IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS (UNIT 1 TO UNIT 4)

Ques. Evolution of Computer.

Ans. DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER

Actually speaking electronic data processing does not go back more than just half a centaury i.e. they
are in existence merely from early 1940’s. In early days when our ancestor used to reside in cave the
counting was a problem. Still it is stated becoming difficult.

When they started using stone to count their animals or the possession they never knew that this day
will lead to a computer of today. People today started following a set of procedure to perform
calculation with these stones, which later led to creation of a digital counting device, which was the
predecessor the first calculating device invented, was know as ABACUS.

THE ABACUS

Abacus is known to be the first mechanical calculating device. Which was used to be performed addition
and subtraction easily and speedily? This device was a first develop Ed by the Egyptians in the 10th
century B.C, but it was given it final shape in the 12th century A.D. by the Chinese educationists.

Abacus is made up of wooden frame in which rod where fitted across with rounds beads sliding on the
rod. It id dividing into two parts called ‘Heaven’ and ‘Earth’. Heaven was the upper part and Earth was
the lower one. Thus any no. can be represented by placing the beads at proper place.

NAPIER’S BONES

As the necessity demanded, scientist started inventing better calculating device. In thus process John
Napier’s of Scotland invented a calculating device, in the year 1617 called the Napier Bones.

In the device, Napier’s used the bone rods of the counting purpose where some no. is printed on these
rods. These rods that one can do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division easily.

PASCAL’S CALCULATOR

In the year 1642, Blaise Pascal a French scientist invented an adding machine called Pascal’s calculator,
which represents the position of digit with the help of gears in it.

LEIBNZ CALCULATOR

In the year 1671, a German mathematics, Gottfried Leibniz modified the Pascal calculator and he
developed a machine which could perform various calculation based on multiplication and division as
well.

ANALYTICAL ENGINE
In the year 1833, a scientist form England knows to be Charles Babbage invented such a machine. Which
could keep our data safely? This device was called Analytical engine and it deemed the first mechanical
computer.

It included such feature which is used in today’s computer language. For this great invention of the
computer, Sir Charles Babbage is also known as the father of the computer.

Ques. Generations of Computer.

GENERATION OF COMPUTER

As the time passed, the device of more suitable and reliable machine was need which could perform our
work more quickly. During this time, in the year 1946, the first successful electronic computer called
ENIAC was developed and it was the starting point of the current generation of computer

FIRST GENRATION

ENIAC was the world first successful electronic computer which was develops by the two scientists
namely J. P. Eckert and J. W. Mauchy. It was the beginning of first generation computer. The full form of
ENIAC is “Electronic Numeric Integrated And Calculator” ENIAC was a very huge and big computer and
its weight was 30 tones. It could store only limited or small amount of information. Initially in the first
generation computer the concept of vacuum tubes was used. A vacuum tube was such an electronic
component which had very less work efficiency and so it could not work properly and it required a large
cooling system.

SECOND GENERATION

As the development moved further, the second generation computers knocked the door. In this
generation, transistors were used as the electronic component instead of vaccum tubes .A transistors is
much smaller in the size than that of a vaccum tube. As the size of electrons components decreased
from vaccum tube of transistor, the size of computer also decreased and it became much smaller than
that of earlier computer.

THIRD GENERATION

The third generation computers were invented in the year 1964. In this generation of computer, IC
(Integrated circuits) was used as the electronic component for computers. The development of IC gave
birth to a new field of microelectronics. The main advantage of IC is not only its small size but its
superior performance and reliability than the previous circuits. It was first developed by T.S Kilby. This
generation of computer has huge storage capacity and higher calculating speed.

FOURTH GENERATION

This is the generation where we are working today. The computers which we see around us belong to
the fourth generation computers. ‘Micro processor’ is the main concept behind this generation of
computer.
A microprocessor is a single chip (L.S.I circuit), which is used in a computer for any arithmetical or logical
functions to be performed in any program. The honaur of developing microprocessor goes to Ted Hoff of
U.S.A. He developed first micro-processor, the Intel 4004, as he was working for Intel Corporation, U.S.A
with the use of microprocessor in the fourth generation computers, the size of computer become very
fast and efficient.

It is evident that the next generation of computer i.e. fifth generation will be developed soon. In that
generation, computer will possess artificial intelligence and it would be able to take self decisions like a
human being.

Ques. Explain the Following terms: DATA, INSTRUCTION/PROCESSING,

INFORMATION.

DATA

“Data” is nothing but a mare collection of basic facts and figure without any sequence. When the data is
collected as facts and figure, it has no meaning at that time, for example, name of student, names of
employees etc.

PROCESSING

‘Processing’ is the set of instruction given by the user or the related data to output the meaningful
information. Which can be used by the user? The work of processing may be the calculation,
comparisons or the decision taken by the computer.

