONIC TESTING THE AMPLITUDE OF THE PIP FROM A DISCONTINUITY OF A GIVEN SIZE DECREASES AS THE DEPTH INCREASES. TO COMPENSATE FOR THIS “ATTENUATION,” AN ELEC- TRONIC CONTROL HAS BEEN ADDED TO MANY ULTRASONIC UNITS. SOME OF THE COMMON NAMES FOR THIS CONTROL ARE: DAC - DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CORRECTION TCG - TIME CORRECTED GAIN STC - SENSITIVITY TIME CONTROL THIS CONTROL IS VERY USEFUL WHEN USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE FLAW ALARM AND WITH RECORDING SYSTEMS. WITHOUT DAC with Dac 25Name. UT LESSON 3 WORKSHEET #1 ‘A. As shown below, many ultrasonic units have 50 divisions along the base line of the CRT screen. By using the simple formula below, we can make the distance across the screen represent any distance we wish from about .5 inches to over 100 inche: The formula used to find the value of each division on the screen below is: Range x2 100) Increment/Division = EXAMPLE: If you wanted the entire screen to represent 10°, we would find that by using the for- mula that, each division on the base line represents 0.2" Iineioiv = 222 i —22__ so 100 100 B. After you have selected a suitable screen range it is then possible to use the sweep controls and ‘match the pulses on the CRT to a known thickness calibration block. This will be discussed in line instead of 50. In this case simply divide the range by 100 to find the increment per division. D. On the next page fill in the CRT screens as instructed,Key Name UT LESSON 3 WORKSHEET #1 On the CAT screens below, draw in the left edge of the first back reflection and at least one multiple of the back echo as It would appear using a normal beam transducer on a properly calibrated unit. 1 2 3 ¢ a) t | 1 ! ' : " 1 i : ns - \ = = Hy H : fp | i i q t T + T Tea pt SCREEN RANGE-tinch rapa SCREEN RANGE - 25° PART THICKNESS - 0.49" pots ow. PART THICKNESS - 4 3/16" cal ag 3.37 DM 6 rr ee T 3 i : i SCREEN RANGE - 20° LIT OW SCREEN RANGE - 1° PART THICKNESS - 6 7/8" PART THICKNESS - 3116" 3/01 : Hee SCREEN RANGE -25" 15 6 ayy, PART THICKNESS - .68° 29 SCREEN RANGE-50° 70.34 17 PART THICKNESS - 10 3/8"‘A. Calculate the depth to ducer w: It the ast to the pulse? _2.¢5" Name. UT LESSON 3 WORKSHEET #2 used on @ properly calibrated unit. Key .ch pulse on the CRT screens below. Consider that a normal beam trans- bove CAT Is callbrated to range, what Is the distance T T If the above CAT Is callbrated to ‘8 25" range, what Is the distance to the pul ie — TF If the above CRT Is calibrated toa 7* range, what Is the distance to ee If the above CRT Is calibrated to a 2.5* range, where would the pips for 7 the two discontinuities and back echoes ‘shown is Fig. 17 \bove CRT is calibrated toa Inge, what Is the distance to EACH SQUARE REPRESENTS 1/4" PIG.1). On the CRT“ Key Name. UT LESSON 3. quiz ¢ In amplitude Indicates the presence of a With “Through Transmission”, an incr Possibie discontinuity The “Pulse Echo” system u the echo. Both contact testing and immersion transducer receives continuous wave and @ separ sting require the use of a coupling medium. |. Typically, the “gain” contro! will determine the amount of amplification for a suspected discontinuity indication. Sweep length and sweep delay are two names for the same control. The sweep length contro! Is often used to sweep the initial pulse off the CRT In immer. sion testing, In the A-scan presentation used in contact te: (pip) on the CRT represents: A. velocity B. elapsed time C. distance D. signal amplitude The “distance amplitude correction” control hi the screen range when a thicker part is Inspected. below, draw in the pulse if a normal beam transducer were used to show 89° deep continuity using a 15° screen range. How many divisions from the left? (3 pts.) On the CRT “B" below, what Is the distance to the pulse If 82.5" scr }d for the inspection?___ (3 pts) Jing, the height of the vertical deflection the ability to automatically increase n range were be: Wet Yon peer x 14 possible points 33Lesson 4 MODES OF ULTRASONIC WAVE TRAVEL VELOCITY CAN BE DEFINED AS THE DISTANCE A WAVE WILL PROPAGATE THROUGH A MEDIUM IN A GIVEN UNIT OF TIME, USUALLY A SECOND. THE WAVE SPEED REMAINS CONSTANT THROUGH A GIVEN MEDIUM. ee lL COUPLANT = cours—___—Sss = STEEL SS POINT A LISTED BELOW IS A TABLE OF IMPEDANCE, VELOCITY AND DENSITY VALUES. THIS INFORMATION WILL BE USEFUL LATER IN THIS LESSON FOR PERFORM- ING BASIC ULTRASONIC CALCULATIONS. ACOUSTIC SOUND IMPEDANCE VELOCITY DENSITY, MATERIAL «crayon? -secy_| cm/sec) _|_(GRAM/cw?) AIR 0.000033 x10 | 0.33 10° 0,002 WATER 0.149 x 10% 2.49.x 108 1.00 ALUMINUM 1.72 x 10° 6.35% 10° an STEEL 4,56 x 108 5.85x 10° 78 ULTRASONIC WAVES ARE REFLECTED WHEN THEY ENCOUNTER A MEDIUM OF A DIFFERENT ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE. THE “SURFACE” AT WHICH THIS REFLECTION OCCURS IS CALLED AN “INTERFACE.” AN INTERFACE IS THE COMMON BOUNDARY BETWEEN TWO MATERIALS OR, PHASES, SUCH AS ALUMINUM-TO-STEEL OR WATER-TO-STEEL. 35UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 A BEAM OF ENERGY APPROACHING AN INTERFACE IS REFERRED TO AS AN > “INCIDENT WAVE.” THE ANGLE AT WHICH THE WAVE STRIKES THE INTERFACE IS KNOWN AS. THE “ANGLE OF INCIDENCE” AS SHOWN BELOW. | iwaciwary [7 PERPENDICULAR LINE: INCIDENT WAVE I INTERFACE ‘ANGULAR INCIDENCE THE INCIDENT WAVE IS SAID TO HAVE NORMAL INCIDENCE WHEN ITS DIREC- TION OF PROPAGATION IS PERPENDICULAR TO AN INTERFACE. AS SHOWN BELOW THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IS ZERO. INCIDENT WAVE INTERFACE NORMAL TNCIDENCE ‘SOME OF THE WAVE ENERGY STRIKING AN INTERFACE WILL BE TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE INTERFACE, AND SOME WILL BE REFLECTED AT THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE. THE AMOUNT OF REFLECTION DEPENDS ON THE ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE RATIO BETWEEN THE TWO MEDIA INVOLVED. THIS REFLECTANCE FACTOR WILL BE DISCUSSED IN DETAIL IN THE NEXT LESSON.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 THE ANGLE OF REFLECTION AT AN INTERFACE OR BOUNDARY ALWAYS EQUALS THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE. ANGLE “A” = ANGLE “B” NORMAL INCIDENCE incident wave —_X ZL — REFLECTED WAVE INTERFACE, ‘ANGLE OF REFLECTION TRANSDUCER COUPLANT IMAGINARY LINE 7 ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS TRAVEL IN MANY MODES, AND THE MOST COMMON ARE: 1. LONGITUDINAL (COMPRESSION) 2. SHEAR (TRANSVERSE) 3. SURFACE (RAYLEIGH) 4, PLATE (LAMB) EACH WAVE MODE HAS A SPECIFIC FUNCTION IN ULTRASONIC INSPECTION AND IT IS IMPORTANT THAT EACH BE UNDERSTOOD COMPLETELY.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 LONGITUDINAL (COMPRESSIONAL) WAVES HAVE PARTICLE VIBRATIONS IN A BACK AND FORTH MOTION IN THE DIRECTION OF WAVE PROPAGATION. CONSIDER THAT ALL MATERIALS ARE MADE UP OF ATOMS LINED UP IN STRAIGHT LINES TO FORM A LATTICE STRUCTURE. WHEN STRIKING THE SIDE OF THE LATTICE, A CHAIN REACTION OF PARTICLE MOVEMENT |S STARTED CAUSING THE LONGITUDINAL WAVE. Ve DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION PARTICLE MOTION LONGITUDINAL WAVES SHEAR (TRANSVERSE) WAVES HAVE PARTICLE VIBRATIONS PERPENDICULAR TO THE DIRECTION OF WAVE MOTION. SHEAR WAVES WILL NOT TRAVEL THROUGH LIQUIDS OR GASSES. IN SOME MATERIALS, THE VELOCITY OF A SHEAR WAVE IS ABOUT 1/2 THAT OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES. THEREFORE, THE WAVELENGTH IS SHORTER (ABOUT 1/2), PERMITTING SMALLER DISCONTINUITIES TO BE LOCATED. meoium iid DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION PARTICLE MOTION (SHEAR WAVES)UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 MODE CONVERSION TAKES PLACE WHEN A SOUND BEAM HITS AN INTERFACE BETWEEN TWO DIFFERENT MEDIA AT AN ANGLE OTHER THAN 90 DEGREES. MODE CONVERSION IN THE CASE PRESENTED BELOW PRODUCES TWO REFLECTED BEAMS: ONE BEAM CONSISTS OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES. THE OTHER BEAM CONSISTS OF SHEAR WAVES. ‘TRANSDUCER GREASE COUPLANT INCIDENT BEAM STEEL BLOCK (LONGITUDINAL WAVES) AIR, REFLECTED BEAM (LONGITUDINAL WAVES) REFLECTED BEAM (SHEAR WAVES) THE ULTRASONIC ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER USES THE FOLLOWING EXAM- PLE. THE “REFRACTED” SHEAR WAVES ARE USEFUL IN MANY INSPECTION TECHNIQUES. THE “ANGLE OF REFRACTION” IS THE ANGLE FORMED BETWEEN A RE- FRACTED BEAM AS IT ENTERS THE SECOND MEDIUM AND A LINE DRAWN PERPENDICULAR TO THE INTERFACE. NORMAL, INCIDENT BEAM (LONGITUDINAL) INTERFACE "ANGLE OF REFRACTION (LONGITUDINAL) REFRACTED BEAM (LONGITUDINAL WAVES) [REFRACTED BEAM (SHEAR WAVES) ‘ANGLE OF REFRACTION (SHEAR) 39UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 SNELL’S LAW CAN BE USED TO DETERMINE ANGULAR RELATIONSHIPS BE- TWEEN MEDIA FOR BOTH LONGITUDINAL AND SHEAR WAVES. @, = ANGLE OF INCIDENCE ——%:____V, = VELOCITY IN FIRST MEDIUM SIN 6, Ve ANGLE OF REFRACTION V, = VELOCITY IN SECOND MEDIUM THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLE CALCULATES THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION, FOR A LONGITUDINAL WAVE PASSING THROUGH A WATER-TO-STEEL INTERFACE. 10 DEGREES = ANGLE OF INCIDENCE (¢,) 1.49 KM/SEC = LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY IN WATER (V,) 5.85 KM/SEC = LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY IN STEEL (V,) o, sine, V, —.1 aay, sin @,V,, Vp(sin ) sin, = sing, = 2:02 2° 1.49 in &, = 0.6791 sin @, = 0.679 40UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 AS THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE INCREASES, THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION IN- (CREASES. WHEN THE REFRACTION ANGLE OF A LONGITUDINAL WAVE REACHES 90 DEGREES, THE WAVE EMERGES FROM THE SECOND MEDIUM AND TRAVELS. PARALLEL TO THE INTERFACE OR SURFACE. THIS IS CALLED ITS FIRST OR LOWER “CRITICAL ANGLE” ABOVE APPROXI- MATELY 28 DEGREES WITH A PLASTIC-TO-STEEL INTERFACE, ONLY SHEAR WAVES ARE GENERATED IN THE PART. ANGLE OF INCIDENCE. PLASTIC REFRACTED LONGITUDINAL wave STEEL | ! l REFRACTED SHEAR Wave IF THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IS INCREASED PAST THE FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE, ONLY A SHEAR WAVE IS GENERATED IN THE PART. WHEN THE ANGLE OF RE- FRACTION FOR THE SHEAR WAVE IS 90 DEGREES, THEN WE HAVE REACHED THE UPPER OR SECOND CRITICAL ANGLE WHICH PRODUCES SURFACE WAVES. AS SHOWN BELOW, THERE IS THEN TOTAL REFLECTION FOR BOTH LONGI- TUDINAL AND SHEAR WAVES. WITH A PLASTIC-TO-STEEL INTERFACE, THIS HAPPENS AT APPROXIMATELY 58 DEGREES. REFLECTED LONGITUDINAL 7 WAVE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE PLASTIC REFRACTED SHEAR mae (SURFACE WAVE) aUT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 WHEN THE INCIDENT BEAM IS AT ITS SECOND CRITICAL ANGLE, A THIRD TYPE OF WAVE IS DEVELOPED, CALLED A RAYLEIGH OR SURFACE WAVE. AS SHOWN BELOW, THE WAVE TRAVELS WITH AN ELLIPTICAL PARTICLE MO- TION. ‘SURFACE WAVES ARE USEFUL IN DETECTING SURFACE CRACKS, BUT ONLY PENETRATE ABOUT ONE WAVELENGTH. PARTICLE MOTION SURFACE WAVES AS SHOWN BELOW, SURFACE WAVES HAVE THE ABILITY TO FOLLOW THE SURFACE CONTOUR AS LONG AS THE CONTOUR DOES NOT SHARPLY CHANGE. HOWEVER, THE SURFACE WAVE CAN BE ALMOST COMPLETELY ABSORBED BY EXCESS COUPLANT OR BY TOUCHING YOUR FINGER TO THE SURFACE OF THE PART AHEAD OF THE TRANSDUCER. DISCONTINUITY TEST SPECIMEN 42UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 PLATE WAVES OR LAMB WAVES HAVE THE ABILITY TO PROPAGATE THROUGH THIN PLATES IN A VARIETY OF WAVE MODES DEPENDING ON PLATE THICK- NESS, TRANSDUCER FREQUENCY AND INCIDENT ANGLE. PLATE WAVES ARE GENERATED BY USING LONGITUDINAL WAVES WHICH DEVELOP EITHER SYMMETRICAL OR ASYMMETRICAL WAVES AS SHOWN BELOW. PLATE WAVES OCCUPY THE ENTIRE THICKNESS OF THE PART. WITHOUT “SATURATING” THE PART, THE WAVE CANNOT EXIST. ‘THIM SHEET OR PLATE THIN SHEET OR PLATE ae w ono > “pasricue (} worsen rr DS See a Sa SYMMETRICAL, ASYMMETRICAL, PLATE WAVES TO GENERATE PLATE WAVES, YOU ADJUST THE INCIDENT ANGLE TO THE POINT THAT MAXIMUM REFLECTIONS ARE OBSERVED ON THE CRT SCREEN FROM A KNOWN REFLECTOR. IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO GENERATE SHEAR OR SURFACE WAVES ON MATERIALS THINNER THAN ONE-HALF WAVELENGTH. THEREFORE, PLATE WAVES ARE USEFUL AS SHOWN BELOW. TRANSDUCER / HOLLOW EXTRUSION 43Key Name. UT LESSON 4 WORKSHEET #1 ‘A. Using Snell's Law and the attached Sine table, calculate the following retraction problems, us. LUcITE (long. velocity 2.73 x 10 cm/sec) ‘ ' 1 ' STEEL 1 ( long. velocity 5.9 x 10° em/sec) ( shear velocity 3.23 x 105 cm/sec) £71. Find the retracted longitudinal wave If the incident angle 6, is 25 degr (SHOW WORK) (2 pts) et 290s ot A. BE a -= Ge) 27E —£Z'2. Find the retracted sn (SHOW WORK) (2 pts) een az) = . a TBS - : wave angle if the incident angle Is 45 degrees. —42°3. IM you wanted a shear wave to travel into the ‘angle through the lucite be? (SHOW WO! 1 at 70 degrees, what would the incident ) (2 pts) nai y$9 4 2 7E i 2 1 TAA TE ves 73 eie 2 3.23 _ #2" 4. 9, = 18°, is it possible to nave a retracted longitudinal wave? It yes, what is it? (SHOW WORK) (2 pts) 7 ? 5 ee 2809 2 273 1a? K 54 Qe He 5. 19, = 36°. is it possible to have a refracted longitudinal wave? HW yes. what is it? (SHOW WORK) Hf n0. why not? ' cver ge upp en angle; 10 possibie points feUT LESSON 4 WORKSHEET #1 Cos Tan Angle Sin Cos Tan 9998 0175 46° 7193 6947 1.0955 (9994 10349 art 7314 6820 1.0724 19986 0524 48° 7431 6691 4.1108 9976 0699 49° 7547 6561 1.1504 9962 0875 50° 7660 6428 1.1918 9945 1051 sit 7774 6293 1.2349 19925 1228 52° -7880 6157 1.2799 9903 1405 53° 7986 6018 1.3270 9877 1584 54° 8090 5878 1.3764 9848 1763 55° 8192 S736 1.4281 9816 1944 56° 8290 5592 1.4826 9781 2126 87° 8387 5446 1.5309 9744 2309 58° 18480 5299 1.6013 9703 2493 59° 8572 5150 1.6643 9659 2679 60° -B660 5000 1.7321 9613 2867 61° 8746 4848 1.8040 9563 3057 62° 18829 4695 1.8807 9511 3249 63° 8910 4540 1.9626 9455 3443 6a" 8988 4384 2.0503 9397 3640 65° 9063 4226 2.1445 9336 3839 66° 9135 4067 2.2460 9272 4040 67° 9205 9907 (2.9559 9205 A245 9272 3746 2.4751 9135 4452 9336 3584 2.6051 9063 A663 9397 3420 -2.7475 8988 4877 9455 3256 2.9042 8910 5095 9511 3090 3.0777 8829 5317 9563 2924 3.2709 8746 5543 9613 (2757 3.4874 8660 5774 9659 2588 = (3.7321 8572 6009 9703 2419 4.0108 8480 6249 9744 2250 4.3315 8387 6494 9781 2079 4.7046 8290 8745 9816 1908 5.1446 8192 7002 9848 1736 5.6713 -8090 7265 9877 1564 6.3138 -7986 7536 9903 1392 7.1154 -7880 7813 9925 1219 8.1443 771 8098 9945 1045 9.5144 7660 8391 9962 0872 11.4301 7547 8693 9976 0698 14.3007 7431 9004 9986 0523 19.0811 17314 9325 9994 0349 28.6363, 7193 9657 9998 0175 57.2900 7071 1.0000 1.0000 0000 a7Key Name UT LESSON 4 quiz 1. An “ultrasonic beam" travels through @ medium as waves of sound energy. 