Spiritoflaws

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Kitchener
2001
Batoche Books
52 Eby Street South
Kitchener, Ontario
N2G 3L1
Canada
email: [email protected]
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Th e Tr a n sla t or t o t h e Rea der . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Th e Spir it of t h e La ws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
P r efa ce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Book I. Of La ws in Gen er a l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Book II. Of La ws Dir ect ly Der ived fr om t h e Na t u r e of Gover n m en t . . . . . . 25
Book III. Of t h e P r in ciples of t h e Th r ee Kin ds of Gover n m en t . . . . . . . . . . 37
Book IV. Th a t t h e La ws of E du ca t ion Ou gh t t o Be in Rela t ion t o t h e P r in ciples
of Gover n m en t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Book V. Th a t t h e La ws Given by t h e Legisla t or Ou gh t t o Be in Rela t ion t o t h e
P r in ciple of Gover n m en t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Book VI. Con sequ en ces of t h e P r in ciples of Differ en t Gover n m en t s wit h Respect
t o t h e Sim plicit y of Civil a n d Cr im in a l La ws, t h e F or m of J u dgm en t s,
a n d t h e In flict in g of P u n ish m en t s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Book VII. Con sequ en ces of t h e Differ en t P r in ciples of t h e Th r ee Gover n m en t s
wit h Respect t o Su m pt u a r y La ws, Lu xu r y, a n d t h e Con dit ion of Wom en .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Book VIII. Of t h e Cor r u pt ion of t h e P r in ciples of t h e Th r ee Gover n m en t s.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Book IX. Of La ws in t h e Rela t ion Th ey Bea r t o a Defen sive F or ce. . . . . . 148
Book X. Of La ws in t h e Rela t ion Th ey Bea r t o Offen sive F or ce. . . . . . . . . 155
Book XI. Of t h e La ws Wh ich E st a blish P olit ica l Liber t y, wit h Rega r d t o t h e
Con st it u t ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Book XII. Of t h e La ws Th a t F or m P olit ica l Liber t y, in Rela t ion t o t h e Su bject .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Book XIII. Of t h e Rela t ion Wh ich t h e Levyin g of Ta xes a n d t h e Gr ea t n ess of t h e
P u blic Reven u es Bea r t o Liber t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Book XIV. Of La ws in Rela t ion t o t h e Na t u r e of t h e Clim a t e . . . . . . . . . . 246
Book XV. In Wh a t Ma n n er t h e La ws of Civil Sla ver y Rela t e t o t h e Na t u r e of t h e
Clim a t e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Book XVI. H ow t h e La ws of Dom est ic Sla ver y Bea r a Rela t ion t o t h e Na t u r e of
t h e Clim a t e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Book XVII. H ow t h e La ws of P olit ica l Ser vit u de Bea r a Rela t ion t o t h e Na t u r e
of t h e Clim a t e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Book XVIII. Of La ws in t h e Rela t ion Th ey Bea r t o t h e Na t u r e of t h e Soil.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Book XIX. Of La ws in Rela t ion t o t h e P r in ciples Wh ich F or m t h e Gen er a l
Spir it , Mor a ls, a n d Cu st om s of a Na t ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Book XX. Of La ws in Rela t ion t o Com m er ce, Con sider ed in it s Na t u r e a n d
Mon t esqu ieu , T h e S pirit of L aw s, 4
Dist in ct ion s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

Book XXI. Of La ws in r ela t ion t o Com m er ce, con sider ed in t h e Revolu t ion s it
h a s m et wit h in t h e Wor ld. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Book XXII. Of La ws in Rela t ion t o t h e Use of Mon ey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Book XXIII. Of La ws in t h e Rela t ion Th ey Bea r t o t h e Nu m ber of In h a bit a n t s
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Book XXIV. Of La ws in r ela t ion t o Religion Con sider ed in It self, a n d in it s
Doct r in es. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Book XXV. Of La ws in Rela t ion t o t h e E st a blish m en t of Religion a n d it s
E xt er n a l P olit y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Book XXVI. Of La ws in Rela t ion t o t h e Or der of Th in gs Wh ich Th ey Det er m in e.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Book XXVII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Book XXVIII. Of t h e Or igin a n d Revolu t ion s of t h e Civil La ws a m on g t h e
F r en ch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Book XXIX. Of t h e Ma n n er of Com posin g La ws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Book XXX. Th eor y of t h e F eu da l La ws a m on g t h e F r a n ks in t h e Rela t ion Th ey
Bea r t o t h e E st a blish m en t of t h e Mon a r ch y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Book XXXI. Th eor y of t h e F eu da l La ws a m on g t h e F r a n ks, in t h e Rela t ion Th ey
Bea r t o t h e Revolu t ion s of t h eir Mon a r ch y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
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Th e followin g wor k m a y wit h t h e st r ict est ju st ice be sa id t o h a ve don e h on ou r
t o h u m a n n a t u r e a s well a s t o t h e gr ea t a bilit ies of t h e a u t h or . Th e wisest a n d
m ost lea r n ed m a n , a n d t h ose m ost dist in gu ish ed by bir t h a n d t h e eleva t ion of
t h eir st a t ion s, h a ve, in ever y cou n t r y in E u r ope, con sider ed it a s a m ost
excellen t per for m a n ce. An d m a y we be per m it t ed t o a dd, t h a t a sover eign
pr in ce 1 a s ju st ly celebr a t ed for h is pr obit y a n d good sen se, a s for h is polit ica l
a n d m ilit a r y skill, h a s decla r ed t h a t fr om M. de Mon t esqu ieu h e h a s lea r n t t h e
a r t of gover n m en t . Bu t h a d t h e illu st r iou s a u t h or r eceived n o su ch
dist in gu ish ed h on ou r , t h e n u m er ou s edit ion s of t h is wor k in F r en ch , a n d t h eir
su dden spr ea din g t h r ou gh a ll E u r ope, a r e a su fficien t t est im on y of t h e h igh
est eem wit h wh ich it h a s been r eceived by t h e pu blic.
Bu t n ot wit h st a n din g t h e deser ved a ppla u se wh ich h a s been so liber a lly
best owed on t h e a u t h or , t h er e h a ve been som e wh o h a ve n ot on ly en dea vou r ed
t o bla st h is la u r els, bu t h a ve t r ea t ed h im wit h a ll t h a t scu r r ilit y wh ich bigot r y
a n d su per st it ion a r e a pt , on ever y occa sion , t o t h r ow ou t a ga in st t r u t h , r ea son
a n d good sen se. Th ese M. de Mon t esqu ieu h a s h im self a n swer ed, in a sepa r a t e
t r ea t ise in t it led, A Defen se of th e S pirit of L aw s, fr om wh en ce we h a ve t h ou gh t
pr oper t o ext r a ct , for t h e sa ke of su ch a s h a ve n ot seen t h a t t r ea t ise, t h e
pr in cipa l of t h ose object ion s, a n d t h e su bst a n ce of wh a t h a s been given in r eply:
On ly fir st obser vin g, t h a t t h is defen se is divided in t o t h r ee pa r t s, in t h e fir st of
wh ich h e a n swer s t h e gen er a l r epr oa ch es t h a t h a ve been t h r own ou t a ga in st
h im ; in t h e secon d h e r eplies t o pa r t icu la r r epr oa ch es; a n d in t h e t h ir d, h e gives
som e r eflect ion s on t h e m a n n er in wh ich h is wor k h a s been cr it icized.
Th e a u t h or fir st com pla in s of h is bein g ch a r ged bot h wit h espou sin g t h e
doct r in es of Spin oza , a n d wit h bein g a Deist , t wo opin ion s dir ect ly con t r a dict or y
t o ea ch ot h er . To t h e for m er of t h ese h e a n swer s, by pla cin g in on e view t h e
sever a l pa ssa ges in t h e Spir it of La ws dir ect ly levelled a ga in st t h e doct r in es of
Spin oza ; a n d t h en h e r eplies t o t h e object ion s t h a t h a ve been m a de t o t h ose
pa ssa ges, u pon wh ich t h is in ju r iou s ch a r ge is fou n ded.
Th e cr it ic a sser t s t h a t ou r a u t h or st u m bles a t h is fir st set t in g ou t , a n d is

offen ded a t h is sa yin g, t h a t La ws in t h eir m ost ext en sive sign ifica t ion , a r e t h e
n ecessa r y r ela t ion s der ived fr om t h e n a t u r e of t h in gs. To t h is h e r eplies, t h a t
t h e cr it ic h a d h ea r d it sa id t h a t Spin oza h a d m a in t a in ed t h a t t h e wor ld wa s
gover n ed by a blin d a n d n ecessa r y pr in ciple; a n d fr om h en ce on seein g t h e wor d
n ecessa r y, h e con clu des t h a t t h is m u st be Spin ozism ; t h o’ wh a t is m ost
su r pr isin g, t h is a r t icle is dir ect ly levelled a t t h e da n ger ou s pr in ciples
m a in t a in ed by Spin oza : Th a t h e h a d H obbes’s syst em in h is eye, a syst em ,
wh ich , a s it m a kes a ll t h e vir t u es a n d vices depen d on t h e est a blish m en t of
h u m a n la ws, a n d a s it wou ld pr ove t h a t m en wer e bor n in a st a t e of wa r , a n d
t h a t t h e fir st la w of n a t u r e is a wa r of a ll a ga in st a ll, over t u r n s, like Spin oza ,
a ll r eligion , a n d a ll m or a lit y. H en ce h e la id down t h is posit ion , t h a t t h er e wer e
la ws of ju st ice a n d equ it y befor e t h e est a blish m en t of posit ive la ws: h en ce a lso
h e h a s pr oved t h a t a ll bein gs h a d la ws; t h a t even befor e t h eir cr ea t ion t h ey h a d
possible la ws; a n d t h a t God h im self h a d la ws, t h a t is, t h e la ws wh ich h e h im self
h a d m a de. H e h a s sh ewn 2 t h a t n ot h in g ca n be m or e fa lse t h a n t h e a sser t ion
t h a t m en wer e bor n in a st a t e of wa r ; a n d h e h a s m a de it a ppea r t h a t wa r s did
n ot com m en ce t ill a ft er t h e est a blish m en t of societ y. H is pr in ciples a r e h er e
ext r em ely clea r ; fr om wh en ce it follows, t h a t a s h e h a s a t t a cked H obbes’s er r or s,
h e h a s con sequ en t ly t h ose of Spin oza ; a n d h e h a s been so lit t le u n der st ood, t h a t
t h ey h a ve t a ken for t h e opin ion s of Spin oza , t h ose ver y object ion s wh ich wer e
m a de a ga in st Spin ozism .
Aga in , t h e a u t h or h a s sa id t h a t t h e cr ea t ion wh ich a ppea r s t o be a n a r bit r a r y
a ct , su pposes la ws a s in va r ia ble a s t h e fa t a lit y of t h e At h eist s. F r om t h ese
wor ds t h e cr it ic con clu des t h a t t h e a u t h or a dm it s t h e fa t a lit y of t h e At h eist s.
To t h is h e a n swer s, t h a t h e h a d ju st befor e dest r oyed t h is fa t a lit y, by
r epr esen t in g it a s t h e gr ea t est a bsu r dit y t o su ppose t h a t a blin d fa t a lit y wa s
ca pa ble of pr odu cin g in t elligen t bein gs. Besides, in t h e pa ssa ge h er e cen su r ed,
h e ca n on ly be m a de t o sa y wh a t h e r ea lly does sa y: h e does n ot spea k of ca u ses,
n or does h e com pa r e ca u ses; bu t h e spea ks of effect s a n d com pa r es effect s. Th e
wh ole a r t icle, wh a t goes befor e a n d wh a t follows, m a ke it eviden t , t h a t t h er e is
n ot h in g h er e in t en ded bu t t h e la ws of m ot ion , wh ich , a ccor din g t o t h e a u t h or ,
h a d been est a blish ed by God: t h ese la ws a r e in va r ia ble; t h is h e a s a sser t ed, a n d
a ll n a t u r a l ph ilosoph y h a s a sser t ed t h e sa m e t h in g; t h ey a r e in va r ia ble beca u se

God h a s been plea sed t o m a ke t h em so, a n d beca u se h e h a s plea sed t o pr eser ve
t h e wor ld. Wh en t h e a u t h or t h er efor e sa ys t h a t t h e cr ea t ion wh ich a ppea r s t o
be a n a r bit r a r y a ct , su pposes la ws a s in va r ia ble a s t h e fa t a lit y of t h e At h eist s,
h e ca n n ot be u n der st ood t o sa y t h a t t h e cr ea t ion wa s a n ecessa r y a ct like t h e
fa t a lit y of t h e At h eist s.
H a vin g vin dica t ed h im self fr om t h e ch a r ge of Spin ozism , h e pr oceeds t o t h e
ot h er a ccu sa t ion , a n d fr om a m u lt it u de of pa ssa ges collect ed t oget h er pr oves
t h a t h e h a s n ot on ly a ckn owledged t h e t r u t h of r evea led r eligion ; bu t t h a t h e is
in love wit h Ch r ist ia n it y, a n d en dea vou r s t o m a ke it a ppea r a m ia ble in t h e eyes
of ot h er s. H e t h en en qu ir es in t o wh a t h is a dver sa r ies h a ve sa id t o pr ove t h e
con t r a r y, obser vin g t h a t t h e pr oofs ou gh t t o bea r som e pr opor t ion t o t h e
a ccu sa t ion ; t h a t t h is a ccu sa t ion is n ot of a fr ivolou s n a t u r e, a n d t h a t t h e pr oofs
t h er efor e ou gh t n ot t o be fr ivolou s.
Th e fir st object ion is, t h a t h e h a s pr a ised t h e St oics, wh o a dm it t ed a blin d
fa t a lit y, a n d t h a t t h is is t h e fou n da t ion of n a t u r a l r eligion . To t h is h e r eplies,
“I will for a m om en t su ppose t h a t t h is fa lse m a n n er of r ea son in g h a s som e
weigh t : h a s t h e a u t h or pr a ised t h e ph ilosoph y a n d m et a ph ysics of t h e St oics?
H e h a s pr a ised t h eir m or a ls, a n d h a s sa id t h a t t h e people r ea ped gr ea t ben efit
fr om t h em : h e h a s sa id t h is, a n d h e h a s sa id n o m or e: I a m m ist a ken , h e h a s
sa id m or e, h e h a s a t t h e begin n in g of h is book a t t a cked t h is fa t a lit y, h e does n ot
t h en pr a ise it , wh en h e pr a ises t h e St oics.”
Th e secon d object ion is, t h a t h e h a s pr a ised Ba yle, in ca llin g h im a gr ea t m a n .
To t h is h e a n swer s, “It is t r u e t h a t t h e a u t h or h a s ca lled Ba yle a gr ea t m a n , bu t
h e h a s cen su r ed h is opin ion s: if h e h a s cen su r ed t h em , h e h a s n ot espou sed
t h em : a n d sin ce h e h a s cen su r ed h is opin ion s, h e does n ot ca ll h im a gr ea t m a n
beca u se of h is opin ion s. E ver y body kn ows t h a t Ba yle h a d a gr ea t gen iu s wh ich
h e a bu sed; bu t t h is gen iu s wh ich h e a bu sed, h e h a d: t h e a u t h or h a s a t t a cked h is
soph ism s, a n d pit ies h im on a ccou n t of h is er r or s. I don ’t love t h e m en wh o
su bver t t h e la ws of t h eir cou n t r y; bu t I sh ou ld fin d gr ea t difficu lt y in believin g
t h a t Ca esa r a n d Cr om well h a d lit t le m in ds: I a m n ot in love wit h con qu er or s,
bu t it wou ld be ver y difficu lt t o per su a de m e t o believe t h a t Alexa n der a n d
J en gh iz-Kh a n wer e m en of on ly a com m on gen iu s. Besides, I h a ve r em a r k ed,
t h a t t h e decla m a t ion s of a n gr y m en m a ke bu t lit t le im pr ession on a n y except

t h ose wh o a r e a n gr y: t h e gr ea t est pa r t of t h e r ea der s a r e m en of m oder a t ion ,
a n d seldom t a ke u p a book bu t wh en t h ey a r e in cool blood; for r a t ion a l a n d
sen sible m en love r ea son . H a d t h e a u t h or loa ded Ba yle wit h a t h ou sa n d
in ju r iou s r epr oa ch es, it wou ld n ot h a ve followed fr om t h en ce, t h a t Ba yle h a d
r ea son ed well or ill; a ll t h a t h is r ea der s wou ld h a ve been a ble t o con clu de fr om
it wou ld h a ve been , t h a t t h e a u t h or kn ew h ow t o be a bu sive.”
Th e t h ir d object ion is, t h a t h e h a s n ot in h is fir st ch a pt er spoken of or igin a l
sin . To wh ich h e r eplies: “I a sk ever y sen sible m a n if t h is ch a pt er is a t r ea t ise
of divin it y? if t h e a u t h or h a d spoken of or igin a l sin , t h ey m igh t h a ve im pu t ed
it t o h im a s a cr im e t h a t h e h a d n ot spoken of r edem pt ion .”
Th e n ext object ion t a kes n ot ice, t h a t “Th e a u t h or h a s sa id t h a t in E n gla n d
self-m u r der is t h e effect of a dist em per , a n d t h a t it ca n n ot be pu n ish ed wit h ou t
pu n ish in g t h e effect s of m a dn ess; t h e con sequ en ce t h e cr it ic dr a ws fr om t h en ce
is, t h a t a follower of n a t u r a l r eligion ca n n ever for get t h a t E n gla n d is t h e cr a dle
of h is sect , a n d t h a t h e r u bs a spon ge over a ll t h e cr im es h e fou n d t h er e.” H e
r eplies, “Th e a u t h or does n ot kn ow t h a t E n gla n d is t h e cr a dle of n a t u r a l
r eligion ; bu t h e kn ows t h a t E n gla n d wa s n ot h is cr a dle. H e is n ot of t h e sa m e
r eligiou s sen t im en t s a s a n E n glish m a n , a n y m or e t h a n a n E n glish m a n wh o
spea ks of t h e ph ysica l effect s h e fou n d in F r a n ce, is n ot of t h e sa m e r eligion a s
t h e F r en ch . H e is n ot a follower of n a t u r a l r eligion ; bu t h e wish es t h a t h is cr it ic
wa s a follower of n a t u r a l logic.”
Th ese a r e t h e pr in ciple object ion s levelled a ga in st ou r a u t h or , on t h is h ea d,
fr om wh ich ou r r ea der s will su fficien t ly see on wh a t t r iflin g, wh a t pu er ile
a r gu m en t s t h is ch a r ge of Deism is fou n ded. H e con clu des h owever t h is a r t icle,
wit h a defen se of t h e r eligion of n a t u r e, a n d su ch a defen se a s ever y r a t ion a l
Ch r ist ia n m u st u n dou bt edly a ppr ove.
“Befor e I con clu de t h is fir st pa r t , I a m t em pt ed t o m a ke on e object ion a ga in st
h im wh o h a s m a de so m a n y; bu t h e h a s so st u n n ed m y ea r s wit h t h e wor ds
follower of n a t u r a l r eligion , t h a t I sca r cely da r e pr on ou n ce t h em . I sh a ll
en dea vou r h owever t o t a ke cou r a ge. Do n ot t h e cr it ic’s t wo pieces st a n d in
gr ea t er n eed of a n explica t ion , t h a n t h a t wh ich I defen d? Does h e do well, wh ile
spea kin g of n a t u r a l r eligion a n d r evela t ion , t o fa ll per pet u a lly u pon on e side of
t h e su bject , a n d t o lose a ll t r a ces of t h e ot h er ? Does h e do well n ever t o

dist in gu ish t h ose wh o a ckn owledge on ly t h e r eligion of n a t u r e, fr om t h ose wh o
a ckn owledge bot h n a t u r a l a n d r evea led r eligion ? Does h e do well t o t u r n fr a n t ic
wh en ever t h e a u t h or con sider s m a n in t h e st a t e of n a t u r a l r eligion , a n d
wh en ever h e expla in s a n y t h in g on t h e pr in ciples of n a t u r a l r eligion ? Does h e
do well t o con fou n d n a t u r a l r eligion wit h At h eism ? H a ve I n ot h ea r d t h a t we
h a ve a ll n a t u r a l r eligion ? H a ve I n ot h ea r d t h a t Ch r ist ia n it y is t h e per fect ion
of n a t u r a l r eligion ? H a ve I n ot h ea r d t h a t n a t u r a l r eligion is em ployed t o pr ove
t h e t r u t h of r evela t ion a ga in st t h e Deist s? a n d t h a t t h e sa m e n a t u r a l r eligion
is em ployed t o pr ove t h e exist en ce of a God a ga in st t h e At h eist s? H e h a s sa id
t h a t t h e St oics wer e t h e follower s of n a t u r a l r eligion ; a n d I sa y, t h a t t h ey wer e
At h eist s, sin ce t h ey believed t h a t a blin d fa t a lit y gover n ed t h e u n iver se; a n d it
is by t h e r eligion of n a t u r e t h a t we ou gh t t o a t t a ck t h a t of t h e St oics. H e sa ys
t h a t t h e sch em e of n a t u r a l r eligion is con n ect ed wit h t h a t of Spin oza ; a n d I sa y,
t h a t t h ey a r e con t r a dict or y t o ea ch ot h er , a n d it is by n a t u r a l r eligion t h a t we
ou gh t t o dest r oy Spin oza ’s sch em e. I sa y, t h a t t o con fou n d n a t u r a l r eligion wit h
At h eism , is t o con fou n d t h e pr oof wit h t h e t h in g t o be pr oved, a n d t h e object ion s
a ga in st er r or wit h er r or it self, a n d t h a t t h is is t o t a ke a wa y t h e m ost power fu l
a r m s we h a ve a ga in st t h is er r or .”
Th e a u t h or n ow pr oceeds t o t h e secon d pa r t of h is defen ce, in wh ich h e h a s t h e
followin g r em a r ks. “Wh a t h a s t h e cr it ic don e t o give a n a m ple scope t o h is
decla m a t ion s, a n d t o open t h e widest door t o in vect ives? h e h a s con sider ed t h e
a u t h or , a s if h e h a d in t en ded t o follow t h e exa m ple of M. Abba dye, a n d h a d been
wr it in g a t r ea t ise on t h e Ch r ist ia n r eligion : h e h a s a t t a cked h im , a s if h is t wo
books on r eligion wer e t wo t r ea t ises on divin it y; h e h a s ca villed a ga in st h im , a s
if wh ile h e h a d been t a lkin g of a n y r eligion wh a t soever wh ich wa s n ot
Ch r ist ia n , h e sh ou ld h a ve exa m in ed it a ccor din g t o t h e pr in ciples, a n d doct r in es
of Ch r ist ia n it y; h e h a s ju dged h im a s if in h is t wo books r ela t in g t o r eligion h e
ou gh t t o h a ve pr ea ch ed t o Ma h om et a n s a n d Idola t or s t h e doct r in es of
Ch r ist ia n it y. Wh en ever h e h a s spoken of r eligion in gen er a l, wh en ever h e h a s
m a de u se of t h e wor d r eligion , t h e cr it ic sa ys, ‘t h a t is t h e Ch r ist ia n r eligion ’;
wh en ever h e h a s com pa r ed t h e r eligiou s r it es of differ en t n a t ion s a n d h a s sa id
t h a t t h ey a r e m or e con for m a ble t o t h e polit ica l gover n m en t of t h ese cou n t r ies,
t h a n som e ot h er r it es, t h e cr it ic a ga in sa ys, ‘you a ppr ove t h em t h en a n d

