Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification process that uses a partially permeable

membrane to remove ions, unwanted molecules and larger particles from drinking water. In

reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure, a colligative
property that is driven by chemical potential differences of the solvent,
a thermodynamic parameter. Reverse osmosis can remove many types of dissolved and
suspended chemical species as well as biological ones (principally bacteria) from water, and is
used in both industrial processes and the production of potable water. The result is that
the solute is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and the pure solvent is allowed to
pass to the other side. To be "selective", this membrane should not allow large molecules or ions
through the pores (holes), but should allow smaller components of the solution (such as solvent
molecules, i.e., water, H2O) to pass freely.[1]
In the normal osmosis process, the solvent naturally moves from an area of low solute
concentration (high water potential), through a membrane, to an area of high solute
concentration (low water potential). The driving force for the movement of the solvent is the
reduction in the Gibbs free energy of the system when the difference in solvent concentration on
either side of a membrane is reduced, generating osmotic pressure due to the solvent moving
into the more concentrated solution. Applying an external pressure to reverse the natural flow of
pure solvent, thus, is reverse osmosis. The process is similar to other membrane technology
applications.
Reverse osmosis differs from filtration in that the mechanism of fluid flow is by osmosis across a
membrane. The predominant removal mechanism in membrane filtration is straining, or size
exclusion, where the pores are 0.01 micrometers or larger, so the process can theoretically
achieve perfect efficiency regardless of parameters such as the solution's pressure and
concentration. Reverse osmosis instead involves solvent diffusion across a membrane that is
either nonporous or uses nanofiltration with pores 0.001 micrometers in size. The predominant
removal mechanism is from differences in solubility or diffusivity, and the process is dependent
on pressure, solute concentration, and other conditions.[2] Reverse osmosis is most commonly
known for its use in drinking water purification from seawater, removing the salt and
other effluent materials from the water molecules.[3]

Contents

 1History
 2Fresh water applications
o 2.1Drinking water purification
 2.1.1Decentralized use: solar-powered reverse osmosis
 2.1.2Military use: the reverse osmosis water purification unit
o 2.2Water and wastewater purification
o 2.3Food industry
o 2.4Maple syrup production
o 2.5Low alcohol beer
o 2.6Hydrogen production
o 2.7Aquariums
o 2.8Window cleaning
 3Landfill leachate purification
o 3.1Power consumption for a disc tube module system
 4Desalination
o 4.1Pretreatment
o 4.2High pressure pump
o 4.3Membrane assembly
o 4.4Energy recovery
o 4.5Remineralisation and pH adjustment
 o 4.6Disinfection
 5Disadvantages
o 5.1Waste-stream considerations
 6New developments
 7See also
 8References
 9Sources

History
A process of osmosis through semipermeable membranes was first observed in 1748 by Jean-
Antoine Nollet. For the following 200 years, osmosis was only a phenomenon observed in the
laboratory. In 1950, the University of California at Los Angeles first investigated desalination of
seawater using semipermeable membranes. Researchers from both University of California at
Los Angeles and the University of Florida successfully produced fresh water from seawater in the
mid-1950s, but the flux was too low to be commercially viable[4] until the discovery at University of
California at Los Angeles by Sidney Loeb and Srinivasa Sourirajan[5] at the National Research
Council of Canada, Ottawa, of techniques for making asymmetric membranes characterized by
an effectively thin "skin" layer supported atop a highly porous and much thicker substrate region
of the membrane. John Cadotte, of FilmTec Corporation, discovered that membranes with
particularly high flux and low salt passage could be made by interfacial polymerization of m-
phenylene diamine and trimesoyl chloride. Cadotte's patent on this process[6] was the subject of
litigation and has since expired. Almost all commercial reverse-osmosis membrane is now made
by this method. By the end of 2001, about 15,200 desalination plants were in operation or in the
planning stages, worldwide.[2]