2. Normal incidence Is when the incident beam is parallel to the interface. 3. The refraction of an incident beam at an interface is equal to its angle of reflection. 4, Particle vibration in a longitudinal wave Is in the direction of wave propagation. 5. Shear wave velocity Is approximately twice the velocity of longitudinal wai 6. Mode conversion occurs when a sound beam strikes an interface between two media of different velocities at an angle. 7. The bending of an incident beam as it passes through an interface is called refraction. 8. Longitudinal waves will propagate through both solids and liquids. 9. Both plate waves and surface waves can follow the part contour. bee Heth Sin 9. Shear velocity in 1. Long. velocity in Sin By V, Long. Long. velocity in lucite = 2.73 x 10" cmisec USING THE ABOVE INFORMATION, SOLVE THE FOLLOWING PROBLEMS. © __ INDICATE THE APPROXIMATE ANGLES ON THE SKETCH AND LABEL EACH. AT” 40. you wanted F wave to travel into steel at 60 degrees, what would be the incident angle on the lucite wedge? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) _ a "37% 2 ' : 2 = => 3 xe 47 1 55% 11, What would be the refracted longitudinal wave if the angle of Incidence through a water to steel interface is 1: 7 (SHOW WORK) (9 pts) 49 15 possible pointsAngle bet 2 3° ° 5° 6 7 8 e 10° Ww 12° 13° 1“ 15° 16° 7° 18° 19° 20" ait 22° 23° 2ae 25° 26° 27° 28" 30° ait 32° 5 ae a 37° 38° 39° 40° at 42° 43 aa 45° UT LESSON 4 quiz 51 76" 77 78" 79° 80° art a3" ea as 86° 87° 88° 89° 90° Cos 6947 6820 8691 6561 6428 6293 6157 6018 5878 5736 5592 5446 5299 5150 AB48 4695 4540 4384 4226 4067 3907 3748 3584 3420 3256 -3090 2924 2757 2588 2419 2250 2079 1908 11738 1564 1392 1219 1045 0872 0698 0523 0349 0175 0000 Tan 1.0355 1.0724 1.1108 1.1504 1.1918 1.2349 1.2799 1.3270 1.3764 1.4281 1.4826 1.5399 1.6013 1.6643 1.7321 1.8040 1.8807 1.9626 2.0503 2.1445 2.2460 2.3559 2.4751 2.6051 2.7475 2.9042 3.0777 3.2703 3.4874 3.7321 4.0108 4.3315 4.7046 5.1446 5.6713 6.3138 7.1154 8.1443 9.5144 11.4301 14.3007 19.0811 28.6363 57.2900Lesson 5 COUPLANTS AND ULTRASONIC SOUND ENERGY THE PRIMARY PURPOSE OF A COUPLANT IS TO PROVIDE A SUITABLE SOUND PATH BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE TEST SURFACE. A COUPLANT MUST EFFECTIVELY WET OR TOTALLY CONTACT BOTH SUR- FACES OF THE TRANSDUCER AND TEST PART. 1.THE COUPLANT MUST EXCLUDE ALL AIR FROM BETWEEN THE SUR- FACES AS AIR IS A VERY POOR CONDUCTOR OF SOUND. 2. THE COUPLANT FILLS IN AND SMOOTHS OUT IRREGULARITIES ON THE SURFACE OF THE TEST PART. 3. THE COUPLANT AIDS IN THE MOVEMENT OF THE TRANSDUCER OVER THE SURFACE IN CONTACT TESTING. 4.A PRACTICAL COUPLANT MUST BE EASY TO APPLY AND EASY TO REMOVE. IT MUST ALSO BE HARMLESS TO THE PART SURFACE. TRANSDUCER COUPLANT ‘TEST MATERIAL. ~ OIL OR WATER MIXED WITH GLYCERINE (2 PARTS WATER AND 1 PART GLYCERINE) ARE COMMONLY USED COUPLANTS. EVEN WALLPAPER PASTE HAS ADVANTAGES AS A COUPLANT. HEAVIER COUPLANTS, SUCH AS GREASE OR HEAVY OIL CAN BE USED ON ROUGH OR VERTICAL SURFACES. SPECIALLY FORMULATED LIQUID AND PASTE COUPLANTS ARE ALSO AVAIL- ABLE FROM ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS. IN CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE THE USE OF LIQUIDS OR PASTE IS UNDESIRABLE, THIN RUBBER OR RUBBER-LIKE MATERIALS MAY BE USED. IN ALL CASES THE COUPLANT SHOULD BE AS THIN AS POSSIBLE. IF THE COUPLANT IS EXCESSIVE, IT MAY ACT AS A WEDGE AND ALTER THE DIREC- TION OF THE SOUND BEAM. 53UT Lecture Guide Lesson 5, THE SURFACE OF A TEST SPECIMEN CAN GREATLY AFFECT ULTRASONIC WAVE PROPAGATION. ROUGH SURFACES CAN CAUSE UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS SUCH AS REDUC- TION OF DISCONTINUITY AND BACK SURFACE AMPLITUDES DUE TO DISTOR- TION OF WAVE DIRECTIVITY. UNEVEN BUT CONSISTANT ROUGH AND IRREGULAR uavens FLAT SMOOTH SURFACE Sumrace FAIR BEST Poor FRONT SURFACE INITIAL PULSED ioe: FRONT SURFACE, SA MARKERS. (CRT INDICATIONS FLAT SMOOTH SURFACE -GOOD RESPONSE ROUGH AND IRREGULAR SURFACE - POOR RESPONSE A-SCAN PRESENTATION (PULSE-ECHO)UT Lecture Guide Lesson § A GOOD BACK SURFACE REFLECTION INDICATES A GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED. IT IS REFLECTED BACK TO ITS SOURCE SIMILAR TO LIGHT STRIKING A MIRROR. IF THE SURFACES ARE NOT PARALLEL, THE REFLECTED ENERGY WILL BE DIRECTED AWAY FROM THE TRANSDUCER SIMILAR TO LIGHT FALLING ON A MIRROR AT AN ANGLE. TRANSDUCER. FRONT SURFACE FRONT SURFACE. SS (INITIAL PULSE), REDUCED ~ BACK SURFACE 1% INDICATION ‘SPECIMEN h CROSS-SECTION | REFLECTION BACK SURFACE CRT INDICATIONS THE PHYSICAL SHAPE OR CONTOUR OF A PART MUST BE CONSIDERED WHEN ATTEMPTING TO DISCERN WHETHER A DISCONTINUITY INDICATION IS REAL OR FALSE. B<) Bx t = EXAMPLES OF SOUND PATHS LEADING TO SPURIOUS INDICATIONS IN TESTING LONG SPECIMENS, REFLECTION OF A SPREADING BEAM CAN PRO- DUCE FALSE INDICATIONS ON THE CRT AS SHOWN BELOW. A SHEAR WAVE MAY BE GENERATED WHICH IS REFLECTED AT A STEEP ANGLE TO THE OPPOSITE SIDE, WHERE MODE CONVERSION TAKES PLACE. MODE CONVERSION WILL BE DISCUSSED IN A LATER LESSON. HOWEVER, THIS TYPE OF FALSE SIGNAL WILL APPEAR ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE FIRST BACK ECHO. FIRST BACK LONGITUDINAL WAVE, Tran moUT Lecture Guide Lesson 5, GRAIN STRUCTURE HAS A GREAT INFLUENCE ON THE ACOUSTICAL PROPER. TIES OF A MATERIAL. A STEEL FORGING GENERALLY HAS A FINE GRAIN STRUCTURE AND HAS A LOW DAMPING EFFECT ON THE SOUND BEAM. HOWEVER, A CASTING GENERALLY HAS A COARSER GRAIN STRUCTURE WHICH IS MORE DIFFICULT TO GET SOUND THROUGH. FRONT SURFACE, DISCONTINUITY FRONT SURFACE BACK SURFACE BACK SURFACE REFLECTION REFLECTION LOST o8 REDUCED FINE GRAIN COARSE GRAIN WHEN A DISCONTINUITY IS NOT NORMAL (AT 90 DEGREES) TO THE INCIDENT WAVE, THE REFLECTED WAVE WILL BE AT AN ANGLE. AS SHOWN BELOW, THE RESULT IS A REDUCTION IN THE AMPLITUDE OF THE DISCONTINUITY INDICATION DISPLAYED ON THE CRT. POSITION C Position By 2) 2 gq ‘CRACK a position a CYLINDRICAL SPECIMEN POSITION A POSITION B POSITION C AT POSITION “A” ABOVE, THERE IS A SHARP DISCONTINUITY INDICATION AND LITTLE BACK SURFACE INDICATION. AT POSITION “C” THE DISCONTINUITY IS. AT A MINIMUM, OR MAY NOT BE SEEN AT ALL.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 5, TWO BASIC TECHNIQUES ARE USED IN LOCATING AND EVALUATING ANGULAR FLAWS. 1. CONTACT TESTING UTILIZES AN “ANGLE BEAM” TRANSDUCER WITH A PLASTIC WEDGE TO CHANGE THE DIRECTION OF WAVE PROPAGATION. 2. IMMERSION TESTING USES WATER AS A COUPLANT, TILTING THE TRANS- DUCER TO ACHIEVE THE NECESSARY DIRECTIONALITY. PROBE TRANSDUCER ANGLE BEAM ‘TRANSDUCER. WATER TANK PLASTIC WEDGE SPECIMEN SPECIMEN ‘CONTACT TESTING IMMERSION TESTING ‘THE SHAPE OR SURFACE CONDITION OF A DISCONTINUITY INFLUENCES THE INDICATION ON THE CRT. A DISCONTINUITY HAVING A ROUGH SURFACE WILL TEND TO SCATTER THE REFLECTION AS COMPARED TO A SMOOTH FLAW. NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS ARE TYPICALLY ROUGH AND WOULD SCATTER THE SOUND MORE THAN A CRACK-LIKE DISCONTINUITY. 37UT Lecture Guide Lesson 5, AIR IS A POOR MEDIUM FOR TRANSFERRING ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS INTO LIQUIDS OR SOLIDS. THEREFORE, A COUPLANT MUST BE USED TO TRANSFER ENERGY FROM THE TRANSDUCER TO THE TEST MATERIAL. WATER IS A COMMONLY USED COUPLANT AS SHOWN BELOW: ‘SECONDARY LOBES. ee ‘TRANSDUCER Sy PRINCIPAL DIRECTION OF SOUND BEAM SECONDARY LOBES MOST OF THE ULTRASONIC ENERGY IS CONCENTRATED ALONG THE CENTER: LINE OF THE BEAM. THE SECONDARY OR SIDE LOBES FORM AT THE TRANSDUCER FACE AND RADIATE AWAY FROM THE PRINCIPLE DIRECTION OF SOUND TRAVEL. THESE SECONDARY LOBES REPRESENT AREAS OF HIGH AND LOW INTENSI- TIES AT THE EDGE OF THE BEAM. BECAUSE OF THE SECONDARY LOBES, THE USEFUL WIDTH OF A TRANS- DUCER BEAM IS LESS THAN THE TRANSDUCER’S PHYSICAL WIDTH. TRANSDUCER DIAMETER HAS A DEFINITE INFLUENCE ON THE SOUND BEAM TRANSMITTED THROUGH A MEDIUM. FOR A GIVEN FREQUENCY, A SMALLER TRANSDUCER HAS A GREATER BEAM SPREAD ANGLE THAN A LARGER DIAMETER TRANSDUCER AS SHOWN BELOW: SWALL DIAMETER men LARGE DIAMETER TRANSDUCER 4 TRANSOUCER 4 NN ‘BEAM DIVERGES ‘BEAM CONSTANT MEDIUM 58UT Lecture Guide Lesson 5 CHANGING THE TRANSDUCER'S VIBRATING FREQUENCY WILL ALSO CHANGE THE BEAM SPREAD. DIVERGENCE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO FREQUENCY. THEREFORE, A HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER HAS A MORE CONSTANT DIAMETER SOUND BEAM THAN A LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER. BEAM DIVERGENCE CAN BE REDUCED BY INCREASING THE TRANSDUCER FREQUENCY OR BY USING A LARGER DIAMETER TRANSDUCER. THE AMOUNT OF BEAM SPREAD IS DETERMINED BY THE FOLLOWING EQUA- TION: ko SIN@= 1.22 WHERE = WAVELENGTH D= DIAMETER = HALF-ANGLE OF BEAM SPREAD TO HALF-POWER POINTS ar POWER POINT (.707 OF INTENSITY) THE BEAM SPREAD OF A 1/2 INCH DIAMETER, 1 MHz TRANSDUCER IS SHOWN TO BE 34 DEGREES. REMEMBER THAT WAVELENGTH ( } ) IS DETERMINED BY DIVIDING THE VELOCITY BY THE FREQUENCY. TO CHANGE INCHES TO CENTIMETERS, MULTIPLY BY 2.54. SECONDARY Loses 59Key Name. UT LESSON 5 WORKSHEET #1 ‘A. Understanding “Beam Spread” will help point out the importance of selecting the proper {re- quency and size transducer. The length of the ultrasonic wave and the diameter of the trans. ducer are often critical In the determination of flaw size and location. B. Using the information given below, determine the “Beam Spread” for the conditions listed. (a) Velocity in steel = .585 x 10* cmisec (b) Velocity in aluminum = .625 x 10" cm/sec (c) One inch = 2.54 centimeters 7 t dl (8) Wavelength( ) = —Veleclty_ —-—= Frequency (e) Sing = 1.22 ~ (O) —&*_ 1, What would be the beam spread using a 1” diameter, 2.25 MHz transducer on an alumi- num test part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) | 28 en/ste = ree a os Mh, cs sago~ ree oe = /33 Orr” LZ." 2. What would be the beam spread using a 1” diameter, one MHz transducer on an alumi- num test part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) «tee cose | a ar Bas _éa8 ¢ > a £2 , e caf ~sar BER 2 4 20 ors? 3. What would be the beam spread using a one hail inch diameter, 2.25 MHz transducer on a I test part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) Ax sts . aco en pas Wt, alt 9 possibie points 65878 6018 6157 6293 6428 6561 6691 6820 6947 7071 Cos 9998 9994 9986 9976 9962 9945 9925 9903 9877 9848 9816 9781 9748 9703 9659 9613 9563 9511 9455 9397 9336 9272 9205 9135 8988 8910 8829 8746 8660 8572 8480 8387 18290 8192 7986 7880 a7 7660 7547 (7431 7314 7193 "7071 UT LESSON 5 WORKSHEET #1 (continued) Tan 0175 0349 0524 0899 0875 1051 1228 1405 1584 1763 1944 2126 2309 2493 2679 2867 3057 3249 13443 3640 3839 4040 4245 4452 4663 A877 5095 5317 5543 5174 6009 6249 6494 6745 7002 7265 7538 7813 {8098 8391 8693 9004 9325 9657 1.0000 Angle sin 45° 7193 are (7314 48° 7431 49° 7547 50° 7660 51 am 52° 7880 53° 7986 54° -8090 55° 8192 63 Cos 6947 16820 6691 6561 6428 6293 6157 6018 5878 5736 5592 5486 5299 5150 4848 4695 4540 4384 4226 4087 3807 3748 3584 3420 3256 -3090 2924 2757 2419 2250 2079 1908 1736 1564 11392 11219 1045 0872 0698 0523 0349 0175 0000 Tan 1.0355 1.0724 1.1108 1.1504 1.1918 1.2349 1.2799 1.3270 1.3764 1.4281 1.4826 1.5399 1.6013 1.6643 4.7321 1.8040 1.8807 1.9626 2.0503 2.1445 2.2460 2.3559 2.4751 2.6051 2.7475 2.9042 3.0777 3.2709 3.4874 3.7321 4.0108 4.3315 4.7046 5.1446 5.6713 6.3138 7.1154 8.1443 9.5144 11.4301 14.3007 19.0811 28.6363 57.2900name_Key UT LESSON 5, quiz 4. Higher frequency transducers have less beam spread than low frequency transducers, Lower frequency transducers are usually used to find the smaller detects. |. The longer the wavelength ( ) ), the greater the beam spread and better ability to loca small discontinuities 4. When comparing two transducers of the same frequency, the larger transducer will have the greatest beam spread. . A rough surface on the test specimen may cause a loss in amplitude on the CRT screen . I the front and back surfaces of a test part are not parallel, there will be a greatly reduced signal amplitude from any discontinuity In the part. 7. Long or thin specimens may cause false indications due to mode conversion of the long!- tudinal beam. . A smooth discontinuity (crack) will reflect m surtace (inclusion) LL 2. Both contact and immersion te beam" examination of a part. E10. The couplant used in ultrasonic inspection should be as thick as possible to property direct the sound beam. —T_ 11. Where a liquid or paste couplant cannot be used, a rubber sheet may sometimes be used by placing It between the transducer and test part. 3°__ 12. What would be the “Beam Spread” If the following conditions existed? A. 1” Diameter, 5 MHz transducer. B. Velocity in steel = .585 x 10" cmisec » C. Sing = 1.22 ~~ ing 5 ex J bbe be Hh nergy than a discontinuity will a rough ing techniques can be used for performing an “angle ee velocity D. Wavelength ( \ ) = trequency E. one Inch = 2.54 centimé F. (3 pts - SHOW WORK) ve erst emcee 2 7em os Ms 172. 