a ba n don t h e Ch r ist ia n fa it h ’: wh en h e h a s spoken of a people wh o h a ve n ever
em br a ced Ch r ist ia n it y, or wh o h a ve lived befor e Ch r ist , a ga in sa ys t h e cr it ic,
‘you don ’t t h en a ckn owledge t h e m or a ls of Ch r ist ia n it y’; wh en h e h a s ca n va ssed
a n y cu st om wh a t soever , wh ich h e h a s fou n d in a polit ica l wr it er , t h e cr it ic a sks
h im , ‘Is t h is a doct r in e of Ch r ist ia n it y?’ H e m igh t a s well a dd, ‘You sa y you a r e
a civilia n , a n d I will m a ke you a divin e in spit e of you r self: you h a ve given u s
elsewh er e som e ver y excellen t t h in gs on t h e Ch r ist ia n r eligion , bu t t h is wa s
on ly t o con cea l you r r ea l sen t im en t s, for I kn ow you r h ea r t , a n d pen et r a t e in t o
you r t h ou gh t s. It is t r u e I do n ot u n der st a n d you r book, n or it is m a t er ia l t h a t
I sh ou ld discover t h e good or ba d design wit h wh ich it h a s been wr it t en ; bu t I
kn ow t h e bot t om of a ll you r t h ou gh t s: I don ’t kn ow a wor d of wh a t you h a ve
sa id, bu t I u n der st a n d per fect ly well, wh a t you h a ve n ot sa id.’”
Bu t t o pr oceed. Th e a u t h or h a s m a in t a in ed t h e polyga m y is n ecessa r ily a n d
in it s own n a t u r e ba d; h e h a s wr ot e a ch a pt er expr essly a ga in st it , a n d
a ft er wa r ds h a s exa m in ed in a ph ilosoph ica l m a n n er , in wh a t cou n t r ies, in wh a t
clim a t es, or in wh a t cir cu m st a n ces it is lea st per n iciou s; h e h a s com pa r ed
clim a t es wit h clim a t es, a n d cou n t r ies wit h cou n t r ies, a n d h a s fou n d, t h a t t h er e
a r e cou n t r ies, wh er e it s effect s a r e less per n iciou s t h a n in ot h er s; beca u se,
a ccor din g t o t h e a ccou n t s t h a t h a ve been given of t h em , t h e n u m ber of m en a n d
wom en n ot bein g ever y wh er e equ a l, it is eviden t , t h a t if t h er e a r e pla ces wh er e
t h er e a r e m or e wom en t h a n m en , polyga m y, ba d a s it is in it self, is t h er e less
per n iciou s t h a n in ot h er s. Bu t a s t h e t it le of t h is ch a pt er 3 con t a in s t h ese wor ds,
Th a t t h e la w of polyga m y is a n a ffa ir of ca lcu la t ion , t h ey h a ve seized t h is t it le
a s a n excellen t su bject for decla m a t ion . H a vin g r epea t ed t h e ch a pt er it self,
a ga in st wh ich n o object ion is m a de, h e pr oceeds t o ju st ify t h e t it le a n d a dds:
“P olyga m y is a n a ffa ir of ca lcu la t ion wh en we wou ld kn ow, if it is m or e or less
per n iciou s in cer t a in clim a t es, in cer t a in cou n t r ies, in cer t a in cir cu m st a n ces
t h a n in ot h er s; it is n ot a n a ffa ir of ca lcu la t ion wh en we wou ld decide wh et h er
it be good or ba d in it self. It is n ot a n a ffa ir of ca lcu la t ion wh en we r ea son on it s
n a t u r e; it m a y be a n a ffa ir of ca lcu la t ion wh en we com bin e it s effect s; in sh or t ,
it is n ever a n a ffa ir of ca lcu la t ion wh en we en qu ir e in t o t h e en d of m a r r ia ge,
a n d it is even less so, wh en we en qu ir e in t o m a r r ia ge a s a la w est a blish ed a n d
con fir m ed by J esu s Ch r ist .”

Aga in , t h e a u t h or h a vin g sa id, t h a t 4 polyga m y is m or e con for m a ble t o n a t u r e
in som e cou n t r ies t h a n in ot h er s, t h e cr it ic h a s seized t h e wor ds m or e
con for m a ble t o n a t u r e, t o m a ke h is sa y, t h a t h e a ppr oves polyga m y. To wh ich
h e a n swer s, “If I sa y, t h a t I sh ou ld like bet t er t o h a ve a fever t h a n t h e scu r vy,
does t h is sign ify t h a t I sh ou ld like t o h a ve a fever ? or on ly t h a t t h e scu r vy is
m or e disa gr eea ble t o m e t h a n a fever ?”
H a vin g fin ish ed h is r eply t o wh a t h a d been object ed t o on t h e su bject of
polyga m y, h e vin dica t es t h a t excellen t pa r t of h is wor k wh ich t r ea t s of t h e
clim a t es; wh en spea kin g of t h e in flu en ce t h ese h a ve u pon r eligion , h e sa ys, “I
a m ver y sen sible t h a t r eligion is in it s own n a t u r e in depen den t of a ll ph ysica l
ca u ses wh a t soever , t h a t t h e r eligion wh ich is good in on e cou n t r y is good in
a n ot h er , a n d t h a t it ca n n ot be per n iciou s in on e cou n t r y wit h ou t bein g so in a ll;
bu t yet , I sa y, t h a t a s it is pr a ct iced by m en , a n d h a s a r ela t ion t o t h ose wh o do
n ot pr a ct ice it , a n y r eligion wh a t soever will fin d a gr ea t er fa cilit y in bein g
pr a ct iced, eit h er in t h e wh ole or in pa r t , in cer t a in cir cu m st a n ces t h a n in
ot h er s, a n d t h a t wh oever sa ys t h e con t r a r y m u st r en ou n ce a ll pr et en sion s t o
sen se a n d u n der st a n din g.”
Bu t t h e cr it ic h a s been gr ea t ly offen ded by ou r a u t h or ’s sa yin g, 5 t h a t wh en a
st a t e is a t liber t y t o r eceive or t o r eject a n ew r eligion , it ou gh t t o be r eject ed;
wh en it is r eceived, it ou gh t t o be t oler a t ed. F r om h en ce h e object s, t h a t t h e
a u t h or h a s a dvised idola t r ou s pr in ces, n ot t o a dm it t h e Ch r ist ia n r eligion in t o
t h eir dom in ion s. To t h is h e a n swer s fir st by r efer r in g t o a pa ssa ge in wh ich h e
sa ys, 6 t h a t t h e best civil a n d polit ica l la ws a r e, n ext t o Ch r ist ia n it y, t h e gr ea t est
blessin gs t h a t m en ca n give or r eceive; a n d a dds, “If t h en Ch r ist ia n it y is t h e
fir st a n d gr ea t est blessin g, a n d t h e polit ica l a n d civil la ws t h e secon d, t h er e a r e
n o polit ica l or civil la ws in a n y st a t e t h a t ca n or ou gh t t o h in der t h e en t r a n ce
of t h e Ch r ist ia n r eligion .”
H is secon d a n swer is, “Th a t t h e r eligion of h ea ven is n ot est a blish ed by t h e
sa m e m et h ods a s t h e r eligion s of t h e ea r t h ; r ea d t h e h ist or y of t h e ch u r ch , a n d
you will see t h e won der s per for m ed by t h e Ch r ist ia n r eligion : wa s sh e t o en t er
a cou n t r y, sh e kn ew h ow t o open it s ga t es; ever y in st r u m en t wa s a ble t o effect
it ; a t on e t im e God m a kes u se of a few fish er m a n , a t a n ot h er h e set s a n em per or
on t h e t h r on e, a n d m a kes h im bow down h is h ea d u n der t h e yolk of t h e gospel.

Does Ch r ist ia n it y h ide h er self in su bt er r a n ea n ca ver n s? st a y a m om en t , a n d
you see a n a dvoca t e spea kin g fr om t h e im per ia l t h r on e on h er beh a lf. Sh e
t r a ver ses, wh en ever sh e plea ses, sea s, r iver s, a n d m ou n t a in s; n o obst a cles h er e
below ca n st op h er pr ogr ess: im pla n t a ver sion in t h e m in d, sh e will con qu er t h is
a ver sion : est a blish cu st om s, for m h a bit s, pu blish edict s, en a ct la ws, sh e will
t r iu m ph over t h e clim a t e, over t h e la ws wh ich r esu lt fr om it , a n d over t h e
legisla t or s wh o h a ve m a de t h em . God a ct in g a ccor din g t o decr ees wh ich a r e
u n kn own t o u s, ext en ds or con t r a ct s t h e lim it s of h is r eligion .”
Thomas Nugent
2'+%,1
1. Th e pr esen t Kin g of Sa r din ia .
2. Book i. Ch a p. 1.
3. Book xvi. Ch a p. 4.
4. Book xvi. Ch a p. 4.
5. Book xxv. Ch . 10.
6. Ibid. Ch . 1.
!-%&345.5+&'(&+-%&6"7,1
8.%("9%1
If a m idst t h e in fin it e n u m ber of su bject s con t a in ed in t h is book t h er e is
a n yt h in g wh ich , con t r a r y t o m y expect a t ion , m a y possibly offen d, I ca n a t lea st
a ssu r e t h e pu blic t h a t it wa s n ot in ser t ed wit h a n ill in t en t ion : for I a m n ot
n a t u r a lly of a ca pt iou s t em per . P la t o t h a n ked t h e gods t h a t h e wa s bor n in t h e
sa m e a ge wit h Socr a t es: a n d for m y pa r t I give t h a n ks t o t h e Su pr em e t h a t I
wa s bor n a su bject of t h a t gover n m en t u n der wh ich I live; a n d t h a t it is H is
plea su r e I sh ou ld obey t h ose wh om H e h a s m a de m e love.
I beg on e fa vou r of m y r ea der s, wh ich I fea r will n ot be gr a n t ed m e; t h is is,
t h a t t h ey will n ot ju dge by a few h ou r s’ r ea din g of t h e la bou r of t wen t y yea r s;
t h a t t h ey will a ppr ove or con dem n t h e book en t ir e, a n d n ot a few pa r t icu la r
ph r a ses. If t h ey wou ld sea r ch in t o t h e design of t h e a u t h or , t h ey ca n do it in n o
ot h er wa y so com plet ely a s by sea r ch in g in t o t h e design of t h e wor k.
I h a ve fir st of a ll con sider ed m a n kin d; a n d t h e r esu lt of m y t h ou gh t s h a s been ,
t h a t a m idst su ch a n in fin it e diver sit y of la ws a n d m a n n er s, t h ey wer e n ot solely
con du ct ed by t h e ca pr ice of fa n cy.
I h a ve la id down t h e fir st pr in ciples, a n d h a ve fou n d t h a t t h e pa r t icu la r ca ses
follow n a t u r a lly fr om t h em ; t h a t t h e h ist or ies of a ll n a t ion s a r e on ly
con sequ en ces of t h em ; a n d t h a t ever y pa r t icu la r la w is con n ect ed wit h a n ot h er
la w, or depen ds on som e ot h er of a m or e gen er a l ext en t .
Wh en I h a ve been obliged t o look ba ck in t o a n t iqu it y, I h a ve en dea vou r ed t o
a ssu m e t h e spir it of t h e a n cien t s, lest I sh ou ld con sider t h ose t h in gs a s a like
wh ich a r e r ea lly differ en t ; a n d lest I sh ou ld m iss t h e differ en ce of t h ose wh ich
a ppea r t o be a like.
I h a ve n ot dr a wn m y pr in ciples fr om m y pr eju dices, bu t fr om t h e n a t u r e of
t h in gs.
H er e a gr ea t m a n y t r u t h s will n ot a ppea r t ill we h a ve seen t h e ch a in wh ich
con n ect s t h em wit h ot h er s. Th e m or e we en t er in t o pa r t icu la r s, t h e m or e we
sh a ll per ceive t h e cer t a in t y of t h e pr in ciples on wh ich t h ey a r e fou n ded. I h a ve

n ot even given a ll t h ese pa r t icu la r s, for wh o cou ld m en t ion t h em a ll wit h ou t a
m ost in su ppor t a ble fa t igu e?
Th e r ea der will n ot h er e m eet wit h a n y of t h ose bold fligh t s wh ich seem t o
ch a r a ct er ise t h e wor k s of t h e pr esen t a ge. Wh en t h in gs a r e exa m in ed wit h
n ever so sm a ll a degr ee of ext en t , t h e sa llies of im a gin a t ion m u st va n ish ; t h ese
gen er a lly a r ise fr om t h e m in d’s collect in g a ll it s power s t o view on ly on e side of
t h e su bject , wh ile it lea ves t h e ot h er u n obser ved.
I wr it e n ot t o cen su r e a n yt h in g est a blish ed in a n y cou n t r y wh a t soever . E ver y
n a t ion will h er e fin d t h e r ea son s on wh ich it s m a xim s a r e fou n ded; a n d t h is will
be t h e n a t u r a l in fer en ce, t h a t t o pr opose a lt er a t ion s belon gs on ly t o t h ose wh o
a r e so h a ppy a s t o be bor n wit h a gen iu s ca pa ble of pen et r a t in g t h e en t ir e
con st it u t ion of a st a t e.
It is n ot a m a t t er of in differ en ce t h a t t h e m in ds of t h e people be en ligh t en ed.
Th e pr eju dices of m a gist r a t es h a ve a r isen fr om n a t ion a l pr eju dice. In a t im e of
ign or a n ce t h ey h a ve com m it t ed even t h e gr ea t est evils wit h ou t t h e lea st
scr u ple; bu t in a n en ligh t en ed a ge t h ey even t r em ble wh ile con fer r in g t h e
gr ea t est blessin gs. Th ey per ceive t h e a n cien t a bu ses; t h ey see h ow t h ey m u st
be r efor m ed; bu t t h ey a r e sen sible a lso of t h e a bu ses of a r efor m a t ion . Th ey let
t h e evil con t in u e, if t h ey fea r a wor se; t h ey a r e con t en t wit h a lesser good, if
t h ey dou bt a gr ea t er . Th ey exa m in e in t o t h e pa r t s, t o ju dge of t h em in
con n ect ion ; a n d t h ey exa m in e a ll t h e ca u ses, t o discover t h eir differ en t effect s.
Cou ld I bu t su cceed so a s t o a ffor d n ew r ea son s t o ever y m a n t o love h is
pr in ce, h is cou n t r y, h is la ws; n ew r ea son s t o r en der h im m or e sen sible in ever y
n a t ion a n d gover n m en t of t h e blessin gs h e en joys, I sh ou ld t h in k m yself t h e
m ost h a ppy of m or t a ls.
Cou ld I bu t su cceed so a s t o per su a de t h ose wh o com m a n d, t o in cr ea se t h eir
kn owledge in wh a t t h ey ou gh t t o pr escr ibe; a n d t h ose wh o obey, t o fin d a n ew
plea su r e r esu lt in g fr om obedien ce — I sh ou ld t h in k m yself t h e m ost h a ppy of
m or t a ls.
Th e m ost h a ppy of m or t a ls sh ou ld I t h in k m yself cou ld I con t r ibu t e t o m a ke
m a n kin d r ecover fr om t h eir pr eju dices. By pr eju dices I h er e m ea n , n ot t h a t
wh ich r en der s m en ign or a n t of som e pa r t icu la r t h in gs, bu t wh a t ever r en der s
t h em ign or a n t of t h em selves.
It is in en dea vou r in g t o in st r u ct m a n kin d t h a t we a r e best a ble t o pr a ct ise
t h a t gen er a l vir t u e wh ich com pr eh en ds t h e love of a ll. Ma n , t h a t flexible bein g,
con for m in g in societ y t o t h e t h ou gh t s a n d im pr ession s of ot h er s, is equ a lly
ca pa ble of kn owin g h is own n a t u r e, wh en ever it is la id open t o h is view; a n d of
losin g t h e ver y sen se of it , wh en t h is idea is ba n ish ed fr om h is m in d.
Oft en h a ve I begu n , a n d a s oft en h a ve I la id a side, t h is u n der t a k in g. I h a ve
a t h ou sa n d t im es given t h e lea ves I h a d wr it t en t o t h e win ds: I, ever y da y, felt
m y pa t er n a l h a n ds fa ll. I h a ve followed m y object wit h ou t a n y fixed pla n : I h a ve
kn own n eit h er r u les n or except ion s; I h a ve fou n d t h e t r u t h , on ly t o lose it a ga in .
Bu t wh en I on ce discover ed m y fir st pr in ciples, ever yt h in g I sou gh t for
a ppea r ed; a n d in t h e cou r se of t wen t y yea r s, I h a ve seen m y wor k begu n ,
gr owin g u p, a dva n cin g t o m a t u r it y, a n d fin ish ed.
If t h is wor k m eet s wit h su ccess, I sh a ll owe it ch iefly t o t h e gr a n deu r a n d
m a jest y of t h e su bject . H owever , I do n ot t h in k t h a t I h a ve been t ot a lly deficien t
in poin t of gen iu s. Wh en I h a ve seen wh a t so m a n y gr ea t m en bot h in F r a n ce,
E n gla n d, a n d Ger m a n y h a ve sa id befor e m e, I h a ve been lost in a dm ir a t ion ; bu t
I h a ve n ot lost m y cou r a ge: I h a ve sa id wit h Cor r eggio, “An d I a lso a m a
pa in t er .”
:0;%.+5,%<%*+1
1. F or t h e bet t er u n der st a n din g of t h e fir st fou r books of t h is wor k, it is t o be
obser ved t h a t wh a t I dist in gu ish by t h e n a m e of vir t u e, in a r epu blic, is t h e love
of on e’s cou n t r y, t h a t is, t h e love of equ a lit y. It is n ot a m or a l, n or a Ch r ist ia n ,
bu t a polit ica l vir t u e; a n d it is t h e spr in g wh ich set s t h e r epu blica n gover n m en t
in m ot ion , a s h on ou r is t h e spr in g wh ich gives m ot ion t o m on a r ch y. H en ce it is
t h a t I h a ve dist in gu ish ed t h e love of on e’s cou n t r y, a n d of equ a lit y, by t h e
a ppella t ion of polit ica l vir t u e. My idea s a r e n ew, a n d t h er efor e I h a ve been
obliged t o fin d n ew wor ds, or t o give n ew a ccept a t ion s t o old t er m s, in or der t o
con vey m y m ea n in g. Th ey, wh o a r e u n a cqu a in t ed wit h t h is pa r t icu la r , h a ve
m a de m e sa y m ost st r a n ge a bsu r dit ies, su ch a s wou ld be sh ockin g in a n y pa r t
of t h e wor ld, beca u se in a ll cou n t r ies a n d gover n m en t s m or a lit y is r equ isit e.
2. Th e r ea der is a lso t o n ot ice t h a t t h er e is a va st differ en ce bet ween sa yin g
t h a t a cer t a in qu a lit y, m odifica t ion of t h e m in d, or vir t u e, is n ot t h e spr in g by

wh ich gover n m en t is a ct u a t ed, a n d a ffir m in g t h a t it is n ot t o be fou n d in t h a t
gover n m en t . Wer e I t o sa y su ch a wh eel or su ch a pin ion is n ot t h e spr in g wh ich
set s t h e wa t ch goin g, ca n you in fer t h en ce t h a t t h ey a r e n ot t o be fou n d in t h e
wa t ch ? So fa r is it fr om bein g t r u e t h a t t h e m or a l a n d Ch r ist ia n vir t u es a r e
exclu ded fr om m on a r ch y, t h a t even polit ica l vir t u e is n ot exclu ded. In a wor d,
h on ou r is fou n d in a r epu blic, t h ou gh it s spr in g be polit ica l vir t u e; a n d polit ica l
vir t u e is fou n d in a m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t , t h ou gh it be a ct u a t ed by h on ou r .
To con clu de, t h e h on est m a n of wh om we t r ea t in t h e t h ir d book, ch a pt er 5, is
n ot t h e Ch r ist ia n , bu t t h e polit ica l h on est m a n , wh o is possessed of t h e polit ica l
vir t u e t h er e m en t ion ed. H e is t h e m a n wh o loves t h e la ws of h is cou n t r y, a n d
wh o is a ct u a t ed by t h e love of t h ose la ws. I h a ve set t h ese m a t t er s in a clea r er
ligh t in t h e pr esen t edit ion , by givin g a m or e pr ecise m ea n in g t o m y expr ession :
a n d in m ost pla ces wh er e I h a ve m a de u se of t h e wor d vir t u e I h a ve t a ken ca r e
t o a dd t h e t er m polit ica l.
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La ws, in t h eir m ost gen er a l sign ifica t ion , a r e t h e n ecessa r y r ela t ion s a r isin g
fr om t h e n a t u r e of t h in gs. In t h is sen se a ll bein gs h a ve t h eir la ws: t h e Deit y 1
H is la ws, t h e m a t er ia l wor ld it s la ws, t h e in t elligen ces su per ior t o m a n t h eir
la ws, t h e bea st s t h eir la ws, m a n h is la ws.
Th ey wh o a sser t t h a t a blin d fa t a lit y pr odu ced t h e va r iou s effect s we beh old
in t h is wor ld t a lk ver y a bsu r dly; for ca n a n yt h in g be m or e u n r ea son a ble t h a n
t o pr et en d t h a t a blin d fa t a lit y cou ld be pr odu ct ive of in t elligen t bein gs?
Th er e is, t h en , a pr im e r ea son ; a n d la ws a r e t h e r ela t ion s su bsist in g bet ween
it a n d differ en t bein gs, a n d t h e r ela t ion s of t h ese t o on e a n ot h er .
God is r ela t ed t o t h e u n iver se, a s Cr ea t or a n d P r eser ver ; t h e la ws by wh ich
H e cr ea t ed a ll t h in gs a r e t h ose by wh ich H e pr eser ves t h em . H e a ct s a ccor din g
t o t h ese r u les, beca u se H e kn ows t h em ; H e kn ows t h em , beca u se H e m a de
t h em ; a n d H e m a de t h em , beca u se t h ey a r e in r ela t ion t o H is wisdom a n d
power .
Sin ce we obser ve t h a t t h e wor ld, t h ou gh for m ed by t h e m ot ion of m a t t er , a n d
void of u n der st a n din g, su bsist s t h r ou gh so lon g a su ccession of a ges, it s m ot ion s
m u st cer t a in ly be dir ect ed by in va r ia ble la ws; a n d cou ld we im a gin e a n ot h er
wor ld, it m u st a lso h a ve con st a n t r u les, or it wou ld in evit a bly per ish .
Th u s t h e cr ea t ion , wh ich seem s a n a r bit r a r y a ct , su pposes la ws a s in va r ia ble
a s t h ose of t h e fa t a lit y of t h e At h eist s. It wou ld be a bsu r d t o sa y t h a t t h e
Cr ea t or m igh t gover n t h e wor ld wit h ou t t h ose r u les, sin ce wit h ou t t h em it cou ld
n ot su bsist .
Th ese r u les a r e a fixed a n d in va r ia ble r ela t ion . In bodies m oved, t h e m ot ion
is r eceived, in cr ea sed, dim in ish ed, or lost , a ccor din g t o t h e r ela t ion s of t h e
qu a n t it y of m a t t er a n d velocit y; ea ch diver sit y is u n ifor m it y, ea ch ch a n ge is
con st a n cy.
P a r t icu la r in t elligen t bein gs m a y h a ve la ws of t h eir own m a kin g, bu t t h ey