INFORMATION

‘Information ’is the end point or the final output of any processed work. When the output data is
meaning it is called information

Ques. what are the uses of Computers?

USES OF A COMPUTER

A computer is used in all human life. It has revolutionized all phases of human activities. The most
important have been given as follows:

Routine job handling

the routine classical and stenotype jobs calculating and formality bits, salaries, updating stocks, tax
return, reservation records and information.

Traffic control

Controlling traffic, traffic lights. Television cameras are used to maintain traffic light routine.
Electronic money

Automatic tellers machine (ATM) is very common in banks. You can deposit and withdraw money with
the ATM.

Electronic office

All type information are stored, manipulated and utilized in the electronic form. A document is sent to
different place with FAX, internet and e-mail.

Industrial Application

It plays an important role in production control. It is bringing efficiency it trade and industry.

Telephones

With help computerized telephone through satellites STD and IST services have been introduced. It
maintains the record of calls and does the billing for you.

Trade

Every type of trade computer is used successfully. It is used in Banks, stock exchanges to control stocks
and accounts.

Scientific research

In every science, the research work becomes economical from time, energy, money point of new. A
large data is analyzed very quickly.

Medicine

There is wide use in medical science e. g. ECG, CAT scan, Ultra sound. The proper and accounts diagnosis
is done with the help of computer. The medical apparatus are controlling computerized.

Space Science

The satellite controlling I the space with the help of computer. The information’s are collected by using
the computer from the space satellite.

Publication

The composing work is done speedily and economical with the help of computer. The designing work is
also done by computer. The quality is maintained is publication by computer.

Communications

The computer is used for sending message example printer, FAX, e-mail, Internet. The import and export
work is done on internet.
Film industry

It had influenced film industry such as animation; titling etc.The multimedia approach is used in film
production with the help of computer. The cartoon films are developed by computers.

Ques. Explain Block Diagram of Computer and Function of Different Units of Computer.

Ans.

Ques. Various fields of application of Computers

1- Business

Today, in global markets, it is impossible to run the business without the use of computer technology.
Many business activities are performed very quickly and efficiently by using computers. The
administrative paperwork is also reduced by using computers. Many business use websites to sell their
products and contact their customers.

2- Education

Computers are used in teaching and research. The students can solve different kinds of problems
quickly and efficiently by using computers. They can also collect different information on the Internet.

3- Banks

Computers are widely used in banks. They are used in banks for record keeping and maintaining
accounts of customers. Most of the banks provide the facility of ATMs. The customers can draw money
through ATM card from any branch of that bank (or another bank) at any time of a day.

4- Entertainment

Computers are also playing very important role for the entertainment of human beings. Nowadays,
computer can be used to watch television programs on the Internet. People can also watch movies,
listen music, and play games on the computer. Many computer games and other entertainment
materials of different kinds are available on the Internet.

5- Home

At home, computer is used to maintain personal records and to access much other information on the
Internet. People can also use computer at home for making home budgets etc.

6- Medical

Nearly every area of the medical field uses computers. For example, computers are used for
maintaining patient history & other records. They are also used for patient monitoring and diagnosis of
diseases etc.

Ques. Block diagram of Computer and various fields and its functioning.

A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve highly complicated problems
quickly and accurately. A computer as shown in Fig. performs basically five major computer operations
or functions irrespective of their size and make. These are:

1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input,

2) it stores data,

3) it can process data as required by the user,

4) it gives results in the form of output, and

5) it controls all operations inside a computer.

We discuss below each of these Computer operations

Block Diagram of Computer and Explain its Various Components

Fig : Basic computer Operations

1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should know
that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data and
performs some processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the
computer in an organized manner for processing.

2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to be
fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central
Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore
the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the
primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for
storing data and instructions.

The storage unit performs the following major functions:

• All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.

• Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and
makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then
sent back to the storage unit.

4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Similarly
the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the
computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the
computer for further processing.

5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed.
Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes
care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer.

FUNCTIONAL UNITS

In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates the task
between its various functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate units for its
operation. They are

1) arithmetic logical unit

2) control unit.

3) central processing unit.

Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) Logical Unit

Logical Unit :After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The
actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major
operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and
comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the output is
returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.

Control Unit (CU)

The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that things
are done in proper fashion. Control Unit is responsible for co ordinating various operations using time
signal. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are
executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the
instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them. It also acts as a
switch board operator when several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates
the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform the input and output.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You may call
CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all
sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling
the operations.

Ques. Advantages and Limitations of Computer.

Characteristics of Computer System:

A computer system is better than human beings in a way that it possesses the following
capabilities:

(i) Speed:

Speed is the amount of time taken by the computer in accomplishing a task of an operation.
The time taken by a computer to perform a particular task is far less than that taken by than a
human being. Different computers are classified on the basis of their speed by comparing
their MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second).