05! sia O° 88 357 OF 3 dees 14 possible points 6Sin 0175 0349 0523 0898 0872 1045 1219 1392 1564 “1736 1908 2079 2250 2419 2588 2756 2924 3090 3256 13420 3584 3746 3907 4067 4226 A384 4540 A695 A848 5000 5150 5299 5486 5592 5736 5878 6018 8157 6293 6428 6561 6691 6820 6947 7071 UT LESSON 5 QUIZ (continued) Tan Angle 0175 46° 0349 a 0524 48° 0699 43° 0875 50° 1051 sit 1228 52° 1405 53° 1884 Sat 1763 55° 1944 56° 2126 s7* 2309 58° 2493 see 2879 60° 2867 er" 3087 62" 3249 63° 3 eat 3640 65° 9839 66° 4040 67° 4245 68° 4452 69° 4663 70" 487 mt 5095 72° 5317 73° 15543 vat 774 75° 8009 76° 6249 7 “6494 7e* 6745 73° -7002 80° 7265 art 7536 82° 7813 a3" 8098 eae 8391 as* 8693 86° 8004 a7 9325 eet 9657 Bo° 1.0000 90° sin 7193 17314 17431 (7547 am 7880 7986 8090 8192 8290 8387 18480 8572 8660 8746 8829 8910 8988 9063 9135 9205 9272 9336 9397 9455 9511 9563 9613 9659 9703 9748 9781 9816 9848 9877 :9903 19925 19945 9962 9976 9994 :9998 1.0000 Cos 6947 6820 6691 6561 6428 6293 6157 6018 5878 5736 5592 5486 5299 5150 5000 4848 4695 4540 4384 4226 4067 9907 3746 3584 3420 3256 “2924 2787 2568 2419 2250 2079 1908 1736 1564 11392 1219 1045 10872 0698 0523 0349 0175 0000 14.3007 19.0811 28.6363 57.2900Lesson 6 ATTENUATION, ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE, AND RESONANCE AS SHOWN BELOW, A BEAM OF SOUND ENERGY WILL SPREAD OUT (DIVERGE) AS IT MOVES THROUGH THE SPECIMEN, AND THE INTENSITY (ENERGY) DE- CREASES WITH DISTANCE AWAY FROM THE TRANSDUCER AND AWAY FROM. THE CENTER OF THE BEAM. ‘TRANSDUCER FOR A GIVEN SIZE TRANSDUCER: HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCERS PRODUCE NARROWER SOUND BEAMS THAN LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCERS. FOR THE PURPOSE OF ILLUSTRATION, ULTRASONIC SOUND CAN BE VIEWED AS A NARROW CONE-SHAPED BEAM WHICH IS DIVIDED INTO TWO ZONES. THE INTENSITY IN THE NEAR ZONE VARIES IRREGULARLY DUE TO SOUND WAVE INTERACTION CLOSE TO THE TRANSDUCER. THIS PREVENTS RELIABLE DETECTION OF DISCONTINUITIES CLOSE TO THE SURFACE. IN THE FAR ZONE, THE INTENSITY (ENERGY) DECREASES STEADILY DUE TO BOTH ATTENUATION AND BEAM SPREAD. 7 ee OUATERIALY TRANSDUCER (TRANSMITTER): TRANSDUCER (RECEIVER) THE INTENSITY AT POINT “Y" ABOVE IS LESS THAN AT POINT “X”. ATTENUA- TION IS THE TERM USED TO DESCRIBE THIS CONDITION OF ENERGY LOSS. AT- TENUATION MEANS THE PROCESS OF LESSENING THE AMOUNT. THE PRIMARY REASONS FOR ATTENUATION ARE ABSORPTION AND SCATTER- ING OF THE ULTRASONIC ENERGY.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 ATTENUATION IS DIFFERENT IN DIFFERENT MATERIALS, DEPENDING ON THE ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING OF THE SOUND ENERGY. ANOTHER PHENO- MENON WHICH PERTAINS TO THE INTERRELATIONSHIP OF THE SOUND AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES IS “ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE.” THIS TERM SHOULD NOT BE CONFUSED WITH “ATTENUATION.” “ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE” (Z) IS DEFINED AS THE PRODUCT OF THE DENSITY ( ) AND SOUND VELOCITY (V) WITHIN A GIVEN MATERIAL. IMPEDANCE = DENSITY X VELOCITY, ORZ = - V IMPEDANCE VALUES FOR TYPICAL MATERIALS ARE SHOWN BELOW: DENSITY (craw/ou?) IMPEDANCE VELociTy Goram/om? - sec) _| (cm/sec) MATER 0.000033 x 10° | 0.33. x10° 5 AIR WarER 0.149 x 10° 1.49 x 10 ALUMINUM, 1.72 x 108 6.35x10> an STEEL 4.56 x 10° 5.85 x 10° 7.8 ATTENUATION IS DEFINED AS THE LOSS OF ENERGY (ACOUSTIC) PER UNIT OF DISTANCE. FOR ULTRASONIC WAVE PROPAGATION, THE ATTENUATION CON- STANT © IS GIVEN BY: WHERE ox = ATTENUATION CONSTANT Sa = RATIO OF INTENSITIES AT TWO POINTS A UNIT DISTANCE APART WokUT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 IF ACOUSTIC ENERGY IS TRANSMITTED INTO TWO PIECES OF PERFECTLY BONDED IDENTICAL STEEL, WE FIND THE SOUND HAS THE SAME VELOCITY THROUGH BOTH, WITH AN IMPEDANCE RATIO OF 1 TO 1. STEEL STEEL TRANSDUCER ™ ‘sound Bean ——| —— — VELOCITY REMAINS CONSTANT AN IMPEDANCE RATIO OF ANYTHING LESS OR GREATER THAN 1 TO 1 IS LESS THAN IDEAL. AS SHOWN BELOW A LARGE PORTION OF THE SOUND BEAM FROM A WATER TO STEEL INTERFACE WILL REFLECT BACK TOWARDS THE TRANSDUCER AND NEVER ENTER THE PART. “eer, e—>$>@»n -_ N —— ‘SOUND BEAM TRANSDUCER {_______ STEEL TO DETERMINE HOW MUCH OF THE ENERGY IS REFLECTED YOU CAN USE THE FOLLOWING FORMULA: Z 1 = REFLECTION FACTOR (R) = (4A) 1* 42 Z = ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE IN THE ILLUSTRATION ABOVE, HOW MUCH OF THE SOUND ENERGY IS RE- FLECTED FROM THE WATER TO STEEL INTERFACE? 2 p= (455-149. / 4.41 \2 95 percent REFLECTED 4,56 + .149 4,709UT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 RESONANCE CAN BE DEFINED AS THE CHARACTERISTIC OF A VIBRATING BODY TO RESONATE OR VIBRATE IN SYMPATHY WITH A VIBRATION SOURCE. AS SHOWN BELOW, A RESONANT CONDITION WILL EXIST ANY TIME A CON- TINUOUS LONGITUDINAL WAVE IS INTRODUCED INTO A SPECIMEN AND REFLECTED “IN PHASE” WITH THE INCOMING WAVE. COUPLANT TRANSDUCER} STANDING WAVES RESONANCE WILL OCCUR ONLY WHEN THE THICKNESS OF A SPECIMEN IS EQUAL TO A HALF-WAVELENGTH OR AN EXACT MULTIPLE OF A HALF-WAVE- LENGTH. SHOWN BELOW IS A “FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY" AND MULTIPLES CALLED “HARMONICS.” REFLECTED WAVE TEST SPECIMEN ‘TRANSDUCER 2 INCIDENT WAVE MHz (FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY) 2 MHz (2ND HARMONIC) L— rwexwess =a wavetencrs = —| 3 MHz (3RD HARMONIC) [— rweeness «1-172 wavevenctws —|UT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 ULTRASONIC UNITS USING THE PRINCIPLE OF RESONANCE WERE COMMONLY USED FOR THICKNESS MEASUREMENT AND BOND OR LAMINATION INSPEC- TION. HOWEVER, PULSE-ECHO UNITS HAVE BEEN REFINED TO PERFORM MOST OF THESE FUNCTIONS AND RESONANT INSTRUMENTS ARE RARELY USED. RESONANCE OCCURS WHEN THE MATERIAL THICKNESS IS EQUAL TO A HALF- WAVELENGTH OR EXACT MULTIPLES. THE WAVELENGTH CAN BE CHANGED BY VARYING THE FREQUENCY. THE FUNDAMENTAL RESONANT FREQUENCY IS THE LOWEST FREQUENCY AT WHICH A SPECIMEN WILL RESONATE. HARMONICS ARE EXACT MULTIPLES OF THE FUNDAMENTAL (MINIMUM) RESO- NANT FREQUENCY. THE FUNDAMENTAL RESONANT FREQUENCY CAN BE FOUND BY: v az FUNDAMENTAL RESONANT FREQUENCY VELOCITY OF LONGITUDINAL WAVE THICKNESS OF MATERIAL co DISCONTINUITY Fe F v Ts MATERIAL, ‘TRANSDUCER AS SHOWN ABOVE IN “A”, THE FREQUENCY HAS BEEN ADJUSTED UNTIL A STANDING WAVE “RESONANCE” HAS BEEN ESTABLISHED. IF THE TRANSDUCER IS MOVED TO POSITION “B", THE MATERIAL WILL STOP RESONATING UNTIL THE FREQUENCY (WAVELENGTH) IS ADJUSTED TO AGAIN ESTABLISH RESONANCE AS SHOWN.Key Name. UT LESSON 6 WORKSHEET #1 ‘A. Using the Information given below, solve the problems relating to “reflection factors.” B. The chart below lists the common Impedance values. (IMPEDANCE = VELOCITY X DENSITY) MPEDANCE VELOCITY DENSITY wateniac | ccrawew?-seer_ | ccursecr_| ramseu’ 0.000033 x 10% 0.149 x 10% 6.35 x10 $.t5 x10 are x08 ase xa0 ©. Reflection tactor = {1 2 t+ 2 Z = Acoustic Impedance _Z/Z. +. wnat percentage of the original sound energy will be reflected back to the probe at the water to aluminum intertace? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) 99-17% Repeat LT ry will finally enter the water on Its way back of the aluminum part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) {tenuation that would _62% 2. what percentage of the original sound e1 to the transducer from the back surta Only consider the reflection factors, do not consider the normal ‘occur In the material Itself. P/ Pe of remanny 297, = 20 CR which is reflected wp tree he bettom werface spe De hich és re Hacked 72 Ph remussing 20.670 * beck dean fre the Ay wortice, feawiag only 6% entering He eter 75Key _ Name. UT LESSON 6 WORKSHEET #1 (continued) -:22% 3, A clad material Is to be tested for bond defects. One material has a thickness of 0.9 Inch: {88 and an acoustic impedance of 5.0 x 10" gramlcm'- second and the other material |s 4.0 Inches thick and has an acoustic impedance of 4.5 x 10° gram/cm? - second “if the bond is perfect and acceptable, what percentage of sound would you expect to be reflected from the interface? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) - (East) GE)* GD THEE 4, would you inspect the bonded material through the thiek side or through the thin side? Why? (2 pts) Wear Zane Prob lems 5. On the CAT screen below, using a § inch screen range, sketch the approximate location and amplitude of the pips trom an acceptable bond condition. (2 pts) of-—h- should be less than 20% for adequate bond inspection. 13 possible pointsA fine grained mat Key Name. UT LESSON 6 quiz . The gradual loss of energy as a sound beam travels through a material is called attenua- tion. Wherever possible, the UT inspection should be done In the sound can spread out and attenua zone" betore the . “Acoustic Impedance" refers to resistance of sound propagation through a part. . Compared to steel, air has a very high acoustic impedance value. The original ultrasonic velocity remains the same regardless of the media It Is passing through. ‘A sound beam with a given energy will travel farther in aluminum than in steel before it is attenuated by the same amount. jal will usually cause less attenuation than a coarse grained material. The terms “intensity” and “impedance” mean the same thing. |. In immersion testing, it is typical that less than 1% of the original sound energy Is re- turned to the transducer ). Using the Information given below, what would be the Reflection Factor at the interface shown between the water (Z,) and steel (Z,)? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) sa yey? 2 YH 2,72 “ly76 Reflection Factor (R) = {1 ——2_ yzet | ly 422 dprt) EB Acoustic impedance 2 TRANSDUCER, Water STEEL z N => = = Sound oem mPeDaNCE vevocity | DENSITY, warenuar | _torawrew?-secr_| _cewysecr_| ccram/ew?) an 0.000033 x10 | 0.33 x 10° warer 0.149 x 10° 1.49 x 108 avuumum 1.72 x 10° 6.35 x 108 2a sree 4.56 x10° 5.05 x 108 28 12 possible pointsLesson7 DISPLAYING ULTRASONIC INDICATIONS THERE ARE THREE BASIC TYPES OF VISUAL DISPLAYS WHICH ARE COMMONLY USED TO EVALUATE THE SOUNDNESS OR QUALITY OF A MATERIAL BEING TESTED; A-SCAN, B-SCAN AND C-SCAN. A-SCAN IS A “TIME VERSUS AMPLITUDE” DISPLAY WHICH REVEALS A DISCON- TINUITY USING A “PIP” ON A CATHODE-RAY TUBE (CRT). BACK SURFACE REFLECTION ‘AMPLITUDE DISCONTINUITY HORIZONTAL SWEEP THE A-SCAN PRESENTATION, AS HAS BEEN DISCUSSED, IS READ FROM LEFT TO RIGHT. THE HEIGHT OF A PIP CAN BE COMPARED TO THE HEIGHT OF A PIP FROM A KNOWN REFERENCE REFLECTOR TO GIVE AN INDICATION OF RELA- TIVE DISCONTINUITY SIZE. >= AMPLITUDE [ACSCAN PRESENTATION HORIZONTAL SWEEP TRANSDUCER INDICATION REFLECTION ae ee eg _ Fit} |i - L a | INITIAL PULSE, DISCONTINUITY. BACK SURFACEUT Lecture Guide Lesson 7 B-SCAN PRESENTATION, AS SHOWN BELOW, TYPICALLY USES AN OSCILLO- SCOPE SCREEN TO DISPLAY A CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE MATERIAL BE- ING TESTED. THE IMAGE IS RETAINED ON THE CRT LONG ENOUGH TO EVALUATE THE SAM- PLE AND TO PHOTOGRAPH THE SCREEN FOR A PERMANENT RECORD. FRONT SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES, THICKNESS OF ‘TEST MATERIAL, B-SCAN PRESENTATION C-SCAN IS A “PLAN VIEW” PRESENTATION SIMILAR TO AN X-RAY PICTURE. AS SHOWN BELOW, THE C-SCAN SHOWS THE SHAPE AND LOCATION OF THE DISCONTINUITY, BUT DOES NOT SHOW THE DEPTH. DISCONTINUITIES, CoSCAN PRESENTATIONUT Lecture Guide Lesson 7 HIGH SPEED ULTRASONIC SCANNING GENERALLY UTILIZES THE C-SCAN PRESENTATION. AS SHOWN BELOW, SOME RECORDERS USE A CHEMICALLY TREATED PAPER. THE PAPER MOVEMENT |S SYNCHRONIZED WITH THE MOVEMENT OF THE TRANSDUCER ACROSS THE TEST SURFACE. = 7 RECORDING PAPER FEED i MOTION OF TRANSDUCER | PRINT BAR, SCAN LINES DISCONTINUITY DISCONTINUITY THE ADVANTAGE OF THE C-SCAN IS ITS SPEED AND ABILITY TO PRODUCE A PERMANENT RECORD. HOWEVER, THE SCAN SHOWS ONLY LENGTH AND WIDTH, BUT NOT DEPTH. MANIPULATOR RECORDER CONTROL PANEL, ‘CARRIAGE CONTROL PANEL C+SCAN RECORDER 83UT Lecture Guide Lesson 7 A TYPICAL BRIDGE/MANIPULATOR IS SHOWN FOR A BASIC ULTRASONIC IMMERSION TEST. WHEN A C-SCAN IS TO BE MADE, ELECTRIC MOTORS ARE UTILIZED TO ACTI- VATE THE TRAVELING MECHANISMS AND THE UP AND DOWN MOVEMENT OF THE SEARCH TUBE. TANK WITH MOTORIZED BRIDGE ‘SUPPORT FOR TEST SPECIMEN A TYPICAL A-SCAN PRESENTATION IS SHOWN BELOW USING CONTACT TEST- ING WITH AN ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER. THE PROCEDURE USED TO CALIBRATE THE UT UNIT |S SIMILAR TO NORMAL. BEAM TESTING AND REQUIRES A CALIBRATION BLOCK WITH A KNOWN SIZE REFLECTION SURFACE AT A KNOWN METAL TRAVEL. ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER DISCONTINUITYUT Lecture Guide Lesson 7 A CALIBRATION BLOCK (IW TEST BLOCK FURTHER DISCUSSED IN LESSON 8) IS. SHOWN BELOW WITH A KNOWN DISTANCE OF 4 INCHES TO THE CURVED SUR- FACE. USING THE SWEEP AND DELAY CONTROLS, THE PIPS ARE ADJUSTED TO SHOW MULTIPLES OF 4 INCHES ON THE CRT. O an 9 Papa par pr pe pp TT 2 4 6 8 10 IF THE MINATURE ANGLE BEAM CALIBRATION BLOCK SHOWN BELOW WERE USED TO CALIBRATE THE ABOVE CRT SCREEN, WHERE WOULD THE PIPS APPEAR? MINIATURE ANGLE BEAM DEPENDING ON THE DIRECTION OF THE ANGLE BEAM PROBE, THE PIPS WOULD EITHER APPEAR AT ONE, FOUR, AND SEVEN INCHES OR TWO, FIVE, AND EIGHT INCHES. 85UT Lecture Guide Lesson 7 THE ANGLE BEAM TECHNIQUE IS OFTEN USED FOR WELD INSPECTION AS SHOWN BELOW. distance — ' ~ 2nd skip distance— PATH) ("V" PATH) TYPICALLY, THE WELD SHOULD BE INSPECTED IN THE 1ST OR 2ND LEG WHEN- EVER POSSIBLE AS SHOWN BELOW. SKIP DISTANCE views view 8 view ¢ TO ASSIST IN EVALUATING THE RESULTS OF ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION, A DIRECT READING ULTRASONIC CALCULATOR IS COMMONLY USED. t °. 