h a ve som e lik ewise wh ich t h ey n ever m a de. Befor e t h er e wer e in t elligen t
bein gs, t h ey wer e possible; t h ey h a d t h er efor e possible r ela t ion s, a n d
con sequ en t ly possible la ws. Befor e la ws wer e m a de, t h er e wer e r ela t ion s of
possible ju st ice. To sa y t h a t t h er e is n ot h in g ju st or u n ju st bu t wh a t is
com m a n ded or for bidden by posit ive la ws, is t h e sa m e a s sa yin g t h a t befor e t h e
descr ibin g of a cir cle a ll t h e r a dii wer e n ot equ a l.
We m u st t h er efor e a ckn owledge r ela t ion s of ju st ice a n t eceden t t o t h e posit ive
la w by wh ich t h ey a r e est a blish ed: a s, for in st a n ce, if h u m a n societ ies exist ed,
it wou ld be r igh t t o con for m t o t h eir la ws; if t h er e wer e in t elligen t bein gs t h a t
h a d r eceived a ben efit of a n ot h er bein g, t h ey ou gh t t o sh ow t h eir gr a t it u de; if
on e in t elligen t bein g h a d cr ea t ed a n ot h er in t elligen t bein g, t h e la t t er ou gh t t o
con t in u e in it s or igin a l st a t e of depen den ce; if on e in t elligen t bein g in ju r es
a n ot h er , it deser ves a r et a lia t ion ; a n d so on .
Bu t t h e in t elligen t wor ld is fa r fr om bein g so well gover n ed a s t h e ph ysica l.
F or t h ou gh t h e for m er h a s a lso it s la ws, wh ich of t h eir own n a t u r e a r e
in va r ia ble, it does n ot con for m t o t h em so exa ct ly a s t h e ph ysica l wor ld. Th is is
beca u se, on t h e on e h a n d, pa r t icu la r in t elligen t bein gs a r e of a fin it e n a t u r e,
a n d con sequ en t ly lia ble t o er r or ; a n d on t h e ot h er , t h eir n a t u r e r equ ir es t h em
t o be fr ee a gen t s. H en ce t h ey do n ot st ea dily con for m t o t h eir pr im it ive la ws;
a n d even t h ose of t h eir own in st it u t in g t h ey fr equ en t ly in fr in ge.
Wh et h er br u t es be gover n ed by t h e gen er a l la ws of m ot ion , or by a pa r t icu la r
m ovem en t , we ca n n ot det er m in e. Be t h a t a s it m a y, t h ey h a ve n ot a m or e
in t im a t e r ela t ion t o God t h a n t h e r est of t h e m a t er ia l wor ld; a n d sen sa t ion is
of n o ot h er u se t o t h em t h a n in t h e r ela t ion t h ey h a ve eit h er t o ot h er pa r t icu la r
bein gs or t o t h em selves.
By t h e a llu r em en t of plea su r e t h ey pr eser ve t h e in dividu a l, a n d by t h e sa m e
a llu r em en t t h ey pr eser ve t h eir species. Th ey h a ve n a t u r a l la ws, beca u se t h ey
a r e u n it ed by sen sa t ion ; posit ive la ws t h ey h a ve n on e, beca u se t h ey a r e n ot
con n ect ed by kn owledge. An d yet t h ey do n ot in va r ia bly con for m t o t h eir
n a t u r a l la ws; t h ese a r e bet t er obser ved by veget a bles, t h a t h a ve n eit h er
u n der st a n din g n or sen se.
Br u t es a r e depr ived of t h e h igh a dva n t a ges wh ich we h a ve; bu t t h ey h a ve
som e wh ich we h a ve n ot . Th ey h a ve n ot ou r h opes, bu t t h ey a r e wit h ou t ou r

fea r s; t h ey a r e su bject like u s t o dea t h , bu t wit h ou t kn owin g it ; even m ost of
t h em a r e m or e a t t en t ive t h a n we t o self-pr eser va t ion , a n d do n ot m a ke so ba d
a u se of t h eir pa ssion s.
Ma n , a s a ph ysica l bein g, is like ot h er bodies gover n ed by in va r ia ble la ws. As
a n in t elligen t bein g, h e in cessa n t ly t r a n sgr esses t h e la ws est a blish ed by God,
a n d ch a n ges t h ose of h is own in st it u t in g. H e is left t o h is pr iva t e dir ect ion ,
t h ou gh a lim it ed bein g, a n d su bject , like a ll fin it e in t elligen ces, t o ign or a n ce a n d
er r or : even h is im per fect kn owledge h e loses; a n d a s a sen sible cr ea t u r e, h e is
h u r r ied a wa y by a t h ou sa n d im pet u ou s pa ssion s. Su ch a bein g m igh t ever y
in st a n t for get h is Cr ea t or ; God h a s t h er efor e r em in ded h im of h is du t y by t h e
la ws of r eligion . Su ch a bein g is lia ble ever y m om en t t o for get h im self;
ph ilosoph y h a s pr ovided a ga in st t h is by t h e la ws of m or a lit y. F or m ed t o live in
societ y, h e m igh t for get h is fellow-cr ea t u r es; legisla t or s h a ve t h er efor e by
polit ica l a n d civil la ws con fin ed h im t o h is du t y.
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An t eceden t t o t h e a bove-m en t ion ed la ws a r e t h ose of n a t u r e, so ca lled,
beca u se t h ey der ive t h eir for ce en t ir ely fr om ou r fr a m e a n d exist en ce. In or der
t o h a ve a per fect kn owledge of t h ese la ws, we m u st con sider m a n befor e t h e
est a blish m en t of societ y: t h e la ws r eceived in su ch a st a t e wou ld be t h ose of
n a t u r e.
Th e la w wh ich , im pr essin g on ou r m in ds t h e idea of a Cr ea t or , in clin es u s
t owa r ds H im , is t h e fir st in im por t a n ce, t h ou gh n ot in or der , of n a t u r a l la ws.
Ma n in a st a t e of n a t u r e wou ld h a ve t h e fa cu lt y of kn owin g, befor e h e h a d
a cqu ir ed a n y kn owledge. P la in it is t h a t h is fir st idea s wou ld n ot be of a
specu la t ive n a t u r e; h e wou ld t h in k of t h e pr eser va t ion of h is bein g, befor e h e
wou ld in vest iga t e it s or igin . Su ch a m a n wou ld feel n ot h in g in h im self a t fir st
bu t im pot en cy a n d wea kn ess; h is fea r s a n d a ppr eh en sion s wou ld be excessive;
a s a ppea r s fr om in st a n ces (wer e t h er e a n y n ecessit y of pr ovin g it ) of sa va ges
fou n d in for est s,2 t r em blin g a t t h e m ot ion of a lea f, a n d flyin g fr om ever y
sh a dow.
In t h is st a t e ever y m a n , in st ea d of bein g sen sible of h is equ a lit y, wou ld fa n cy
h im self in fer ior . Th er e wou ld t h er efor e be n o da n ger of t h eir a t t a ckin g on e

a n ot h er ; pea ce wou ld be t h e fir st la w of n a t u r e.
Th e n a t u r a l im pu lse or desir e wh ich H obbes a t t r ibu t es t o m a n kin d of
su bdu in g on e a n ot h er is fa r fr om bein g well fou n ded. Th e idea of em pir e a n d
dom in ion is so com plex, a n d depen ds on so m a n y ot h er n ot ion s, t h a t it cou ld
n ever be t h e fir st wh ich occu r r ed t o t h e h u m a n u n der st a n din g.
H obbes 3 in qu ir es, “F or wh a t r ea son go m en a r m ed, a n d h a ve locks a n d keys
t o fa st en t h eir door s, if t h ey be n ot n a t u r a lly in a st a t e of wa r ?” Bu t is it n ot
obviou s t h a t h e a t t r ibu t es t o m a n kin d befor e t h e est a blish m en t of societ y wh a t
ca n h a ppen bu t in con sequ en ce of t h is est a blish m en t , wh ich fu r n ish es t h em
wit h m ot ives for h ost ile a t t a cks a n d self-defen ce?
Next t o a sen se of h is wea kn ess m a n wou ld soon fin d t h a t of h is wa n t s. H en ce
a n ot h er la w of n a t u r e wou ld pr om pt h im t o seek for n ou r ish m en t .
F ea r , I h a ve obser ved, wou ld in du ce m en t o sh u n on e a n ot h er ; bu t t h e m a r ks
of t h is fea r bein g r ecipr oca l, wou ld soon en ga ge t h em t o a ssocia t e. Besides, t h is
a ssocia t ion wou ld qu ickly follow fr om . t h e ver y plea su r e on e a n im a l feels a t t h e
a ppr oa ch of a n ot h er of t h e sa m e species. Aga in , t h e a t t r a ct ion a r isin g fr om t h e
differ en ce of sexes wou ld en h a n ce t h is plea su r e, a n d t h e n a t u r a l in clin a t ion
t h ey h a ve for ea ch ot h er wou ld for m a t h ir d la w.
Beside t h e sen se or in st in ct wh ich m a n possesses in com m on wit h br u t es, h e
h a s t h e a dva n t a ge of a cqu ir ed kn owledge; a n d t h en ce a r ises a secon d t ie, wh ich
br u t es h a ve n ot . Ma n kin d h a ve t h er efor e a n ew m ot ive of u n it in g; a n d a fou r t h
la w of n a t u r e r esu lt s fr om t h e desir e of livin g in societ y.
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As soon a s m a n en t er s in t o a st a t e of societ y h e loses t h e sen se of h is
wea kn ess; equ a lit y cea ses, a n d t h en com m en ces t h e st a t e of wa r .
E a ch pa r t icu la r societ y begin s t o feel it s st r en gt h , wh en ce a r ises a st a t e of wa r
bet ween differ en t n a t ion s. Th e in dividu a ls likewise of ea ch societ y becom e
sen sible of t h eir for ce; h en ce t h e pr in cipa l a dva n t a ges of t h is societ y t h ey
en dea vou r t o con ver t t o t h eir own em olu m en t , wh ich con st it u t es a st a t e of wa r
bet ween in dividu a ls.
Th ese t wo differ en t kin ds of st a t es give r ise t o h u m a n la ws. Con sider ed a s
in h a bit a n t s of so gr ea t a pla n et , wh ich n ecessa r ily con t a in s a va r iet y of n a t ion s,

t h ey h a ve la ws r ela t in g t o t h eir m u t u a l in t er cou r se, wh ich is wh a t we ca ll t h e
la w of n a t ion s. As m em ber s of a societ y t h a t m u st be pr oper ly su ppor t ed, t h ey
h a ve la ws r ela t in g t o t h e gover n or s a n d t h e gover n ed, a n d t h is we dist in gu ish
by t h e n a m e of polit ic la w. Th ey h a ve a lso a n ot h er sor t of la w, a s t h ey st a n d in
r ela t ion t o ea ch ot h er ; by wh ich is u n der st ood t h e civil la w.
Th e la w of n a t ion s is n a t u r a lly fou n ded on t h is pr in ciple, t h a t differ en t
n a t ion s ou gh t in t im e of pea ce t o do on e a n ot h er a ll t h e good t h ey ca n , a n d in
t im e of wa r a s lit t le in ju r y a s possible, wit h ou t pr eju dicin g t h eir r ea l in t er est s.
Th e object of wa r is vict or y; t h a t of vict or y is con qu est ; a n d t h a t of con qu est
pr eser va t ion . F r om t h is a n d t h e pr ecedin g pr in ciple a ll t h ose r u les a r e der ived
wh ich con st it u t e t h e la w of n a t ion s.
All cou n t r ies h a ve a la w of n a t ion s, n ot except in g t h e Ir oqu ois t h em selves,
t h ou gh t h ey devou r t h eir pr ison er s: for t h ey sen d a n d r eceive a m ba ssa dor s, a n d
u n der st a n d t h e r igh t s of wa r a n d pea ce. Th e m isch ief is t h a t t h eir la w of
n a t ion s is n ot fou n ded on t r u e pr in ciples.
Besides t h e la w of n a t ion s r ela t in g t o a ll societ ies, t h er e is a polit y or civil
con st it u t ion for ea ch pa r t icu la r ly con sider ed. No societ y ca n su bsist wit h ou t a
for m of gover n m en t . “Th e u n it ed st r en gt h of in dividu a ls,” a s Gr a vin a 4 well
obser ves, “con st it u t es wh a t we ca ll t h e body polit ic.”
Th e gen er a l st r en gt h m a y be in t h e h a n ds of a sin gle per son , or of m a n y. Som e
t h in k t h a t n a t u r e h a vin g est a blish ed pa t er n a l a u t h or it y, t h e m ost n a t u r a l
gover n m en t wa s t h a t of a sin gle per son . Bu t t h e exa m ple of pa t er n a l a u t h or it y
pr oves n ot h in g. F or if t h e power of a fa t h er r ela t es t o a sin gle gover n m en t , t h a t
of br ot h er s a ft er t h e dea t h of a fa t h er , a n d t h a t of cou sin s-ger m a n a ft er t h e
decea se of br ot h er s, r efer t o a gover n m en t of m a n y. Th e polit ica l power
n ecessa r ily com pr eh en ds t h e u n ion of sever a l fa m ilies.
Bet t er is it t o sa y, t h a t t h e gover n m en t m ost con for m a ble t o n a t u r e is t h a t
wh ich best a gr ees wit h t h e h u m ou r a n d disposit ion of t h e people in wh ose
fa vou r it is est a blish ed.
Th e st r en gt h of in dividu a ls ca n n ot be u n it ed wit h ou t a con ju n ct ion of a ll t h eir
wills. “Th e con ju n ct ion of t h ose wills,” a s Gr a vin a a ga in ver y ju st ly obser ves, “is
wh a t we ca ll t h e civil st a t e.”
La w in gen er a l is h u m a n r ea son , in a sm u ch a s it gover n s a ll t h e in h a bit a n t s

of t h e ea r t h : t h e polit ica l a n d civil la ws of ea ch n a t ion ou gh t t o be on ly t h e
pa r t icu la r ca ses in wh ich h u m a n r ea son is a pplied.
Th ey sh ou ld be a da pt ed in su ch a m a n n er t o t h e people for wh om t h ey a r e
fr a m ed t h a t it sh ou ld be a gr ea t ch a n ce if t h ose of on e n a t ion su it a n ot h er .
Th ey sh ou ld be in r ela t ion t o t h e n a t u r e a n d pr in ciple of ea ch gover n m en t ;
wh et h er t h ey for m it , a s m a y be sa id of polit ic la ws; or wh et h er t h ey su ppor t it ,
a s in t h e ca se of civil in st it u t ion s.
Th ey sh ou ld be in r ela t ion t o t h e clim a t e of ea ch cou n t r y, t o t h e qu a lit y of it s
soil, t o it s sit u a t ion a n d ext en t , t o t h e pr in cipa l occu pa t ion of t h e n a t ives,
wh et h er h u sba n dm en , h u n t sm en , or sh eph er ds: t h ey sh ou ld ha ve rela tion t o t h e
degr ee of liber t y wh ich t h e con st it u t ion will bea r ; t o t h e r eligion of t h e
in h a bit a n t s, t o t h eir in clin a t ion s, r ich es, n u m ber s, com m er ce, m a n n er s, a n d
cu st om s. In fin e, t h ey h a ve r ela t ion s t o ea ch ot h er , a s a lso t o t h eir or igin , t o t h e
in t en t of t h e legisla t or , a n d t o t h e or der of t h in gs on wh ich t h ey a r e est a blish ed;
in a ll of wh ich differ en t ligh t s t h ey ou gh t t o be con sider ed.
Th is is wh a t I h a ve u n der t a ken t o per for m in t h e followin g wor k. Th ese
r ela t ion s I sh a ll exa m in e, sin ce a ll t h ese t oget h er con st it u t e wh a t I ca ll t h e
Spir it of La ws.
I h a ve n ot sepa r a t ed t h e polit ica l fr om t h e civil in st it u t ion s, a s I do n ot
pr et en d t o t r ea t of la ws, bu t of t h eir spir it ; a n d a s t h is spir it con sist s in t h e
va r iou s r ela t ion s wh ich t h e la ws m a y bea r t o differ en t object s, it is n ot so m u ch
m y bu sin ess t o follow t h e n a t u r a l or der of la ws a s t h a t of t h ese r ela t ion s a n d
object s.
I sh a ll fir st exa m in e t h e r ela t ion s wh ich la ws bea r t o t h e n a t u r e a n d pr in ciple
of ea ch gover n m en t ; a n d a s t h is pr in ciple h a s a st r on g in flu en ce on la ws, I sh a ll
m a ke it m y st u dy t o u n der st a n d it t h or ou gh ly: a n d if I ca n bu t on ce est a blish
it , t h e la ws will soon a ppea r t o flow t h en ce a s fr om t h eir sou r ce. I sh a ll pr oceed
a ft er wa r ds t o ot h er a n d m or e pa r t icu la r r ela t ion s.
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1. “La w,” sa ys P lu t a r ch , “is t h e kin g of m or t a l a n d im m or t a l bein gs.” See h is
t r ea t ise, A Discou rse to an Un learn ed Prin ce.
2. Wit n ess t h e sa va ge fou n d in t h e for est s of H a n over , wh o wa s ca r r ied over
t o E n gla n d du r in g t h e r eign of Geor ge I.
3. In pr ef., De cive.
4. It a lia n poet a n d ju r ist , 1664–1718.
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Th er e a r e t h r ee species of gover n m en t : r epu blica n , m on a r ch ica l, a n d despot ic.
In or der t o discover t h eir n a t u r e, it is su fficien t t o r ecollect t h e com m on n ot ion ,
wh ich su pposes t h r ee defin it ion s, or r a t h er t h r ee fa ct s: t h a t a r epu blica n
gover n m en t is t h a t in wh ich t h e body, or on ly a pa r t of t h e people, is possessed
of t h e su pr em e power ; m on a r ch y, t h a t in wh ich a sin gle per son gover n s by fixed
a n d est a blish ed la ws; a despot ic gover n m en t , t h a t in wh ich a sin gle per son
dir ect s ever yt h in g by h is own will a n d ca pr ice.
Th is is wh a t I ca ll t h e n a t u r e of ea ch gover n m en t ; we m u st n ow in qu ir e in t o
t h ose la ws wh ich dir ect ly con for m t o t h is n a t u r e, a n d con sequ en t ly a r e t h e
fu n da m en t a l in st it u t ion s.
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Wh en t h e body of t h e people is possessed of t h e su pr em e power , it is ca lled a
dem ocr a cy. Wh en t h e su pr em e power is lodged in t h e h a n ds of a pa r t of t h e
people, it is t h en a n a r ist ocr a cy.
In a dem ocr a cy t h e people a r e in som e r espect s t h e sover eign , a n d in ot h er s
t h e su bject .
Th er e ca n be n o exer cise of sover eign t y bu t by t h eir su ffr a ges, wh ich a r e t h eir
own will; n ow t h e sover eign ’s will is t h e sover eign h im self. Th e la ws t h er efor e
wh ich est a blish t h e r igh t of su ffr a ge a r e fu n da m en t a l t o t h is gover n m en t . An d
in deed it is a s im por t a n t t o r egu la t e in a r epu blic, in wh a t m a n n er , by wh om ,
t o wh om , a n d con cer n in g wh a t , su ffr a ges a r e t o be given , a s it is in a m on a r ch y
t o kn ow wh o is t h e pr in ce, a n d a ft er wh a t m a n n er h e ou gh t t o gover n .
Liba n iu s 2 sa ys t h a t a t At h en s a st r a n ger wh o in t er m eddled in t h e a ssem blies

of t h e people wa s pu n ish ed wit h dea t h . Th is is beca u se su ch a m a n u su r ped t h e
r igh t s of sover eign t y.
It is a n essen t ia l poin t t o fix t h e n u m ber of cit izen s wh o a r e t o for m t h e pu blic
a ssem blies; ot h er wise it wou ld be u n cer t a in wh et h er t h e wh ole, or on ly a pa r t
of t h e people, h a d given t h eir vot es. At Spa r t a t h e n u m ber wa s fixed a t t en
t h ou sa n d. Bu t Rom e, design ed by P r oviden ce t o r ise fr om t h e wea kest
begin n in gs t o t h e h igh est pit ch of gr a n deu r ; Rom e, doom ed t o exper ien ce a ll t h e
vicissit u des of for t u n e; Rom e, wh o h a d som et im es a ll h er in h a bit a n t s wit h ou t
h er wa lls, a n d som et im es a ll It a ly a n d a con sider a ble pa r t of t h e wor ld wit h in
t h em ; Rom e, I sa y, n ever fixed t h e n u m ber 3 a n d t h is wa s on e of t h e pr in cipa l
ca u ses of h er r u in .
Th e people, in wh om t h e su pr em e power r esides, ou gh t t o h a ve t h e
m a n a gem en t of ever yt h in g wit h in t h eir r ea ch : t h a t wh ich exceeds t h eir a bilit ies
m u st be con du ct ed by t h eir m in ist er s.
Bu t t h ey ca n n ot pr oper ly be sa id t o h a ve t h eir m in ist er s, wit h ou t t h e power
of n om in a t in g t h em : it is, t h er efor e, a fu n da m en t a l m a xim in t h is gover n m en t ,
t h a t t h e people sh ou ld ch oose t h eir m in ist er s — t h a t is, t h eir m a gist r a t es.
Th ey h a ve occa sion , a s well a s m on a r ch s, a n d even m or e so, t o be dir ect ed by
a cou n cil or sen a t e. Bu t t o h a ve a pr oper con fiden ce in t h ese, t h ey sh ou ld h a ve
t h e ch oosin g of t h e m em ber s; wh et h er t h e elect ion be m a de by t h em selves, a s
a t At h en s, or by som e m a gist r a t e depu t ed for t h a t pu r pose, a s on cer t a in
occa sion s wa s cu st om a r y a t Rom e.
Th e people a r e ext r em ely well qu a lified for ch oosin g t h ose wh om t h ey a r e t o
en t r u st wit h pa r t of t h eir a u t h or it y. Th ey h a ve on ly t o be det er m in ed by t h in gs
t o wh ich t h ey ca n n ot be st r a n ger s, a n d by fa ct s t h a t a r e obviou s t o sen se. Th ey
ca n t ell wh en a per son h a s fou gh t m a n y ba t t les, a n d been cr own ed wit h su ccess;
t h ey a r e, t h er efor e, ca pa ble of elect in g a gen er a l. Th ey ca n t ell wh en a ju dge is
a ssidu ou s in h is office, gives gen er a l sa t isfa ct ion , a n d h a s n ever been ch a r ged
wit h br iber y: t h is is su fficien t for ch oosin g a pr a et or . Th ey a r e st r u ck wit h t h e
m a gn ificen ce or r ich es of a fellow-cit izen ; n o m or e is r equ isit e for elect in g a n
edile. Th ese a r e fa ct s of wh ich t h ey ca n h a ve bet t er in for m a t ion in a pu blic
for u m t h a n a m on a r ch in h is pa la ce. Bu t a r e t h ey ca pa ble of con du ct in g a n
in t r ica t e a ffa ir , of seizin g a n d im pr ovin g t h e oppor t u n it y a n d cr it ica l m om en t