Reverse osmosis production train, North Cape Coral Reverse Osmosis Plant

In 1977 Cape Coral, Florida became the first municipality in the United States to use the RO
process on a large scale with an initial operating capacity of 11.35 million liters (3 million US gal)
per day. By 1985, due to the rapid growth in population of Cape Coral, the city had the largest
low-pressure reverse-osmosis plant in the world, capable of producing 56.8 million liters (15
million US gal) per day (MGD).[7]
Formally, reverse osmosis is the process of forcing a solvent from a region of high solute
concentration through a semipermeable membrane to a region of low-solute concentration by
applying a pressure in excess of the osmotic pressure. The largest and most important
application of reverse osmosis is the separation of pure water from seawater
and brackish waters; seawater or brackish water is pressurized against one surface of the
membrane, causing transport of salt-depleted water across the membrane and emergence of
potable drinking water from the low-pressure side.
The membranes used for reverse osmosis have a dense layer in the polymer matrix—either the
skin of an asymmetric membrane or an interfacially polymerized layer within a thin-film-
composite membrane—where the separation occurs. In most cases, the membrane is designed
to allow only water to pass through this dense layer while preventing the passage of solutes
(such as salt ions). This process requires that a high pressure be exerted on the high-
concentration side of the membrane, usually 2–17 bar (30–250 psi) for fresh and brackish water,
and 40–82 bar (600–1200 psi) for seawater, which has around 27 bar (390 psi)[8] natural osmotic
pressure that must be overcome. This process is best known for its use in desalination (removing
the salt and other minerals from sea water to produce fresh water), but since the early 1970s, it
has also been used to purify fresh water for medical, industrial and domestic applications.

Fresh water applications

Drinking water purification
Around the world, household drinking water purification systems, including a reverse osmosis
step, are commonly used for improving water for drinking and cooking.
Such systems typically include a number of steps:

 a sediment filter to trap particles, including rust and calcium carbonate

 optionally, a second sediment filter with smaller pores
 an activated carbon filter to trap organic chemicals and chlorine, which will attack and
degrade certain types of thin film composite membrane
 a reverse osmosis filter, which is a thin film composite membrane
 optionally an ultraviolet lamp for sterilizing any microbes that may escape filtering by the
reverse osmosis membrane
 optionally, a second carbon filter to capture those chemicals not removed by the reverse
osmosis membrane
The latest developments in the sphere include nano materials and membranes.
In some systems, the carbon prefilter is omitted, and a cellulose triacetate membrane is used.
CTA (cellulose triacetate) is a paper by-product membrane bonded to a synthetic layer and is
made to allow contact with chlorine in the water. These require a small amount of chlorine in the
water source to prevent bacteria from forming on it. The typical rejection rate for CTA
membranes is 85–95%.
The cellulose triacetate membrane is prone to rotting unless protected by chlorinated water,
while the thin film composite membrane is prone to breaking down under the influence of
chlorine. A thin film composite (TFC) membrane is made of synthetic material, and requires
chlorine to be removed before the water enters the membrane. To protect the TFC membrane
elements from chlorine damage, carbon filters are used as pre-treatment in all residential reverse
osmosis systems. TFC membranes have a higher rejection rate of 95–98% and a longer life than
CTA membranes.
Portable reverse osmosis water processors are sold for personal water purification in various
locations. To work effectively, the water feeding to these units should be under some pressure
(280 kPa (40 psi) or greater is the norm).[9] Portable reverse osmosis water processors can be
used by people who live in rural areas without clean water, far away from the city's water pipes.
Rural people filter river or ocean water themselves, as the device is easy to use (saline water
may need special membranes). Some travelers on long boating, fishing, or island camping trips,
or in countries where the local water supply is polluted or substandard, use reverse osmosis
water processors coupled with one or more ultraviolet sterilizers.
In the production of bottled mineral water, the water passes through a reverse osmosis water
processor to remove pollutants and microorganisms. In European countries, though, such
processing of natural mineral water (as defined by a European directive[10]) is not allowed under
European law. In practice, a fraction of the living bacteria can and do pass through reverse
osmosis membranes through minor imperfections, or bypass the membrane entirely through tiny
leaks in surrounding seals. Thus, complete reverse osmosis systems may include additional
water treatment stages that use ultraviolet light or ozone to prevent microbiological
contamination.
Membrane pore sizes can vary from 0.1 to 5,000 nm depending on filter type. Particle filtration
removes particles of 1 µm or larger. Microfiltration removes particles of 50 nm or
larger. Ultrafiltration removes particles of roughly 3 nm or larger. Nanofiltration removes particles
of 1 nm or larger. Reverse osmosis is in the final category of membrane filtration, hyperfiltration,
and removes particles larger than 0.1 nm.[11]
Decentralized use: solar-powered reverse osmosis
A solar-powered desalination unit produces potable water from saline water by using
a photovoltaic system that converts solar power into the required energy for reverse osmosis.
Due to the extensive availability of sunlight across different geographies, solar-powered reverse
osmosis lends itself well to drinking water purification in remote settings lacking an electricity
grid. Moreover, Solar energy overcomes the usually high-energy operating costs as well
as greenhouse emissions of conventional reverse osmosis systems, making it a sustainable
freshwater solution compatible to developing contexts. For example, a solar-powered
desalination unit designed for remote communities has been successfully tested in the Northern
Territory of Australia.[12]
While the intermittent nature of sunlight and its variable intensity throughout the day makes PV
efficiency prediction difficult and desalination during night time challenging, several solutions
exist. For example, batteries, which provide the energy required for desalination in non-sunlight
hours can be used to store solar energy in daytime. Apart from the use of conventional batteries,
alternative methods for solar energy storage exist. For example, thermal energy storage systems
solve this storage problem and ensure constant performance even during non-sunlight hours and
cloudy days, improving overall efficiency.[13]
Military use: the reverse osmosis water purification unit
A reverse osmosis water purification unit (ROWPU) is a portable, self-contained water
treatment plant. Designed for military use, it can provide potable water from nearly any water
source. There are many models in use by the United States armed forces and the Canadian
Forces. Some models are containerized, some are trailers, and some are vehicles unto
themselves.[citation needed]
Each branch of the United States armed forces has their own series of reverse osmosis water
purification unit models, but they are all similar. The water is pumped from its raw source into the
reverse osmosis water purification unit module, where it is treated with a polymer to
initiate coagulation. Next, it is run through a multi-media filter where it undergoes primary
treatment by removing turbidity. It is then pumped through a cartridge filter which is usually
spiral-wound cotton. This process clarifies the water of any particles larger than 5 µm and
eliminates almost all turbidity.
The clarified water is then fed through a high-pressure piston pump into a series of vessels
where it is subject to reverse osmosis. The product water is free of 90.00–99.98% of the raw
water's total dissolved solids and by military standards, should have no more than 1000–
1500 parts per million by measure of electrical conductivity. It is then disinfected
with chlorine and stored for later use.[citation needed]
Within the United States Marine Corps, the reverse smosis water purification unit has been
replaced by both the Lightweight Water Purification System and Tactical Water Purification
Systems.[14] The Lightweight Water Purification Systems can be transported by Humvee and filter
470 litres (120 US gal) per hour. The Tactical Water Purification Systems can be carried on
a Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacement truck, and can filter 4,500 to 5,700 litres (1,200 to
1,500 US gal) per hour.[citation needed]