1 4s 910 J T TTF af eiejapeteie THE HORIZONTAL SCALE ACROSS THE TOP OF THE CARD REPRESENTS THE NUMBER OF INCHES BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE CENTER OF THE WELD. THE VERTICAL SCALE REPRESENTS SPECIMEN THICKNESS AND THE ARC. SHOWS THE ANGLE OF THE SOUND BEAM. 86UT Lecture Guide Lesson 7 THE FOLLOWING IS AN EXAMPLE OF A TYPICAL ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION US- ING THE ULTRASONIC CALCULATOR. A DOUBLE VEE WELD WITH AN OPENING OF 30 DEGREES IN A 2” STEEL PLATE USING A 60 DEGREE SHEAR WAVE IN THE SPECIMEN. <2) pont oF incieNce DASHED une 8 1 saeens 7 pues DISCONTINUITY THE FOLLOWING PROCEDURE SHOULD BE USED IN SETTING UP THE CALCU- LATOR: A » DRAW A LINE REPRESENTING THE SOUND PATH FROM THE UPPER LEFT CORNER THROUGH THE 60 DEGREE MARK ON THE ARC, EXTENDING TO THE 2” POINT REPRESENTING THE PLATE THICKNESS. CALIBRATE THE HORIZONTAL SWEEP OF THE CRT TO REPRESENT BEAM TRAVEL DISTANCE IN THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED. . TO SHOW THE FULL SKIP DISTANCE OF THE SOUND BEAM, YOU THEN DOUBLE THE 3 7/16” AND MARK THAT POINT AT APPROXIMATELY 6 7/8” (POINT “B” ABOVE) . NEXT, DRAW THE 30 DEGREE VEE WELD ON THE PLASTIC SLIDE OR TRANSPARENT PAPER THAT SLIDES BACK AND FORTH OVER THE CALCU- LATOR. |. AS SHOWN ABOVE, A DISCONTINUITY IS DISPLAYED ON THE CRT SCREEN AT 5.5". THE OPERATOR THEN MEASURES THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE CENTER OF THE TRANSDUCER (EXIT POINT) AND THE CENTER OF THE WELDMENT (4 5/8”) AND SLIDES THE TRANSPARENT PAPER TO THE SAME DISTANCE. THE POSITION OF THE DISCONTINUITY IS INDICATED AND CAN BE EVALUATED.Key Name. LESSON 7 WORKSHEET #1 ‘A. Angle beam inspection requires that the operator understand how the sound beam is re flected within the specimen, On the CRT screen provided, indicate the location of each pip based on the sound path distances shown. (3 pis each) Takes /piv « Raga § 7 z eens seagate As ce sacs as — 3 g T 3 T 3 |__12 NCH SCREEN RANGE \ i j 9 possible pointsnek bin 13 possible points Key Name. LESSON 7 quiz (On a typical B-Scan, the horizontal sweep represents time and the vertical deflection represents ampiltud 2. The B-Scan can display how deep the discontinuity Is below the surface of the speci- men. 3. The typical A-Scan [8 the display commonly used for recording a permanent record with the Immersion Inspection technique. 4, The vertical pip on an A-Scan can be used to compare the relative size of a discon. tinulty. 5. The C-Scan display will Indicate length and width of a discontinuity, but It cannot show depth. 6. To obtain an A-Scan display with ultrasonic immersion testing, It Is necessary to auto- mate the bridge/manipulator with electric motor: 7. The“Ultrasonie Calculstor” can be used in weld Inspection to Indicate the location of discontinuity in the weldment. &. Whenever possible, the weld should be inspected in the “2nd Skip Distanc 9. The calibration of a UT Instrument for sound path distance can be performed using the curved surface of the “IW Block. 10. To accurately utllize the “Ultrasonic Calculator” It Is necessary to accurately m the distance from center line of the weld to the exit point of the transducer. 11. Using an 8” screen range on the CRT below, Indicate where the “pips” should appear If the instrument Is to be properly calibrated for sound path distance in the block shown. (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) = _Paage to x Zee CE ease (MINIATURE ANGLE BEAM a1Lesson 8 ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCERS AND STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCKS THE ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER IS THE HEART OF THE UT TEST SYSTEM. SEALED CASE. SIGWAL CONNECTOR BACKING GROUND CONNECTOR THE CRYSTAL MATERIAL IN AN ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER IS MADE OF PIEZO- ELECTRIC MATERIALS SUCH AS QUARTZ, LITHIUM SULFATE AND POLARIZED CERAMICS. 1, QUARTZ WAS THE FIRST MATERIAL USED. IT HAS VERY STABLE FREQUEN- CY CHARACTERISTICS. HOWEVER, QUARTZ IS A POOR GENERATOR OF ACOUSTIC ENERGY AND HAS GENERALLY BEEN REPLACED BY MORE EF- FICIENT MATERIALS. 2. LITHIUM SULFATE IS A VERY EFFICIENT RECEIVER OF ACOUSTIC ENERGY, BUT IS FRAGILE, SOLUBLE IN WATER AND LIMITED TO USE AT TEMPER- ATURES BELOW 165°F. 3. POLARIZED CERAMICS PRODUCE THE MOST EFFICIENT GENERATORS OF ACOUSTIC ENERGY BUT THEY DO HAVE A TENDENCY TO WEAR. COMMON POLARIZED CERAMICS INCLUDE BARIUM TITANATE, LEAD METANIOBATE, AND LEAD ZIRCONATE/TITANATE. THE CAPABILITY OF A TRANSDUCER IS DESCRIBED BY THREE TERMS: 1, SENSITIVITY - THE ABILITY TO DETECT SMALL DISCONTINUITIES. 2. RESOLUTION - THE ABILITY TO SEPARATE THE SOUND REFLECTIONS FROM TWO DISCONTINUITIES CLOSE TOGETHER IN DEPTH OR TIME. 3. EFFICIENCY - ENERGY CONVERSION EFFECTIVENESS. 93UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 SENSITIVITY OF A TRANSDUCER IS RATED BY ITS ABILITY TO DETECT A CER- — TAIN SIZE FLAT-BOTTOM HOLE, AT A SPECIFIED DEPTH, IN A STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCK. THE SMALLER THE DETECTABLE HOLE, THE GREATER THE SENSITIVITY. TRANSDUCER SENSITIVITY IS MEASURED BY THE AMPLITUDE OF ITS RE- SPONSE FROM AN ARTIFICIAL DISCONTINUITY IN A STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCK. THE REFERENCE BLOCK IS NECESSARY, BECAUSE EVEN TRANSDUCERS OF THE SAME SIZE, FREQUENCY AND MATERIAL DO NOT ALWAYS PRODUCE THE ‘SAME AMPLITUDE SIGNAL FROM A GIVEN REFLECTOR. —— TRANSDUCER REFERENCE BLOCK FLAT BOTTOMED HOLE RESOLUTION IS THE ABILITY TO SEPARATE (DISTINGUISH BETW! ) THE SOUND REFLECTIONS FROM A DISCONTINUITY CLOSE TO A BOUNDARY OR TWO DISCONTINUITIES CLOSE TOGETHER IN DEPTH OR TIME. POOR RESOLUTION GOOD RESOLUTION ‘BACK sunFace) REFLECTION REFLECTION DiscowTimuiTy DISCONTINUITYUT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 TRANSDUCER MATERIALS ARE USUALLY CUT IN TWO WAYS: 1. CRYSTALS CUT PERPENDICULAR TO THE X-AXIS PRODUCE LONGITUDINAL WAVES. 2. CRYSTALS CUT PERPENDICULAR TO THE Y-AXIS PRODUCE SHEAR WAVES. AS SHOWN BELOW, MOST CRYSTALS USED FOR UT ARE CUT PERPENDICULAR TO THE X-AXIS. CRYSTAL DEFORMATION AXIS X-AXIS Y-AXIS Z-AXIS SIZE IS A CONTRIBUTING FACTOR IN PERFORMANCE OF A TRANSDUCER. 1. THE LARGER DIAMETER THE TRANSDUCER, THE LESS THE SOUND BEAM WILL SPREAD FOR A GIVEN FREQUENCY. 2. HOWEVER, THE SMALL, HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCERS ARE BETTER ABLE TO DETECT VERY SMALL DISCONTINUITIES. 3. THE LARGER THE TRANSDUCER, THE MORE SOUND ENERGY IT TRANS- MITS INTO THE TEST PART. LARGE LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCERS ARE OFTEN USED TO GET MORE PENETRATION. 4. LARGE SINGLE CRYSTAL TRANSDUCERS ARE GENERALLY LIMITED TO THE LOWER FREQUENCIES. HIGH FREQUENCY CRYSTALS ARE SUSCEP- TIBLE TO DAMAGE BECAUSE THEY ARE VERY THIN. 95UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 THE FREQUENCY OF A TRANSDUCER IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN ITS APPLI- CATION. 1. THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY OF A TRANSDUCER, THE LESS THE SOUND BEAM WILL SPREAD AND THE GREATER THE SENSITIVITY AND RESOLU- TION. WHEN THE SOUND BEAM IS SPREAD AS SHOWN BELOW, LESS SOUND IS LIKELY TO BE REFLECTED FROM A SMALL DISCONTINUITY. HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER DISCONTINUITY 2. THE LOWER THE FREQUENCY, THE DEEPER THE SOUND PENETRATION AND THE LESS SCATTER. THE GREATER BEAM SPREAD AIDS IN DETECT- ING REFLECTORS WHICH ARE NOT PERPENDICULAR TO THE AXIS OF THE SOUND BEAM. 3. CRYSTAL THICKNESS IS ALSO RELATED TO TRANSDUCER FREQUENCY. THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY OF THE TRANSDUCER, THE THINNER THE CRYSTAL WILL BE. MOST ULTRASONIC TESTING IS DONE BETWEEN 0.2 MHz AND 25 MHz AND CRYSTALS CUT FOR USE ABOVE 10 MHz ARE TOO THIN AND FRAGILE FOR CONTACT TESTING. THEREFORE, TRANSDUCERS WITH OPERATING FREQUENCIES ABOVE 10 MHz ARE USED PRIMARILY FOR IMMERSION TESTING. 96UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 TRANSDUCERS FOR CONTACT TESTING AND IMMERSION TESTING ARE ESSEN- TIALLY THE SAME BUT USUALLY ARE NOT INTERCHANGEABLE. MOST CONTACT TESTING TRANSDUCERS HAVE WEAR PLATES IN FRONT OF THE PIEZOELECTRIC ELEMENT TO PROTECT IT. THE EXCEPTION TO THIS IS A QUARTZ TRANSDUCER. AS SHOWN BELOW, CONTACT TRANSDUCERS CAN BE EITHER “STRAIGHT BEAM” OR “ANGLE BEAM.” TRANSDUCER B TRANSDUCER A iene N CERAMIC STRAIGHT BEAM TRANSDUCERS USUALLY HAVE A LUCITE, CERAMIC, OR QUARTZ WEAR PLATE IN FRONT OF THE CRYSTAL. ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCERS HAVE THE WEAR PLATE WEDGE-SHAPED TO PRO- DUCE THE DESIRED REFRACTED ANGLE. AS SHOWN ABOVE, THE LUCITE WEDGE PROTECTS THE FACE OF THE CRYSTAL AND DETERMINES THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE OF THE SOUND BEAM ON THE TEST PART. AS HAS BEEN DISCUSSED, WHEN SOUND WAVES ARE DIRECTED INTO THE TEST PART AT AN ANGLE, THEY ARE DIVIDED INTO LONGITUDINAL AND SHEAR WAVES BY REFRACTION. MOST ANGLE BEAM TESTING IS DONE WITH SHEAR WAVES. STRAIGHT BEPM TRANSDUCER ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER SHEAR WAVES.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 THE ANGLE BEAM PROBE CAN ALSO BE USED TO GENERATE SURFACE WAVES. AS WE HAVE DISCUSSED, SURFACE WAVES ARE GENERATED WHEN THE INCI- DENT ANGLE OF THE SOUND BEAM REACHES THE SECOND OR UPPER CRITI CAL ANGLE. MOST ANGLE BEAM CONTACT TRANSDUCERS ARE IDENTIFIED BY THE RE- FRACTED SHEAR WAVE PRODUCED (70°, 60°, ETC), IN A SPECIFIC MATERIAL, USUALLY STEEL AND ALUMINUM. SPHERICALLY GROUND AND CYLINDRICALLY GROUND ACOUSTICAL LENSES ARE COMMONLY ADDED TO IMMERSION TYPE TRANSDUCERS. THEY ARE USED TO: 1. IMPROVE SENSITIVITY AND RESOLUTION. 2. COMPENSATE FOR TEST PART CONTOURS. 3. EXAMINE A GIVEN DEPTH OF THE TEST PART MORE CAREFULLY. AS SHOWN BELOW, CYLINDRICALLY GROUND LENSES FOCUS THE SOUND ENERGY TO A LINE. SPHERICALLY GROUND LENSES FOCUS THE SOUND ENERGY TO A POINT. WATER J-— transoucerUT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 CYLINDRICAL LENSES ARE USED IN TWO WAYS: 1. TO INCREASE THE SENSITIVITY AND RESOLUTION OF EQUIPMENT. 2. FOR CONTOUR CORRECTION AS SHOWN BELOW. THE LENS CAN BE GROUND SPECIALLY TO DIRECT THE SOUND ENERGY NORMAL (PERPEN- DICULAR) TO A CURVED SURFACE AT ALL POINTS. ‘CONTOUR CORRECTION FLAT SHOE LENS p< aT ScnEEN DISPLAY wy Tuas Noy VIEW 8 VV SPHERICAL LENSES CONCENTRATE THE SOUND ENERGY INTO A CONE SHAPED BEAM. 1. THE FOCUSING INCREASES ITS INTENSITY, BUT SHORTENS ITS USEFUL RANGE. 2. WHILE THE CYLINDERICAL LENS ABOVE HAS A GREATER WIDTH, THE ‘SPHERICAL LENS HAS THE GREATEST SENSITIVITY. 3. THE SPHERICAL LENS IS OFTEN USED WHEN IMMERSION TESTING PARTS HAVING A ROUGH SURFACE. FOCUSED TRANSDUCERS ARE DESCRIBED BY THEIR FOCAL LENGTH. THE SHORT FOCAL LENGTHS ARE FOR EXAMINING AREAS OF THE SPECIMEN CLOSE TO THE SURFACE. LONGER FOCAL LENGTHS ARE FOR INCREASINGLY DEEPER AREAS. 99UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 TRANSDUCERS COME IN MANY SHAPES, SIZES AND PHYSICAL CHARACTER: ISTICS. SOME COMMON TYPES INCLUDE PAINT-BRUSH, DUAL ELEMENT, SINGLE ELE- MENT, ANGLE BEAM, FOCUSED, MOSAIC, CONTACT, AND IMMERSION. SINGLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS MAY BE TRANSMITTERS ONLY, RECEIVERS. ONLY, OR BOTH TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER. DOUBLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS (AS SHOWN BELOW) MAY BE EITHER SINGLE TRANSDUCERS MOUNTED SIDE BY SIDE OR STACKED. IN A DOUBLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCER, ONE IS A TRANSMITTER AND THE OTHER A RECEIVER. RECEIVER TRANSMITTER TRANSMITTER SIDE BY SIDE STACKED DOUBLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS HAVE BETTER NEAR SURFACE RESOLUTION BECAUSE THE RECEIVER CAN RECEIVE DISCONTINUITY SIGNALS BEFORE THE TRANSMITTER COMPLETES ITS TRANSMISSION. DISCONTINUITY OBSCURED . BY INITIAL P IAL CABLE ME TRANSDUCER: 7 i DISCONTINUITY svete : esr sanete J TElasen 100UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCKS IN ULTRASONIC TESTING, DISCONTINUITIES ARE USUALLY COMPARED TO A REFERENCE STANDARD. THE STANDARD MAY BE ONE OF MANY REFERENCE BLOCKS OR SETS OF. BLOCKS SPECIFIED FOR A GIVEN TEST. REFERENCE BLOCKS COME IN MANY DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SIZES AND THIS LESSON WILL DISCUSS ONLY A FEW OF THOSE COMMONLY USED. A TYPICAL BLOCK IS SHOWN BELOW. TEST SURFACE | & = DIAMETER OF FBH B = METAL DISTANCE FROM TEST c SURFACE TO FBH C = METAL DISTANCE FLAT-BOTTOM HOLE, FROM TEST SURFACE TO BOTTOM OF BLOCK MOST REFERENCE BLOCKS HAVE THE FOLLOWING IN COMMON: 1. THEY ARE MADE FROM CAREFULLY SELECTED MATERIAL. 2. THE MATERIAL MUST HAVE THE PROPER ATTENUATION, GRAIN SIZE, HEAT TREATMENT AND BE FREE OF DISCONTINUITIES. 3. ALL DIMENSIONS MUST BE PRECISELY MACHINED. 4, ALL HOLES MUST BE FLAT-BOTTOMED AND HAVE A SPECIFIC DIAMETER TO BE AN IDEAL REFLECTOR. 5. SIDE DRILLED HOLE DIAMETER MUST BE CAREFULLY CONTROLLED. THREE COMMONLY USED SETS OF STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCKS ARE: 1. AREA AMPLITUDE BLOCKS 2. DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS 3. ASTM BASIC SET OF AREA AND DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS. AREA AMPLITUDE BLOCKS PROVIDE STANDARDS FOR DISCONTINUITIES OF DIFFERENT SIZES, AT THE SAME DEPTH. DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS PROVIDE STANDARDS FOR DISCONTINUITIES OF THE SAME SIZE AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS. 101UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 THE ASTM BASIC SET OF AREA/DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS CONSISTS OF TEN, TWO INCH DIAMETER BLOCKS AS SHOWN BELOW: Sia FLAT-BoTTOM HOLE (FBH) DIA ee y METAL DISTANCE . Fo see Taster ——+ 3/4 cH FBH DIA IN GATHS INCH (aa s [s|slels[e ANOTHER TYPE OF CALIBRATION BLOCK IS THE IIW BLOCK (INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WELDING). IT PROVIDES THE FOLLOWING: VERIFICATION OF KNOWN DISTANCES & ANGULAR RELATIONSHIPS, VERIFIES TRANSDUCER ANGLE AND BEAM EXIT POINT AND CHECKS TRANSDUCER RESOLUTION. 0.06" HOLE “ i 2" DIAMETER HOLE 4 FOCAL POINT rd PLASTIC INSERT 102UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 IN CONTACT ANGLE BEAM TESTING, THE BEAM EXIT POINT OF THE TRANS- DUCER MUST BE KNOWN TO ACCURATELY DETERMINE THE LOCATION OF THE DISCONTINUITY. AS SHOWN BELOW, THE TRANSDUCER IS MOVED BACK AND FORTH UNTIL THE PIP ON THE CRT REACHES MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE. THE FOCAL POINT ON THE IIW BLOCK THEN CORRESPONDS WITH THE BEAM EXIT POINT OF THE TRANSDUCER. BEAM EXIT POINT FOCAL POINT SPECIAL CALIBRATION STANDARDS SPECIAL STANDARDS ARE OFTEN USED FOR ITEMS SUCH AS WELDMENTS, CASTINGS, AND PIPING. THE STANDARDS ARE NORMALLY OF THE SAME MATERIAL AND PRODUCT FORM TO BE TESTED. REFERENCE REFLECTORS SUCH AS NOTCHES OR HOLES ARE ARTIFICIALLY ADDED TO THE STANDARD. 103UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 VERIFICATION OF THE TRANSDUCER ANGLE IS ACCOMPLISHED AS SHOWN BELOW: THE PLASTIC WEDGE OF THE ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER IS SUBJECT TO WEAR IN NORMAL USE. THIS WEAR CAN CHANGE THE BEAM EXIT POINT AND THE ANGLE OF THE SOUND BEAM. BEAM EXIT POINT (60 DEGREE TRANSDUCER oe ae Fe a — 2" DIAMETER HOLE vi ee | —11 1 _L FROM THE POSITION SHOWN ABOVE, THE TRANSDUCER IS MOVED BACK AND FORTH UNTIL THE REFLECTION FROM THE 2 INCH HOLE SHOWS MAXIMUM. AMPLITUDE ON THE CRT. THE ANGLE OF SOUND BEAM CAN THEN BE READ FROM WHERE THE EXIT POINT ON THE TRANSDUCER MATCHES THE DEGREES STAMPED ON THE SIDE OF THE BLOCK. THE TRANSDUCER SOUND BEAM EXIT POINT SHOULD ALWAYS BE CHECKED FIRST. IF THE EXIT POINT MARKING IS NOT CORRECT, THEN THE ANGLE CHECK WILL NOT BE ACCURATE.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 8 THE FAR FIELD RESOLVING POWER OF THE TEST EQUIPMENT CAN BE ESTI- MATED BY PLACING A NORMAL BEAM TRANSDUCER ON THE IIW BLOCK AS SHOWN. GOOD RESOLUTION WILL BE INDICATED IF THE INSTRUMENT CAN SATISFAC- TORILY SEPARATE THE PIPS FROM ALL THREE REFLECTORS. “ my Mm 6000 Bao CRT DISPLAY THE MINIATURE ANGLE BEAM BLOCK CAN ALSO BE USED TO CALIBRATE THE INSTRUMENT FOR ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION. THE MINIATURE BLOCK IS INTENDED FOR FIELD WORK AND IS NOT AS COM- PREHENSIVE AS THE LARGER IIW BLOCK. FOCAL POINT »— — = MINIATURE ANGLE BEAM BLOCK 0,060" HOLE, 105Key Name. LESSON 8 quiz The term “resolution” refers to the ability of a transducer to detect a very small discon: tinulty. Quartz Is the only transducer material commonly used that Is not a piezoelectric ma terial I the frequency of @ transducer is raised, then the beam spread Is reduced The polarized ceramic transducer Is considered 10 be a very good generator of ultra sonic energy. Quartz Is a type of polarized ceramic transducer material. A transducer that can detect a discontinuity close to the surface Is said to have a good jolving power. Larger transducers usually have @ higher frequency because they are more fragile, The higher the frequency of a transducer, the smaller the sound cone (.e. less beam spread), Immersion testing is always done with t and 5.0 MHz. Angle beam testing is usually done with longitudinal waves Angle beam probes may be used to generate surface waves A spherical focusing lens will usually have the ability to provide better sensitivity as ‘compared to a cylinderical lens. Focused transducers are often used for shear wave inspection of welded plate due to the increased penetration. A double oF dual element transducer can only be used in the longitudinal wave mode With a double element transducer, the sensitivity is increased because both elements ate receiving and sending sound energy. Acoustical lenses Increase transducer sensitivity and resolution, but decrease thelr useful range. A telerence block should be made from the same basic ma tested Blocks which provide a size reference and are used to check the system's linearity known as area amplitude blocks. The exit point of an angle beam transducer should always be determined belore the angle of the transducer is checked Both the IIW block and miniature block will check the test system insducers that have a frequency between 2.5 lal as the part being e solution. 20 possible points —Lesson IMMERSION INSPECTION A TYPICAL IMMERSION TESTING INSTALLATION USUALLY INCLUDES THE ITEMS SHOWN BELOW. SCANNER TUBE MANIPULATOR TRANSDUCER TEST SPECIMEN IN CONTACT TESTING, THE ANGLE IMPRINTED ON THE LUCITE WEDGE USED IN ANGLE BEAM TESTING OFTEN INDICATES THE ANGLE OF “REFRACTION” IN A GIVEN MATERIAL. HOWEVER, IN IMMERSION TESTING, THE ANGLE SHOWN BY THE ANGLE INDI- CATOR ON THE MANIPULATOR IS THE “ANGLE OF INCIDENCE.” IT IS NECESSARY TO APPLY SNELL’S LAW AND CALCULATE THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION IN THE TEST SPECIMEN. SIN | SIND) Vp IF THE ANGLE INDICATOR SHOWED THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION IN THE TEST SPECIMEN, IT WOULD BE NECESSARY TO CHANGE THE INDICATOR EACH TIME A DIFFERENT MATERIAL WAS INSPECTED. TEST FREQUENCIES - SINCE THE TRANSDUCER DOES NOT COME INTO CON- TACT WITH THE TEST SPECIMEN IN IMMERSION TESTING, IT IS POSSIBLE TO. USE THINNER CRYSTALS AT HIGHER ULTRASONIC FREQUENCIES. IT IS POSSIBLE TO USE FREQUENCIES AS HIGH AS 25 MHz AND THE RANGE |S. USUALLY FROM 2.25 TO 25 MHz. THE HIGHER FREQUENCIES GIVE THE BEST RESOLUTION OF SMALL DISCON- TINUITIES. 109UT Lecture Guide Lesson 9 FOR AN IMMERSION TESTING APPLICATION WHERE A SHARPER THAN NOR- MAL SOUND BEAM IS REQUIRED, A FOCUSED TRANSDUCER SHOULD BE USED. THE LENS FOCUSES THE SOUND ENERGY INTO A SMALL, WELL-DEFINED PATTERN AS SHOWN BELOW. aoe ig WATER PATH ,\ad HHHe FOCAL POINT | TEST suneace | BEAM DIAMETER Ph TEST SPECIMEN THE PROPER WATER PATH FOR A FOCUSED TRANSDUCER CAN BE DETER- MINED AS FOLLOWS: USING A TRANSDUCER WITH A FOCAL LENGTH OF 5 INCHES IN WATER TO FOCUS THE BEAM TO A POINT 0.25 INCHES BELOW THE SURFACE OF A STEEL PART, ONE WOULD DETERMINE THE WATER PATH DISTANCE BY: A. DIVIDING THE VELOCITY OF STEEL. BY THE VELOCITY OF THE WATER. 6.0 x 10° CMISEC 1.5 x 10° CM/SEC B. MULTIPLYING THE DESIRED FOCAL DEPTH BY THE ANSWER. 4X25" = 1" C. SUBTRACTING ANSWER FROM KNOWN FOCAL LENGTH IN WA- TER. 5”-1" = 4” D. THUS, THE WATER PATH DIS- TANCE MUST BE 4” TO FOCUS THE BEAM AT .25” BELOW THE SUR- FACE. FOCUSED TRANSDUCE! FOCAL POINT IN STEEL 10UT Lecture Guide Lesson 9 A SPECIAL APPLICATION OF IMMERSION TESTING IS THE “BUBBLER” OR “SQUIRTER” AS SHOWN BELOW. oe ‘TRANSDUCER TRANSDUCER CABLE ER CHAMBER WATER HOSE CONNECTION BOTH STRAIGHT AND ANGLE BEAM TECHNIQUES CAN BE USED WITH THIS PROCESS DEPENDING ON THE BUBBLER DESIGN. JP CART wows LE sourrnasonic msteument STRAIGHT BEAM ANGLE BEAM AN ADVANTAGE OF THE BUBBLER IS THAT NO IMMERSION TANK |S REQUIRED. A TECHNIQUE SIMILAR TO THE BUBBLER IS USED IN CONTACT TESTING AND. UTILIZES AN “IRRIGATED SEARCH UNIT.” THE COUPLANT (WATER) CAN BE FED TO THE TEST SURFACE THROUGH A SERIES OF HOLES IN A PLASTIC BLOCK. ”UT Lecture Guide Lesson 9 THE FOLLOWING SHOW A TYPICAL STRAIGHT BEAM IMMERSION OPERATION WITH THE CRT INDICATION THAT WOULD BE RECEIVED. BACK REFLECTION TRANSDUCER eee DISCONTINUITY FRONT SURFACE FRONT SURFACE BACK SURFACE THE WATER PATH DISTANCE FROM THE TRANSDUCER TO THE FRONT SUR- FACE OF THE TEST PART IS GENERALLY SET TO BE LONGER IN TIME THAN THE METAL PART TIME FROM THE FRONT TO REAR OF THE TEST SPECIMEN. IF THE TRANSDUCER IS TOO CLOSE TO THE FRONT SURFACE OF THE TEST PART THE SECOND FRONT REFLECTION WILL APPEAR ON THE CRT BETWEEN THE FRONT AND BACK SURFACE REFLECTIONS. THIS REFLECTION MAY AP- PEAR TO BE A DISCONTINUITY. BACK REFLECTION TRANSDUCER = FRONT SURFACE WATER WATER DISTANCE, THE VELOCITY OF SOUND IN WATER IS ABOUT 1/4 THAT OF ALUMINUM OR STEEL. ONE INCH OF WATER WILL APPEAR ON THE CRT IN THE SAME TIME SPAN ON THE SWEEP AS 4 INCHES OF STEEL. THEREFORE, A RULE OF THUMB IS — USE AT LEAST ONE INCH OF WATER PATH FOR EACH FOUR INCHES OF METAL PATH, PLUS 1/4”. 2UT Lecture Guide Lesson 9 ANGLE BEAM TESTING WITH IMMERSION TECHNIQUES IS ILLUSTRATED BELOW: INITIAL PULSE FRONT SURFACE DISCONTINUITY TEST SPECIMEN | DISCONTINUITY WITH ANGLE BEAM TESTING, ONLY A SMALL SURFACE INDICATION, IF ANY, WILL RESULT BECAUSE MOST OF THE SOUND IS REFLECTED FROM THE PART SURFACE AWAY FROM THE TRANSDUCER. REMEMBER, THAT SHEAR WAVES WILL NOT PROPAGATE IN WATER. WITH IMMERSION TESTING A C-SCAN IS COMMONLY USED TO DISPLAY THE SHAPE AND RELATIVE SIZE OF A DISCONTINUITY AS SHOWN BELOW. WHEN A DEFECT IS FOUND ON THE C-SCAN, IT IS POSSIBLE TO GO BACK AND. MANUALLY DETERMINE ITS DEPTH BELOW THE SURFACE. ‘TRANSDUCER -_—— -—-7-N MECHANICAL RECORDING 7 LINKAGE PAPER MOTION WITH TRANSDUCER MOVEMENT 113UT Lecture Guide Lesson 9 DETERMINING THE POSITION OF A DISCONTINUITY IN THE SPECIMEN WITH IM- MERSION TESTING IS SHOWN BELOW. IF THE SOUND BEAM IS STRIKING THE SURFACE AT AN ANGLE, REFRACTION OF THE SOUND HAS TO BE TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION. 5S* ANGLE OF INCIDENCE DISCONTINUITY 20" ANGLE OF REFRACTION | TEST SPECIMEN THE POINT AT WHICH THE SOUND BEAM STRIKES THE SURFACE CAN BE DETERMINED BY PLACING A STRAIGHT EDGED PIECE OF METAL “METAL SPOON” ON THE SURFACE (A 6" STEEL RULER CAN BE USED). AS SOON AS THE LEADING EDGE OF THE METAL SPOON ENTERS THE SOUND BEAM AN INDICATION WILL APPEAR ON THE CRT. THE SAME CHECK IS THEN PERFORMED FROM THE OTHER 3 SIDES, AND THIS LOCATES THE AREA IN WHICH THE SOUND ENTERS THE SPECIMEN. CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF IDENTIFYING THE LOCATION OF THE DISCON- TINUITY CAN BE USED, SUCH AS UTILIZING THE ULTRASONIC CALCULATOR OR SIMILAR TECHNIQUES. REMEMBER THAT PLATE WAVES CAN BE PRODUCED IN IMMERSION TESTING BUT SHEAR WAVES WILL NOT PROPAGATE IN WATER. ALTHOUGH SHEAR WAVES AND PLATE WAVES WILL NOT PROPAGATE IN LIQUIDS, BOTH MODES CAN BE USED IN IMMERSION TESTING BECAUSE THE SONIC ENERGY IS TRANS- MITTED THROUGH THE WATER AS LONGITUDINAL WAVES. THE LONGITUDINAL WAVES ARE MODE CONVERTED TO SHEAR OR PLATE WAVES UPON ENTERING THE SOLID PART AND THEN THE REFLECTED SHEAR OR PLATE WAVE IS MODE CONVERTED BACK TO LONGITUDINAL WAVES, WHICH THEN PROPAGATE TO THE TRANSDUCER THROUGH THE LIQUID COUPLANT. 14UT Lecture Guide Lesson 9 IMMERSION TESTING TECHNIQUES ARE COMMONLY USED FOR THE INSPEC- TION OF THIN AND THICK WALL TUBING AND PIPE AS SHOWN BELOW. BACK SURFACE FRONT SURFACE SEAM WELD. Ey % IMMERSION TECHNIQUES CAN ALSO BE USED TO INSPECT BUTT WELDS AS SHOWN BELOW. DISCONTINUITY DISCONTINUITY IN WELD u 125 MIN, view 8 FRONT SURFACE DISCONTINUITY we DISCONTINUITY, Y 115meen Key WORKSHEET #1 £5 1. what would be the correct water path distance to focus a transducer 1/2" below the sur. face of the steel part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) = 6 Inches Velocity of = 1.5 x 10" CMISEC Velocity of sound in steel 6.0 x 10* CM/SEC ¥ “ rad ot au os 7 seed ports 22" 2. For aluminum and stee! metals the basic rule in determining the water path distance is that It should be “equal to 1/4 the part thickness plus 1/4 Inch.” With this rule in mind what water path distance would you select to inspect a part that Is 6 Inches thick? 3. Indicate by letter which pips on the CRT below would actually be seen with the imme ‘sion test as shown. Do not consider amplitude. A surtace #1 —2_ Surface #2 —E_— Surface #3 —#_ Surlace #4 10” SCREEN RANGE SOME OF THE PIPS SHOWN, MAY NOT BE PRESENT, ASSUME INITIAL PULSE IS ON SCREEN o 7 Z 7 T 3 A Bic DEF GH : STEEL PART Zz +2 4. The water path distance is indicated between which two pips above? (2 pts) 10 possible points aBoon aa —- i _T Fie = + =E= - 1". Key Name. UT LESSON 9 quiz resolving power than a conventional transduc ‘The front surface reflection may be used in Immersion testing to determine if the sound beam Is perpendicular to the test pai ‘A “"metal spoon’ Is used In immersion testing to determine the maximum initial pulse amplitude Longitudinal waves can be used for imm mens. Shear waves can be used for immersion testing of cylindrically-shaped specimens. Immersion testing with shear waves produces a high amplitude front surface reflection that must be swept off the CRT. Immersion testing with surface waves Is commonly used to detect surface cracks. The angle of the manipulator on the immersion tank indicates the “angle of incidence.” The shorter the wavelength, the smaller the defect that can be found. With Immersion testing, mode conversion occurs when the sound leaves the transducer and enters the wa! The basic rule in determining the water path distance when Inspecting steel or alum!- um is that It should be equal to 4 times the part thickness plus 1/4 inch, Indicate by letter, which pip on the CRT would actually be seen with the immersion test as shown below. Do not consider amplitude. A Surlace #1 F Surface #3 —2> Surlace #2 —€— Surtace #4 ion testing of cylindrically-shaped speci- 10" SCREEN RANGE, SOME OF THE PIPS SHOWN, MAY NOT BE PRESENT. ASSUME INITIAL PULSE IS ON SCREEN 7 7 yt 5 AB} c iD E£ IF G iH | 19Lesson10 ULTRASONIC CONTACT TESTING THROUGH TRANSMISSION TESTING USUALLY USES THE PITCH-CATCH TECH- NIQUE AS SHOWN BELOW: ‘TRANSMITTER RECEIVER rN RELATIVE AMPLITUDE WHEN USING THROUGH TRANSMISSION, THE CRT INDICATION DECREASES WHEN MORE SOUND ENERGY IS INTERCEPTED BY A DISCONTINUITY. TOTAL REFLECTION OF SOUND ENERGY AT AN INTERNAL REFLECTOR WILL RESULT IN NO ENERGY BEING RECEIVED BY THE RECEIVING TRANSDUCER. THROUGH TRANSMISSION HAS CERTAIN ADVANTAGES: 1. BETTER NEAR SURFACE DETECTION - DEFECTS THAT ARE ONLY A FEW THOUSANDTHS OF AN INCH BELOW THE SURFACE CAN BE DETECTED EF- FECTIVELY. 2. CAPABILITY OF TESTING THICKER TEST SPECIMENS (LESS ATTENUATION) HOWEVER, A THROUGH TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUE CANNOT “SEE” THE DIS- CONTINUITY. IT ONLY SHOWS A LOSS OF SOUND ENERGY. IF THE TRANSMITTED PULSE AND RECEIVED PULSE ARE OF THE SAME RELA- TIVE HEIGHT ON THE CRT, IT CAN BE ASSUMED THE SPECIMEN IS SOUND AND THERE IS NO SIGNIFICANT ATTENUATION IN THE MATERIAL.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 10 IN CONTACT TESTING, IT IS POSSIBLE TO USE SOUND BEAMS THAT: 1, ARE PERPENDICULAR TO THE TEST SURFACE. 2. PROPAGATE INTO THE SPECIMEN AT AN ANGLE. 3. PROPAGATE ALONG THE SURFACE OF THE SPECIMEN. 4, PROPAGATE THROUGH THE MATERIAL FROM ONE SIDE TO THE OTHER. THE DETERMINATION OF THE PROPER EQUIPMENT TO USE DEPENDS ON SEVERAL FACTORS INCLUDING: 1. NATURE, SIZE AND ORIENTATION OF DISCONTINUITIES. 2. SURFACE CONDITION AND SHAPE OF THE TEST SPECIMEN. 3. INTERNAL STRUCTURE (COARSE GRAINED OR FINE GRAINED). IT IS USUALLY DESIRABLE TO TEST AT THE LOWEST FREQUENCY THAT WILL LOCATE SPECIFIED MINIMUM-SIZE DISCONTINUITIES. LISTED BELOW ARE FREQUENCY RANGES AND TEST APPLICATIONS THAT ARE COMMONLY USED. FREQUENCY RANGE TEST APPLICATIONS ‘200 KHe-1 MHZ ‘CASTINGS: GRAY IRON, NODULAR IRON, AND RELATIVELY COARSE- GRAINED MATERIALS, SUCH AS COPPER AND STAINLESS STEELS, 400 KH2-S MHZ CASTINGS: STEEL, ALUMINUM, BRASS, AND OTHER MATERIALS WITH REFINED GRAIN SIZE. 200 KH22.25MHz | PLASTICS AND PLASTIC-LIKE MATERIALS, SUCH AS SOLID ROCKET PROPELLANTS AND POWDER GRAINS 1-5 MHz ROLLED PRODUCTS: METALLIC SHEET, PLATE, BARS, AND BILLETS | 2.25-10 MHz ORAWN AND EXTRUDED PRODUCTS: BARS, TUBES, AND SHAPES 1-10 MHz FORGINGS | 225-10 MHz GLASS AND CERAMICS. 