of a ct ion ? No; t h is su r pa sses t h eir a bilit ies.
Sh ou ld we dou bt t h e people’s n a t u r a l ca pa cit y, in r espect t o t h e discer n m en t
of m er it , we n eed on ly ca st a n eye on t h e ser ies of su r pr isin g elect ion s m a de by
t h e At h en ia n s a n d Rom a n s; wh ich n o on e su r ely will a t t r ibu t e t o h a za r d.
We kn ow t h a t t h ou gh t h e people of Rom e a ssu m ed t h e r igh t of r a isin g
plebeia n s t o pu blic offices, yet t h ey n ever wou ld exer t t h is power ; a n d t h ou gh
a t At h en s t h e m a gist r a t es wer e a llowed, by t h e la w of Ar ist ides, t o be elect ed
fr om a ll t h e differ en t cla sses of in h a bit a n t s, t h er e n ever wa s a ca se, sa ys
Xen oph on , 4 wh en t h e com m on people pet it ion ed for em ploym en t s wh ich cou ld
en da n ger eit h er t h eir secu r it y or t h eir glor y.
As m ost cit izen s h a ve su fficien t a bilit y t o ch oose, t h ou gh u n qu a lified t o be
ch osen , so t h e people, t h ou gh ca pa ble of ca llin g ot h er s t o a n a ccou n t for t h eir
a dm in ist r a t ion , a r e in ca pa ble of con du ct in g t h e a dm in ist r a t ion t h em selves.
Th e pu blic bu sin ess m u st be ca r r ied on wit h a cer t a in m ot ion , n eit h er t oo
qu ick n or t oo slow. Bu t t h e m ot ion of t h e people is a lwa ys eit h er t oo r em iss or
t oo violen t . Som et im es wit h a h u n dr ed t h ou sa n d a r m s t h ey over t u r n a ll befor e
t h em ; a n d som et im es wit h a h u n dr ed t h ou sa n d feet t h ey cr eep like in sect s.
In a popu la r st a t e t h e in h a bit a n t s a r e divided in t o cer t a in cla sses. It is in t h e
m a n n er of m a kin g t h is division t h a t gr ea t legisla t or s h a ve sign a lised
t h em selves; a n d it is on t h is t h e du r a t ion a n d pr osper it y of dem ocr a cy h a ve ever
depen ded.
Ser viu s Tu lliu s followed t h e spir it of a r ist ocr a cy in t h e dist r ibu t ion of h is
cla sses. We fin d in Livy 5 a n d in Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, 6 in wh a t m a n n er h e
lodged t h e r igh t of su ffr a ge in t h e h a n ds of t h e pr in cipa l cit izen s. H e h a d
divided t h e people of Rom e in t o 193 cen t u r ies, wh ich for m ed six cla sses; a n d
r a n kin g t h e r ich , wh o wer e in sm a ller n u m ber s, in t h e fir st cen t u r ies, a n d t h ose
in m iddlin g cir cu m st a n ces, wh o wer e m or e n u m er ou s, in t h e n ext , h e flu n g t h e
in digen t m u lt it u de in t o t h e la st ; a n d a s ea ch cen t u r y h a d bu t on e vot e 7 it wa s
pr oper t y r a t h er t h a n n u m ber s t h a t decided t h e elect ion .
Solon divided t h e people of At h en s in t o fou r cla sses. In t h is h e wa s dir ect ed
by t h e spir it of dem ocr a cy, h is in t en t ion n ot bein g t o fix t h ose wh o wer e t o
ch oose, bu t su ch a s wer e eligible: t h er efor e, lea vin g t o ever y cit izen t h e r igh t of
elect ion , h e m a de 8 t h e ju dges eligible fr om ea ch of t h ose fou r cla sses; bu t t h e

m a gist r a t es h e or der ed t o be ch osen on ly ou t of t h e fir st t h r ee, con sist in g of
per son s of ea sy for t u n es. 9
As t h e division of t h ose wh o h a ve a r igh t of su ffr a ge is a fu n da m en t a l la w in
r epu blics, so t h e m a n n er of givin g t h is su ffr a ge is a n ot h er fu n da m en t a l.
Th e su ffr a ge by lot is n a t u r a l t o dem ocr a cy; a s t h a t by ch oice is t o
a r ist ocr a cy. 10
Th e su ffr a ge by lot is a m et h od of elect in g t h a t offen ds n o on e, bu t a n im a t es
ea ch cit izen wit h t h e plea sin g h ope of ser vin g h is cou n t r y.
Yet a s t h is m et h od is in it self defect ive, it h a s been t h e en dea vou r of t h e m ost
em in en t legisla t or s t o r egu la t e a n d a m en d it .
Solon m a de a la w a t At h en s t h a t m ilit a r y em ploym en t s sh ou ld be con fer r ed
by ch oice; bu t t h a t sen a t or s a n d ju dges sh ou ld be elect ed by lot .
Th e sa m e legisla t or or da in ed t h a t civil m a gist r a cies, a t t en ded wit h gr ea t
expen se, sh ou ld be given by ch oice; a n d t h e ot h er s by lot .
In or der , h owever , t o a m en d t h e su ffr a ge by lot , h e m a de a r u le t h a t n on e bu t
t h ose wh o pr esen t ed t h em selves sh ou ld be elect ed; t h a t t h e per son elect ed
sh ou ld be exa m in ed by ju dges 11 a n d t h a t ever y on e sh ou ld h a ve a r igh t t o a ccu se
h im if h e wer e u n wor t h y of t h e office:12 t h is pa r t icipa t ed a t t h e sa m e t im e of t h e
su ffr a ge by lot , a n d of t h a t by ch oice. Wh en t h e t im e of t h eir m a gist r a cy h a d
expir ed, t h ey wer e obliged t o su bm it t o a n ot h er ju dgm en t in r ega r d t o t h eir
con du ct . P er son s u t t er ly u n qu a lified m u st h a ve been ext r em ely ba ckwa r d in
givin g in t h eir n a m es t o be dr a wn by lot .
Th e la w wh ich det er m in es t h e m a n n er of givin g su ffr a ge is likewise
fu n da m en t a l in a dem ocr a cy. It is a qu est ion of som e im por t a n ce wh et h er t h e
su ffr a ges ou gh t t o be pu blic or secr et . Cicer o obser ves 13 t h a t t h e la ws 14 wh ich
r en der ed t h em secr et t owa r ds t h e close of t h e r epu blic wer e t h e ca u se of it s
declin e. Bu t a s t h is is differ en t ly pr a ct ised in differ en t r epu blics, I sh a ll offer
h er e m y t h ou gh t s con cer n in g t h is su bject .
Th e people’s su ffr a ges ou gh t dou bt less t o be pu blic15 a n d t h is sh ou ld be
con sider ed a s a fu n da m en t a l la w of dem ocr a cy. Th e lower cla ss ou gh t t o be
dir ect ed by t h ose of h igh er r a n k, a n d r est r a in ed wit h in bou n ds by t h e gr a vit y
of em in en t per son a ges. H en ce, by r en der in g t h e su ffr a ges secr et in t h e Rom a n
r epu blic, a ll wa s lost ; it wa s n o lon ger possible t o dir ect a popu la ce t h a t sou gh t
it s own dest r u ct ion . Bu t wh en t h e body of t h e n obles a r e t o vot e in a n
a r ist ocr a cy 16 or in a dem ocr a cy t h e sen a t e 17 a s t h e bu sin ess is t h en on ly t o
pr even t in t r igu es, t h e su ffr a ges ca n n ot be t oo secr et .
In t r igu in g in a sen a t e is da n ger ou s; it is da n ger ou s a lso in a body of n obles;
bu t n ot so a m on g t h e people, wh ose n a t u r e is t o a ct t h r ou gh pa ssion . In
cou n t r ies wh er e t h ey h a ve n o sh a r e in t h e gover n m en t , we oft en see t h em a s
m u ch in fla m ed on a ccou n t of a n a ct or a s ever t h ey cou ld be for t h e welfa r e of t h e
st a t e. Th e m isfor t u n e of a r epu blic is wh en in t r igu es a r e a t a n en d; wh ich
h a ppen s wh en t h e people a r e ga in ed by br iber y a n d cor r u pt ion : in t h is ca se t h ey
gr ow in differ en t t o pu blic a ffa ir s, a n d a va r ice becom es t h eir pr edom in a n t
pa ssion . Un con cer n ed a bou t t h e gover n m en t a n d ever yt h in g belon gin g t o it ,
t h ey qu iet ly wa it for t h eir h ir e.
It is likewise a fu n da m en t a l la w in dem ocr a cies, t h a t t h e people sh ou ld h a ve
t h e sole power t o en a ct la ws. An d yet t h er e a r e a t h ou sa n d occa sion s on wh ich
it is n ecessa r y t h e sen a t e sh ou ld h a ve t h e power of decr eein g; n a y, it is
fr equ en t ly pr oper t o m a ke som e t r ia l of a la w befor e it is est a blish ed. Th e
con st it u t ion s of Rom e a n d At h en s wer e excellen t . Th e decr ees of t h e sen a t e 18
h a d t h e for ce of la ws for t h e spa ce of a yea r , bu t did n ot becom e per pet u a l t ill
t h ey wer e r a t ified by t h e con sen t of t h e people.
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In a n a r ist ocr a cy t h e su pr em e power is lodged in t h e h a n ds of a cer t a in
n u m ber of per son s. Th ese a r e in vest ed bot h wit h t h e legisla t ive a n d execu t ive
a u t h or it y; a n d t h e r est of t h e people a r e, in r espect t o t h em , t h e sa m e a s t h e
su bject s of a m on a r ch y in r ega r d t o t h e sover eign .
Th ey do n ot vot e h er e by lot , for t h is wou ld be pr odu ct ive of in con ven ien ces
on ly. An d in deed, in a gover n m en t wh er e t h e m ost m or t ifyin g dist in ct ion s a r e
a lr ea dy est a blish ed, t h ou gh t h ey wer e t o be ch osen by lot , st ill t h ey wou ld n ot
cea se t o be odiou s; it is t h e n oblem a n t h ey en vy, a n d n ot t h e m a gist r a t e.
Wh en t h e n obilit y a r e n u m er ou s, t h er e m u st be a sen a t e t o r egu la t e t h e
a ffa ir s wh ich t h e body of t h e n obles a r e in ca pa ble of decidin g, a n d t o pr epa r e
ot h er s for t h eir decision . In t h is ca se it m a y be sa id t h a t t h e a r ist ocr a cy is in
som e m ea su r e in t h e sen a t e, t h e dem ocr a cy in t h e body of t h e n obles, a n d t h e

people a r e a ciph er .
It wou ld be a ver y h a ppy t h in g in a n a r ist ocr a cy if t h e people, in som e
m ea su r e, cou ld be r a ised fr om t h eir st a t e of a n n ih ila t ion . Th u s a t Gen oa , t h e
ba n k of St . Geor ge bein g a dm in ist er ed by t h e people 19 gives t h em a cer t a in
in flu en ce in t h e gover n m en t , wh en ce t h eir wh ole pr osper it y is der ived.
Th e sen a t or s ou gh t by n o m ea n s t o h a ve t h e r igh t of n a m in g t h eir own
m em ber s; for t h is wou ld be t h e on ly wa y t o per pet u a t e a bu ses. At Rom e, wh ich
in it s ea r ly yea r s wa s a kin d of a r ist ocr a cy, t h e sen a t e did n ot fill u p t h e va ca n t
pla ces in t h eir own body; t h e n ew m em ber s wer e n om in a t ed by t h e cen sor s.20
In a r epu blic, t h e su dden r ise of a pr iva t e cit izen t o exor bit a n t power pr odu ces
m on a r ch y, or som et h in g m or e t h a n m on a r ch y. In t h e la t t er t h e la ws h a ve
pr ovided for , or in som e m ea su r e a da pt ed t h em selves t o, t h e con st it u t ion ; a n d
t h e pr in ciple of gover n m en t ch eck s t h e m on a r ch : bu t in a r epu blic, wh er e a
pr iva t e cit izen h a s obt a in ed a n exor bit a n t power , 21 t h e a bu se of t h is power is
m u ch gr ea t er , beca u se t h e la ws for esa w it n ot , a n d con sequ en t ly m a de n o
pr ovision a ga in st it .
Th er e is a n except ion t o t h is r u le, wh en t h e con st it u t ion is su ch a s t o h a ve
im m edia t e n eed of a m a gist r a t e in vest ed wit h ext r a or din a r y power . Su ch wa s
Rom e wit h h er dict a t or s, su ch is Ven ice wit h h er st a t e in qu isit or s; t h ese a r e
for m ida ble m a gist r a t es, wh o r est or e, a s it wer e by violen ce, t h e st a t e t o it s
liber t y. Bu t h ow com es it t h a t t h ese m a gist r a cies a r e so ver y differ en t in t h ese
t wo r epu blics? It is beca u se Rom e su ppor t ed t h e r em a in s of h er a r ist ocr a cy
a ga in st t h e people; wh er ea s Ven ice em ploys h er st a t e in qu isit or s t o m a in t a in
h er a r ist ocr a cy a ga in st t h e n obles. Th e con sequ en ce wa s t h a t a t Rom e t h e
dict a t or sh ip cou ld be on ly of sh or t du r a t ion , a s t h e people a ct ed t h r ou gh pa ssion
a n d n ot wit h design . It wa s n ecessa r y t h a t a m a gist r a cy of t h is kin d sh ou ld be
exer cised wit h lu st r e a n d pom p, t h e bu sin ess bein g t o in t im ida t e, a n d n ot t o
pu n ish , t h e m u lt it u de. It wa s a lso pr oper t h a t t h e dict a t or sh ou ld be cr ea t ed
on ly for som e pa r t icu la r a ffa ir , a n d for t h is on ly sh ou ld h a ve a n u n lim it ed
a u t h or it y, a s h e wa s a lwa ys cr ea t ed u pon som e su dden em er gen cy. On t h e
con t r a r y, a t Ven ice t h ey h a ve occa sion for a per m a n en t m a gist r a cy; for h er e it
is t h a t sch em es m a y be set on foot , con t in u ed, su spen ded, a n d r esu m ed; t h a t t h e
a m bit ion of a sin gle per son becom es t h a t of a fa m ily, a n d t h e a m bit ion of on e
fa m ily t h a t of m a n y. Th ey h a ve occa sion for a secr et m a gist r a cy, t h e cr im es t h ey
pu n ish bein g h a t ch ed in secr ecy a n d silen ce. Th is m a gist r a cy m u st h a ve a
gen er a l in qu isit ion , for t h eir bu sin ess is n ot t o r em edy kn own disor der s, bu t t o
pr even t t h e u n k n own . In a wor d, t h e la t t er is design ed t o pu n ish su spect ed
cr im es; wh er ea s t h e for m er u sed r a t h er m en a ces t h a n pu n ish m en t even for
cr im es t h a t wer e open ly a vowed.
In a ll m a gist r a cies, t h e gr ea t n ess of t h e power m u st be com pen sa t ed by t h e
br evit y of t h e du r a t ion . Th is m ost legisla t or s h a ve fixed t o a yea r ; a lon ger spa ce
wou ld be da n ger ou s, a n d a sh or t er wou ld be con t r a r y t o t h e n a t u r e of
gover n m en t . F or wh o is it t h a t in t h e m a n a gem en t even of h is dom est ic a ffa ir s
wou ld be t h u s con fin ed? At Ra gu sa 22 t h e ch ief m a gist r a t e of t h e r epu blic is
ch a n ged ever y m on t h , t h e ot h er officer s ever y week, a n d t h e gover n or of t h e
ca st le ever y da y. Bu t t h is ca n t a ke pla ce on ly in a sm a ll r epu blic en vir on ed 23 by
for m ida ble power s, wh o m igh t ea sily cor r u pt su ch pet t y a n d in sign ifica n t
m a gist r a t es.
Th e best a r ist ocr a cy is t h a t in wh ich t h ose wh o h a ve n o sh a r e in t h e
legisla t u r e a r e so few a n d in con sider a ble t h a t t h e gover n in g pa r t y h a ve n o
in t er est in oppr essin g t h em . Th u s wh en 24 An t ipa t er m a de a la w a t At h en s t h a t
wh osoever wa s n ot wor t h t wo t h ou sa n d dr a ch m s sh ou ld h a ve n o power t o vot e,
h e for m ed by t h is m et h od t h e best a r ist ocr a cy possible; beca u se t h is wa s so
sm a ll a su m a s t o exclu de ver y few, a n d n ot on e of a n y r a n k or con sider a t ion in
t h e cit y.
Ar ist ocr a t ic fa m ilies ou gh t t h er efor e, a s m u ch a s possible, t o level t h em selves
in a ppea r a n ce wit h t h e people. Th e m or e a n a r ist ocr a cy bor der s on dem ocr a cy,
t h e n ea r er it a ppr oa ch es per fect ion : a n d, in pr opor t ion a s it dr a ws t owa r ds
m on a r ch y, t h e m or e is it im per fect .
Bu t t h e m ost im per fect of a ll is t h a t in wh ich t h e pa r t of t h e people t h a t obeys
is in a st a t e of civil ser vit u de t o t h ose wh o com m a n d, a s t h e a r ist ocr a cy of
P ola n d, wh er e t h e pea sa n t s a r e sla ves t o t h e n obilit y.
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Th e in t er m edia t e, su bor din a t e, a n d depen den t power s con st it u t e t h e n a t u r e
of m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t ; I m ea n of t h a t in wh ich a sin gle per son gover n s by
fu n da m en t a l la ws. I sa id t h e in t er m edia t e, su bor din a t e, a n d depen den t power s.
An d in deed, in m on a r ch ies t h e pr in ce is t h e sou r ce of a ll power , polit ica l a n d
civil. Th ese fu n da m en t a l la ws n ecessa r ily su ppose t h e in t er m edia t e ch a n n els
t h r ou gh wh ich t h e power flows: for if t h er e be on ly t h e m om en t a r y a n d
ca pr iciou s will of a sin gle per son t o gover n t h e st a t e, n ot h in g ca n be fixed, a n d
of cou r se t h er e is n o fu n da m en t a l la w.
Th e m ost n a t u r a l, in t er m edia t e, a n d su bor din a t e power is t h a t of t h e n obilit y.
Th is in som e m ea su r e seem s t o be essen t ia l t o a m on a r ch y, wh ose fu n da m en t a l
m a xim is: n o m on a r ch , n o n obilit y; n o n obilit y, n o m on a r ch ; bu t t h er e m a y be
a despot ic pr in ce.
Th er e a r e m en wh o h a ve en dea vou r ed in som e cou n t r ies in E u r ope t o su ppr ess
t h e ju r isdict ion of t h e n obilit y, n ot per ceivin g t h a t t h ey wer e dr ivin g a t t h e ver y
t h in g t h a t wa s don e by t h e pa r lia m en t of E n gla n d. Abolish t h e pr ivileges of t h e
lor ds, t h e cler gy a n d cit ies in a m on a r ch y, a n d you will soon h a ve a popu la r
st a t e, or else a despot ic gover n m en t .
Th e cou r t s of a con sider a ble kin gdom in E u r ope h a ve, for m a n y a ges, been
st r ikin g a t t h e pa t r im on ia l ju r isdict ion of t h e lor ds a n d cler gy. We do n ot
pr et en d t o cen su r e t h ese sa ge m a gist r a t es; bu t we lea ve it t o t h e pu blic t o ju dge
h ow fa r t h is m a y a lt er t h e con st it u t ion . F a r a m I fr om bein g pr eju diced in
fa vou r of t h e pr ivileges of t h e cler gy; h owever , I sh ou ld be gla d if t h eir
ju r isdict ion wer e on ce fixed. Th e qu est ion is n ot wh et h er t h eir ju r isdict ion wa s
ju st ly est a blish ed; bu t wh et h er it be r ea lly est a blish ed; wh et h er it con st it u t es
a pa r t of t h e la ws of t h e cou n t r y, a n d is in ever y r espect in r ela t ion t o t h ose
la ws: wh et h er bet ween t wo power s a ckn owledged in depen den t , t h e con dit ion s
ou gh t n ot t o be r ecipr oca l; a n d wh et h er it be n ot equ a lly t h e du t y of a good
su bject t o defen d t h e pr er oga t ive of t h e pr in ce, a n d t o m a in t a in t h e lim it s wh ich
fr om t im e im m em or ia l h a ve been pr escr ibed t o h is a u t h or it y.
Th ou gh t h e ecclesia st ic power be so da n ger ou s in a r epu blic, yet it is
ext r em ely pr oper in a m on a r ch y, especia lly of t h e a bsolu t e kin d. Wh a t wou ld
becom e of Spa in a n d P or t u ga l, sin ce t h e su bver sion of t h eir la ws, wer e it n ot for
t h is on ly ba r r ier a ga in st t h e in cu r sion s of a r bit r a r y power ? A ba r r ier ever u sefu l