Water and wastewater purification

Rain water collected from storm drains is purified with reverse osmosis water processors and
used for landscape irrigation and industrial cooling in Los Angeles and other cities, as a solution
to the problem of water shortages.
In industry, reverse osmosis removes minerals from boiler water at power plants.[15] The water
is distilled multiple times. It must be as pure as possible so it does not leave deposits on the
machinery or cause corrosion. The deposits inside or outside the boiler tubes may result in
under-performance of the boiler, reducing its efficiency and resulting in poor steam production,
hence poor power production at the turbine.
It is also used to clean effluent and brackish groundwater. The effluent in larger volumes (more
than 500 m3/day) should be treated in an effluent treatment plant first, and then the clear effluent
is subjected to reverse osmosis system. Treatment cost is reduced significantly and membrane
life of the reverse osmosis system is increased.
The process of reverse osmosis can be used for the production of deionized water.[16]
Reverse osmosis process for water purification does not require thermal energy. Flow-through
reverse osmosis systems can be regulated by high-pressure pumps. The recovery of purified
water depends upon various factors, including membrane sizes, membrane pore size,
temperature, operating pressure, and membrane surface area.
In 2002, Singapore announced that a process named NEWater would be a significant part of its
future water plans. It involves using reverse osmosis to treat domestic wastewater before
discharging the NEWater back into the reservoirs.