1-2.25 MHz WELDS 1-10 MHz MAINTENANCE INSPECTION, ESPECIALLY FATIGUE CRACKS,UT Lecture Guide Lesson 10, A LOW TEST FREQUENCY IS REQUIRED TO TEST A SPECIMEN THAT HAS A COARSE GRAINED INTERNAL STRUCTURE, SUCH AS A CASTING. A SURFACE THAT IS ROUGH OR PITTED WITH CORROSION WILL ALSO RE- QUIRE LOW FREQUENCIES TO GIVE PROPER SENSITIVITY. SOMETIMES IT IS POSSIBLE TO SAND OR GRIND THE SURFACE OF THE SPECI- MEN TO OBTAIN BETTER TRANSDUCER CONTACT. A HIGH TEST FREQUENCY IS OFTEN USED FOR FINE GRAINED MATERIALS BE- CAUSE THE LOWER FREQUENCY WILL NOT DETECT THE DESIRED DISCON- TINUITY. AT HIGHER FREQUENCIES, THE WAVELENGTH IS SHORT IN RELATION TO THE GRAIN SIZE. CONSIDERATIONS: 1. A HIGHER FREQUENCY WILL PROVIDE THE GREATEST SENSITIVITY FOR DETECTING SMALL DEFECTS. 2. ALOWER FREQUENCY WILL GIVE GREATER POWER TO PENETRATE MORE DEEPLY. 3. A LARGER DIAMETER TRANSDUCER MAY BE REQUIRED WHEN TESTING THICKER MATERIALS. 4. AT ANY FREQUENCY, THE LARGER THE CRYSTAL, THE STRAIGHTER THE BEAM. 5. FOR A TRANSDUCER OF A GIVEN DIAMETER, THERE IS LESS BEAM SPREAD AT HIGHER FREQUENCIES. IF YOU WERE INSPECTING A LONG BAR THROUGH ITS LENGTH (8 FT), WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING WOULD YOU SELECT? 1/2” - 5 MHz, OR 1/2” - 2.25 MHz, OR 1” - 2.25 MHz, OR 1” - 5 MHz THE 1” - 2.25 MHZ WOULD BE THE BEST CHOICE. 123UT Lecture Guide Lesson 10 BEFORE MAKING AN ULTRASONIC TEST, BE SURE THE INSTRUMENT IS OPER- ATING PROPERLY, CHECK THE INSTRUMENT ON A STANDARD IN ACCORD- ANCE WITH THE OPERATING MANUAL. BEFORE CONDUCTING A TEST, YOU SHOULD HAVE A CLEAR IDEA OF THE KIND, ORIENTATION, AND QUANTITY OF DISCONTINUITIES YOU ARE TRYING TO DETECT. IF THE REAR SURFACE OF THE SPECIMEN LIES AT AN ANGLE AS SHOWN BELOW, WHAT WILL BE THE EFFECT ON A NORMAL A-SCAN DISPLAY? ‘TRANSDUCER INCIDENT BEAM REFLECTED BEAM TEST SPECIMEN ALTHOUGH A DISCONTINUITY MAY BE DETECTED, THERE WILL NOT BE A BACK SURFACE REFLECTION IN THE SITUATION ABOVE. SELECTION OF THE PROPER TRANSDUCER |S VERY IMPORTANT IN OBTAINING A GOOD ULTRASONIC TEST. AS SHOWN BELOW, A TRANSDUCER WITH A PLASTIC WEDGE MAY BE NECESSARY TO LOOK INTO A SPECIMEN AT AN ANGLE. ‘TRANSDUCER A FRONT REFLECTION PLASTIC 36% (APPROX) REFLECTION WEDGE STEEL SPECIMEN, 124UT Lecture Guide Lesson 10 THE PULSE LENGTH USED WILL AFFECT THE ABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT TO. LOCATE DISCONTINUITIES NEAR THE SURFACE AS SHOWN BELOW. A LONGER PULSE MAY BLOCK THE RECEIVER DURING THE PERIOD OF TRANSMISSION AND OBSCURE REFLECTIONS FROM THE DISCONTINUITY. THE TRANSDUCER MAY CONTINUE VIBRATING BEYOND THE TIME THE DIS- CONTINUITY ENERGY IS RECEIVED. HIGH PULSE LENGTH LONG PULSE DISCONTINUITY CIMEN DISCONTINUITY SHORT PULSE IN ANGLE BEAM CONTACT TESTING, THE TRANSDUCER IS PLACED BEHIND A WEDGE, USUALLY LUCITE, SO THAT THE SOUND WILL BE INTRODUCED INTO THE PART AT AN ANGLE. AS SHOWN BELOW, THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE OF THE SOUND BEAM AT THE SURFACE IS DETERMINED BY THE FIXED ANGLE OF THE WEDGE. ANGLE OF menence—— \ a DS ANGLE OF WEDGE BLOCK we ‘TEST SPECIMEN ‘SOUND ANGLE IN SPECIMEN (REFRACTED ANGLE) 125UT Lecture Guide Lesson 10 AS DISCUSSED PREVIOUSLY, THE SOUND BEAM ANGLE IN A TEST PART IS DETERMINED BY THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE VELOCITY OF SOUND IN THE TEST SPECIMEN AND THE VELOCITY OF SOUND IN THE WEDGE. THIS RELATIONSHIP IS KNOWN AS “SNELL’S LAW.” AS SHOWN BELOW, WHEN THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE INCREASES, REFRAC- TION OF THE LONGITUDINAL WAVE INCREASES UNTIL THERE COMES A POINT WHERE TOTAL REFLECTION OF THIS WAVE OCCURS, AND ALL THAT IS LEFT IS A SHEAR WAVE. THIS POINT IS CALLED THE 1ST CRITICAL ANGLE OF INCIDENCE. MEDIUM 1 MEDIUM 2 TO PRODUCE A SOUND BEAM AT A GIVEN ANGLE, IT IS NECESSARY TO KNOW ONLY THE FOLLOWING THREE FACTORS TO DETERMINE THE PROPER WEDGE ANGLE: 1, THE ANGLE DESIRED IN THE TEST SPECIMEN. 2. THE LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY IN THE WEDGE. 3. THE VELOCITY IN THE TEST MATERIAL. (SHEAR OR LONGITUDINAL, DE- PENDING ON THE SOUND BEAM DESIRED) IN ANGLE BEAM TESTING, THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION BECOMES LESS AS THE VELOCITIES OF SOUND IN THE WEDGE AND TEST SPECIMEN BECOME MORE NEARLY EQUAL.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 10, ONLY LONGITUDINAL WAVES WILL BE PRODUCED IN THE WEDGE, BUT IT IS POSSIBLE TO HAVE EITHER LONGITUDINAL OR SHEAR WAVES IN THE TEST PART. BOTH MODES MAY BE PRESENT AT THE SAME TIME DEPENDING ON THE ANGLE OF THE WEDGE. ‘THE FOLLOWING CHARTS SHOW THE RELATIVE ANGLE AND AMPLITUDE FOR BOTH LONGITUDINAL AND SHEAR WAVES IN STEEL FOR GIVEN WEDGE ANGLES IN LUCITE. WHEN CHOOSING A WEDGE, IT IS DESIRABLE TO AVOID ANGLES THAT PRO- DUCE BOTH LONGITUDINAL AND SHEAR WAVES AT THE SAME TIME AND AT ‘SIMILAR INTENSITIES. THE PRESENCE OF BOTH WAVES MAKES IT DIFFICULT TO INTERPRET THE (CRT SCREEN WHICH DISPLAYS BOTH REFLECTIONS. TONGTTUSINAT] [SURFACE RELATIVE AMPLITUDE OS 101520253035 4045505560 65 707580 ANGLE ‘OF SOUND $0 conerTuona wo8e 7} —onEar mb were 23 tenes) “9 2 Fe % 015-20 «-25—~«30 0 45° «50-55: 60 65 70~=«75—«BO ANGLE OF TRANSDUCER WEDGE BLOCK DEGREES) m LUCE EXAMPLE: 1. ASSUME THAT YOU HAVE A LUCITE WEDGE WITH AN ANGLE OF 50 DEGREES, REFERRING TO THE CHART ABOVE, WHAT ANGLE SHEAR WAVES WILL BE PRODUCED IN THE TEST SPECIMEN? 2. WHAT PROBLEM WOULD BE ENCOUNTERED USING A 50 DEGREE LONGI- TUDINAL WAVE? (#1 = ABOUT 65 DEGREES) (#2 = SHEAR WAVE ALSO EXISTS)UT Lecture Guide Lesson 10 IN ANGLE BEAM TESTING, WHEN THE WEDGE ANGLE IS INCREASED TO THE POINT THAT THE SHEAR WAVE IS EQUAL TO 90 DEGREES, WE HAVE WHAT IS KNOWN AS THE 2ND CRITICAL ANGLE. HOWEVER, SOUND ENERGY STILL EXISTS PARALLEL TO THE INTERFACE AND IS KNOWN AS “SURFACE WAVES” OR “RAYLEIGH WAVES” AS DIS- CUSSED PREVIOUSLY. MEDIUM 1 MEDIUM? AS SHOWN ON THE CHART ON THE PREVIOUS PAGE, A WEDGE ANGLE OF 63 DEGREES WILL PRODUCE SURFACE WAVES OF THE GREATEST AMPLITUDE IN STEEL. AS SHOWN BELOW, THE SURFACE WAVE PENETRATES ONLY ONE WAVE. LENGTH BELOW THE SURFACE AND HAS THE ABILITY TO FOLLOW THE PART CONTOUR. ANY SHARP ANGLE ON THE SURFACE WILL CAUSE A REFLECTION. est ‘SPECIMEN 128So UT LESSON 10 WORKSHEET #1 Using the Information given below, calculate the “Snell's Law” problems for each of the follow: ing sino, Vy TRANSDUCER SRELUS LAW: Sygh = Gh 2 2 INCIDENT soimeenail Puastic WEDGE velocity in steel = 5.85 x 10° cmis F velocity In steel = 3.23 x 10" Long. velocity in lucite = 2.68 x 10" cm/sec Shear velocity in lucite = 1.26 x 10* cmisec REFRACTED 7 duos - sree —#— 1. Find the refracted shear wave If the incident angle is 33 degrees. (3 pts -SHOW WORK) £6" 2, \youwanted to produce a shear wave in steel at 60 degrees, what would be the incident ~ angle in lucite? (3 pts - SHOW WORK) @ pts - SHOW WORK) GM __ sen Fo" DEP ese % Fs 34" 4, Find the reflected longitudinal wave If the incident angle Is 36 degrees. (3 pts - SHOW WORK) Reflected fay tudiael energy os epee! te angle oF incidence 1 ible pol 12 possible points -A. Using Sne Key Name. UT LESSON 10 WORKSHEET #2 Law, develop a chart for ALUMINUM that is similar to the one below that was designed for steel. B. Superimpose the lines of the aluminum longitudinal and shear waves over the existing lines to ‘show a comparison. ANGLE 60} Aeomyaem Acumywum 20| 70 OF SOUND $o[ LONGITUDINAL wy [SHEAR MODs STEEL 49] (ECREES) 59) 20} 10] oes io 15 20 25 «30 40 ANGLE OF TRANSDUCER WEDGE BLOCK (DEGREES? W LUCITE 45303560 5 707580 Longitudinal Velocity in Aluminum = 6.35 x 10° cmisec Shear Velocity In Aluminum = 3.10 x 10" cm/sec Longitudinal Velocity in Lucite = 2.68 x 10* cmisec C. From the newly formed lines on the graph, answer the following questions pertaining to the sound in the 822 Ke 5. Would it be practical to use a wedge angle of 20 degr 6. Would It be practical to use a wedge angle of 60 degr luminum. (2 pts ch) 1. With a transducer angle of 15 degrees, what is the longitudinal sound path in alumi- num? With a transducer wedge angle of 24 degrees, what is the longitudinal sound path in aluminum? 3. What transducer wedge angle would you use if you wanted a 30 degree shear wave angle in aluminum? 4. What transducer wedge angle would you use if you wanted a 80 degree shear wave angle in aluminum? sto inspect aluminum? Why or Why NOt? Bord Lagitedina! & shear waves exist af phe same hime to Inspect aluminum? Why or Why NOI? Pribably at because of The smereased abs cance from prrbe th area being innpested und essent ily Surface waves produced 12 possible points todsin 0175 0349 0523 0898 0872 1045 1219 21392 1564 “1736 -1908 2079 2250 2419 "2588 2756 2924 3256 3420 3584 3746 3907 -4067 4226 4384 14540 4695 4848 5150 5299 5446 $592 5736 5878 6018 6157 6293 6428 6561 6691 6820 8947 7071 Cos 9998 9986 9976 9962 9945 9925 9903 9877 9848 9816 9781 9744 9703 9659 9613 9563 9511 9455 9397 9336 9272 9205 9135 9063 8988 8910 8829 8746 8660 8572 8480 8387 8192 7986 7880 7771 7547 7431 7314 7193 7071 UT LESSON 10 WORKSHEET #1 Tan 0175 0349 0524 0699 0875 1081 1228 1405 1584 1763 1944 2126 2309 2493 2679 2867 -3057 3249 3443 3640 3839 4040 4245 4452 A663 4877 5095 5317 5543 ‘S774 8009 6249 6494 8745 7002 7265 7536 7813 8098 8391 8693 9004 9325 9657 1.0000 Angle Sin 131 Cos 6947 6691 8561 6428 6293 6157 6018 5878 5736 5592 5446 5299 5150 4848 4695 4540 4384 4226 4067 3907 3746 3584 3420 9256 -3090 2924 2157 2419 2250 2079 1908 1736 1564 1392 1219 1045 0872 0698 0523 0349 0175 Tan 1.0355 1.0724 1.1108 1.1508 1.1918 1.2349 1.2799 1.3270 1.3764 1.4281 1.4826 1.5999 1.6013 1.6643 1.7321 1.8040 1.8807 1.9626 2.0503 2.1445 2.2460 2.3559 2.4751 2.6051 2.7475 2.9042 3.0777 3.2709 3.4874 3.7321 4.0108 4.3315 4.7046 5.1446 5.6713 6.3138 7.1154 8.1443 9.5144 11.4301 14.3007 19.0811, 28.6363 57.29002 5 © @ x oese bb Pe bb fe BH fo fe bE 14 possible points Key Nam UT LESSON 10 quiz Through transmission is often used because of its ability to indicate the depth of the discontinulty below the surtace. Contact testing is often used in production line testing because it permits easy auto: matic scanning and recording Contact testing can be used to generate both surface waves and longitudinal waves. ‘At @ point slightly above the second critical angle, a “Rayleigh” wave Is produced. A low frequency is typically used to inspect a part that has a coarse grain structure. The first critical angle occurs when the shear wave is refracted at an angle parallel to the test part surtace, When doing a typical angle beam test (e.9. 70 degrees), both longitudinal and shear waves exist in the part. Pulse-echo and through transmission techniques can both use the same type of trans: ducer. A 1 megahertz transducer would probably result in a grea megahertz transducer. A major advantage of the through transmission technique Is that no couplant is re- quired. To find small discontinuities, it is usually advisable to use as high a frequency trans- ducer as possible A short pulse length will result in less penetrating power into the test part. The critical angle for longitudinal waves is the point at which: a. the reflected angle is zero degrees b. the refracted angle of the longitudinal wave mode is parallel to the surtace. €. the longitudinal wave mode is totally reflected. 4. both longitudinal and shear waves are transmitted into the specimen A large discontinuity found with the through transmission technique will cause the CRT display to: a. increase in amplitude at a point equal to the depth of the detect b. show a pip equal to the relative size of the discontinuity. ©. show a decrease in reflected energy from the back surface of the part. se in energy at the receiving transducer. attenuation loss than a5 135,Lesson1l APPLICATIONS OF CONTACT TESTING THE LOWER RANGE OF FREQUENCIES ARE GENERALLY USED TO TEST CASTINGS SINCE CASTINGS USUALLY HAVE A RATHER COARSE GRAIN STRUC- TURE. MANY OF THE VERY COARSE GRAINED CASTINGS CANNOT BE TESTED WITH ULTRASONICS. MOST FORGINGS ARE GOOD OBJECTS FOR ULTRASONIC TESTING. COMMON DISCONTINUITIES FOUND IN FORGINGS ARE SHOWN BELOW. qe WWITIAL PULSE BACK REFLECTION pm DISCONTINUITY <.- - ie NONMETALLIC SEAM ‘CRACK FLAKING. INCLUSION DISCONTINUITIES IN A FORGING ARE MOST LIKELY TO BE DETECTED IF THE IN- SPECTION IS MADE AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE DIRECTION THAT THE MATERIAL, WAS WORKED. WORKING WILL ORIENT DISCONTINUITIES IN THE SAME DIREC- TION AS THE GRAIN OF THE METAL IS ORIENTED. ROLLED SHEET AND PLATE MATERIALS MAY BE TESTED WITH EITHER A STRAIGHT BEAM OR ANGLE BEAM, DEPENDING ON THE SPECIFICATION RE- QUIREMENTS. STRAIGHT BEAM TESTING HAS THE ADVANTAGE OF BEING ABLE TO EASILY LOCATE LAMINATIONS. HOWEVER, STRAIGHT BEAM TESTING IS TIME CONSUMING AND MAY NOT “SEE” DISCONTINUITIES CLOSE TO THE SURFACE, UNLESS SPECIAL TECH- NIQUES ARE USED.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 11 THE ADVANTAGE OF ANGLE BEAM TESTING IS THAT IT IS A VERY FAST METHOD OF INSPECTING PLATE MATERIALS. MOST TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES FOUND IN PLATE THAT ARE PERPENDICU- LAR TO THE SCAN SURFACE WILL BE FOUND WITH ANGLE BEAM TESTING. HOWEVER, SMOOTH LAMINATIONS PARALLEL TO THE SURFACE WILL PROB- ABLY NOT BE DETECTED BY ANGLE BEAM TESTING. BEFORE PERFORMING AN ANGLE BEAM TEST, THE PLATE SHOULD BE SCANNED WITH A STRAIGHT BEAM TRANSDUCER TO FIND ANY GROSS DE- FECTS OR LAMINATIONS. WHEN AN ANGLE TEST IS PERFORMED ON PLATE, IT IS COMMON TO ESTABLISH A “REFERENCE” SO THAT THE AMPLITUDE OF A DISCONTINUITY CAN BE COMPARED TO A KNOWN SIZE REFLECTOR. THE FOLLOWING PRO- CEDURE EXPLAINS ONE WAY THIS CAN BE DONE: 1. 