(ii) Accuracy:

Accuracy refers to the degree of correctness and exactness of operations performed by a

computer. In the absence of bad programming, computers do not commit errors and are
capable of handling complex instructions accurately. If the data fed into a computer is not
error free, it is likely to produce inaccurate results.

(iii) Reliability:

Computer systems are non-respondent to human factors like fatigue, tiredness or boredom.
Therefore, they are more likely to work repeatedly and efficiently. In case of any failure in a
computer system, there are provisions for immediate backup of information and programs.
(iv) Versatility:

Computers are capable of performing all levels of tasks- simple or complex. Therefore, they
can be used in any area-science, technology, business, finance, accounts, communications
and so on.

(v) Storage

It refers to the capacity of a computer to store data and programs. Storage is done in storage
media such as CDs, Floppies, DVDs, RAM (Random Access Memory), ROM (Read Only
Memory).

Limitations of a Computer System:

Although a computer is far better in performance than a human being, it fails in certain ways
as follows:

(i) Computers can’t Think:

Computers cannot think and they can’t do any job unless they are first programmed with
specific instructions for same. They work as per stored instructions. Algorithms are designed
by humans to make a computer perform a special task. This is also called artificial
intelligence.

(ii) Computers can’t Decide:

Computers are incapable of decision making as they do not possess the essential elements
necessary to take a decision i.e. knowledge, information, wisdom, intelligence and the ability
to judge.

(iii) Computers can’t Express their Ideas:

In any type of research ideas plays a vital role. In this context, computers can’t express their
ideas.

(iv) Computers can’t Implement:

Though computers are helpful in storage of data and can contain the contents of
encyclopedias even, but only humans can decide and implement the policies.

Ques. What is Computer Software and explain its Types.

Types of Software

Software is generally classified into two groups – system software and application software.
Some people prefer three types: system, application and utilities.

System Software

System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the individual
hardware components of a computer system so that other software and the users of the
system see it as a functional unit without having to be concerned with the low-level details such
as transferring data from memory to disk, or rendering text onto a display. Generally, system
software consists of an operating system and some fundamental utilities such as disk
formatters, file managers, display managers, text editors, user authentication (login) and
management tools, and networking and device control software.

There are three type of software under system software: Operating Systems, Language &
Language Processors and Utilities

operating system (OS)

An operating system (OS) is a set of software that manages computer hardware resources and
provides common services for computer programs. The operating system is a vital component
of the system software in a computer system. Application programs require an operating
system to function.

The operating system is the most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-
purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating systems
perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display
screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such
as disk drives and printers.

Operating systems can be classified as follows:

Multi-user operating system : Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time.
Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.

Multiprocessing operating system: Supports running a program on more than one CPU.

Multitasking operating system: Allows more than one program to run concurrently.

Multithreading operating system: Allows different parts of a single program to run

concurrently.

Real time operating system: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems,
such as DOS, Windows and UNIX, are not real-time.
Language and Language Processors

A programming language is a computer language programmers use to develop applications,

scripts, or other set of instructions for a computer to execute. Programming languages such as
C, C#, Java, Visual Basic are used to develop applications; AIML, Prolog, C, C++ are used for
artificial intelligence development, Dbase, FoxPro, MyJSql, Sql etc. are used for database
development; Assembly language, C are used to develop computer device drivers or other
hardware interface development; HTML, Java, JavaScript, Perl, PHP, XML are used for internet
and web page development and so on.

There are 2 types of computer languages: low level language and High level language.

Low Level Language

Machine language and assembly language are called low level language because they are used
to write programs that deal with the low level tasks such as transferring data from memory to
disk, or rendering text onto a display. Low level language is machine dependent i.e. a program
written for one type of computer does not work on other computers. You need to know the
details of a computer rather than problem for which you are writing programs.

Machine Language

The lowest-level programming language. Machine languages are the only languages
understood by computers. While easily understood by computers, machine languages are
almost impossible for humans to use because they consist entirely of numbers. It is tiresome
and error prone to program in machine language. Programmers, therefore, use either a high-
level programming language or an assembly language.

Every CPU has its own unique machine language. Because machine language is directly
understood by computer you don’t need to convert it to run.

Assembly Language

Assembly languages are between machine languages and high-level languages. Assembly
languages are similar to machine languages, but they are much easier to program in because
they allow a programmer to substitute names for numbers. Machine languages consist of
numbers only.

So, assembly language is a much more readable rendition of machine language. It uses
mnemonic codes to refer to machine code instructions, rather than using the instructions’
numeric values directly.

Assembly language is the most basic programming language available for any processor. With
assembly language, a programmer works only with operations implemented directly on the
physical CPU. Assembly language lacks high-level conveniences such as variables and functions,
and it is not portable between various families of processors.