Food industry
In addition to desalination, reverse osmosis is a more economical operation for concentrating
food liquids (such as fruit juices) than conventional heat-treatment processes. Research has
been done on concentration of orange juice and tomato juice. Its advantages include a lower
operating cost and the ability to avoid heat-treatment processes, which makes it suitable for heat-
sensitive substances such as the protein and enzymes found in most food products.
Reverse osmosis is extensively used in the dairy industry for the production of whey protein
powders and for the concentration of milk to reduce shipping costs. In whey applications, the
whey (liquid remaining after cheese manufacture) is concentrated with reverse osmosis from 6%
total solids to 10–20% total solids before ultrafiltration processing. The ultrafiltration retentate can
then be used to make various whey powders, including whey protein isolate. Additionally, the
ultrafiltration permeate, which contains lactose, is concentrated by reverse osmosis from 5% total
solids to 18–22% total solids to reduce crystallization and drying costs of the lactose powder.
Although use of the process was once avoided in the wine industry, it is now widely understood
and used. An estimated 60 reverse osmosis machines were in use in Bordeaux, France, in 2002.
Known users include many of the elite-classed growths (Kramer) such as Château Léoville-Las
Cases in Bordeaux.

Maple syrup production

In 1946, some maple syrup producers started using reverse osmosis to remove water
from sap before the sap is boiled down to syrup. The use of reverse osmosis allows about 75–
90% of the water to be removed from the sap, reducing energy consumption and exposure of the
syrup to high temperatures. Microbial contamination and degradation of the membranes must be
monitored.

Low alcohol beer

Main article: Low-alcohol beer
When beer at normal alcohol concentration is subject to reverse osmosis, both water and alcohol
pass across the membrane more readily than the other components, leaving a "beer
concentrate". The concentrate is then diluted with fresh water to restore the non-volatile
components to their original intensity.[17]

Hydrogen production
For small-scale hydrogen production, reverse osmosis is sometimes used to prevent formation of
mineral deposits on the surface of electrodes.
Aquariums
Many reef aquarium keepers use reverse osmosis systems for their artificial mixture of seawater.
Ordinary tap water can contain excessive chlorine, chloramines, copper, nitrates, nitrites,
phosphates, silicates, or many other chemicals detrimental to the sensitive organisms in a reef
environment. Contaminants such as nitrogen compounds and phosphates can lead to excessive
and unwanted algae growth. An effective combination of both reverse osmosis
and deionization is the most popular among reef aquarium keepers, and is preferred above other
water purification processes due to the low cost of ownership and minimal operating costs.
Where chlorine and chloramines are found in the water, carbon filtration is needed before the
membrane, as the common residential membrane used by reef keepers does not cope with
these compounds.
Freshwater aquarists also use reverse osmosis systems to duplicate the very soft waters found
in many tropical water bodies. Whilst many tropical fish can survive in suitably treated tap water,
breeding can be impossible. Many aquatic shops sell containers of reverse osmosis water for this
purpose.

Window cleaning
An increasingly popular method of cleaning windows is the so-called "water-fed pole" system.
Instead of washing the windows with detergent in the conventional way, they are scrubbed with
highly purified water, typically containing less than 10 ppm dissolved solids, using a brush on the
end of a long pole which is wielded from ground level. Reverse osmosis is commonly used to
purify the water.

Landfill leachate purification

Treatment with reverse osmosis is limited, resulting in low recoveries on high concentration
(measured with electrical conductivity) and fouling of the RO membranes. Reverse osmosis
applicability is limited by conductivity, organics, and scaling inorganic elements such as CaSO4,
Si, Fe and Ba. Low organic scaling can use two different technologies, one is using spiral wound
membrane type of module, and for high organic scaling, high conductivity and higher pressure
(up to 90 bars) disc tube modules with reverse-osmosis membranes can be used. Disc tube
modules were redesigned for landfill leachate purification, that is usually contaminated with high
levels of organic material. Due to the cross-flow with high velocity it is given a flow booster pump,
that is recirculating the flow over the same membrane surface between 1.5 and 3 times before it
is released as a concentrate. High velocity is also good against membrane scaling and allows
successful membrane cleaning.