2. SET UP A “REFERENCE NOTCH” WHICH IS EITHER 3% OF THE PART THICKNESS OR 0.005” DEEP. PLACE THE TRANSDUCER SO THAT A SIGNAL FROM THE NOTCH IS OB- TAINED ON THE FIRST LEG AND ADJUST GAIN SO THAT THE SIGNAL IS 100% SCREEN HEIGHT. MOVE THE TRANSDUCER BACK SO THAT A SIGNAL FROM THE NOTCH IS OBTAINED ON THE SECOND ‘EG AND MARK THE SIGNAL HEIGHT ON THE CRT WITH A GREASE PENCIL. REPEAT THIS STEP AT LONGER SPECIFIC DISTANCES. }. WHEN A DISCONTINUITY IS FOUND, MOVE THE TRANSDUCER TO ONE OF THE KNOWN DISTANCES AND COMPARE AMPLITUDE OF DISCONTINUITY WITH NOTCH. . THE PLATE SHOULD THEN BE SCANNED ALONG EACH OF THE PLATES FOUR EDGES. DISCONTINUITIES MISSED IN ONE SCAN, SHOULD BE PICKED UP IN ANOTHER DIRECTION. 138UT Lecture Guide Lesson 1! CONTACT TESTING OF WELDMENTS CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED BY EITHER STRAIGHT BEAM OR ANGLE BEAM TECHNIQUES, BASED ON THE TYPE OF DE- FECT TO BE DETECTED. STRAIGHT BEAM TESTING REQUIRES THAT THE SURFACE OF THE WELD BE GROUND SMOOTH AS SHOWN BELOW. HOWEVER, LACK OF FUSION, CRACKS, INSUFFICIENT PENETRATION ARE NOT EASILY DETECTED WITH STRAIGHT BEAM TECHNIQUES. view 8 view a ANGLE BEAM TESTING OF WELDMENTS IS DONE AS SHOWN IN VIEW “B” ABOVE. TO SCAN THE WELDED SEAM, IT IS NECESSARY TO MOVE THE TRANSDUCER FORWARD AND BACKWARD AS SHOWN BELOW. AT 1/2 SKIP DISTANCE, THE BEAM STRIKES THE BOTTOM OF THE PLATE AND AT 1 SKIP DISTANCE, THE BEAM WILL STRIKE THE TOP OF THE PLATE AS SHOWN. SKIP DISTANCE |S DETERMINED BY THE ANGLE OF THE SOUND ENTERING THE WELDMENT, WHICH IS DETERMINED BY THE LUCITE WEDGE ANGLE. ONCE THE SKIP DISTANCE IS KNOWN, A CHALK MARK CAN BE MADE ON THE PART TO SHOW WHERE THE TRANSDUCER MUST BE MOVED FOR COMPLETE COVERAGE OF THE WELD ZONE. 139UT Lecture Guide Lesson 1 BEAM ANGLE SELECTION IS DETERMINED BY: 1. CODE OR PROCEDURE REQUIREMENTS 2. WELD JOINT DESIGN 3. SPECIMEN CONFIGURATION THE FOLLOWING TABLE SHOWS EXAMPLES OF FAVORABLE BEAM ANGLES FOR TESTING WELDS IN MATERIALS OF VARYING THICKNESS. AS SHEET THICKNESS INCREASES, BEAM ANGLE SHOULD BE DECREASED. WELD BEAD GROUND OW BOTH SIDES SHEET THICKNESS | BEAM ANGLE | SKIP DISTANCE (INCHES) (DEGREES) (INCHES) 02-06 80 22-66 016-12 70 32-66 12-24 60 42-84 OVER 2.4 45 478 AND UP EXAMPLE: THE SURFACE DISTANCE TO A POINT DIRECTLY ABOVE THE DISCONTINUITY CAN BE CALCULATED ACCORDING TO THE FORMULA: D=S-x (SIN 8) “D" = SURFACE DISTANCE DISCONTINUITY. = SOUND PATH DISTANCE = REFRACTED SOUND BEAM ANGLE EXAMPLE: WITH A PROPERLY CALIBRATED 70 DEGREE PROBE, WHAT IS THE DISTANCE “D" FROM THE EXIT POINT OF THE PROBE TO THE DISCONTINUITY? DISTANCE “S" SHOWS ON THE CRT AT 4.6” (DO NOT CONSIDER THE SOUND TRAVEL IN THE LUCITE WEDGE). SX SIN @= .939 MULTIPLYED BY SOUND PATH OF 4.6” EQUALS A SURFACE DIS- TANCE “D" OF 4.332 INCHES 140UT Lecture Guide Lesson 11 IT IS USUALLY NECESSARY TO KNOW THE “SKIP DISTANCE” OF THE SOUND BEAM IN A PART WITH ANY GIVEN ANGLE TRANSDUCER. SKIP DISTANCE CAN BE FOUND BY USING THE FOLLOWING FORMULA: P = 2x TANOxT P = SKIP DISTANCE TAN = ANGLE OF SOUND IN PART T = PLATE THICKNESS {|__ ser parce, ———_| EXAMPLE: WHAT IS THE SKIP DISTANCE ON A 3/8 INCH PLATE WITH A 70 DEGREE TRANSDUCER? 2 (TANG) xT 2 x (2.75) x .375" = 55x 375" 2.06 INCHES Pp Pp P Pp 141UT Lecture Guide Lesson 11 CALIBRATION PROCEDURE FOR THE IIW BLOCK USING ANGLE BEAM TRANS- DUCERS. 1 A5 MHZ STRAIGHT BEAM TRANSDUCER CAN BE USED TO CALIBRATE THE INSTRUMENT FOR ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION AS SHOWN BELOW IN VIEW “An, CHANGE TO THE PROPER ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER AS SHOWN IN VIEW “B" BELOW AND ADJUST ONLY SWEEP DELAY TO THE 4” MARK. THIS PROCEDURE ELIMINATES ERRORS IN CALCULATIONS DUE TO SOUND TRAVEL IN THE ANGLE BEAM WEDGE BECAUSE THE TRAVEL TIME IN THE WEDGE IS DELAYED OFF THE CRT. vIEW "A" eal (oe) ra 4 A Notch a 0.060-INCH HOLE { Lt 4 TIT TTTTT TT ATT ‘ 6 8 wb oe ANOTHER METHOD OF CALIBRATING THE UT INSTRUMENT FOR ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION INVOLVES USING MULTIPLE ECHOES FROM THE CURVED SUR- FACE OF THE IWW BLOCK. 1 AS SHOWN IN VIEW “B" ABOVE, PLACE THE TRANSDUCER ON THE BLOCK AND ADJUST THE INSTRUMENT TO GET A PIP ON THE CRT AT EXACTLY 4 AND 8 INCHES. MANY lIW BLOCKS HAVE A NOTCH THAT WILL REFLECT THE SOUND IN MULTIPLES OF 4 INCHES. . THE INSTRUMENT IS THEN ADJUSTED TO SUCH A SENSITIVITY LEVEL THAT REFLECTIONS FROM THE .060 INCH HOLE CAN BE RECOGNIZED ON THE CRT. 142UT Lecture Guide Lesson 11 THE ILLUSTRATION BELOW INDICATES WHAT WILL HAPPEN TO A SOUND BEAM THAT STRIKES THE SURFACE AT AN ANGLE OTHER THAN PERPENDICULAR. ‘SOUND BEAM sa CURVED PLASTIC "SHOE" i ‘TuaING SOUND BEAM LONGITUDINAL WAVE SHEAR WAVE SOUND PROPAGATES AROUND THE WALL IN ZIGZAG PATTERN AS EITHER LONGITUDINAL OR SHEAR WAVES. BECAUSE OF THE INTERFERENCE BY SHEAR WAVES WHEN LONGITUDINAL WAVES ARE USED, MOST TESTING OF TUBULAR SHAPES IS DONE WITH SHEAR WAVES. WHEN USING SHEAR WAVES, IF THE RATIO OF THICKNESS (d) TO DIAMETER (D) IS OVER .2 OR 20%, YOU CANNOT TEST FOR INSIDE DIAMETER DEFECTS WITH A NORMAL 45°, 60°, OR 70° SHEAR WAVE BECAUSE THE SOUND WILL NOT TOUCH THE INNER WALL, AS SHOWN BELOW. 143UT Lecture Guide Lesson TI AS SHOWN BELOW, SHEAR WAVES BOUNCE OFF THE OUTER AND INNER SUR- FACES OF THE PIPE WALL AS THEY TRAVEL AROUND THE CIRCUMFERENCE. THE SOUND WAVES WILL TRAVEL AROUND THE PIPE UNTIL COMPLETELY AT- TENUATED. NOTCH Flaw "B" THE PIP ON THE CRT SCREEN ABOVE REPRESENTS 360 DEGREES OF SOUND TRAVEL AND IS OFTEN CALLED THE REVOLUTION INDICATION. HOWEVER, FOR MEASUREMENT PURPOSES THIS PIP IS REFERRED TO AS BE- ING 180 DEGREES EVEN THOUGH THE DISTANCE COVERED TO THE NOTCH AND BACK REPRESENTS ONE COMPLETE REVOLUTION. ASSUME THAT A PRACTICAL SITUATION EXISTS AND THAT A SHEAR WAVE IS BEING TRANSMITTED INTO A PIPE IN A CLOCKWISE DIRECTION AS SHOWN ABOVE. IF DISCONTINUITIES EXIST AT POINTS “A” AND “B", SIGNALS CAUSED BY THIS SHOULD APPEAR ON THE CRT SCREEN AT POINTS 6.2 AND 7.5 ‘SPECIAL TRANSDUCERS HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED WITH CURVED WEAR PLATES DESIGNED FOR SPECIFIC DIAMETER PIPES. SOME OF THESE PROBES ARE DE- SIGNED WITH TWO TRANSDUCERS IN ONE CASE, ONE SCANNING CLOCKWISE AND THE OTHER COUNTER-CLOCKWISE.Key Name. UT LESSON 11 WORKSHEET #1 ‘A. Solve the following "Skip Distance” and “Surface Distance” problems based on the information given in this 3" 4. whatis it point of a 60* transducer to the point directly above the discontinulty If the sound path on the CRT acreen shows 4 1/2 Inches? (3 pts) MAKE A SKETCH AND SHOW WORK oS Z D= sGw¢) 3 PNG A Hee B= 3.717 s £27 2, Whatis the “P” skip distance using 60° transducer on 1 1/2 Inch thick material? (3 pts) MAKE A SKETCH AND SHOW WORK 2X Tany Fx 2 (1.732) (us) P Y P 3. On the CRT screen below, indicate where discontinuities A, B and C would appear on a Properly calibrated instrument with a full screen range of 360°. (3 pts) Ae JOG Dienvens gi rr ow Be PE Mites 7. C2 1H Dertens oan oa 220" ge 140° 9 possible pointsAngle 10° Ww 12° 13° 14° 15° 16° 7 18° 19° 20° ait 22° 23° 24° 25° 28° 29° 30° ait 32° 33° ae 35° 36° 37° 38° 39° 40° ant 42" 43° age 45° Sin 0175 0349 10523 0698 0872 1045 1219 11392 1564 1736 1908 2079 2250 2419 2588 2756 2924 -3090 3256 3420 9584 3746 3907 -4067 A226 4384 4540 4695 4848 ‘5000 5150 5299 5466 5592 5736 5878 6018 6157 6293 6428 6561 6691 6820 6947 7071 Cos 9998 9986 9976 9962 9945 19925 9903 9877 9848 9816 9781 9744 9703 9659 9813 9563 9511 9455 9397 9336 9272 8205 9135 9063 8988 8910 (8828 8746 e572 -B480 8387 8290 8192 8090 -7986 -7880 7771 7660 7547 7431 7314 7193 7071 UT LESSON 1 WORKSHEET #1 Tan 0175 0349 0524 0899 0875 1051 1228 1405 1584 1763 1944 2126 2309 2493 2679 2867 3057 3249 3443 3640 3839 4040 A245 4a52 4663 4877 5095 5317 5543 ‘5774 6009 6249 6494 6745 7002 7265 7536 7813 8098 8391 8693 9004 9325 9857 1.0000 145 Angle 46° a7 48° 49° aoe sit 52° 53° 54° 55° 56° 76° 79° 80° ar 82° 83° 84 5° e6¢ 87° 88° ao° 90° Sin 7193 17314 7431 7547 7660 7771 -7880 8090 8192 8290 8387 8480 8572 8660 8746 8829 8910 8988 9063 9135 9205 9272 9336 9397 9455 9511 9563 9613 9859 9703 9744 9781 9816 9848 9877 9903 9925 9945 19962 9976 9986 9994 9998 1.0000 Cos 6947 6820 6691 6561 6428 6293 8157 6018 5878 5736 5592 5446 5299 5150 4848 4695 4540 4384 4226 4087 3807 3746 3584 3420 3256 3090 2924 2757 2419 2250 2079 1908 1736 1564 1392 1219 1045 0872 0698 0523 0349 0175 .0000 Tan 1.0355 1.0724 1.1108 1.1504 1.1918 1.2349 1.2799 1.3270 1.3764 1.4281 1.4828 1.5399 1.6013 1.6643 1.7321 1.8040 1.8807 1.9626 2.0503 2.1445 2.2460 2.9559 2.4751 2.8051 2.7475 2.9042 3.0777 3.2709 9.4874 3.7321 4.0108 4.3315 4.7046 5.1486 5.6713 6.3138 7.1154 8.1443 95144 11.4301 14.3007 19.0811 28.6363 57.2900be ee be He He 10. "1 ey Name. UT LESSON 11 quiz Most forgings cannot be ultrasonically inspected because of thelr large grain structure, Before performing an angle beam test on plate materials, It is advisable to first inspect the plate with straight beam transducers. By scanning only from the four edges, a plate can be Inspected 100% utilizing an angle beam transducer. ‘Skip Distance" Is the distance at an angle from the top of the plate to the bottom. Contact testing a weldment with a straight beam transducer usually requires that the weld surface be smooth. the thickness of a plate gets thicker, It Is best to use a larger angie When scanning a weldment with an angle beam technique, the transducer must be moved back at least 2 skip distances for complete coverage of the weld zone, As a general rule, If the pipe thickness to diameter ratio exceed 20%, an accurate test cannot be performed as the Sound will not travel to the inner wal When using shear waves to Inspect pipe, a notch at 180" in a sample pipe can be used for Instrument calibration. Calibration of a UT instrument with an angle beam transducer requires at least two re: flections from the curved surface of the lIW block if the instrument were ‘On the CRT screen below indicate where the pips would app calibrated to a full screen range of 10 inches ‘The notch cut into the IW block shown is curved and is 1 inch from the exit point of the transducer. B pts) 13 possible points 149Lesson 12 NONRELEVANT ULTRASONIC INDICATIONS NONRELEVANT INDICATIONS CAN USUALLY BE IDENTIFIED AS ONE OF THE FOLLOWING: ELECTRICAL INTERFERENCE INTERFERENCE FROM THE TRANSDUCER (SEARCH UNIT) INTERFERENCE FROM THE SURFACE OF THE SPECIMEN INTERFERENCE CAUSED BY MODE CONVERSION OF THE SOUND BEAM INTERFERENCE CAUSED BY THE SHAPE OF THE SPECIMEN INTERFERENCE CAUSED BY MATERIAL STRUCTURE ELECTRICAL INTERFERENCE CAN BE CAUSED BY IMPROPER ELECTRICAL CON- NECTIONS, ELECTRICAL NOISE OR FAULTY EQUIPMENT. SEARCH UNIT INTERFERENCE IS COMMON AND IS OFTEN CAUSED BY THE RE- FLECTION OF SOUND ENERGY FROM THE INTERFACE BETWEEN THE WEDGE AND TEST SPECIMEN SURFACE. PAPROns INITIAL PULSE KA REFLECTION IN IMMERSION TESTING, AIR BUBBLES EITHER ON THE TRANSDUCER OR SPECIMEN CAN CAUSE REDUCED SIGNAL AMPLITUDE FROM THE BACK SUR- FACE AND AT TIMES ALSO FROM THE FRONT SURFACE. 181UT Lecture Guide Lesson 12 SURFACE INTERFERENCE A SMALL AMOUNT OF SURFACE WAVE ENERGY IS USUALLY TRANSMITTED IN ALL DIRECTIONS AROUND A TRANSDUCER AS SHOWN BELOW. IF THE TRANSDUCER IS NEAR THE EDGE OF A PLATE, A SIGNAL MAY APPEAR ON THE CRT. INITIAL PULSE SURFACE WAVE q BACK REFLECTION WHEN INSPECTING WITH SHEAR WAVES, IT IS POSSIBLE TO DETECT A SUR- FACE DISCONTINUITY WITH THE SMALL AMOUNT OF SURFACE WAVES GEN- ERATED. (SEE BELOW) INITIAL PULSE cc / 7 q - SURFACE Wave INDICATION YOU CAN DETERMINE IF THE REFLECTION IS FROM A SURFACE WAVE BY RUN- NING YOUR FINGER ALONG THE SURFACE IN FROMT OF THE TRANSDUCER. IF THE REFLECTION IS DUE TO SURFACE WAVES, THE AMPLITUDE OF THE PIP. WILL DROP ON THE CRT WHEN YOUR FINGER IS BETWEEN THE TRANS- DUCER AND THE INTERFACE PRODUCING THE SIGNAL. SURFACE WAVE INDI- CATIONS MAY NOT BE CAUSE FOR REJECTION, BUT THEY SHOULD BE EVALUATED. 152UT Lecture Guide Lesson 12 INTERFERENCE CAN BE CAUSED AS A RESULT OF MODE CONVERSION IN THE TEST SPECIMEN AS SHOWN BELOW. HOWEVER, ALL OF THESE REFLECTIONS CAN BE IGNORED AS THEY WILL AP- PEAR ON THE CRT AFTER THE FIRST BACK REFLECTION. LONGITUDINAL /\ sen \ i. LeNGTs ia) DIAMETER INITIAL PULSE BACK REFLECTION 4 BD eervecteo SHEAR WAVE INDICATIONS. THE SHAPE OF THE SPECIMEN CAN CAUSE FALSE INDICATIONS AS SHOWN BELOW. THE ULTRASONIC OPERATOR SHOULD ALWAYS KNOW THE CONFIGURATION OF THE PART SO THAT THESE FALSE INDICATION CAN BE IDENTIFIED. VIEW 8 view 8 TO VERIFY A POSSIBLE FALSE INDICATION, THE OPERATOR SHOULD TRY TO LOCATE THE DISCONTINUITY FROM A DIFFERENT LOCATION ON THE SPECIMEN 183UT Lecture Guide Lesson 12 A NONRELEVANT INDICATION MAY OCCUR WHEN USING A TRANSDUCER WITH A LARGE BEAM SPREAD AS SHOWN BELOW. THIS INDICATION IS EASILY IDENTIFIED AS IT IS ALWAYS BEHIND THE FIRST BACK REFLECTION OF THE PART AND WOULD PROBABLY BE CONTINUOUS ALONG THE SURFACE OF THE PART. INITIAL PULSE DIRECT REFLECTION ADDITIONAL (SPURIOUS) REFLECTION IN THE SITUATION ABOVE, A PLASTIC SHOE MACHINED TO THE DIAMETER OF THE PART USUALLY REDUCES THE EXCESSIVE BEAM SPREAD. A LARGE GRAIN SIZE MAY ALSO CAUSE “NOISE” OR “HASH” ON THE CRT SCREEN. ABNORMALLY LARGE GRAINS MAY RESULT IN TOTAL LOSS OF BACK REFLECTION. A LOWER EXAMINATION FREQUENCY MAY HELP ALLEVIATE THIS. PROBLEM. (FROM PHOTO- MICROGRAPHS) FRONT SURFACE BACK SURFACE COARSE-GRAIN STEELUT Lecture Guide Lesson 12 DURING WELD INSPECTION, NONRELEVANT INDICATIONS MAY RESULT FROM REFLECTIONS FROM THE CROWN AND ROOT OF THE WELD AND POSSIBLY FROM THE HEAT AFFECTED ZONE ANY INDICATION ON THE CRT SCREEN THAT IS UNUSUALLY CONSISTENT CAN BE SUSPECTED AS BEING NONRELEVANT. AS IS SHOWN ABOVE, THE REFLECTION FROM THE ROOT AND CROWN OF THE WELD MAY APPEAR FOR THE ENTIRE LENGTH OF THE WELD. ‘a IF THE NONRELEVANT SIGNAL IS COMING FROM THE CROWN OF THE WELD, IT CAN OFTEN BE IDENTIFIED BY PLACING YOUR FINGER WET WITH COUPLANT OVER THE SUSPECTED AREA. IF THE SOUND BEAM IS STRIKING THE CROWN, IT WILL BE DAMPENED BY YOUR FINGER. A SURFACE EXAMINATION, PT OR MT, CAN BE USED TO RE- DUCE THE POSSIBILITY OF A SURFACE CRACK CAUSING THE REFLECTION. 155UT Lecture Guide Lesson 12 NONRELEVANT INDICATIONS CAN OFTEN BE IDENTIFIED BY PLOTTING THE DISCONTINUITY ON A ULTRASONIC CALCULATOR SIMILAR TO THE ONE SHOWN BELOW. 