High Level Language

High level language is a machine-independent programming language, such as C, C++, Java, Perl
and COBOL. It lets the programmer concentrate on the logic of the problem to be solved rather
than the intricacies of the machine architecture such as is required with low-level assembly
languages.

High level languages uses English like statements and mathematical notations. Because a
programmer now does not need to remember the machine architecture and operations
implemented directly on the physical CPU, high level languages are machine independent. They
are often called problem oriented languages or business oriented language.

High level languages were developed towards the end of second generation of computers
(COBOL and FORTRAN) and flourished during third and fourth generations. Pascal, C, C++, C#,
LISP, Java, Basic etc. are the examples of high level language.

Compiler

A compiler is a language processor that converts the instruction of a high level language into
machine language as a whole. Programs written in high level language is called source program
and after it is converted into machine language by the compiler, it is called an object program.

Compiler checks each statement in the source program to generate machine instructions. Any
syntax errors if existing in source program are discovered while analyzing. A source program
containing an error cannot be compiled into an object program.

Each high level language has its own compiler. A compiler can translate the programs of only
that language for which it is written. For example C++ compiler can translate only those
programs, which are written in C++.

Interpreter

An interpreter is a language processor that converts one statement of high level language
program at a time. It executes this statement before translating the next statement of the
source program. If there is an error in the statement, the interpreter will stop working and
displays an error message.

The advantage of interpreters over compilers is that an error is found immediately. So the
programmer can make corrections during program development. Thus, interpreters are often
used to debug program while debugging.

The disadvantage of interpreter is that it is not very efficient. The interpreter does not produce
an object program. It must convert the program each time it is executed. Visual basic uses
interpreter.

Utilities

Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a
computer. Utility or a tool is the term used for a single piece of utility software. Utility software
are also referred to as service program, tool, service routine, or utility routine.

Utility software usually focuses on how the computer infrastructure (including the computer
hardware, operating system, application software, and data storage) operates. Utility software
is often targeted at technical people with an advanced level of computer knowledge.

Ques. What is Computer Memory and explain its types.

Computer Memory

Computer memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of
small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to
memory size minus one.

Memory is an essential element of a computer. Without its memory, a computer is of hardly

any use. Memory plays an important role in saving and retrieving data. The performance of the
computer system depends upon the size of the memory. Memory is of following types:

1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory.

2. Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory.

1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory: Primary Memory is internal memory of the computer.
RAM AND ROM both form part of primary memory. The primary memory provides main
working space to the computer.The following terms comes under primary memory of a
computer are discussed below:

Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as random access memory
(RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any location of the memory directly
store and retrieve data. It takes same time to any address of the memory as the first address. It
is also called read/write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the primary
storage is temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched
off. The memories, which lose their content on failure of power supply, are known as volatile
memories .So now we can say that RAM is volatile memory.

Read Only Memory (ROM): There is another memory in computer, which is called Read Only
Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage of program
and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM stores some standard processing programs
supplied by the manufacturers to operate the personal computer. The ROM can only be read by
the CPU but it cannot be changed. The basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that
examines and initializes various equipment attached to the PC when the power switch is ON.
The memories, which do not lose their content on failure of power supply, are known as non-
volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.

PROM: There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called Programmable
Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify or erase programs
stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to store your program in PROM chip. Once the
programmers’ are written it cannot be changed and remain intact even if power is switched off.
Therefore programs or instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot be erased or changed.

EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which overcome the
problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by erasing the
information stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM exposing the chip for some time
ultraviolet light and it erases chip is reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When
the EPROM is in use information can only be read.

Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main
memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory.
To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU
and Main memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called
CACHE memory. CACHE memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM. It is used
to store programs or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used by the
CPU. So each memory makes main memory to be faster and larger than it really is. It is also very
expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and its size is normally kept small.

Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed; there is also movement of
data between various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer the processed data with high
speed. So the computer uses a number of special memory units called registers. They are not
part of the main memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as
directed by the control unit.

2. Secondary Memory / Non-Volatile Memory: Secondary memory is external and permanent

in nature. The secondary memory is concerned with magnetic memory. Secondary memory can
be stored on storage media like floppy disks, magnetic disks, magnetic tapes, This memory can
also be stored optically on Optical disks - CD-ROM. The following terms comes under secondary
memory of a computer are discussed below:

Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe computers where
large volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PC also you can use tapes in the form of
cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes is inexpensive. Tapes consist of magnetic materials
that store data permanently. It can be 12.5 mm to 25 mm wide plastic film-type and 500 meter
to 1200 meter long which is coated with magnetic material. The deck is connected to the
central processor and information is fed into or read from the tape through the processor. It’s
similar to cassette tape recorder.