wh en t h er e is n o ot h er : for sin ce a despot ic gover n m en t is pr odu ct ive of t h e m ost
dr ea dfu l ca la m it ies t o h u m a n n a t u r e, t h e ver y evil t h a t r est r a in s it is ben eficia l
t o t h e su bject .
In t h e sa m e m a n n er a s t h e ocea n , t h r ea t en in g t o over flow t h e wh ole ea r t h , is
st opped by weeds a n d pebbles t h a t lie sca t t er ed a lon g t h e sh or e, so m on a r ch s,
wh ose power seem s u n bou n ded, a r e r est r a in ed by t h e sm a llest obst a cles, a n d
su ffer t h eir n a t u r a l pr ide t o be su bdu ed by su pplica t ion a n d pr a yer .
Th e E n glish , t o fa vou r t h eir liber t y, h a ve a bolish ed a ll t h e in t er m edia t e
power s of wh ich t h eir m on a r ch y wa s com posed. Th ey h a ve a gr ea t dea l of
r ea son t o be jea lou s of t h is liber t y; wer e t h ey ever t o be so u n h a ppy a s t o lose
it , t h ey wou ld be on e of t h e m ost ser vile n a t ion s u pon ea r t h .
Mr . La w, t h r ou gh ign or a n ce bot h of a r epu blica n a n d m on a r ch ica l
con st it u t ion , wa s on e of t h e gr ea t est pr om ot er s of a bsolu t e power ever kn own
in E u r ope. Besides t h e violen t a n d ext r a or din a r y ch a n ges owin g t o h is dir ect ion ,
h e wou ld fa in su ppr ess a ll t h e in t er m edia t e r a n ks, a n d a bolish t h e polit ica l
com m u n it ies. H e wa s dissolvin g25 t h e m on a r ch y by h is ch im er ica l
r eim bu r sem en t s, a n d seem ed a s if h e even wa n t ed t o r edeem t h e con st it u t ion .
It is n ot en ou gh t o h a ve in t er m edia t e power s in a m on a r ch y; t h er e m u st be
a lso a deposit a r y of t h e la ws. Th is deposit a r y ca n on ly be t h e ju dges of t h e
su pr em e cou r t s of ju st ice, wh o pr om u lga t e t h e n ew la ws, a n d r evive t h e
obsolet e. Th e n a t u r a l ign or a n ce of t h e n obilit y, t h eir in dolen ce a n d con t em pt of
civil gover n m en t , r equ ir e t h a t t h er e sh ou ld be a body in vest ed wit h t h e power
of r evivin g a n d execu t in g t h e la ws, wh ich wou ld be ot h er wise bu r ied in oblivion .
Th e pr in ce’s cou n cil a r e n ot a pr oper deposit a r y. Th ey a r e n a t u r a lly t h e
deposit a r y of t h e m om en t a r y will of t h e pr in ce, a n d n ot of t h e fu n da m en t a l
la ws. Besides, t h e pr in ce’s cou n cil is con t in u a lly ch a n gin g; it is n eit h er
per m a n en t n or n u m er ou s; n eit h er h a s it a su fficien t sh a r e of t h e con fiden ce of
t h e people; con sequ en t ly it is ca pa ble of set t in g t h em r igh t in difficu lt
con ju n ct u r es, or of r edu cin g t h em t o pr oper obedien ce.
Despot ic gover n m en t s, wh er e t h er e a r e n o fu n da m en t a l la ws, h a ve n o su ch
kin d of deposit a r y. H en ce it is t h a t r eligion h a s gen er a lly so m u ch in flu en ce in
t h ose cou n t r ies, beca u se it for m s a kin d of per m a n en t deposit a r y; a n d if t h is
ca n n ot be sa id of r eligion , it m a y of t h e cu st om s t h a t a r e r espect ed in st ea d of
la ws.
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F r om t h e n a t u r e of despot ic power it follows t h a t t h e sin gle per son , in vest ed
wit h t h is power , com m it s t h e execu t ion of it a lso t o a sin gle per son . A m a n
wh om h is sen ses con t in u a lly in for m t h a t h e h im self is ever yt h in g a n d t h a t h is
su bject s a r e n ot h in g, is n a t u r a lly la zy, volu pt u ou s, a n d ign or a n t . In
con sequ en ce of t h is, h e n eglect s t h e m a n a gem en t of pu blic a ffa ir s. Bu t wer e h e
t o com m it t h e a dm in ist r a t ion t o m a n y, t h er e wou ld be con t in u a l dispu t es a m on g
t h em ; ea ch wou ld for m in t r igu es t o be h is fir st sla ve; a n d h e wou ld be obliged
t o t a ke t h e r ein s in t o h is own h a n ds. It is, t h er efor e, m or e n a t u r a l for h im t o
r esign it t o a vizir , 26 a n d t o in vest h im wit h t h e sa m e power a s h im self. Th e
cr ea t ion of a vizir is a fu n da m en t a l la w of t h is gover n m en t .
It is r ela t ed of a pope t h a t h e h a d st a r t ed a n in fin it e n u m ber of difficu lt ies
a ga in st h is elect ion , fr om a t h or ou gh con vict ion of h is in ca pa cit y. At len gt h h e
wa s pr eva iled on t o a ccept of t h e pon t ifica t e, a n d r esign ed t h e a dm in ist r a t ion
en t ir ely t o h is n eph ew. H e wa s soon st r u ck wit h su r pr ise, a n d sa id, “I sh ou ld
n ever h a ve t h ou gh t t h a t t h ese t h in gs wer e so ea sy.” Th e sa m e m a y be sa id of
t h e pr in ces of t h e E a st , wh o, bein g edu ca t ed in a pr ison wh er e eu n u ch s cor r u pt
t h eir h ea r t s a n d deba se t h eir u n der st a n din gs, a n d wh er e t h ey a r e fr equ en t ly
kept ign or a n t even of t h eir h igh r a n k, wh en dr a wn for t h in or der t o be pla ced
on t h e t h r on e, a r e a t fir st con fou n ded: bu t a s soon a s t h ey h a ve ch osen a vizir ,
a n d a ba n don ed t h em selves in t h eir ser a glio t o t h e m ost br u t a l pa ssion s;
pu r su in g, in t h e m idst of a pr ost it u t ed cou r t , ever y ca pr iciou s ext r a va ga n ce,
t h ey wou ld n ever h a ve dr ea m ed t h a t t h ey cou ld fin d m a t t er s so ea sy.
Th e m or e ext en sive t h e em pir e, t h e la r ger t h e ser a glio; a n d con sequ en t ly t h e
m or e volu pt u ou s t h e pr in ce. H en ce t h e m or e n a t ion s su ch a sover eign h a s t o
r u le, t h e less h e a t t en ds t o t h e ca r es of gover n m en t ; t h e m or e im por t a n t h is
a ffa ir s, t h e less h e m a kes t h em t h e su bject of h is deliber a t ion s.
2'+%,1
1. Com pa r e Ar ist ot le, Politics, vi. 2.
2. Decla m a t ion s, 17, 18.
3. See t h e Con sid eration s on th e Cau ses of th e Gran d eu r an d Declin e of th e
R om an s, 9.
4. P p. 691, 693, ed. Wech el, 1596.
5. Bk. i.
6. Bk. iv, a r t . 15 et seq.
7. See in t h e Con sid eration s on th e Cau ses of th e Gran d eu r an d Declin e of th e
R om an s, 9, h ow t h is spir it of Ser viu s Tu lliu s wa s pr eser ved in t h e r epu blic.
8. Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, E u logiu m of Isocrates, ii, p. 97, ed. Wech el. P ollu x,
viii. 10, a r t . 130.
9. See Ar ist ot le’s Politics, ii. 12.
10. Ibid, iv. 9.
11. See t h e or a t ion of Dem ost h en es, De Falsa legat., a n d t h e or a t ion a ga in st
Tim a r ch u s.
12. Th ey u sed even t o dr a w t wo t icket s for ea ch pla ce, on e wh ich ga ve t h e pla ce,
a n d t h e ot h er wh ich n a m ed t h e per son wh o wa s t o su cceed, in ca se t h e fir st
wa s r eject ed.
13. De L eg., i, iii.
14. Th ey wer e ca lled leges tabu lares; t wo t a blet s wer e pr esen t ed t o ea ch cit izen ,
t h e fir st m a r ked wit h a n A, for An t iqu e, or I for bid it ; a n d t h e ot h er wit h a n
U a n d a n R, for “Ut i Roga s,” or “Be it a s you desir e.”
15. At At h en s t h e people u sed t o lift u p t h eir h a n ds.
16. As a t Ven ice.
17. Th e t h ir t y t yr a n t s a t At h en s or der ed t h e su ffr a ges of t h e Ar eopa git es t o be
pu blic, in or der t o m a n a ge t h em a s t h ey plea sed. — Lysia s, Orat. con tra
Agorat. 8.
18. See Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, iv, ix.
19. See Mr . Addison , T ravels to Italy, p. 16.
20. Th ey wer e n a m ed a t fir st by t h e con su ls.
21. Th is is wh a t r u in ed t h e r epu blic of Rom e. See Con sid eration s on th e Cau ses
of th e Gran d eu r an d Declin e of th e R om an s, 14, 16.
22. Tou r n efor t , Voyages.

23. At Lu cca t h e m a gist r a t es a r e ch osen on ly for t wo m on t h s.
24. Diodor u s, xviii, p. 601, ed. Rh odom a n .
25. F er din a n d, kin g of Ar a gon , m a de h im self gr a n d m a st er of t h e or der s, a n d
t h a t a lon e ch a n ged t h e con st it u t ion .
26. Th e E a st er n kin gs a r e n ever wit h ou t vizir s, sa ys Sir J oh n Ch a r din .
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H a vin g exa m in ed t h e la ws in r ela t ion t o t h e n a t u r e of ea ch gover n m en t , we
m u st in vest iga t e t h ose wh ich r ela t e t o it s pr in ciple.
Th er e is t h is differ en ce bet ween t h e n a t u r e a n d pr in ciple 1 of gover n m en t , t h a t
t h e for m er is t h a t by wh ich it is con st it u t ed, t h e la t t er t h a t by wh ich it is m a de
t o a ct . On e is it s pa r t icu la r st r u ct u r e, a n d t h e ot h er t h e h u m a n pa ssion s wh ich
set it in m ot ion .
Now, la ws ou gh t n o less t o r ela t e t o t h e pr in ciple t h a n t o t h e n a t u r e of ea ch
gover n m en t . We m u st , t h er efor e, in qu ir e in t o t h is pr in ciple, wh ich sh a ll be t h e
su bject of t h is t h ir d book.
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I h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved t h a t it is t h e n a t u r e of a r epu blica n gover n m en t t h a t
eit h er t h e collect ive body of t h e people, or pa r t icu la r fa m ilies, sh ou ld be
possessed of t h e su pr em e power ; of a m on a r ch y, t h a t t h e pr in ce sh ou ld h a ve t h is
power , bu t in t h e execu t ion of it sh ou ld be dir ect ed by est a blish ed la ws; of a
despot ic gover n m en t , t h a t a sin gle per son sh ou ld r u le a ccor din g t o h is own will
a n d ca pr ice. Th is en a bles m e t o discover t h eir t h r ee pr in ciples; wh ich a r e t h en ce
n a t u r a lly der ived. I sh a ll begin wit h a r epu blica n gover n m en t , a n d in pa r t icu la r
wit h t h a t of dem ocr a cy.
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Th er e is n o gr ea t sh a r e of pr obit y n ecessa r y t o su ppor t a m on a r ch ica l or
despot ic gover n m en t . Th e for ce of la ws in on e, a n d t h e pr in ce’s a r m in t h e ot h er ,
a r e su fficien t t o dir ect a n d m a in t a in t h e wh ole. Bu t in a popu la r st a t e, on e
spr in g m or e is n ecessa r y, n a m ely, vir t u e.
Wh a t I h a ve h er e a dva n ced is con fir m ed by t h e u n a n im ou s t est im on y of

h ist or ia n s, a n d is ext r em ely a gr eea ble t o t h e n a t u r e of t h in gs. F or it is clea r
t h a t in a m on a r ch y, wh er e h e wh o com m a n ds t h e execu t ion of t h e la ws
gen er a lly t h in ks h im self a bove t h em , t h er e is less n eed of vir t u e t h a n in a
popu la r gover n m en t , wh er e t h e per son en t r u st ed wit h t h e execu t ion of t h e la ws
is sen sible of h is bein g su bject t o t h eir dir ect ion .
Clea r is it a lso t h a t a m on a r ch wh o, t h r ou gh ba d a dvice or in dolen ce, cea ses
t o en for ce t h e execu t ion of t h e la ws, m a y ea sily r epa ir t h e evil; h e h a s on ly t o
follow ot h er a dvice; or t o sh a ke off t h is in dolen ce. Bu t wh en , in a popu la r
gover n m en t , t h er e is a su spen sion of t h e la ws, a s t h is ca n pr oceed on ly fr om t h e
cor r u pt ion of t h e r epu blic, t h e st a t e is cer t a in ly u n don e.
A ver y dr oll spect a cle it wa s in t h e la st cen t u r y t o beh old t h e im pot en t effor t s
of t h e E n glish t owa r ds t h e est a blish m en t of dem ocr a cy. As t h ey wh o h a d a
sh a r e in t h e dir ect ion of pu blic a ffa ir s wer e void of vir t u e; a s t h eir a m bit ion wa s
in fla m ed by t h e su ccess of t h e m ost da r in g of t h eir m em ber s;2 a s t h e pr eva ilin g
pa r t ies wer e su ccessively a n im a t ed by t h e spir it of fa ct ion , t h e gover n m en t wa s
con t in u a lly ch a n gin g: t h e people, a m a zed a t so m a n y r evolu t ion s, in va in
a t t em pt ed t o er ect a com m on wea lt h . At len gt h , wh en t h e cou n t r y h a d
u n der gon e t h e m ost violen t sh ocks, t h ey wer e obliged t o h a ve r ecou r se t o t h e
ver y gover n m en t wh ich t h ey h a d so wa n t on ly pr oscr ibed.
Wh en Sylla t h ou gh t of r est or in g Rom e t o h er liber t y, t h is u n h a ppy cit y wa s
in ca pa ble of r eceivin g t h a t blessin g. Sh e h a d on ly t h e feeble r em a in s of vir t u e,
wh ich wer e con t in u a lly dim in ish in g. In st ea d of bein g r ou sed fr om h er let h a r gy
by Ca esa r , Tiber iu s, Ca iu s Cla u diu s, Ner o, a n d Dom it ia n , sh e r ivet ed ever y da y
h er ch a in s; if sh e st r u ck som e blows, h er a im wa s a t t h e t yr a n t , n ot a t t h e
t yr a n n y.
Th e polit ic Gr eeks, wh o lived u n der a popu la r gover n m en t , kn ew n o ot h er
su ppor t t h a n vir t u e. Th e m oder n in h a bit a n t s of t h a t cou n t r y a r e en t ir ely t a ken
u p wit h m a n u fa ct u r e, com m er ce, fin a n ces, opu len ce, a n d lu xu r y.
Wh en vir t u e is ba n ish ed, a m bit ion in va des t h e m in ds of t h ose wh o a r e
disposed t o r eceive it , a n d a va r ice possesses t h e wh ole com m u n it y. Th e object s
of t h eir desir es a r e ch a n ged; wh a t t h ey wer e fon d of befor e h a s becom e
in differ en t ; t h ey wer e fr ee wh ile u n der t h e r est r a in t of la ws, bu t t h ey wou ld fa in
n ow be fr ee t o a ct a ga in st la w; a n d a s ea ch cit izen is like a sla ve wh o h a s r u n