Power consumption for a disc tube module system

Disc tube module with RO membrane cushion and Spiral wound module with RO membrane

energy consumption per m3 leachate

1-stage up to 75 2-stage up to 75
name of module 3-stage up to 120 bar
bar bar
 disc tube
6.1 – 8.1 kWh/m3 8.1 – 9.8 kWh/m3 11.2 – 14.3 kWh/m3
module

Desalination
Areas that have either no or limited surface water or groundwater may choose to desalinate.
Reverse osmosis is an increasingly common method of desalination, because of its relatively low
energy consumption.[18]
In recent years, energy consumption has dropped to around 3 kWh/m3, with the development of
more efficient energy recovery devices and improved membrane materials. According to the
International Desalination Association, for 2011, reverse osmosis was used in 66% of installed
desalination capacity (0.0445 of 0.0674 km³/day), and nearly all new plants.[19] Other plants
mainly use thermal distillation methods: multiple-effect distillation and multi-stage flash.
Sea-water reverse-osmosis (SWRO) desalination, a membrane process, has been commercially
used since the early 1970s. Its first practical use was demonstrated by Sidney Loeb from
University of California at Los Angeles in Coalinga, California, and Srinivasa Sourirajan of
National Research Council, Canada. Because no heating or phase changes are needed, energy
requirements are low, around 3 kWh/m3, in comparison to other processes of desalination, but
are still much higher than those required for other forms of water supply, including reverse
osmosis treatment of wastewater, at 0.1 to 1 kWh/m3. Up to 50% of the seawater input can be
recovered as fresh water, though lower recoveries may reduce membrane fouling and energy
consumption.
Brackish water reverse osmosis refers to desalination of water with a lower salt content than sea
water, usually from river estuaries or saline wells. The process is substantially the same as sea
water reverse osmosis, but requires lower pressures and therefore less energy.[1] Up to 80% of
the feed water input can be recovered as fresh water, depending on feed salinity.
The Ashkelon sea water reverse osmosis desalination plant in Israel is the largest in the world.[20]
[21]
 The project was developed as a build-operate-transfer by a consortium of three international
companies: Veolia water, IDE Technologies, and Elran.[22]
The typical single-pass sea water reverse osmosis system consists of:

 Intake
 Pretreatment
 High-pressure pump (if not combined with energy recovery)
 Membrane assembly
 Energy recovery (if used)
 Remineralisation and pH adjustment
 Disinfection
 Alarm/control panel
Pretreatment
Pretreatment is important when working with reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes due
to the nature of their spiral-wound design. The material is engineered in such a fashion as to
allow only one-way flow through the system. As such, the spiral-wound design does not allow for
backpulsing with water or air agitation to scour its surface and remove solids. Since accumulated
material cannot be removed from the membrane surface systems, they are highly susceptible to
fouling (loss of production capacity). Therefore, pretreatment is a necessity for any reverse
osmosis or nanofiltration system. Pretreatment in sea water reverse osmosis systems has four
major components:
 Screening of solids: Solids within the water must be removed and the water treated to
prevent fouling of the membranes by fine-particle or biological growth, and reduce the risk of
damage to high-pressure pump components.
 Cartridge filtration: Generally, string-wound polypropylene filters are used to remove
particles of 1–5 µm diameter.
 Dosing: Oxidizing biocides, such as chlorine, are added to kill bacteria, followed by
bisulfite dosing to deactivate the chlorine, which can destroy a thin-film composite
membrane. There are also biofouling inhibitors, which do not kill bacteria, but simply prevent
them from growing slime on the membrane surface and plant walls.
 Prefiltration pH adjustment: If the pH, hardness and the alkalinity in the feedwater result
in a scaling tendency when they are concentrated in the reject stream, acid is dosed to
maintain carbonates in their soluble carbonic acid form.
CO32− + H3O+ = HCO3− + H2O
HCO3− + H3O+ = H2CO3 + H2O

 Carbonic acid cannot combine with calcium to form calcium carbonate scale.

Calcium carbonate scaling tendency is estimated using the Langelier saturation
index. Adding too much sulfuric acid to control carbonate scales may result in
calcium sulfate, barium sulfate, or strontium sulfate scale formation on the reverse
osmosis membrane.
 Prefiltration antiscalants: Scale inhibitors (also known as antiscalants) prevent
formation of all scales compared to acid, which can only prevent formation of
calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate scales. In addition to inhibiting carbonate
and phosphate scales, antiscalants inhibit sulfate and fluoride scales and disperse
colloids and metal oxides. Despite claims that antiscalants can inhibit silica
formation, no concrete evidence proves that silica polymerization can be inhibited by
antiscalants. Antiscalants can control acid-soluble scales at a fraction of the dosage
required to control the same scale using sulfuric acid.[23]
 Some small-scale desalination units use 'beach wells'; they are usually drilled on the
seashore in close vicinity to the ocean. These intake facilities are relatively simple to
build and the seawater they collect is pretreated via slow filtration through the
subsurface sand/seabed formations in the area of source water extraction. Raw
seawater collected using beach wells is often of better quality in terms of solids, silt,
oil and grease, natural organic contamination and aquatic microorganisms,
compared to open seawater intakes. Sometimes, beach intakes may also yield
source water of lower salinity.
High pressure pump
The high pressure pump supplies the pressure needed to push water through the
membrane, even as the membrane rejects the passage of salt through it. Typical
pressures for brackish water range from 1.6 to 2.6 MPa (225 to 376 psi). In the case of
seawater, they range from 5.5 to 8 MPa (800 to 1,180 psi). This requires a large amount
of energy. Where energy recovery is used, part of the high pressure pump's work is
done by the energy recovery device, reducing the system energy inputs.