Magnetic Disk: You might have seen the gramophone record, which is circular like a disk and
coated with magnetic material. Magnetic disks used in computer are made on the same
principle. It rotates with very high speed inside the computer drive. Data is stored on both the
surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are most popular for direct access storage device. Each disk
consists of a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information is recorded on
tracks of a disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a magnetic spot
represents one bit and its absence represents zero bit. The information stored in a disk can be
read many times without affecting the stored data. So the reading operation is non-destructive.
But if you want to write a new data, then the existing data is erased from the disk and new data
is recorded. For Example-Floppy Disk.

Optical Disk: With every new application and software there is greater demand for memory
capacity. It is the necessity to store large volume of data that has led to the development of
optical disk storage medium. Optical disks can be divided into the following categories:

Compact Disk/ Read Only Memory (CD-ROM)

Write Once, Read Many (WORM)

Erasable Optical Disk

Flash memory

Flash memory is a memory storage device for computers and electronics. It is most often used
in devices like digital cameras, USB flash drives, and video games. It is quite similar to EEPROM.
Flash memory is different from RAM because RAM is volatile (not permanent). When power is
turned off, RAM loses all its data.

The NAND type is primarily used in memory cards, USB flash drives, solid-state drives (those
produced in 2009 or later), and similar products, for general storage and transfer of data. NAND
or NOR flash memory is also often used to store configuration data in numerous digital
products, a task previously made possible by EEPROM or battery-powered static RAM. One key
disadvantage of flash memory is that it can endure relatively small number of write cycles in a
specific block.

Ques. What is the difference between SASD and DASD.

DASD (direct access storage device)

DASD, pronounced DAZ-dee (Direct access storage device), is a general term for magnetic disk
storage devices. The term has historically been used in the mainframe and minicomputer (mid-
range computer) environments and is sometimes used to refer to hard disk drives for personal
computers. A redundant array of independent disks (RAID) is also a type of DASD.

The "direct access" means that all data can be accessed directly in about the same amount of
time rather than having to progress sequentially through the data.

A direct-access storage device (DASD) is another name for secondary storage devices that store
data in discrete locations with a unique address, such as hard disk drives, optical drives and
most magnetic storage devices.

It is a technology and term coined for storage devices that IBM developed for use with
mainframe computers and some microcomputers. These developed into the modern hard disk
and its variants like the optical disk, which today we would simply call secondary storage.

Direct-access storage devices allow the host computer to access data directly from wherever it
is stored within the storage device because each data chunk is saved in a discrete and separate
location from other chunks, complete with a unique address. This allows the computer to
directly point to that location to get the data. Access methods include indexed, sequential and
direct (incorrectly referred as random access).

Modern DASDs are internal and external hard disk drives that connect directly to the host
computer via an IDE, SATA, eSATA, USB or FireWire interface. Unlike network-attached storage
(NAS), DASDs become inaccessible once the device they are connected to goes offline.

SASD (Sequential access memory)

In computing, sequential access memory (SAM) is a class of data storage devices that read
stored data in a sequence. This is in contrast to random access memory (RAM) where data can
be accessed in any order. Sequential access devices are usually a form of magnetic storage.

While sequential access memory is read in sequence, accesses can still be made to arbitrary
locations by "seeking" to the requested location. This operation, however, is often relatively
inefficient (see seek time, rotational latency).

Magnetic sequential access memory is typically used for secondary storage in general-purpose
computers due to their higher density at lower cost compared to RAM, as well as resistance to
wear and non-volatility. Examples of SAM devices still in use include hard disks, CD-ROMs and
magnetic tapes. Historically, drum memory has also been used.

Some programming languages and operating systems distinguish between sequential-access

data files and random-access data files, allowing you to choose between the two types.
Sequential-access files are faster if you always access records in the same order. Random-
access files are faster if you need to read or write records in a random order.

Devices can also be classified as sequential access or random access. For example, a tape drive
is a sequential-access device because to get to point q on the tape, the drive needs to pass
through points a through p. A disk drive, on the other hand, is a random-access device because
the drive can access any point on the disk without passing through all intervening points.

sequential access means that a group of elements (such as data in a memory array or a disk file
or on magnetic tape data storage) is accessed in a predetermined, ordered sequence.
Sequential access is sometimes the only way of accessing the data, for example if it is on a tape.
It may also be the access method of choice, for example if all that is wanted is to process a
sequence of data elements in order.

Ques. What is Operating System and its types.

An operating system or simply an OS is a software program that enables the communication and
operation of the computer hardware and computer software. Without the operating system, all
components of a computer such as hardware and software will be useless and a computer without an OS
is just a dumb metal. In other words, an OS describes a software program, which designed to run all other
software programs on a computer. In a pure techie perspective, the OS is the backbone of a computer,
which manages both hardware and software resources. The OS is comprised of system software and all
the fundamental files a computer needs while booting. Devices such as   desktop computer, laptop, tablet
and a smartphone use an OS that facilitates the basic functionality that the device needs while startup.