a wa y fr om h is m a st er , t h a t wh ich wa s a m a xim of equ it y h e ca lls r igou r ; t h a t
wh ich wa s a r u le of a ct ion h e st yles con st r a in t ; a n d t o pr eca u t ion h e gives t h e
n a m e of fea r . F r u ga lit y, a n d n ot t h e t h ir st of ga in , n ow pa sses for a va r ice.
F or m er ly t h e wea lt h of in dividu a ls con st it u t ed t h e pu blic t r ea su r e; bu t n ow t h is
h a s becom e t h e pa t r im on y of pr iva t e per son s. Th e m em ber s of t h e
com m on wea lt h r iot on t h e pu blic spoils, a n d it s st r en gt h is on ly t h e power of a
few, a n d t h e licen ce of m a n y.
At h en s wa s possessed of t h e sa m e n u m ber of for ces wh en sh e t r iu m ph ed so
glor iou sly a s wh en wit h su ch in fa m y sh e wa s en sla ved. Sh e h a d t wen t y
t h ou sa n d cit izen s 3 wh en sh e defen ded t h e Gr eeks a ga in st t h e P er sia n s, wh en
sh e con t en ded for em pir e wit h Spa r t a , a n d in va ded Sicily. Sh e h a d t wen t y
t h ou sa n d wh en Dem et r iu s P h a ler eu s n u m ber ed t h em 4 a s sla ves a r e t old by t h e
h ea d in a m a r ket -pla ce. Wh en P h ilip a t t em pt ed t o lor d it over Gr eece, a n d
a ppea r ed a t t h e ga t es of At h en s 5 sh e h a d even t h en lost n ot h in g bu t t im e. We
m a y see in Dem ost h en es h ow difficu lt it wa s t o a wa ken h er ; sh e dr ea ded P h ilip,
n ot a s t h e en em y of h er liber t y, bu t of h er plea su r es.6 Th is fa m ou s cit y, wh ich
h a d wit h st ood so m a n y defea t s, a n d h a vin g been so oft en dest r oyed h a d a s oft en
r isen ou t of h er a sh es, wa s over t h r own a t Ch a er on ea , a n d a t on e blow depr ived
of a ll h opes of r esou r ce. Wh a t does it a va il h er t h a t P h ilip sen ds ba ck h er
pr ison er s, if h e does n ot r et u r n h er m en ? It wa s ever a ft er a s ea sy t o t r iu m ph
over t h e for ces of At h en s a s it h a d been difficu lt t o su bdu e h er vir t u e.
H ow wa s it possible for Ca r t h a ge t o m a in t a in h er gr ou n d? Wh en H a n n iba l,
u pon h is bein g m a de pr a et or , en dea vou r ed t o h in der t h e m a gist r a t es fr om
plu n der in g t h e r epu blic, did n ot t h ey com pla in of h im t o t h e Rom a n s? Wr et ch es,
wh o wou ld fa in be cit izen s wit h ou t a cit y, a n d be beh olden for t h eir r ich es t o
t h eir ver y dest r oyer s! Rom e soon in sist ed u pon h a vin g t h r ee h u n dr ed of t h eir
pr in cipa l cit izen s a s h ost a ges; sh e obliged t h em n ext t o su r r en der t h eir a r m s
a n d sh ips; a n d t h en sh e decla r ed wa r . 7 F r om t h e desper a t e effor t s of t h is
defen celess cit y, on e m a y ju dge of wh a t sh e m igh t h a ve per for m ed in h er fu ll
vigou r , a n d a ssist ed by vir t u e.
J1&@(&+-%&8.5*954$%&'(&:.5,+'9."9H1
As vir t u e is n ecessa r y in a popu la r gover n m en t , it is r equ isit e a lso in a n
a r ist ocr a cy. Tr u e it is t h a t in t h e la t t er it is n ot so a bsolu t ely r equ isit e.
Th e people, wh o in r espect t o t h e n obilit y a r e t h e sa m e a s t h e su bject s wit h
r ega r d t o a m on a r ch , a r e r est r a in ed by t h eir la ws. Th ey h a ve, t h er efor e, less
occa sion for vir t u e t h a n t h e people in a dem ocr a cy. Bu t h ow a r e t h e n obilit y t o
be r est r a in ed? Th ey wh o a r e t o execu t e t h e la ws a ga in st t h eir collea gu es will
im m edia t ely per ceive t h a t t h ey a r e a ct in g a ga in st t h em selves. Vir t u e is
t h er efor e n ecessa r y in t h is body, fr om t h e ver y n a t u r e of t h e con st it u t ion .
An a r ist ocr a t ic gover n m en t h a s a n in h er en t vigou r , u n kn own t o dem ocr a cy.
Th e n obles for m a body, wh o by t h eir pr er oga t ive, a n d for t h eir own pa r t icu la r
in t er est , r est r a in t h e people; it is su fficien t t h a t t h er e a r e la ws in bein g t o see
t h em execu t ed.
Bu t ea sy a s it m a y be for t h e body of t h e n obles t o r est r a in t h e people, it is
difficu lt t o r est r a in t h em selves.8 Su ch is t h e n a t u r e of t h is con st it u t ion , t h a t it
seem s t o su bject t h e ver y sa m e per son s t o t h e power of t h e la ws, a n d a t t h e
sa m e t im e t o exem pt t h em .
Now su ch a body a s t h is ca n r est r a in it self on ly in t wo wa ys; eit h er by a ver y
em in en t vir t u e, wh ich pu t s t h e n obilit y in som e m ea su r e on a level wit h t h e
people, a n d m a y be t h e m ea n s of for m in g a gr ea t r epu blic; or by a n in fer ior
vir t u e, wh ich pu t s t h em a t lea st u pon a level wit h on e a n ot h er , a n d u pon t h is
t h eir pr eser va t ion depen ds.
Moder a t ion is t h er efor e t h e ver y sou l of t h is gover n m en t ; a m oder a t ion , I
m ea n , fou n ded on vir t u e, n ot t h a t wh ich pr oceeds fr om in dolen ce a n d
pu silla n im it y.
L1&!-"+&N5.+F%&5,&*'+&+-%&8.5*954$%&'(&"&K'*".9-59"$&A';%.*<%*+1
In m on a r ch ies, policy effect s gr ea t t h in gs wit h a s lit t le vir t u e a s possible.
Th u s in t h e n icest m a ch in es, a r t h a s r edu ced t h e n u m ber of m ovem en t s,
spr in gs, a n d wh eels.
Th e st a t e su bsist s in depen den t ly of t h e love of ou r cou n t r y, of t h e t h ir st of
t r u e glor y, of self-den ia l, of t h e sa cr ifice of ou r dea r est in t er est s, a n d of a ll t h ose
h er oic vir t u es wh ich we a dm ir e in t h e a n cien t s, a n d t o u s a r e k n own on ly by
t r a dit ion .
Th e la ws su pply h er e t h e pla ce of t h ose vir t u es; t h ey a r e by n o m ea n s wa n t ed,
a n d t h e st a t e dispen ses wit h t h em : a n a ct ion per for m ed h er e in secr et is in
som e m ea su r e of n o con sequ en ce.
Th ou gh a ll cr im es be in t h eir own n a t u r e pu blic, yet t h er e is a dist in ct ion
bet ween cr im es r ea lly pu blic a n d t h ose t h a t a r e pr iva t e, wh ich a r e so ca lled
beca u se t h ey a r e m or e in ju r iou s t o in dividu a ls t h a n t o t h e com m u n it y.
Now in r epu blics pr iva t e cr im es a r e m or e pu blic, t h a t is, t h ey a t t a ck t h e
con st it u t ion m or e t h a n t h ey do in dividu a ls; a n d in m on a r ch ies, pu blic cr im es
a r e m or e pr iva t e, t h a t is, t h ey a r e m or e pr eju dicia l t o pr iva t e people t h a n t o t h e
con st it u t ion .
I beg t h a t n o on e will be offen ded wit h wh a t I h a ve been sa yin g; m y
obser va t ion s a r e fou n ded on t h e u n a n im ou s t est im on y of h ist or ia n s. I a m n ot
ign or a n t t h a t vir t u ou s pr in ces a r e so ver y r a r e; bu t I ven t u r e t o a ffir m t h a t in
a m on a r ch y it is ext r em ely difficu lt for t h e people t o be vir t u ou s.9
Let u s com pa r e wh a t t h e h ist or ia n s of a ll a ges h a ve a sser t ed con cer n in g t h e
cou r t s of m on a r ch s; let u s r ecollect t h e con ver sa t ion s a n d sen t im en t s of people
of a ll cou n t r ies, in r espect t o t h e wr et ch ed ch a r a ct er of cou r t ier s, a n d we sh a ll
fin d t h a t t h ese a r e n ot a ir y specu la t ion s, bu t t r u t h s con fir m ed by a sa d a n d
m ela n ch oly exper ien ce.
Am bit ion in idlen ess; m ea n n ess m ixed wit h pr ide; a desir e of r ich es wit h ou t
in du st r y; a ver sion t o t r ut h; flat t er y, per fidy, viola t ion of en ga gem en t s, con t em pt
of civil du t ies, fea r of t h e pr in ce’s vir t u e, h ope fr om h is wea kn ess, bu t , a bove a ll,
a per pet u a l r idicu le ca st u pon vir t u e, a r e, I t h in k, t h e ch a r a ct er ist ics by wh ich
m ost cou r t ier s in a ll a ges a n d cou n t r ies h a ve been con st a n t ly dist in gu ish ed.
Now, it is exceedin gly difficu lt for t h e lea din g m en of t h e n a t ion t o be kn a ves,
a n d t h e in fer ior sor t t o be h on est ; for t h e for m er t o be ch ea t s, a n d t h e la t t er t o
r est sa t isfied wit h bein g on ly du pes.
Bu t if t h er e sh ou ld ch a n ce t o be som e u n lu cky h on est m a n 10 a m on g t h e people.
Ca r din a l Rich elieu , in h is polit ica l t est a m en t , seem s t o h in t t h a t a pr in ce sh ou ld
t a ke ca r e n ot t o em ploy h im .11 So t r u e is it t h a t vir t u e is n ot t h e spr in g of t h is
gover n m en t ! It is n ot in deed exclu ded, bu t it is n ot t h e spr in g of gover n m en t .
O1&?*&7-"+&K"**%.&N5.+F%&5,&,F44$5%0&5*&"&K'*".9-59"$&A';%.*<%*+1&
Bu t it is h igh t im e for m e t o h a ve don e wit h t h is su bject , lest I sh ou ld be
su spect ed of wr it in g a sa t ir e a ga in st m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t . F a r be it fr om
m e; if m on a r ch y wa n t s on e spr in g, it is pr ovided wit h a n ot h er . H on ou r , t h a t is,
t h e pr eju dice of ever y per son a n d r a n k, su pplies t h e pla ce of t h e polit ica l vir t u e
of wh ich I h a ve been spea kin g, a n d is ever ywh er e h er r epr esen t a t ive: h er e it is
ca pa ble of in spir in g t h e m ost glor iou s a ct ion s, a n d, join ed wit h t h e for ce of la ws,
m a y lea d u s t o t h e en d of gover n m en t a s well a s vir t u e it self.
H en ce, in well-r egu la t ed m on a r ch ies, t h ey a r e a lm ost a ll good su bject s, a n d
ver y few good m en ; for t o be a good m a n 12 a good in t en t ion is n ecessa r y,13 a n d
we sh ou ld love ou r cou n t r y, n ot so m u ch on ou r own a ccou n t , a s ou t of r ega r d
t o t h e com m u n it y.
P1&@(&+-%&8.5*954$%&'(&K'*".9-H1&
A m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t su pposes, a s we h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved,
pr e-em in en ces a n d r a n ks, a s likewise a n oble descen t . Now sin ce it is t h e n a t u r e
of h on ou r t o a spir e t o pr efer m en t s a n d t it les, it is pr oper ly pla ced in t h is
gover n m en t .
Am bit ion is per n iciou s in a r epu blic. Bu t in a m on a r ch y it h a s som e good
effect s; it gives life t o t h e gover n m en t , a n d is a t t en ded wit h t h is a dva n t a ge, t h a t
it is in n o wa y da n ger ou s, beca u se it m a y be con t in u a lly ch ecked.
It is wit h t h is kin d of gover n m en t a s wit h t h e syst em of t h e u n iver se, in wh ich
t h er e is a power t h a t con st a n t ly r epels a ll bodies fr om t h e cen t r e, a n d a power
of gr a vit a t ion t h a t a t t r a ct s t h em t o it . H on ou r set s a ll t h e pa r t s of t h e body
polit ic in m ot ion , a n d by it s ver y a ct ion con n ect s t h em ; t h u s ea ch in dividu a l
a dva n ces t h e pu blic good, wh ile h e on ly t h in ks of pr om ot in g h is own in t er est .
Tr u e it is t h a t , ph ilosoph ica lly spea kin g, it is a fa lse h on ou r wh ich m oves a ll
t h e pa r t s of t h e gover n m en t ; bu t even t h is fa lse h on ou r is a s u sefu l t o t h e pu blic
a s t r u e h on ou r cou ld possibly be t o pr iva t e per son s.
Is it n ot ver y exa ct in g t o oblige m en t o per for m t h e m ost difficu lt a ct ion s, su ch
a s r equ ir e a n ext r a or din a r y exer t ion of for t it u de a n d r esolu t ion , wit h ou t ot h er
r ecom pen se t h a n t h a t of glor y a n d a ppla u se?
Q1&!-"+&R'*'F.&5,&*'+&+-%&8.5*954$%&'(&C%,4'+59&A';%.*<%*+1
H on ou r is fa r fr om bein g t h e pr in ciple of despot ic gover n m en t : m a n kin d bein g
h er e a ll u pon a level, n o on e per son ca n pr efer h im self t o a n ot h er ; a n d a s on t h e
ot h er h a n d t h ey a r e a ll sla ves, t h ey ca n give t h em selves n o sor t of pr efer en ce.
Besides, a s h on ou r h a s it s la ws a n d r u les, a s it kn ows n ot h ow t o su bm it ; a s
it depen ds in a gr ea t m ea su r e on a m a n ’s own ca pr ice, a n d n ot on t h a t of
a n ot h er per son ; it ca n be fou n d on ly in cou n t r ies in wh ich t h e con st it u t ion is
fixed, a n d wh er e t h ey a r e gover n ed by set t led la ws.
H ow ca n despot ism a bide wit h h on ou r ? Th e on e glor ies in t h e con t em pt of life;
a n d t h e ot h er is fou n ded on t h e power of t a kin g it a wa y. H ow ca n h on ou r , on t h e
ot h er h a n d, bea r wit h despot ism ? Th e for m er h a s it s fixed r u les, a n d pecu lia r
ca pr ices; bu t t h e la t t er is dir ect ed by n o r u le, a n d it s own ca pr ices a r e
su bver sive of a ll ot h er s.
H on ou r , t h er efor e, a t h in g u n kn own in a r bit r a r y gover n m en t s, som e of wh ich
h a ve n ot even a pr oper wor d t o expr ess it , 14 is t h e pr eva ilin g pr in ciple in
m on a r ch ies; h er e it gives life t o t h e wh ole body polit ic, t o t h e la ws, a n d even t o
t h e vir t u es t h em selves.
S1&@(&+-%&8.5*954$%&'(&C%,4'+59&A';%.*<%*+1
As vir t u e is n ecessa r y in a r epu blic, a n d in a m on a r ch y h on ou r , so fea r is
n ecessa r y in a despot ic gover n m en t : wit h r ega r d t o vir t u e, t h er e is n o occa sion
for it , a n d h on ou r wou ld be ext r em ely da n ger ou s.
H er e t h e im m en se power of t h e pr in ce devolves en t ir ely u pon t h ose wh om h e
is plea sed t o en t r u st wit h t h e a dm in ist r a t ion . P er son s ca pa ble of set t in g a va lu e
u pon t h em selves wou ld be likely t o cr ea t e dist u r ba n ces. F ea r m u st t h er efor e
depr ess t h eir spir it s, a n d ext in gu ish even t h e lea st sen se of a m bit ion .
A m oder a t e gover n m en t m a y, wh en ever it plea ses, a n d wit h ou t t h e lea st
da n ger , r ela x it s spr in gs. It su ppor t s it self by t h e la ws, a n d by it s own in t er n a l
st r en gt h . Bu t wh en a despot ic pr in ce cea ses for on e sin gle m om en t t o u plift h is
a r m , wh en h e ca n n ot in st a n t ly dem olish t h ose wh om h e h a s en t r u st ed wit h t h e
fir st em ploym en t s,15 a ll is over : for a s fea r , t h e spr in g of t h is gover n m en t , n o
lon ger su bsist s, t h e people a r e left wit h ou t a pr ot ect or .
It is pr oba bly in t h is sen se t h e Ca dis m a in t a in ed t h a t t h e Gr a n d Seign ior wa s
n ot obliged t o keep h is wor d or oa t h , wh en h e lim it ed t h er eby h is a u t h or it y.16

It is n ecessa r y t h a t t h e people sh ou ld be ju dged by la ws, a n d t h e gr ea t m en
by t h e ca pr ice of t h e pr in ce, t h a t t h e lives of t h e lowest su bject sh ou ld be sa fe,
a n d t h e pa sh a ’s h ea d ever in da n ger . We ca n n ot m en t ion t h ese m on st r ou s
gover n m en t s wit h ou t h or r or . Th e Soph i of P er sia , det h r on ed in ou r da ys by
Ma h om et , t h e son of Mir iveis, sa w t h e con st it u t ion su bver t ed befor e t h is
r esolu t ion , beca u se h e h a d been t oo spa r in g of blood.17
H ist or y in for m s u s t h a t t h e h or r id cr u elt ies of Dom it ia n st r u ck su ch a t er r or
in t o t h e gover n or s t h a t t h e people r ecover ed t h em selves a lit t le du r in g h is
r eign . 18 Th u s a t or r en t over flows on e side of a cou n t r y, a n d on t h e ot h er lea ves
fields u n t ou ch ed, wh er e t h e eye is r efr esh ed by t h e pr ospect of fin e m ea dows.
BT1&C5((%.%*9%&'(&@#%05%*9%&5*&K'0%."+%&"*0&C%,4'+59
A';%.*<%*+,1&
In despot ic st a t es, t h e n a t u r e of gover n m en t r equ ir es t h e m ost pa ssive
obedien ce; a n d wh en on ce t h e pr in ce’s will is m a de kn own , it ou gh t in fa llibly t o
pr odu ce it s effect .
H er e t h ey h a ve n o lim it a t ion s or r est r ict ion s, n o m ediu m s, t er m s, equ iva len t s,
or r em on st r a n ces; n o ch a n ge t o pr opose: m a n is a cr ea t u r e t h a t blin dly su bm it s
t o t h e a bsolu t e will of t h e sover eign .
In a cou n t r y like t h is t h ey a r e n o m or e a llowed t o r epr esen t t h eir
a ppr eh en sion s of a fu t u r e da n ger t h a n t o im pu t e t h eir m isca r r ia ge t o t h e
ca pr iciou sn ess of for t u n e. Ma n ’s por t ion h er e, like t h a t of bea st s, is in st in ct ,
com plia n ce, a n d pu n ish m en t .
Lit t le does it t h en a va il t o plea d t h e sen t im en t s of n a t u r e, filia l r espect ,
con ju ga l or pa r en t a l t en der n ess, t h e la ws of h on ou r , or wa n t of h ea lt h ; t h e or der
is given , a n d, t h a t is su fficien t .
In P er sia , wh en t h e kin g h a s con dem n ed a per son , it is n o lon ger la wfu l t o
m en t ion h is n a m e, or t o in t er cede in h is fa vou r . E ven if t h e pr in ce wer e
in t oxica t ed, or n on com pos, t h e decr ee m u st be execu t ed;19 ot h er wise h e wou ld
con t r a dict h im self, a n d t h e la w a dm it s of n o con t r a dict ion . Th is h a s been t h e
wa y of t h in kin g in t h a t cou n t r y in a ll a ges; a s t h e or der wh ich Ah a su er u s ga ve,
t o ext er m in a t e t h e J ews, cou ld n ot be r evoked, t h ey wer e a llowed t h e liber t y of
defen din g t h em selves.

On e t h in g, h owever , m a y be som et im es opposed t o t h e pr in ce’s will, 20 n a m ely,
r eligion . Th ey will a ba n don , n a y t h ey will sla y a pa r en t , if t h e pr in ce so
com m a n ds; bu t h e ca n n ot oblige t h em t o dr in k win e. Th e la ws of r eligion a r e of
a su per ior n a t u r e, beca u se t h ey bin d t h e sover eign a s well a s t h e su bject . Bu t
wit h r espect t o t h e la w of n a t u r e, it is ot h er wise; t h e pr in ce is n o lon ger
su pposed t o be a m a n .
In m on a r ch ica l a n d m oder a t e st a t es, t h e power is lim it ed by it s ver y spr in g,
I m ea n by h on ou r , wh ich , like a m on a r ch , r eign s over t h e pr in ce a n d h is people.
Th ey will n ot a llege t o t h eir sover eign t h e la ws of r eligion ; a cou r t ier wou ld be
a ppr eh en sive of r en der in g h im self r idicu lou s. Bu t t h e la ws of h on ou r will be
a ppea led t o on a ll occa sion s. H en ce a r ise t h e r est r ict ion s n ecessa r y t o obedien ce;
h on ou r is n a t u r a lly su bject t o wh im s, by wh ich t h e su bject ’s su bm ission will be
ever dir ect ed.
Th ou gh t h e m a n n er of obeyin g be differ en t in t h ese t wo kin ds of gover n m en t ,
t h e power is t h e sa m e. On wh ich side soever t h e m on a r ch t u r n s, h e in clin es t h e
sca le, a n d is obeyed. Th e wh ole differ en ce is t h a t in a m on a r ch y t h e pr in ce
r eceives in st r u ct ion , a t t h e sa m e t im e t h a t h is m in ist er s h a ve gr ea t er a bilit ies,
a n d a r e m or e ver sed in pu blic a ffa ir s, t h a n t h e m in ist er s of a despot ic
gover n m en t .
BB1&/%($%9+5'*,&'*&+-%&4.%9%05*D&)-"4+%.,1
Su ch a r e t h e pr in ciples of t h e t h r ee sor t s of gover n m en t : wh ich does n ot im ply
t h a t in a pa r t icu la r r epu blic t h ey a ct u a lly a r e, bu t t h a t t h ey ou gh t t o be,
vir t u ou s; n or does it pr ove t h a t in a pa r t icu la r m on a r ch y t h ey a r e a ct u a t ed by
h on ou r , or in a pa r t icu la r despot ic gover n m en t by fea r ; bu t t h a t t h ey ou gh t t o
be dir ect ed by t h ese pr in ciples, ot h er wise t h e gover n m en t is im per fect .
2'+%,1
1. Th is is a ver y im por t a n t dist in ct ion , wh en ce I sh a ll dr a w m a n y con sequ en ces;
for it is t h e key of a n in fin it e n u m ber of la ws.
2. Cr om well.
3. P lu t a r ch , Pericles; P la t o, in Critias.
4. Sh e h a d a t t h a t t im e t wen t y-on e t h ou sa n d cit izen s, t en t h ou sa n d st r a n ger s,

a n d fou r h u n dr ed t h ou sa n d sla ves. See At h en a eu s, vi.
5. Sh e h a d t h en t wen t y t h ou sa n d cit izen s. See Dem ost h en es in Aristog.
6. Th ey h a d pa ssed a la w, wh ich r en der ed it a ca pit a l cr im e for a n y on e t o
pr opose a pplyin g t h e m on ey design ed for t h e t h ea t r es t o m ilit a r y
7. Th is la st ed t h r ee yea r s.
8. P u blic cr im es m a y be pu n ish ed, beca u se it is h er e a com m on con cer n ; bu t
pr iva t e cr im es will go u n pu n ish ed, beca u se it is t h e com m on in t er est n ot t o
pu n ish t h em .
9. I spea k h er e of polit ica l vir t u e, wh ich is a lso m or a l vir t u e a s it is dir ect ed t o
t h e pu blic good; ver y lit t le of pr iva t e m or a l vir t u e, a n d n ot a t a ll of t h a t
vir t u e wh ich r ela t es t o r evea led t r u t h s. Th is will a ppea r bet t er in v. 2.
10. Th is is t o be u n der st ood in t h e sen se of t h e pr ecedin g n ot e.
11. We m u st n ot , sa ys h e, em ploy people of m ea n ext r a ct ion ; t h ey a r e t oo r igid
a n d m or ose. — T estam en t Polit., 4.
12. Th is wor d good m a n is u n der st ood h er e in a polit ica l sen se on ly.
13. See F oot n ot e 1.
14. See P er r y, p. 447.
15. As it oft en h a ppen s in a m ilit a r y a r ist ocr a cy.
16. Rica u t on t h e Ot t om a n E m pir e. I, ii.
17. See t h e h ist or y of t h is r evolu t ion by F a t h er du Cer cea u .
18. Su et on iu s, L ife of Dom itian , viii. H is wa s a m ilit a r y con st it u t ion , wh ich is
on e of t h e species of despot ic gover n m en t .
19. See Sir J oh n Ch a r din .
20. Ibid.
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Th e la ws of edu ca t ion a r e t h e fir st im pr ession s we r eceive; a n d a s t h ey
pr epa r e u s for civil life, ever y pr iva t e fa m ily ou gh t t o be gover n ed by t h e pla n
of t h a t gr ea t h ou seh old wh ich com pr eh en ds t h em a ll.
If t h e people in gen er a l h a ve a pr in ciple, t h eir con st it u en t pa r t s, t h a t is, t h e
sever a l fa m ilies, will h a ve on e a lso. Th e la ws of edu ca t ion will be t h er efor e
differ en t in ea ch species of gover n m en t : in m on a r ch ies t h ey will h a ve h on ou r for
t h eir object ; in r epu blics, vir t u e; in despot ic gover n m en t s, fea r .
E1&@(&U0F9"+5'*&5*&K'*".9-5%,1
In m on a r ch ies t h e pr in cipa l br a n ch of edu ca t ion is n ot t a u gh t in colleges or
a ca dem ies. It com m en ces, in som e m ea su r e, a t ou r set t in g ou t in t h e wor ld; for
t h is is t h e sch ool of wh a t we ca ll h on ou r , t h a t u n iver sa l pr ecept or wh ich ou gh t
ever ywh er e t o be ou r gu ide.
H er e it is t h a t we con st a n t ly h ea r t h r ee r u les or m a xim s, viz., t h a t we sh ou ld
h a ve a cer t a in n oblen ess in ou r vir t u es, a kin d of fr a n kn ess in ou r m or a ls, a n d
a pa r t icu la r polit en ess in ou r beh a viou r .
Th e vir t u es we a r e h er e t a u gh t a r e less wh a t we owe t o ot h er s t h a n t o
ou r selves; t h ey a r e n ot so m u ch wh a t dr a ws u s t owa r ds societ y, a s wh a t
dist in gu ish es u s fr om ou r fellow-cit izen s. H er e t h e a ct ion s of m en a r e ju dged,
n ot a s vir t u ou s, bu t a s sh in in g; n ot a s ju st , bu t a s gr ea t ; n ot a s r ea son a ble, bu t
a s ext r a or din a r y. Wh en h on ou r h er e m eet s wit h a n yt h in g n oble in ou r a ct ion s,
it is eit h er a ju dge t h a t a ppr oves t h em , or soph ist by wh om t h ey a r e excu sed.
It a llows of ga lla n t r y wh en u n it ed wit h t h e idea of sen sible a ffect ion , or wit h
t h a t of con qu est ; t h is is t h e r ea son wh y we n ever m eet wit h so st r ict a pu r it y of
m or a ls in m on a r ch ies a s in r epu blica n gover n m en t s.

It a llows of cu n n in g a n d cr a ft , wh en join ed wit h t h e n ot ion of gr ea t n ess of sou l
or im por t a n ce of a ffa ir s; a s, for in st a n ce, in polit ics, wit h fin esses of wh ich it is
fa r fr om bein g offen ded.
It does n ot for bid a du la t ion , sa ve wh en sepa r a t ed fr om t h e idea of a la r ge
for t u n e, a n d con n ect ed on ly wit h t h e sen se of ou r m ea n con dit ion .
Wit h r ega r d t o m or a ls, I h a ve obser ved t h a t t h e edu ca t ion of m on a r ch ies
ou gh t t o a dm it of a cer t a in fr a n kn ess a n d open ca r r ia ge. Tr u t h , t h er efor e, in
con ver sa t ion is h er e a n ecessa r y poin t . Bu t is it for t h e sa ke of t r u t h ? By n o
m ea n s. Tr u t h is r equ isit e on ly beca u se a per son h a bit u a t ed t o ver a cit y h a s a n
a ir of boldn ess a n d fr eedom . An d in deed a m a n of t h is st a m p seem s t o la y a
st r ess on ly on t h e t h in gs t h em selves, n ot on t h e m a n n er in wh ich t h ey a r e
r eceived.
H en ce it is t h a t in pr opor t ion a s t h is kin d of fr a n kn ess is com m en ded, t h a t of
t h e com m on people is despised, wh ich h a s n ot h in g bu t t r u t h a n d sim plicit y for
it s object .
In fin e, t h e edu ca t ion of m on a r ch ies r equ ir es a cer t a in polit en ess of beh a viou r .
Ma n , a socia ble a n im a l, is for m ed t o plea se in societ y; a n d a per son t h a t wou ld
br ea k t h r ou gh t h e r u les of decen cy, so a s t o sh ock t h ose h e con ver sed wit h ,
wou ld lose t h e pu blic est eem , a n d becom e in ca pa ble of doin g a n y good.
Bu t polit en ess, gen er a lly spea kin g, does n ot der ive it s or igin fr om so pu r e a
sou r ce. It a r ises fr om a desir e of dist in gu ish in g ou r selves. It is pr ide t h a t
r en der s u s polit e; we a r e fla t t er ed wit h bein g t a ken n ot ice of for beh a viou r t h a t
sh ows we a r e n ot of a m ea n con dit ion , a n d t h a t we h a ve n ot been br ed wit h
t h ose wh o in a ll a ges a r e con sider ed t h e scu m of t h e people.
P olit en ess, in m on a r ch ies, is n a t u r a lised a t cou r t . On e m a n excessively gr ea t
r en der s ever ybody else lit t le. H en ce t h a t r ega r d wh ich is pa id t o ou r
fellow-su bject s; h en ce t h a t polit en ess, equ a lly plea sin g t o t h ose by wh om , a s t o
t h ose t owa r ds wh om , it is pr a ct ised, beca u se it gives people t o u n der st a n d t h a t
a per son a ct u a lly belon gs, or a t lea st deser ves t o belon g, t o t h e cou r t .
A cou r t ly a ir con sist s in qu it t in g a r ea l for a bor r owed gr ea t n ess. Th e la t t er
plea ses t h e cou r t ier m or e t h a n t h e for m er . It in spir es h im wit h a cer t a in
disda in fu l m odest y, wh ich sh ows it self ext er n a lly, bu t wh ose pr ide in sen sibly
dim in ish es in pr opor t ion t o it s dist a n ce fr om t h e sou r ce of t h is gr ea t n ess.