Membrane assembly
 The layers of a membrane

The membrane assembly consists of a pressure vessel with a membrane that allows
feedwater to be pressed against it. The membrane must be strong enough to withstand
whatever pressure is applied against it. Reverse-osmosis membranes are made in a
variety of configurations, with the two most common configurations being spiral-wound
and hollow-fiber.
Only a part of the saline feed water pumped into the membrane assembly passes
through the membrane with the salt removed. The remaining "concentrate" flow passes
along the saline side of the membrane to flush away the concentrated salt solution. The
percentage of desalinated water produced versus the saline water feed flow is known as
the "recovery ratio". This varies with the salinity of the feed water and the system design
parameters: typically 20% for small seawater systems, 40% – 50% for larger seawater
systems, and 80% – 85% for brackish water. The concentrate flow is at typically only 3
bar / 50 psi less than the feed pressure, and thus still carries much of the high-pressure
pump input energy.
The desalinated water purity is a function of the feed water salinity, membrane selection
and recovery ratio. To achieve higher purity a second pass can be added which
generally requires re-pumping. Purity expressed as total dissolved solids typically varies
from 100 to 400 parts per million (ppm or mg/litre)on a seawater feed. A level of 500 ppm
is generally accepted as the upper limit for drinking water, while the US Food and Drug
Administration classifies mineral water as water containing at least 250 ppm.

Energy recovery

Schematics of a reverse osmosis desalination system using a pressure exchanger.

1: Sea water inflow,
2: Fresh water flow (40%),
3: Concentrate flow (60%),
4: Sea water flow (60%),
5: Concentrate (drain),
A: Pump flow (40%),
 B: Circulation pump,
C: Osmosis unit with membrane,
D: Pressure exchanger

Schematic of a reverse osmosis desalination system using an energy recovery pump.

1: Sea water inflow (100%, 1 bar),
2: Sea water flow (100%, 50 bar),
3: Concentrate flow (60%, 48 bar),
4: Fresh water flow (40%, 1 bar),
5: Concentrate to drain (60%,1 bar),
A: Pressure recovery pump,
B: Osmosis unit with membrane

Energy recovery can reduce energy consumption by 50% or more. Much of the high
pressure pump input energy can be recovered from the concentrate flow, and the
increasing efficiency of energy recovery devices has greatly reduced the energy needs
of reverse osmosis desalination. Devices used, in order of invention, are:

 Turbine or Pelton wheel: a water turbine driven by the concentrate flow, connected