The most common operating systems includes the Windows family of operating systems developed by
Microsoft, the Macintosh OS from Apple and the UNIX family of operating systems and many other
special purpose operating systems that are used with mainframes, robotics, real-time control systems,
manufacturing etc

Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to
operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of
resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of
embedded operating systems.
Real-time[edit]
A real-time operating system is an operating system that guarantees to process events or data within a certain short
amount of time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, it uses
specialized scheduling algorithms so that a deterministic nature of behavior is achieved. An event-driven system
switches between tasks based on their priorities or external events while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks
based on clock interrupts.[citation needed]

Library[edit]
A library operating system is one in which the services that a typical operating system provides, such as networking,
are provided in the form of libraries. These libraries are composed with the application and configuration code to
construct unikernels — which are specialised, single address space, machine images that can be deployed to cloud
or embedded environments.

Real-time operating systems[edit]

Main article: Real-time operating system

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system intended for applications with fixed deadlines (real-time
computing). Such applications include some small embedded systems, automobile engine controllers, industrial
robots, spacecraft, industrial control, and some large-scale computing systems.

An early example of a large-scale real-time operating system was Transaction Processing Facility developed

by American Airlines and IBM for the Sabre Airline Reservations System.

Embedded systems that have fixed deadlines use a real-time operating system such
as VxWorks, PikeOS, eCos, QNX, MontaVista Linux and RTLinux. Windows CE is a real-time operating system that
shares similar APIs to desktop Windows but shares none of desktop Windows' codebase.[citation needed] Symbian OS also
has an RTOS kernel (EKA2) starting with version 8.0b.

Some embedded systems use operating systems such as Palm OS, BSD, and Linux, although such operating
systems do not support real-time computing.

Ques. What is Booting Process. Explain booting sequence steps.

What is Booting Sequence?

Basically documents related to booting are generally confusing as they are often related
to some specific operating system that is Linux machine or Windows machine. But I will
keep it as general as possible.
sequence comprises of the following steps:
·         Turn on the Power button.
·         CPU pins are reset and registers are set to specific value.
·         CPU jump to address of BIOS (0xFFFF0).
·         BIOS run POST (Power-On Self Test) and other necessary checks.
·         BIOS jumps to MBR(Master Boot Record).
·         Primary Bootloader runs from MBR and jumps to Secondary Bootloader.
·         Secondary Bootloaders loads Operating System.

Ques. Whai is POST.

·         POST- Power on Self Test is the foremost routine which checks and tests the basic
hardware. If it fails then it displays error.
·         Initialization of the hardware devices by letting them run their individual BIOS( eg.
video card have their own inbuilt BIOS code).
·         Searching for the Master Boot Record and reading it.
·         Copying the boot sector code to RAM and then switching the control to it.

Ques. What is Computer Network and explain its types.

Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers and associated

devices that share a common communications line or wireless link
to a server. Typically, a LAN encompasses computers and
peripherals connected to a server within a small geographic area
such as an office building or home. Computers and other mobile
devices can share resources such as a printer or network storage.

Usually, the server has applications and data storage that are shared in

common by multiplecomputer users.

A local area network may serve as few as two or three users (for
example, in a home network) or as many hundreds of users. Ethernet
and Wi-Fi are the two most commonly used LAN technologies. Other
LAN technologies, includingToken Ring, Fiber Distributed Data
Interfaceand ARCNET have lost favor as Ethernet and Wi-Fi speeds
have increased. The rise of virtualization has fueled the development
ofvirtual LANs (VLANs) which allows network administrators to logically
group network nodes and partition their networks without the need for
major infrastructure changes.

Typically, a suite of application programs can be kept on the LAN server.

Users who need an application frequently can download it once and then
run it from their local device. Users can order printing and other services
as needed through applications run on the LAN server. A user can share
files with others stored on the LAN server; read and write access is
maintained by a network administrator. A LAN server may also be used
as a Web server if safeguards are taken to secure internal applications
and data from outside access.
In some situations, a wireless LAN, or Wi-Fi, may be preferable to a
wired LAN because of its flexibility and cost. Companies are assessing
WLANs as a replacement for their wired infrastructures as the number
of smartphones, tablets and other mobile devices proliferates.