At cou r t we fin d a delica cy of t a st e in ever yt h in g — a delica cy a r isin g fr om t h e
con st a n t u se of t h e su per flu it ies of life, fr om t h e va r iet y, a n d especia lly t h e
sa t iet y, of plea su r es, fr om t h e m u lt iplicit y a n d even con fu sion of fa n cies, wh ich ,
if t h ey a r e bu t a gr eea ble, a r e su r e of bein g well r eceived.
Th ese a r e t h e t h in gs wh ich pr oper ly fa ll wit h in t h e pr ovin ce of edu ca t ion , in
or der t o for m wh a t we ca ll a m a n of h on ou r , a m a n possessed of a ll t h e qu a lit ies
a n d vir t u es r equ isit e in t h is kin d of gover n m en t .
H er e it is t h a t h on ou r in t er fer es wit h ever yt h in g, m ixin g even wit h people’s
m a n n er of t h in kin g, a n d dir ect in g t h eir ver y pr in ciples.
To t h is wh im sica l h on ou r it is owin g t h a t t h e vir t u es a r e on ly ju st wh a t it
plea ses; it a dds r u les of it s own in ven t ion t o ever yt h in g pr escr ibed t o u s; it
ext en ds or lim it s ou r du t ies a ccor din g t o it s own fa n cy, wh et h er t h ey pr oceed
fr om r eligion , polit ics, or m or a lit y.
Th er e is n ot h in g so st r on gly in cu lca t ed in m on a r ch ies, by t h e la ws, by r eligion
a n d h on ou r , a s su bm ission t o t h e pr in ce’s will; bu t t h is ver y h on ou r t ells u s t h a t
t h e pr in ce n ever ou gh t t o com m a n d a dish on ou r a ble a ct ion , beca u se t h is wou ld
r en der u s in ca pa ble of ser vin g h im .
Cr illon r efu sed t o a ssa ssin a t e t h e Du ke of Gu ise, bu t offer ed t o figh t h im .
Aft er t h e m a ssa cr e of St . Ba r t h olom ew, Ch a r les IX, h a vin g sen t or der s t o t h e
gover n or s in t h e sever a l pr ovin ces for t h e H u gu en ot s t o be m u r der ed, Viscou n t
Dor t e, wh o com m a n ded a t Ba yon n e, wr ot e t h u s t o t h e kin g:1 “Sir e, a m on g t h e
in h a bit a n t s of t h is t own , a n d you r m a jest y’s t r oops, I cou ld n ot fin d so m u ch a s
on e execu t ion er ; t h ey a r e h on est cit izen s a n d br a ve soldier s. We join t ly,
t h er efor e, beseech you r m a jest y t o com m a n d ou r a r m s a n d lives in t h in gs t h a t
a r e pr a ct ica ble.” Th is gr ea t a n d gen er ou s sou l looked u pon a ba se a ct ion a s a
t h in g im possible.
Th er e is n ot h in g t h a t h on ou r m or e st r on gly r ecom m en ds t o t h e n obilit y t h a n
t o ser ve t h eir pr in ce in a m ilit a r y ca pa cit y. An d, in deed, t h is is t h eir fa vou r it e
pr ofession , beca u se it s da n ger s, it s su ccess, a n d even it s m isca r r ia ges a r e t h e
r oa d t o gr a n deu r . Yet t h is ver y la w of it s own m a kin g h on ou r ch ooses t o expla in :
a n d in ca se of a n y a ffr on t , it r equ ir es or per m it s u s t o r et ir e.
It in sist s a lso t h a t we sh ou ld be a t liber t y eit h er t o seek or t o r eject
em ploym en t s, a liber t y wh ich it pr efer s even t o a n a m ple for t u n e.

H on ou r t h er efor e h a s it s su pr em e la ws, t o wh ich edu ca t ion is obliged t o
con for m . 2 Th e ch ief of t h ese a r e t h a t we a r e per m it t ed t o set a va lu e u pon ou r
for t u n e, bu t a r e a bsolu t ely for bidden t o set a n y u pon ou r lives.
Th e secon d is t h a t , wh en we a r e r a ised t o a post or pr efer m en t , we sh ou ld
n ever do or per m it a n yt h in g wh ich m a y seem t o im ply t h a t we look u pon
ou r selves a s in fer ior t o t h e r a n k we h old.
Th e t h ir d is t h a t t h ose t h in gs wh ich h on ou r for bids a r e m or e r igor ou sly
for bidden , wh en t h e la ws do n ot con cu r in t h e pr oh ibit ion ; a n d t h ose it
com m a n ds a r e m or e st r on gly in sist ed u pon , wh en t h ey h a ppen n ot t o be
com m a n ded by la w.
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As edu ca t ion in m on a r ch ies t en ds t o r a ise a n d en n oble t h e m in d, in despot ic
gover n m en t s it s on ly a im is t o deba se it . H er e it m u st n ecessa r ily be ser vile;
even in power su ch a n edu ca t ion will be a n a dva n t a ge, beca u se ever y t yr a n t is
a t t h e sa m e t im e a sla ve.
E xcessive obedien ce su pposes ign or a n ce in t h e per son t h a t obeys: t h e sa m e it
su pposes in h im t h a t com m a n ds, for h e h a s n o occa sion t o deliber a t e, t o dou bt ,
t o r ea son ; h e h a s on ly t o will.
In despot ic st a t es, ea ch h ou se is a sepa r a t e gover n m en t . As edu ca t ion ,
t h er efor e, con sist s ch iefly in socia l con ver se, it m u st be h er e ver y m u ch lim it ed;
a ll it does is t o st r ike t h e h ea r t wit h fea r , a n d t o im pr in t on t h e u n der st a n din g
a ver y sim ple n ot ion of a few pr in ciples of r eligion . Lea r n in g h er e pr oves
da n ger ou s, em u la t ion fa t a l; a n d a s t o vir t u e, Ar ist ot le 3 ca n n ot t h in k t h a t t h er e
is a n y on e vir t u e belon gin g t o sla ves; if so, edu ca t ion in despot ic cou n t r ies is
con fin ed wit h in a ver y n a r r ow com pa ss.
H er e, t h er efor e, edu ca t ion is in som e m ea su r e n eedless: t o give som et h in g, on e
m u st t a ke a wa y ever yt h in g, a n d begin wit h m a kin g a ba d su bject in or der t o
m a ke a good sla ve.
F or wh y sh ou ld edu ca t ion t a ke pa in s in for m in g a good cit izen , on ly t o m a ke
h im sh a r e in t h e pu blic m iser y? If h e loves h is cou n t r y, h e will st r ive t o r ela x
t h e spr in gs of gover n m en t ; if h e m isca r r ies h e will be u n don e; if h e su cceeds, h e
m u st expose h im self, t h e pr in ce, a n d h is cou n t r y t o r u in .
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Most of t h e a n cien t s lived u n der gover n m en t s t h a t h a d vir t u e for t h eir
pr in ciple; a n d wh en t h is wa s in fu ll vigou r t h ey per for m ed a ct ion s u n u su a l in
ou r t im es, a n d a t wh ich ou r n a r r ow m in ds a r e a st on ish ed.
An ot h er a dva n t a ge t h eir edu ca t ion possessed over ou r s wa s t h a t it n ever
cou ld be effa ced by con t r a r y im pr ession s. E pa m in on da s, t h e la st yea r of h is life,
sa id, h ea r d, beh eld, a n d per for m ed t h e ver y sa m e t h in gs a s a t t h e a ge in wh ich
h e r eceived t h e fir st pr in ciples of h is edu ca t ion .
In ou r da ys we r eceive t h r ee differ en t or con t r a r y edu ca t ion s, n a m ely, of ou r
pa r en t s, of ou r m a st er s, a n d of t h e wor ld. Wh a t we lea r n in t h e la t t er effa ces a ll
t h e idea s of t h e for m er . Th is, in som e m ea su r e, a r ises fr om t h e con t r a st we
exper ien ce bet ween ou r r eligiou s a n d wor ldly en ga gem en t s, a t h in g u n kn own
t o t h e a n cien t s.
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It is in a r epu blica n gover n m en t t h a t t h e wh ole power of edu ca t ion is
r equ ir ed. Th e fea r of despot ic gover n m en t s n a t u r a lly a r ises of it self a m idst
t h r ea t s a n d pu n ish m en t s; t h e h on ou r of m on a r ch ies is fa vou r ed by t h e pa ssion s,
a n d fa vou r s t h em in it s t u r n ; bu t vir t u e is a self-r en u n cia t ion , wh ich is ever
a r du ou s a n d pa in fu l.
Th is vir t u e m a y be defin ed a s t h e love of t h e la ws a n d of ou r cou n t r y. As su ch
love r equ ir es a con st a n t pr efer en ce of pu blic t o pr iva t e in t er est , it is t h e sou r ce
of a ll pr iva t e vir t u es; for t h ey a r e n ot h in g m or e t h a n t h is ver y pr efer en ce it self.
Th is love is pecu lia r t o dem ocr a cies. In t h ese a lon e t h e gover n m en t is
en t r u st ed t o pr iva t e cit izen s. Now a gover n m en t is like ever yt h in g else: t o
pr eser ve it we m u st love it .
H a s it ever been kn own t h a t kin gs wer e n ot fon d of m on a r ch y, or t h a t despot ic
pr in ces h a t ed a r bit r a r y power ?
E ver yt h in g t h er efor e depen ds on est a blish in g t h is love in a r epu blic; a n d t o
in spir e it ou gh t t o be t h e pr in cipa l bu sin ess of edu ca t ion : bu t t h e su r est wa y of
in st illin g it in t o ch ildr en is for pa r en t s t o set t h em a n exa m ple.
P eople h a ve it gen er a lly in t h eir power t o com m u n ica t e t h eir idea s t o t h eir
ch ildr en ; bu t t h ey a r e st ill bet t er a ble t o t r a n sfu se t h eir pa ssion s.
If it h a ppen s ot h er wise, it is beca u se t h e im pr ession s m a de a t h om e a r e
effa ced by t h ose t h ey h a ve r eceived a br oa d.
It is n ot t h e you n g people t h a t degen er a t e; t h ey a r e n ot spoiled t ill t h ose of
m a t u r er a ge a r e a lr ea dy su n k in t o cor r u pt ion .
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Th e a n cien t Gr eeks, con vin ced of t h e n ecessit y t h a t people wh o live u n der a
popu la r gover n m en t sh ou ld be t r a in ed u p t o vir t u e, m a de ver y sin gu la r
in st it u t ion s in or der t o in spir e it . Upon seein g in t h e life of Lycu r gu s t h e la ws
t h a t legisla t or ga ve t o t h e La ceda em on ia n s, I im a gin e I a m r ea din g t h e h ist or y
of t h e Seva r a m bes. Th e la ws of Cr et e wer e t h e m odel of t h ose of Spa r t a ; a n d
t h ose of P la t o r efor m ed t h em .
Let u s r eflect h er e a lit t le on t h e ext en sive gen iu s wit h wh ich t h ose legisla t or s
m u st h a ve been en dowed, t o per ceive t h a t by st r ikin g a t r eceived cu st om s, a n d
by con fou n din g a ll m a n n er of vir t u es, t h ey sh ou ld displa y t h eir wisdom t o t h e
u n iver se. Lycu r gu s, by blen din g t h eft wit h t h e spir it of ju st ice, t h e h a r dest
ser vit u de wit h excess of liber t y, t h e m ost r igid sen t im en t s wit h t h e gr ea t est
m oder a t ion , ga ve st a bilit y t o h is cit y. H e seem ed t o depr ive h er of a ll r esou r ces,
su ch a s a r t s, com m er ce, m on ey, a n d wa lls; a m bit ion pr eva iled a m on g t h e
cit izen s wit h ou t h opes of im pr ovin g t h eir for t u n e; t h ey h a d n a t u r a l sen t im en t s
wit h ou t t h e t ie of a son , h u sba n d, or fa t h er ; a n d ch a st it y wa s st r ipped even of
m odest y a n d sh a m e. Th is wa s t h e r oa d t h a t led Spa r t a t o gr a n deu r a n d glor y;
a n d so in fa llible wer e t h ese in st it u t ion s, t h a t it sign ified n ot h in g t o ga in a
vict or y over t h a t r epu blic wit h ou t su bver t in g h er polit y.4
By t h ese la ws Cr et e a n d La con ia wer e gover n ed. Spa r t a wa s t h e la st t h a t fell
a pr ey t o t h e Ma cedon ia n s, a n d Cr et e t o t h e Rom a n s.5
Th e Sa m n it es h a d t h e sa m e in st it u t ion s, wh ich fu r n ish ed t h ose ver y Rom a n s
wit h t h e su bject of fou r -a n d-t wen t y t r iu m ph s.6
A ch a r a ct er so ext r a or din a r y in t h e in st it u t ion s of Gr eece h a s sh own it self
la t ely in t h e dr egs a n d cor r u pt ion s of m oder n t im es.7 A ver y h on est legisla t or
h a s for m ed a people t o wh om pr obit y seem s a s n a t u r a l a s br a ver y t o t h e
Spa r t a n s. Mr . P en n is a r ea l Lycu r gu s: a n d t h ou gh t h e for m er m a de pea ce h is

pr in cipa l a im , a s t h e la t t er did wa r , yet t h ey r esem ble on e a n ot h er in t h e
sin gu la r wa y of livin g t o wh ich t h ey r edu ced t h eir people, in t h e a scen da n t t h ey
h a d over fr ee m en , in t h e pr eju dices t h ey over ca m e, a n d in t h e pa ssion s wh ich
t h ey su bdu ed.
An ot h er exa m ple we h a ve fr om P a r a gu a y. Th is h a s been t h e su bject of a n
in vidiou s ch a r ge a ga in st a societ y t h a t con sider s t h e plea su r e of com m a n din g
a s t h e on ly h a ppin ess in life: bu t it will be ever a glor iou s u n der t a kin g t o r en der
a gover n m en t su bser vien t t o h u m a n h a ppin ess. 8
It is glor iou s in deed for t h is societ y t o h a ve been t h e fir st in poin t in g ou t t o
t h ose cou n t r ies t h e idea of r eligion join ed wit h t h a t of h u m a n it y. By r epa ir in g
t h e deva st a t ion s of t h e Spa n ia r ds, sh e h a s begu n t o h ea l on e of t h e m ost
da n ger ou s wou n ds t h a t t h e h u m a n species ever r eceived.
An exqu isit e sen sibilit y t o wh a t ever sh e dist in gu ish es by t h e n a m e of h on ou r ,
join ed t o h er zea l for a r eligion wh ich is fa r m or e h u m blin g in r espect t o t h ose
wh o r eceive t h a n t o t h ose wh o pr ea ch it s doct r in es, h a s set h er u pon va st
u n der t a kin gs, wh ich sh e h a s a ccom plish ed wit h su ccess. Sh e h a s dr a wn wild
people fr om t h eir woods, secu r ed t h em a m a in t en a n ce, a n d clot h ed t h eir
n a kedn ess; a n d h a d sh e on ly by t h is st ep im pr oved t h e in du st r y of m a n kin d, it
wou ld h a ve been su fficien t t o et er n ise h er fa m e.
Th ey wh o sh a ll a t t em pt h er ea ft er t o in t r odu ce like in st it u t ion s m u st est a blish
t h e com m u n it y of goods a s pr escr ibed in P la t o’s r epu blic; t h a t h igh r espect h e
r equ ir ed for t h e gods; t h a t sepa r a t ion fr om st r a n ger s, for t h e pr eser va t ion of
m or a ls; a n d a n ext en sive com m er ce ca r r ied on by t h e com m u n it y, a n d n ot by
pr iva t e cit izen s: t h ey m u st give ou r a r t s wit h ou t ou r lu xu r y, a n d ou r wa n t s
wit h ou t ou r desir es.
Th ey m u st pr oscr ibe m on ey, t h e effect s of wh ich a r e t o swell people’s for t u n es
beyon d t h e bou n ds pr escr ibed by n a t u r e; t o lea r n t o pr eser ve for n o pu r pose
wh a t h a s been idly h oa r ded u p; t o m u lt iply wit h ou t en d ou r desir es; a n d t o
su pply t h e st er ilit y of n a t u r e, fr om wh om we h a ve r eceived ver y sca n t y m ea n s
of in fla m in g ou r pa ssion s, a n d of cor r u pt in g ea ch ot h er .
“Th e E pida m n ia n s, 9 per ceivin g t h eir m or a ls depr a ved by con ver sin g wit h
ba r ba r ia n s, ch ose a m a gist r a t e for m a kin g a ll con t r a ct s a n d sa les in t h e n a m e
a n d beh a lf of t h e cit y.” Com m er ce t h en does n ot cor r u pt t h e con st it u t ion , a n d

t h e con st it u t ion does n ot depr ive societ y of t h e a dva n t a ges of com m er ce.
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In st it u t ion s of t h is kin d m a y be pr oper in r epu blics, beca u se t h ey h a ve vir t u e
for t h eir pr in ciple; bu t t o excit e m en t o h on ou r in m on a r ch ies, or t o in spir e fea r
in despot ic gover n m en t s, less t r ou ble is n ecessa r y.
Besides, t h ey ca n t a ke pla ce bu t in a sm a ll st a t e, 10 in wh ich t h er e is a
possibilit y of gen er a l edu ca t ion , a n d of t r a in in g u p t h e body of t h e people like
a sin gle fa m ily.
Th e la ws of Min os, of Lycu r gu s, a n d of P la t o su ppose a pa r t icu la r a t t en t ion
a n d ca r e, wh ich t h e cit izen s ou gh t t o h a ve over on e a n ot h er ’s con du ct . Bu t a n
a t t en t ion of t h is kin d ca n n ot be expect ed in t h e con fu sion a n d m u lt it u de of
a ffa ir s in wh ich a la r ge n a t ion is en t a n gled.
In in st it u t ion s of t h is k in d, m on ey, a s we h a ve a bove obser ved, m u st be
ba n ish ed. Bu t in gr ea t societ ies, t h e m u lt iplicit y, va r iet y, em ba r r a ssm en t , a n d
im por t a n ce of a ffa ir s, a s well a s t h e fa cilit y of pu r ch a sin g, a n d t h e slown ess of
exch a n ge, r equ ir e a com m on m ea su r e. In or der t o su ppor t or ext en d ou r power ,
we m u st be possessed of t h e m ea n s t o wh ich , by t h e u n a n im ou s con sen t of
m a n kin d, t h is power is a n n exed.
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Th a t ju diciou s wr it er , P olybiu s, in for m s u s t h a t m u sic wa s n ecessa r y t o soft en
t h e m a n n er s of t h e Ar ca dia n s, wh o lived in a cold, gloom y cou n t r y; t h a t t h e
in h a bit a n t s of Cyn et e, wh o sligh t ed m u sic, wer e t h e cr u ellest of a ll t h e Gr eeks,
a n d t h a t n o ot h er t own wa s so im m er sed in lu xu r y a n d deba u ch er y. P la t o11 is
n ot a fr a id t o a ffir m t h a t t h er e is n o possibilit y of m a kin g a ch a n ge in m u sic
wit h ou t a lt er in g t h e fr a m e of gover n m en t . Ar ist ot le, wh o seem s t o h a ve wr it t en
h is P olit ics on ly in or der t o con t r a dict P la t o, a gr ees wit h h im , n ot wit h st a n din g,
in r ega r d t o t h e power a n d in flu en ce of m u sic over t h e m a n n er s of t h e people. 12
Th is wa s a lso t h e opin ion of Th eoph r a st u s, of P lu t a r ch 13 a n d of a ll t h e a n cien t s
— a n opin ion gr ou n ded on m a t u r e r eflect ion ; bein g on e of t h e pr in ciples of t h eir
polit y. 14 Th u s it wa s t h ey en a ct ed la ws, a n d t h u s t h ey r equ ir ed t h a t cit ies
sh ou ld be gover n ed.
Th is I fa n cy m u st be expla in ed in t h e followin g m a n n er . It is obser va ble t h a t
in t h e cit ies of Gr eece, especia lly t h ose wh ose .pr in cipa l object wa s wa r , a ll
lu cr a t ive a r t s a n d pr ofession s wer e con sider ed u n wor t h y of a fr eem a n . “Most
a r t s,” sa ys Xen oph on , 15 “cor r u pt a n d en er va t e t h e bodies of t h ose t h a t exer cise
t h em ; t h ey oblige t h em t o sit in t h e sh a de, or n ea r t h e fir e. Th ey ca n fin d n o
leisu r e, eit h er for t h eir fr ien ds or for t h e r epu blic.” It wa s on ly by t h e cor r u pt ion
of som e dem ocr a cies t h a t a r t isa n s beca m e fr eem en . Th is we lea r n fr om
Ar ist ot le, 16 wh o m a in t a in s t h a t a well-r egu la t ed r epu blic will n ever give t h em
t h e r igh t a n d fr eedom of t h e cit y.17
Agr icu lt u r e wa s likewise a ser vile pr ofession , a n d gen er a lly pr a ct ised by t h e
in h a bit a n t s of con qu er ed cou n t r ies, su ch a s t h e H elot es a m on g t h e
La ceda em on ia n s, t h e P er iecia n s a m on g t h e Cr et a n s, t h e P en est es a m on g t h e
Th essa lia n s, a n d ot h er con qu er ed 18 people in ot h er r epu blics.
In fin e, ever y kin d of low com m er ce 19 wa s in fa m ou s a m on g t h e Gr eeks; a s it
obliged a cit izen t o ser ve a n d wa it on a sla ve, on a lodger , or a st r a n ger . Th is
wa s a n ot ion t h a t cla sh ed wit h t h e spir it of Gr eek liber t y; h en ce P la t o20 in h is
La ws or der s a cit izen t o be pu n ish ed if h e a t t em pt s t o con cer n h im self wit h
t r a de.
Th u s in t h e Gr eek r epu blics t h e m a gist r a t es wer e ext r em ely em ba r r a ssed.
Th ey wou ld n ot h a ve t h e cit izen s a pply t h em selves t o t r a de, t o a gr icu lt u r e, or
t o t h e a r t s, a n d yet t h ey wou ld n ot h a ve t h em idle.21 Th ey fou n d, t h er efor e,
em ploym en t for t h em in gym n ic a n d m ilit a r y exer cises; a n d n on e else wer e
a llowed by t h eir in st it u t ion . 22 H en ce t h e Gr eeks m u st be con sider ed a s a societ y
of wr est ler s a n d boxer s. Now, t h ese exer cises h a vin g a n a t u r a l t en den cy t o
r en der people h a r dy a n d fier ce, t h er e wa s a n ecessit y for t em per in g t h em wit h
ot h er s t h a t m igh t soft en t h eir m a n n er s. 23 F or t h is pu r pose, m u sic, wh ich
in flu en ces t h e m in d by m ea n s of t h e cor por ea l or ga n s, wa s ext r em ely pr oper . It
is a kin d of m ediu m bet ween m a n ly exer cises, wh ich h a r den t h e body, a n d
specu la t ive scien ces, wh ich a r e a pt t o r en der u s u n socia ble a n d sou r . It ca n n ot
be sa id t h a t m u sic in spir ed vir t u e, for t h is wou ld be in con ceiva ble: bu t it
pr even t ed t h e effect s of a sa va ge in st it u t ion , a n d en a bled t h e sou l t o h a ve su ch
a sh a r e in t h e edu ca t ion a s it cou ld n ever h a ve h a d wit h ou t t h e a ssist a n ce of
h a r m on y.
Let u s su ppose a m on g ou r selves a societ y of m en so pa ssion a t ely fon d of
h u n t in g a s t o m a ke it t h eir sole em ploym en t ; t h ey wou ld dou bt less con t r a ct
t h er eby a kin d of r u st icit y a n d fier cen ess. Bu t if t h ey h a ppen t o im bibe a t a st e
for m u sic, we sh ou ld qu ickly per ceive a sen sible differ en ce in t h eir cu st om s a n d
m a n n er s. In sh or t , t h e exer cises u sed by t h e Gr eeks cou ld r a ise bu t on e kin d of
pa ssion s, viz., fier cen ess, in dign a t ion , a n d cr u elt y. Bu t m u sic excit es a ll t h ese;
a n d is likewise a ble t o in spir e t h e sou l wit h a sen se of pit y, len it y, t en der n ess,
a n d love. Ou r m or a l wr it er s, wh o decla im so veh em en t ly a ga in st t h e st a ge,
su fficien t ly dem on st r a t e t h e power of m u sic over t h e m in d.
If t h e societ y a bove m en t ion ed wer e t o h a ve n o ot h er m u sic t h a n t h a t of
dr u m s, a n d t h e sou n d of t h e t r u m pet , wou ld it n ot be m or e difficu lt t o
a ccom plish t h is en d t h a n by t h e m or e m elt in g t on es of soft er h a r m on y? Th e
a n cien t s wer e t h er efor e in t h e r igh t wh en , u n der pa r t icu la r cir cu m st a n ces, t h ey
pr efer r ed on e m ode t o a n ot h er in r ega r d t o m a n n er s.
Bu t som e will a sk, wh y sh ou ld m u sic be pit ch ed u pon a s pr efer a ble t o a n y
ot h er en t er t a in m en t ? It is beca u se of a ll sen sible plea su r es t h er e is n on e t h a t
less cor r u pt s t h e sou l. We blu sh t o r ea d in P lu t a r ch 24 t h a t t h e Th eba n s, in or der
t o soft en t h e m a n n er s of t h eir you t h , a u t h or ised by la w a pa ssion wh ich ou gh t
t o be pr oscr ibed by a ll n a t ion s.
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1. See d’Au bign y’s H istory.
2. We m en t ion h er e wh a t a ct u a lly is, a n d n ot wh a t ou gh t t o be; h on ou r is a
pr eju dice, wh ich r eligion som et im es en dea vou r s t o r em ove, a n d a t ot h er
t im es t o r egu la t e.
3. Politics, i. 13.
4. P h ilopoem en obliged t h e La ceda em on ia n s t o ch a n ge t h eir m a n n er of
edu ca t in g t h eir ch ildr en , bein g con vin ced t h a t if h e did n ot t a ke t h is
m ea su r e t h ey wou ld a lwa ys be n ot ed for t h eir m a gn a n im it y. — P lu t a r ch ,
Ph ilopoem en . See Livy, xxxviii.
5. Sh e defen ded h er la ws a n d liber t y for t h e spa ce of t h r ee yea r s. See t h e 98t h ,
99t h , a n d 100t h book of Livy, in F lor u s’s epit om e. Sh e m a de a br a ver
r esist a n ce t h a n t h e gr ea t est kin gs.