to the high pressure pump drive shaft to provide part of its input power. Positive
displacement axial piston motors have also been used in place of turbines on
smaller systems.
 Turbocharger: a water turbine driven by the concentrate flow, directly connected to
a centrifugal pump which boosts the high pressure pump output pressure, reducing
the pressure needed from the high pressure pump and thereby its energy input,
similar in construction principle to car engine turbochargers.
 Pressure exchanger: using the pressurized concentrate flow, in direct contact or via
a piston, to pressurize part of the membrane feed flow to near concentrate flow
pressure. A boost pump then raises this pressure by typically 3 bar / 50 psi to the
membrane feed pressure. This reduces flow needed from the high-pressure pump
by an amount equal to the concentrate flow, typically 60%, and thereby its energy
input. These are widely used on larger low-energy systems. They are capable of 3
kWh/m3 or less energy consumption.
 Energy-recovery pump: a reciprocating piston pump having the pressurized
concentrate flow applied to one side of each piston to help drive the membrane feed
flow from the opposite side. These are the simplest energy recovery devices to
apply, combining the high pressure pump and energy recovery in a single self-
regulating unit. These are widely used on smaller low-energy systems. They are
capable of 3 kWh/m3 or less energy consumption.
 Batch operation: Reverse-osmosis systems run with a fixed volume of fluid
(thermodynamically a closed system) do not suffer from wasted energy in the brine
stream, as the energy to pressurize a virtually incompressible fluid (water) is
negligible. Such systems have the potential to reach second-law efficiencies of 60%.
[1]
Remineralisation and pH adjustment
The desalinated water is stabilized to protect downstream pipelines and storage, usually
by adding lime or caustic soda to prevent corrosion of concrete-lined surfaces. Liming
material is used to adjust pH between 6.8 and 8.1 to meet the potable water
specifications, primarily for effective disinfection and for corrosion control.
Remineralisation may be needed to replace minerals removed from the water by
desalination. Although this process has proved to be costly and not very convenient if it
is intended to meet mineral demand by humans and plants. The very same mineral
demand that freshwater sources provided previously. For instance water from Israel's
national water carrier typically contains dissolved magnesium levels of 20 to 25 mg/liter,
while water from the Ashkelon plant has no magnesium. After farmers used this water,
magnesium-deficiency symptoms appeared in crops, including tomatoes, basil, and
flowers, and had to be remedied by fertilization. Current Israeli drinking water standards
set a minimum calcium level of 20 mg/liter. The postdesalination treatment in the
Ashkelon plant uses sulfuric acid to dissolve calcite (limestone), resulting in calcium
concentration of 40 to 46 mg/liter. This is still lower than the 45 to 60 mg/liter found in
typical Israeli fresh water.

Disinfection
Post-treatment consists of preparing the water for distribution after filtration. Reverse
osmosis is an effective barrier to pathogens, but post-treatment provides secondary
protection against compromised membranes and downstream problems. Disinfection by
means of ultraviolet (UV) lamps (sometimes called germicidal or bactericidal) may be
employed to sterilize pathogens which bypassed the reverse-osmosis
process. Chlorination or chloramination (chlorine and ammonia) protects against
pathogens which may have lodged in the distribution system downstream, such as from
new construction, backwash, compromised pipes, etc.[24]

Disadvantages
Household reverse-osmosis units use a lot of water because they have low back
pressure. As a result, they recover only 5 to 15% of the water entering the system. The
remainder is discharged as waste water. Because waste water carries with it the rejected
contaminants, methods to recover this water are not practical for household systems.
Wastewater is typically connected to the house drains and will add to the load on the
household septic system. A reverse-osmosis unit delivering 19 liters (5.0 U.S. gal) of
treated water per day may discharge between 75 and 340 liters (20 and 90 U.S. gal) of
waste water daily.[25] This has a disastrous consequence for mega cities like Delhi where
large-scale use of household R.O. devices has increased the total water demand of the
already water parched National Capital Territory of India.[26]
Large-scale industrial/municipal systems recover typically 75% to 80% of the feed water,
or as high as 90%, because they can generate the high pressure needed for higher
recovery reverse osmosis filtration. On the other hand, as recovery of wastewater
increases in commercial operations, effective contaminant removal rates tend to become
reduced, as evidenced by product water total dissolved solids levels.
Reverse osmosis per its construction removes both harmful contaminants present in the
water, as well as some desirable minerals. Modern studies on this matter have been
quite shallow, citing lack of funding and interest in such study, as re-mineralization on
the treatment plants today is done to prevent pipeline corrosion without going into human
health aspect. They do, however link to older, more thorough studies that at one hand
show some relation between long-term health effects and consumption of water low on
calcium and magnesium, on the other confess that none of these older studies comply to
modern standards of research [27]

Waste-stream considerations
Depending upon the desired product, either the solvent or solute stream of reverse
osmosis will be waste. For food concentration applications, the concentrated solute
stream is the product and the solvent stream is waste. For water treatment applications,
the solvent stream is purified water and the solute stream is concentrated waste.[28] The
solvent waste stream from food processing may be used as reclaimed water, but there
may be fewer options for disposal of a concentrated waste solute stream. Ships may
use marine dumping and coastal desalination plants typically use marine outfalls.
Landlocked reverse osmosis plants may require evaporation ponds or injection wells to
avoid polluting groundwater or surface runoff.[29]