0 a 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 x THE HORIZONTAL SCALE MEASURES DISTANCE FROM THE EXIT POINT OF THE TRANSDUCER TO THE DISCONTINUITY. THE VERTICAL SCALE REPRESENTS SPECIMEN THICKNESS AND THE ARC REPRESENTS THE REFRACTED ANGLE OF THE SOUND BEAM. EXAMPLE: A SINGLE VEE WELD WITH AN OPENING OF 30 DEGREES IN A 1” STEEL PLATE USING A 70 DEGREE TRANSDUCER IS SHOWN BELOW: at | | : 1 RH osconrmutty | Pp Ai . 1, DRAW A LINE REPRESENTING THE SOUND PATH FROM THE UPPER LEFT CORNER TO THE 70 DEGREE MARK ON THE ARC, EXTENDING TO THE 1” POINT REPRESENTING PLATE THICKNESS. 2. MAKE A FULL SKIP BY DOUBLING THE 2-3/4”. (SEE POINT “B") 3. DRAW THE 30 DEGREE SINGLE VEE WELD ON PLASTIC OR TRANSPARENT PAPER. 4. IF THE SOUND PATH DISTANCE ON THE CRT SHOWS 3”, AND THE DISTANCE FROM THE EXIT POINT TO THE CENTER OF THE WELD IS 2-3/4", THEN THE DISCONTINUITY IS AS SHOWN ABOVE. 186Key Name. — UT LESSON 12 WORKSHEET #1 ‘A. Using the ultrasonic calculator that has been reproduced below, answer the following ques tlons. The weld being Inspected Is 1” thick single vee groove weld using a 70 degree transducer You will need # ruler. 10 possible points = What Is the sound path to the discontinuity in the 1 inch weldment shown above? Is the discontinuity In the 1st or 2nd leg? What Is the surface distance from the exit point of the transducer to the center of the weld zone? What Is the distance from the centerline of the weldment (x-axis) to the discontinulty? (indicate + or -) What Is the distance from the top surface of the weld to the discontinuity? What Is the degree of the sound path as shown on the above calculator? Do discontinuities “A"" and ““B" represent the same defect? (Yes or No) On the 1” weldment above, I the sound path were 63 degrees and the sound path distance was 4-1/8" (o the discontinuity, where would It appear In the weld zone? DRAW IN SOUND PATH AND DEFECT ON CALCULATOR ABOVE What would be the distance from the x-axis for this second discontinulty? indicate + or -) What Is the distance from the second discontinully to the surface of the weld? 187~ Name. Key UT LESSON 12 quiz ¥ ULTRASONIC CALCULATOR ° 1 2 2 * THT ert TTT r LH tp st E rt ' + " rt 6! ttt) rt 2 45° 189PEE Rb bP 10. Key Name. UT LESSON 12 quiz Accurate ultrasonic Inspection cannot take place until all nonrelevant indications a removed from the CRT screen. Nonrelevant Indications caused by mode conversion in a tong narrow specimen will usually occur between the initial pulse and the first back reflection of the parts back surface. Surtace waves can be generated even In a 90 degree straight beam transducer. Surface waves can often be identified by placing your finger on the surtace of the pla In front of the transduce: The beam spread resulting in a cylindrical part can be minimized by using a concave plastic shoe between the transducer and the part. Large grain size in # specimen will cause “noise” or “hash” on the CRT, but the reject Control on the instrument will always remove this nonrelevent indication and permit an effective test The heat affected zone in a weldment may cau scree A nonrelevant indication from the crown of a weld can often be identified by placing your finger on the suspected A properly used ultrasonic calculator will give you the discontinuity depth below the surface, position in the weldment and exact size. On the attached ultrasonic calculator, plot the location of the discontinuity based on the following information. (2 pts for accurate drawing) 70 Degree transducer 3/4 inch thick weldment Discontinuity pip on CRT at 2.34 inch Single Vee Groove Weld (30 Degree) Centerline of weld to transducer exit point is 2-3/4” 24 a. Is the discontinuity in the 1st or 2nd leg? Z__b. What is the distance trom top surface of the weld to the discontinuity? £7 c. What is the distance trom the center line of the weldment (x-axis) to the discontinuity? (indicate + or -) ‘@ nonrelevant indication of the CRT 14 possible points 161Lesson 13 THIS LESSON WILL DISCUSS TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES THAT CAN BE EVAL- UATED WITH THE ULTRASONIC METHOD. DISCONTINUITIES CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THREE GENERAL CATEGORIES IN- HERENT, PROCESSING, AND SERVICE. 1. INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES ARE USUALLY FORMED WHEN THE METAL IS MOLTEN. INHERENT WROUGHT DISCONTINUITIES RELATE TO THE MELTING AND SOLIDIFICATION OF THE ORIGINAL INGOT BEFORE IT IS FORMED INTO SLABS, BLOOMS AND BILLETS. INHERENT CAST DISCONTINUITIES RELATE TO THE MELTING, CASTING AND SOLIDIFICATION OF A CAST ARTICLE. USUALLY CAUSED BY INHERENT VAR- IABLES SUCH AS INADEQUATE FEEDING, GATING, EXCESSIVE POURING TEMPERATURE OR ENTRAPPED GASES. 2. PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES ARE USUALLY RELATED TO THE VARIOUS MANUFACTURING PROCESSES SUCH AS MACHINING, FORMING, EX- TRUDING, ROLLING, WELDING, HEAT TREATING AND PLATING. 3. SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES ARE RELATED TO THE VARIOUS SERVICE CONDITIONS SUCH AS STRESS, CORROSION, FATIGUE AND EROSION. DURING THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS, MANY DISCONTINUITIES THAT WERE SUBSURFACE WILL BE OPENED TO THE SURFACE BY MACHINING, GRINDING, ETC. REMEMBER THAT DISCONTINUITIES ARE NOT NECESSARILY DEFECTS. ANY INDICATION THAT IS FOUND BY THE INSPECTOR IS CALLED A DISCON- TINUITY UNTIL IT CAN BE IDENTIFIED AND EVALUATED AS TO THE EFFECT IT WILL HAVE ON THE SERVICE OF THE PART OR TO THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE SPECIFICATION.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 13, CLASSIFICATION OF DISCONTINUITIES BY ORIGIN (A MORE DETAILED STUDY OF TYPICAL DISCONTINUITIES CAN BE OBTAINED BY READING PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION HANDBOOK PI-4-1.) INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES - RELATE TO THE ORIGINAL MELTING AND SOLIDIFICATION OF THE METAL IN THE INGOT OR IN A CASTING. TYPICAL DISCONTINUITIES FOUND IN THE INGOT ARE INCLUSIONS, BLOW- HOLES, PIPE AND SEGREGATIONS. HoT TOP 1. NON-METALLIC INCLUSIONS SUCH AS SLAG, OXIDES, AND SULPHIDES ARE PRESENT IN THE ORIGINAL INGOT. 2. BLOWHOLES & POROSITY ARE — wowateracuc FORMED BY GAS WHICH IS IN. —IMCLUSIONS SOLUBLE IN THE MOLTEN METAL Ponce AND IS TRAPPED WHEN THE METAL SOLIDIFIES. 3. PIPE IS A DISCONTINUITY IN THE. CENTER OF THE INGOT CAUSED BY INTERNAL SHRINKAGE DUR- ING SOLIDIFICATION. 4, SEGREGATIONS OCCUR WHEN THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VAR- JOUS ELEMENTS IS NOT UNIFORM. THROUGHOUT THE INGOT. THIS CONDITION IS CALLED “BAND- ING” AND IS NOT USUALLY SIG- NIFICANT. WHEN AN INGOT IS FURTHER PROCESSED INTO SLABS, BLOOMS, AND BILLETS IT IS POSSIBLE FOR THE ABOVE DISCONTINUITIES TO CHANGE SIZE AND SHAPE. THE DISCONTINUITIES AFTER ROLLING AND FORMING ARE CALLED LAMINA- TIONS, STRINGERS, OR SEAMS DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF PROCESSING AND THE ORIGINAL TYPE OF DISCONTINUITY. THE “HOT TOP” IS USUALLY CROPPED OFF TO REMOVE MOST OF THE DISCON- TINUITIES BEFORE THE INGOT IS FURTHER PROCESSED. PIPETYPICAL INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES FOUND IN CASTINGS ARE COLD SHUTS, HOT TEARS, SHRINKAGE CAVITIES, MICROSHRINKAGE, BLOWHOLES, AND POROSITY. A COLD SHUT IS CAUSED WHEN MOLTEN METAL IS POURED OVER SOLIDIFIED METAL AS SHOWN BELOW: HUT Hi (SMOOTH, CURVED APPEARANCE UY. HOT TEARS (SHRINKAGE CRACKS) OCCUR WHEN THERE IS UNEQUAL SHRINK- AGE BETWEEN LIGHT AND HEAVY SECTIONS AS SHOWN BELOW:UT Lecture Guide Lesson 13 SHRINKAGE CAVITIES ARE USUALLY CAUSED BY LACK OF ENOUGH MOLTEN METAL TO FILL THE SPACE CREATED BY SHRINKAGE, SIMILAR TO PIPE IN THE INGOT. MOLTEN METAL HAS FILLED THE CASTING ARDENED CASTING MICROSHRINKAGE IS USUALLY MANY SMALL SUBSURFACE HOLES THAT AP- PEAR AT THE GATE OF THE CASTING. MICROSHRINKAGE CAN ALSO OCCUR WHEN THE MOLTEN METAL MUST FLOW FROM A THIN SECTION INTO A THICKER SECTION OF A CASTING. BLOW HOLES ARE SMALL HOLES AT THE SURFACE OF THE CASTING CAUSED BY GAS WHICH COMES FROM THE MOLD ITSELF. MANY MOLDS ARE MADE OF SAND. WHEN MOLTEN METAL COMES INTO CONTACT WITH THE MOLD, THE WATER IN THE SAND IS RELEASED AS STEAM. POROSITY IS CAUSED BY ENTRAPPED GAS. POROSITY IS USUALLY SUBSUR- FACE BUT CAN OCCUR ON THE SURFACE DEPENDING ON THE DESIGN OF THE MOLD.UT Lecture Guide, Lesson 13, PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES ARE THOSE FOUND OR PRODUCED BY THE FORMING OR FABRICATION OPERATIONS INCLUDING ROLLING, FORGING, WELDING, MACHINING, GRINDING AND HEAT TREATING. AS A BILLET IS FLATTENED AND SPREAD OUT NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS MAY CAUSE A LAMINATION. PIPE AND POROSITY COULD ALSO CAUSE LAMINA- TIONS IN THE SAME MANNER AS SHOWN BELOW: LAMINATIONS AS A BILLET IS ROLLED INTO BAR STOCK, NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS ARE SQUEEZED OUT INTO LONGER AND THINNER DISCONTINUITIES CALLED STRINGERS. NON-METALLIC INCLUSIONS,WELDING DISCONTINUITIES DISCONTINUITIES.” STAR CRATER | veaysverse LONGITUDINAL STRESS CRACK POROSITY UT Lecture Guide Lesson 13, + THE FOLLOWING ARE TYPES OF “PROCESSING a SSS Se TUNGSTEN INCLUSIONS LACK OF PENETRATION LACK OF FUSION UNDERCUT EES LEE LLL) 168UT Lecture Guide Lesson 13 GRINDING CRACKS ARE A PROCESSING TYPE DISCONTINUITY CAUSED BY STRESSES WHICH ARE BUILT UP FROM EXCESS HEAT CREATED BETWEEN GRINDING WHEEL AND METAL. GRINDING CRACKS WILL USUALLY OCCUR AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE ROTA- TION OF THE GRINDING WHEEL. HEAT TREATING CRACKS ARE OFTEN CAUSED BY THE STRESSES BUILT UP. DURING HEATING AND COOLING. UNEQUAL COOLING BETWEEN LIGHT AND HEAVY SECTIONS MAY CAUSE HEAT TREAT CRACKS. HEAT TREAT CRACKS HAVE NO SPECIFIC DIRECTION AND USUALLY START AT. SHARP CORNERS WHICH ACT AS STRESS CONCENTRATION POINTS. 169UT Lecture Guide Lesson 13 FORGING DISCONTINUITIES OCCUR WHEN METAL IS HAMMERED OR PRESSED INTO SHAPE, USUALLY WHILE THE METAL IS VERY HOT. A FORGED PART GAINS STRENGTH DUE TO THE GRAIN FLOW TAKING THE SHAPE OF THE DIE. THE PROCESS IS SHOWN BELOW: A FORGING LAP IS CAUSED BY FOLDING OF METAL ON THE SURFACE OF THE FORGING, USUALLY WHEN SOME OF THE FORGING METAL IS SQUEEZED OUT BETWEEN THE TWO DIES. \ \ FORGING ue A FORGING BURST IS A RUPTURE CAUSED BY FORGING AT IMPROPER TEMP- ERATURES. BURSTS MAY BE EITHER INTERNAL OR OPEN TO THE SURFACE AS SHOWN BELOW. ep CT INTERWAL EXTERWAL BURST BURST OR CRACK (SUBSURFACE) (OPEN TO THE SURFACE)UT Lecture Guide Lesson 13 SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES ARE ALSO IMPORTANT TYPES TO CONSIDER. ARTICLES WHICH MAY DEVELOP DEFECTS DUE TO METAL FATIGUE ARE CON. SIDERED EXTREMELY CRITICAL AND DEMAND CLOSE ATTENTION. FATIGUE CRACKS ARE SERVICE TYPE DISCONTINUITIES THAT ARE USUALLY OPEN TO THE SURFACE. THEY OFTEN START FROM STRESS CONCENTRATION POINTS. FATIGUE CRACKS ARE POSSIBLE ONLY AFTER THE PART IS PLACED INTO SER- VICE, BUT MAY BE THE RESULT OF POROSITY, INCLUSIONS OR OTHER DISCON- TINUITIES IN A HIGHLY STRESSED METAL PART.hb Hb bb hs Key Name. UT LESSON 13 quiz Inherent discontinuities are usually considered to be those formed when the metal is in ‘& molten condition. Discontinulties involving fatigue processing type discontinuity. Discontinuities and detects are terms that ultrasonic testing methods. Knowing the history and intended use of a part is usually considered important in se- lecting the test method and knowing the type of discontinuity to look for. Ultrasonic testing would always be a good choice in choosing a NDT method to locate microshrinkage In a casting. Porosity in a billet could cause a lamination if the metal were formed into a flat pla When a billet is rolled into bar stock, a nonmetallic inclusion could be formed into & longer and thinner discontinuity called a stringer. Stringers and laminations could be found in a finished product if non-metallic inclu- often considered critical and are referred to as a /e considered to have the same meaning in sions were present in the original ingot Hot tears and shrinkage cracks are often the result of metal cooling too rapidly in the in- got sta Porosity is caused by gas which is trapped in the molten metal as it solidifies. Laps and bursts are examples of processing type discontinuities. ‘The ultrasonic testing method can be used for finding slag inclusions in weldments. Grinding cracks are often caused by the stresses created by the excessive heating of the metal surface. Because cold metal occupies more space than hot metal, there is the danger of “hot tears” during the casting process, Lack of penetration and lack of fusion both refer to the same type of welding discon- tinulty Lack of fusion between passes in a weldment can be detected with the ultrasonic testing method 173,Lesson 14 IDENTIFICATION AND COMPARISON OF DISCONTINUITIES THAT CAN BE FOUND WITH THE ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD. THE STUDENT IS ASKED TO STUDY THE PHOTOGRAPHS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF TYPICAL DISCONTINUITIES AS PRINTED IN THE UT CLASSROOM TRAINING HANDBOOK (CT-6-4). THE INSTRUCTOR MAY WISH TO DISCUSS EACH OF THESE EXAMPLES IN THE CLASSROOM. EACH OF THE SPECIFIC DISCONTINUITIES ILLUSTRATED ARE DIVIDED INTO THE THREE GENERAL CATEGORIES: INHERENT, PROCESSING AND SERVICE. BURST PAGE 7-8 FILLET CRACK PAGE 7-12 HEAT EFFECTED ZONE CRACK PAGE 7-18 TUBING CRACKS PAGE 7-26 HYDROGEN FLAKE PAGE 7-28 INCLUSIONS PAGE 7-34 LACK OF PENETRATION PAGE 7-36 LAMINATIONS, PAGE 7-38 GAS POROSITY PAGE 7-46 IT IS ALSO SUGGESTED THAT THE STUDENT STUDY THE OTHER EXAMPLES GIVEN AND MAKE A COMPARISON OF THE TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES THAT ARE DIFFICULT TO DETECT WITH ULTRASONIC TECHNIQUES. 175Key Name. LESSON 14 quiz MATCHING — Match the categories of discontinuities with the types of discontinuities listed. It is possible that @ discontinuity can fall into more than one category; list all possibilities. Inherent — wrought inherent — cast processing - machining processing - welding service . laps . grinding cracks . cold shut fatigue . Porosity . lamination . Shrinkage |. undercut hot tears . Inclusions eaoge 10 possible points Pet 7