Metropolitan Area Network

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is one of a number of types of networks (see
also LAN and WAN). A MAN is a relatively new class of network, it serves a role
similar to an ISP, but for corporate users with large LANs. There are three important
features which discriminate MANs from LANs or WANs:
 The network size falls intermediate between LANs and WANs. A MAN
typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter. Many MANs cover
an area the size of a city, although in some cases MANs may be as small as a
group of buildings or as large as the North of Scotland.
 A MAN (like a WAN) is not generally owned by a single organisation. The
MAN, its communications links and equipment are generally owned by either a
consortium of users or by a single network provider who sells the service to the
users. This level of service provided to each user must therefore be negotiated
with the MAN operator, and some performance guarantees are normally
specified.
 A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional
resources (similar to a large LAN). It is also frequently used to provide a shared
connection to other networks using a link to a WAN.
Wide Area Network
A wide area network (WAN) is a geographically dispersed
telecommunications network. The term distinguishes a broader
telecommunication structure from a local area network (LAN). A wide
area network may be privately owned or rented, but the term usually
connotes the inclusion of public (shared user) networks. An intermediate
form of network in terms of geography is a metropolitan area network
(MAN).
 A WAN spans a large geographic area, such as a state, province or country.
WANs often connect multiple smaller networks, such as local area
networks (LANs) or metro area networks (MANs).
The world's most popular WAN is the Internet. Some segments of the Internet,
like VPN-basedextranets, are also WANs in themselves. Finally, manyWANs are
corporate or research networks that utilize leased lines.
WANs generally utilize different and much more expensive networking equipment
than do LANs. Key technologies often found in WANs include SONET, Frame
Relay, and ATM.

A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire country or the
entire world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs. The
Internet is the best-known example of a public WAN.

Ques. What is Analog and Digital Signals. Explain its Synchronization Types also.

Synchronous transmission
 Asynchronous transmission is used only when the rate at which characters generated is
unknown or the transmission data rate is too low. For the transmission of a large block of data at
relatively higher bit rates, synchronous transmission is used. In synchronous mode, the sending
and receiving devices are synchronized with a common clock signal. This eliminates the need for
the start and stop bits. The complete block of data is transmitted with fixed time interval
between the bits. Before the start of transmission, clocks at both ends are to be synchronized.
This is achieved by sending special character bytes called sync bytes or sync characters between
the sender and the receiver. The sender informs the receiver about the start of a block. The
receiver figures out the start of each character by knowing the coding scheme used. If the sender
is idle or does not transmit any character, the receiver searches for the next group of sync
characters. The devices are then resynchronized to receive the next block of characters. The
block length varies from few bytes to many hundreds of bytes. The most commonly
used protocol is the BISYNC or Bit Synchronous Protocol.

Asynchronous transmission
Asynchronous mode is also known as start-stop mode. This mode is used when data to
be transmitted is generated at random intervals. For example, when a user
communicates with a computer using a keyboard, the time interval between two
successive keystrokes is random. This means that the signal on the transmission line
will be in idle state for a long time interval between characters. With this type of
communication, the receiver must be able to resynchronize at the start of each new
character received. To accomplish this, each transmitted character or byte is
encapsulated between an additional start bit and one or more stop bits. This mode is
mainly used for the transmission of characters between a keyboard and a computer.
Asynchronous transmission can also be used for the transmission of a block of
characters or bytes between two computers. The time interval between successive
characters is a variable entity.
Ques. What is Topology and explain its types.

Network topology 
Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer
network. Essentially, it is thetopological[3] structure of a network and may be depicted physically
or logically. Physical topology is the placement of the various components of a network,
including device location and cable installation, while logical topology illustrates how data flows
within a network, regardless of its physical design. Distances between nodes, physical
interconnections, transmission rates, or signal types may differ between two networks, yet their
topologies may be identical.

An example is a local area network (LAN): Any given node in the LAN has one or more physical
links to other devices in the network; graphically mapping these links results in a geometric
shape that can be used to describe the physical topology of the network. Conversely, mapping
the data flow between the components determines the logical topology of the network.

Point-to-point[edit]
The simplest topology with a dedicated link between two endpoints. Switched point-to-
point topologies are the basic model of conventional telephony. The value of a permanent point-
to-point network is unimpeded communications between the two endpoints. The value of an on-
demand point-to-point connection is proportional to the number of potential pairs of subscribers
and has been expressed as Metcalfe's Law.

Permanent (dedicated)

Easiest to understand, of the variations of point-to-point topology, is a point-to-

point communications channel that appears, to the user, to be permanently associated
with the two endpoints. A children's tin can telephone is one example of a physical
dedicated channel.
Within many switched telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a
permanent circuit. One example might be a telephone in the lobby of a public building,
which is programmed to ring only the number of a telephone dispatcher. "Nailing down"
a switched connection saves the cost of running a physical circuit between the two
points. The resources in such a connection can be released when no longer needed, for
example, a television circuit from a parade route back to the studio.
Switched:

Using circuit-switching or packet-switching technologies, a point-to-point circuit can be

set up dynamically and dropped when no longer needed. This is the basic mode of
conventional telephony.
Bus[edit]
In local area networks where bus topology is used, each node is connected to a single
cable, by the help of interface connectors.This central cable is the backbone of the
network and is known as the bus (thus the name). A signal from the source travels in
both directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the intended
recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the
machine ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data matches the machine address, the
data is accepted. Because the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is rather
inexpensive to implement when compared to other topologies. However, the low cost of
implementing the technology is offset by the high cost of managing the network.
Additionally, because only one cable is utilized, it can be the single point of failure.
Linear bus
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a
common transmission medium which has exactly two endpoints (this is the 'bus', which
is also commonly referred to as the backbone, or trunk) – all data that
is transmittedbetween nodes in the network is transmitted over this common
transmission medium and is able to be received by all nodes in the network
simultaneously.

Distributed bus
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a
common transmission medium which has more than two endpoints that are created by
adding branches to the main section of the transmission medium – the physical
distributed bus topology functions in exactly the same fashion as the physical linear bus
topology (i.e., all nodes share a common transmission medium).
Star
In local area networks with a star topology, each network host is connected to a central
hub with a point-to-point connection. So it can be said that every computer is indirectly
connected to every other node with the help of the hub. In Star topology every node
(computer workstation or any other peripheral) is connected to a central node called hub,
router or switch. The switch is the server and the peripherals are the clients. The
network does not necessarily have to resemble a star to be classified as a star network,
but all of the nodes on the network must be connected to one central device. All traffic
that traverses the network passes through the central hub. The hub acts as a signal
repeater. The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement.
An advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding additional nodes. The
primary disadvantage of the star topology is that the hub represents a single point of
failure.
Extended star

A type of network topology in which a network that is based upon the physical star
topology has one or more repeaters between the central node and the peripheral or
'spoke' nodes, the repeaters being used to extend the maximum transmission distance
of the point-to-point links between the central node and the peripheral nodes beyond that
which is supported by the transmitter power of the central node or beyond that which is
supported by the standard upon which the physical layer of the physical star network is
based.
If the repeaters in a network that is based upon the physical extended star topology are
replaced with hubs or switches, then a hybrid network topology is created that is referred
to as a physical hierarchical star topology, although some texts make no distinction
between the two topologies.
 Distributed Star

A type of network topology that is composed of individual networks that are based upon
the physical star topology connected in a linear fashion – i.e., 'daisy-chained' – with no
central or top level connection point (e.g., two or more 'stacked' hubs, along with their
associated star connected nodes or 'spokes').
Ring
A network topology is set up in a circular fashion in such a way that they make a closed
loop. This way data travels around the ring in one direction and each device on the ring
acts as a repeater to keep the signal strong as it travels. Each device incorporates a
receiver for the incoming signal and a transmitter to send the data on to the next device
in the ring. The network is dependent on the ability of the signal to travel around the ring.
When a device sends data, it must travel through each device on the ring until it reaches
its destination. Every node is a critical link.[4] In a ring topology, there is no server
computer present; all nodes work as a server and repeat the signal. The disadvantage of
this topology is that if one node stops working, the entire network is affected or stops
working.
Mesh
A fully connected network is a communication network in which each of the nodes is
connected to each other. In graph theory it known as a complete graph. A fully connected
network doesn't need to use switching or broadcasting. However, its major disadvantage is that
the number of connections grows quadratically with the number of nodes, as per the formula
and so it is extremely impractical for large networks. A two-node network is technically a fully
connected network.
Partially connected
The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are connected
to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link – this makes it
possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical fully
connected mesh topology without the expense and complexity required for a connection
between every node in the network.

A tree topology is essentially a combination of bus topology and star topology. The nodes of bus
topology are replaced with standalone star topology networks. This results in both
disadvantages of bus topology and advantages of star topology.
Hybrid[edit]
Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies, in such a way that the
resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). For
example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network topology. A hybrid
topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected. Two
common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring network and star bus network

 A star ring network consists of two or more ring topologies connected using a multistation
access unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.

 A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk (the
bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).
Daisy chain[edit]
Except for star-based networks, the easiest way to add more computers into a network is
by daisy-chaining, or connecting each computer in series to the next. If a message is intended
for a computer partway down the line, each system bounces it along in sequence until it reaches
the destination. A daisy-chained network can take two basic forms: linear and ring.

 A linear topology puts a two-way link between one computer and the next. However, this
was expensive in the early days of computing, since each computer (except for the ones at
each end) required two receivers and two transmitters.

 By connecting the computers at each end, a ring topology can be formed. An advantage of

the ring is that the number of transmitters and receivers can be cut in half, since a message
will eventually loop all of the way around. When a node sends a message, the message is
processed by each computer in the ring. If the ring breaks at a particular link then the
transmission can be sent via the reverse path thereby ensuring that all nodes are always
connected in the case of a single failure.