6. F lor u s, i. 16.
7. In fece Rom u li. — Cicer o, L etters to Atticu s, ii. 1.
8. Th e In dia n s of P a r a gu a y do n ot depen d on a n y pa r t icu la r lor d; t h ey pa y on ly
a fift h of t h e t a xes, a n d a r e a llowed t h e u se of fir ea r m s t o defen d
t h em selves.
9. P lu t a r ch in h is Qu estion s Con cern in g th e Greek Affairs, xxix.
10. Su ch a s wer e for m er ly t h e cit ies of Gr eece.
11. R epu blic, iv.
12. Politics, viii. 5.
13. P elopida s.
14. P la t o, in h is seven t h book of L aw s, sa ys t h a t t h e pr a efect u r es of m u sic a n d
gym n ic exer cises a r e t h e m ost im por t a n t em ploym en t s in t h e cit y; a n d, in
h is R epu blic, iii, Da m on will t ell you , sa ys h e, wh a t sou n ds a r e ca pa ble of
cor r u pt in g t h e m in d wit h ba se sen t im en t s, or of in spir in g t h e con t r a r y
vir t u es.
15. M em orabilia, v.
16. Politics, iii. 4.
17. Dioph a n t es, sa ys Ar ist ot le, Politics, ii. 7, m a de a la w for m er ly a t At h en s,
t h a t a r t isa n s sh ou ld be sla ves t o t h e r epu blic.
18. P la t o, likewise, a n d Ar ist ot le r equ ir e sla ves t o t ill t h e la n d, L aw s, viii.
Politics, vii. 10. Tr u e it is t h a t a gr icu lt u r e wa s n ot ever ywh er e exer cised by
sla ves: on t h e con t r a r y, Ar ist ot le obser ves t h e best r epu blics wer e t h ose in
wh ich t h e cit izen s t h em selves t illed t h e la n d: bu t t h is wa s br ou gh t a bou t by
t h e cor r u pt ion of t h e a n cien t gover n m en t s, wh ich h a d becom e dem ocr a t ic:
for in ea r lier t im es t h e cit ies of Gr eece wer e su bject t o a n a r ist ocr a t ic
gover n m en t .
19. Ca u pon a t io.
20. Book v.
21. Ar ist ot le, Politics, vii–viii.
22. Ibid., viii. 3.
23. Ar ist ot le obser ves t h a t t h e ch ildr en of t h e La ceda em on ia n s, wh o bega n
t h ese exer cises a t a ver y t en der a ge, con t r a ct ed t h en ce t oo gr ea t a fer ocit y
a n d r u den ess of beh a viou r . — Ibid., viii. 4.

24. P elopida s.
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Th a t t h e la ws of edu ca t ion sh ou ld r ela t e t o t h e pr in ciple of ea ch gover n m en t
h a s been sh own in t h e pr ecedin g book. Now t h e sa m e m a y be sa id of t h ose
wh ich t h e legisla t or gives t o t h e wh ole societ y. Th e r ela t ion of la ws t o t h is
pr in ciple st r en gt h en s t h e sever a l spr in gs of gover n m en t ; a n d t h is pr in ciple
der ives t h en ce, in it s t u r n , a n ew degr ee of vigou r . An d t h u s it is in m ech a n ics,
t h a t a ct ion is a lwa ys followed by r ea ct ion .
Ou r design is, t o exa m in e t h is r ela t ion in ea ch gover n m en t , begin n in g wit h
t h e r epu blica n st a t e, t h e pr in ciple of wh ich is vir t u e.
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Vir t u e in a r epu blic is a m ost sim ple t h in g: it is a love of t h e r epu blic; it is a
sen sa t ion , a n d n ot a con sequ en ce of a cqu ir ed kn owledge: a sen sa t ion t h a t m a y
be felt by t h e m ea n est a s well a s by t h e h igh est per son in t h e st a t e. Wh en t h e
com m on people a dopt good m a xim s, t h ey a dh er e t o t h em m or e st ea dily t h a n
t h ose wh om we ca ll gen t lem en . It is ver y r a r ely t h a t cor r u pt ion com m en ces wit h
t h e for m er : n a y, t h ey fr equ en t ly der ive fr om t h eir im per fect ligh t a st r on ger
a t t a ch m en t t o t h e est a blish ed la ws a n d cu st om s.
Th e love of ou r cou n t r y is con du cive t o a pu r it y of m or a ls, a n d t h e la t t er is
a ga in con du cive t o t h e for m er . Th e less we a r e a ble t o sa t isfy ou r pr iva t e
pa ssion s, t h e m or e we a ba n don ou r selves t o t h ose of a gen er a l n a t u r e. H ow
com es it t h a t m on ks a r e so fon d of t h eir or der ? It is owin g t o t h e ver y ca u se t h a t
r en der s t h e or der in su ppor t a ble. Th eir r u le deba r s t h em fr om a ll t h ose t h in gs
by wh ich t h e or din a r y pa ssion s a r e fed; t h er e r em a in s t h er efor e on ly t h is
pa ssion for t h e ver y r u le t h a t t or m en t s t h em . Th e m or e a u st er e it is, t h a t is, t h e
m or e it cu r bs t h eir in clin a t ion s, t h e m or e for ce it givfes t o t h e on ly pa ssion left

t h em .
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A love of t h e r epu blic in a dem ocr a cy is a love of t h e dem ocr a cy; a s t h e la t t er
is t h a t of equ a lit y.
A love of t h e dem ocr a cy is likewise t h a t of fr u ga lit y. Sin ce ever y in dividu a l
ou gh t h er e t o en joy t h e sa m e h a ppin ess a n d t h e sa m e a dva n t a ges, t h ey sh ou ld
con sequ en t ly t a st e t h e sa m e plea su r es a n d for m t h e sa m e h opes, wh ich ca n n ot
be expect ed bu t fr om a gen er a l fr u ga lit y.
Th e love of equ a lit y in a dem ocr a cy lim it s a m bit ion t o t h e sole desir e, t o t h e
sole h a ppin ess, of doin g gr ea t er ser vices t o ou r cou n t r y t h a n t h e r est of ou r
fellow-cit izen s. Th ey ca n n ot a ll r en der h er equ a l ser vices, bu t t h ey a ll ou gh t t o
ser ve h er wit h equ a l a la cr it y. At ou r com in g in t o t h e wor ld, we con t r a ct a n
im m en se debt t o ou r cou n t r y, wh ich we ca n n ever disch a r ge.
H en ce dist in ct ion s h er e a r ise fr om t h e pr in ciple of equ a lit y, even wh en it
seem s t o be r em oved by sign a l ser vices or su per ior a bilit ies.
Th e love of fr u ga lit y lim it s t h e desir e of h a vin g t o t h e st u dy of pr ocu r in g
n ecessa r ies t o ou r fa m ily, a n d su per flu it ies t o ou r cou n t r y. Rich es give a power
wh ich a cit izen ca n n ot u se for h im self, for t h en h e wou ld be n o lon ger equ a l.
Th ey likewise pr ocu r e plea su r es wh ich h e ou gh t n ot t o en joy, beca u se t h ese
wou ld be a lso r epu gn a n t t o t h e equ a lit y.
Th u s well-r egu la t ed dem ocr a cies, by est a blish in g dom est ic fr u ga lit y, m a de
wa y a t t h e sa m e t im e for pu blic expen ses, a s wa s t h e ca se a t Rom e a n d At h en s,
wh en m a gn ificen ce a n d pr ofu sion a r ose fr om t h e ver y fu n d of fr u ga lit y. An d a s
r eligion com m a n ds u s t o h a ve pu r e a n d u n spot t ed h a n ds wh en we m a ke ou r
offer in gs t o t h e gods, t h e la ws r equ ir ed a fr u ga lit y of life t o en a ble t h em t o be
liber a l t o ou r cou n t r y.
Th e good sen se a n d h a ppin ess of in dividu a ls depen d gr ea t ly u pon t h e
m ediocr it y of t h eir a bilit ies a n d for t u n es. Th er efor e, a s a r epu blic, wh er e t h e
la ws h a ve pla ced m a n y in a m iddlin g st a t ion , is com posed of wise m en , it will
be wisely gover n ed; a s it is com posed of h a ppy m en , it will be ext r em ely h a ppy.
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Th e love of equ a lit y a n d of a fr u ga l econ om y is gr ea t ly excit ed by equ a lit y a n d
fr u ga lit y t h em selves, in societ ies wh er e bot h t h ese vir t u es a r e est a blish ed by
la w.
In m on a r ch ies a n d despot ic gover n m en t s, n obody a im s a t equ a lit y; t h is does
n ot so m u ch a s en t er t h eir t h ou gh t s; t h ey a ll a spir e t o su per ior it y. P eople of t h e
ver y lowest con dit ion desir e t o em er ge fr om t h eir obscu r it y, on ly t o lor d it over
t h eir fellow-su bject s.
It is t h e sa m e wit h r espect t o fr u ga lit y. To love it , we m u st pr a ct ise a n d en joy
it . It is n ot t h ose wh o a r e en er va t ed by plea su r e t h a t a r e fon d of a fr u ga l life;
wer e t h is n a t u r a l a n d com m on , Alcibia des wou ld n ever h a ve been t h e
a dm ir a t ion of t h e u n iver se. Neit h er is it t h ose wh o en vy or a dm ir e t h e lu xu r y
of t h e gr ea t ; people t h a t h a ve pr esen t t o t h eir view n on e bu t r ich m en , or m en
m iser a ble like t h em selves, det est t h eir wr et ch ed con dit ion , wit h ou t lovin g or
kn owin g t h e r ea l t er m or poin t of m iser y.
A t r u e m a xim it is, t h er efor e, t h a t in or der t o love equ a lit y a n d fr u ga lit y in a
r epu blic, t h ese vir t u es m u st h a ve been pr eviou sly est a blish ed by la w.
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Som e a n cien t legisla t or s, a s Lycu r gu s a n d Rom u lu s, m a de a n equ a l division
of la n ds. A set t lem en t of t h is kin d ca n n ever t a ke pla ce except u pon t h e
fou n da t ion of a n ew r epu blic; or wh en t h e old on e is so cor r u pt , a n d t h e m in ds
of t h e people a r e so disposed, t h a t t h e poor t h in k t h em selves obliged t o dem a n d,
a n d t h e r ich obliged t o con sen t t o a r em edy of t h is n a t u r e.
If t h e legisla t or , in m a kin g a division of t h is kin d, does n ot en a ct la ws a t t h e
sa m e t im e t o su ppor t it , h e for m s on ly a t em por a r y con st it u t ion ; in equ a lit y will
br ea k in wh er e t h e la ws h a ve n ot pr eclu ded it , a n d t h e r epu blic will be u t t er ly
u n don e.
H en ce for t h e pr eser va t ion of t h is equ a lit y it is a bsolu t ely n ecessa r y t h er e
sh ou ld be som e r egu la t ion in r espect t o wom en ’s dowr ies, don a t ion s,
su ccession s, t est a m en t a r y set t lem en t s, a n d a ll ot h er for m s of con t r a ct in g. F or
wer e we on ce a llowed t o dispose of ou r pr oper t y t o wh om a n d h ow we plea sed,
t h e will of ea ch in dividu a l wou ld dist u r b t h e or der of t h e fu n da m en t a l la w.
Solon , by per m it t in g t h e At h en ia n s, u pon fa ilu r e of issu e 1 t o lea ve t h eir

est a t es t o wh om t h ey plea sed, a ct ed con t r a r y t o t h e a n cien t la ws, by wh ich t h e
est a t es wer e or der ed t o con t in u e in t h e fa m ily of t h e t est a t or ;2 a n d even
con t r a r y t o h is own la ws, for by a bolish in g debt s h e h a d a im ed a t equ a lit y.
Th e la w wh ich pr oh ibit ed people h a vin g t wo in h er it a n ces 3 wa s ext r em ely well
a da pt ed for a dem ocr a cy. It der ived it s or igin fr om t h e equ a l dist r ibu t ion of
la n ds a n d por t ion s m a de t o ea ch cit izen . Th e la w wou ld n ot per m it a sin gle m a n
t o possess m or e t h a n a sin gle por t ion .
F r om t h e sa m e sou r ce a r ose t h ose la ws by wh ich t h e n ext r ela t ive wa s or der ed
t o m a r r y t h e h eir ess. Th is la w wa s given t o t h e J ews a ft er t h e like dist r ibu t ion .
P la t o, 4 wh o gr ou n ds h is la ws on t h is division , m a de t h e sa m e r egu la t ion wh ich
h a d been r eceived a s a la w by t h e At h en ia n s.
At At h en s t h er e wa s a la w wh ose spir it , in m y opin ion , h a s n ot been h it h er t o
r igh t ly u n der st ood. It wa s la wfu l t o m a r r y a sist er on ly by t h e fa t h er ’s side, bu t
it wa s n ot per m it t ed t o espou se a sist er by t h e sa m e ven t er .5 Th is cu st om wa s
or igin a lly owin g t o r epu blics, wh ose spir it wou ld n ot per m it t h a t t wo por t ion s
of la n d, a n d con sequ en t ly t wo in h er it a n ces, sh ou ld devolve on t h e sa m e per son .
A m a n wh o m a r r ied h is sist er on ly by t h e fa t h er ’s side cou ld in h er it bu t on e
est a t e, n a m ely, t h a t of h is fa t h er ; bu t by espou sin g h is sist er by t h e sa m e
ven t er , it m igh t h a ppen t h a t t h is sist er ’s fa t h er , h a vin g n o m a le issu e, m igh t
lea ve h er h is est a t e, a n d con sequ en t ly t h e br ot h er wh o m a r r ied h er m igh t be
possessed of t wo.
Lit t le will it a va il t o object t o wh a t P h ilo sa ys, 6 t h a t a lt h ou gh t h e At h en ia n s
wer e a llowed t o m a r r y a sist er by t h e fa t h er ’s side, a n d n ot by t h e m ot h er ’s, yet
t h e con t r a r y pr a ct ice pr eva iled a m on g t h e La ceda em on ia n s, wh o wer e
per m it t ed t o espou se a sist er by t h e m ot h er ’s side, a n d n ot by t h e fa t h er ’s. F or
I fin d in St r a bo7 t h a t a t Spa r t a , wh en ever a wom a n wa s m a r r ied t o h er br ot h er
sh e h a d h a lf h is por t ion for h er dowr y. P la in is it t h a t t h is secon d la w wa s m a de
in or der t o pr even t t h e ba d con sequ en ces of t h e for m er . Th a t t h e est a t e
belon gin g t o t h e sist er ’s fa m ily m igh t n ot devolve on t h e br ot h er ’s, t h ey ga ve
h a lf t h e br ot h er ’s est a t e t o t h e sist er for h er dowr y.
Sen eca 8 spea kin g of Sila n u s, wh o h a d m a r r ied h is sist er , sa ys t h a t t h e
per m ission wa s lim it ed a t At h en s, bu t gen er a l a t Alexa n dr ia . In a m on a r ch ica l
gover n m en t t h er e wa s ver y lit t le con cer n a bou t a n y su ch t h in g a s a division of

est a t es.
E xcellen t wa s t h a t la w wh ich , in or der t o m a in t a in t h is division of la n ds in a
dem ocr a cy, or da in ed t h a t a fa t h er wh o h a d sever a l ch ildr en sh ou ld pit ch u pon
on e of t h em t o in h er it h is por t ion ,9 a n d lea ve t h e ot h er s t o be a dopt ed, t o t h e
en d t h a t t h e n u m ber s of cit izen s m igh t a lwa ys be kept u pon a n equ a lit y wit h
t h a t of t h e division s.
P h a lea s of Ch a lcedon 10 con t r ived a ver y ext r a or din a r y m et h od of r en der in g a ll
for t u n es equ a l, in a r epu blic wh er e t h er e wa s t h e gr ea t est in equ a lit y. Th is wa s
t h a t t h e r ich sh ou ld give for t u n es wit h t h eir da u gh t er s t o t h e poor , bu t r eceive
n on e t h em selves; a n d t h a t t h e poor sh ou ld r eceive m on ey for t h eir da u gh t er s,
in st ea d of givin g t h em for t u n es. Bu t I do n ot r em em ber t h a t a r egu la t ion of t h is
kin d ever t ook pla ce in a n y r epu blic. It la ys t h e cit izen s u n der su ch h a r d a n d
oppr essive con dit ion s a s wou ld m a ke t h em det est t h e ver y equ a lit y wh ich t h ey
design ed t o est a blish . It is pr oper som et im es t h a t t h e la ws sh ou ld n ot seem t o
t en d so dir ect ly t o t h e en d t h ey pr opose.
Th ou gh r ea l equ a lit y be t h e ver y sou l of a dem ocr a cy, it is so difficu lt t o
est a blish t h a t a n ext r em e exa ct n ess in t h is r espect wou ld n ot be a lwa ys
con ven ien t . Su fficien t is it t o est a blish a cen su s 11 wh ich sh a ll r edu ce or fix t h e
differ en ces t o a cer t a in poin t : it is a ft er wa r ds t h e bu sin ess of pa r t icu la r la ws t o
level, a s it wer e, t h e in equ a lit ies, by t h e du t ies la id u pon t h e r ich , a n d by t h e
ea se a ffor ded t o t h e poor . It is m oder a t e r ich es a lon e t h a t ca n give or su ffer t h is
sor t of com pen sa t ion ; for a s t o m en of over gr own est a t es, ever yt h in g wh ich does
n ot con t r ibu t e t o a dva n ce t h eir power a n d h on ou r is con sider ed by t h em a s a n
in ju r y.
All in equ a lit y in dem ocr a cies ou gh t t o be der ived fr om t h e n a t u r e of t h e
gover n m en t , a n d even fr om t h e pr in ciple of equ a lit y. F or exa m ple, it m a y be
a ppr eh en ded t h a t people wh o a r e obliged t o live by t h eir la bou r wou ld be t oo
m u ch im pover ish ed by a pu blic em ploym en t , or n eglect t h e du t ies a t t en din g it ;
t h a t a r t isa n s wou ld gr ow in solen t , a n d t h a t t oo gr ea t a n u m ber of fr eem en
wou ld over power t h e a n cien t cit izen s. In t h is ca se t h e equ a lit y 12 in a dem ocr a cy
m a y be su ppr essed for t h e good of t h e st a t e. Bu t t h is is on ly a n a ppa r en t
equ a lit y; for a m a n r u in ed by a pu blic em ploym en t wou ld be in a wor se
con dit ion t h a n h is fellow-cit izen s; a n d t h is sa m e m a n , bein g obliged t o n eglect

h is du t y, wou ld r edu ce t h e r est t o a wor se con dit ion t h a n h im self, a n d so on .
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It is n ot su fficien t in a well-r egu la t ed dem ocr a cy t h a t t h e division s of la n d be
equ a l; t h ey ou gh t a lso t o be sm a ll, a s wa s cu st om a r y a m on g t h e Rom a n s. “God
for bid,” sa id Cu r iu s t o h is soldier s,13 “t h a t a cit izen sh ou ld look u pon t h a t a s a
sm a ll piece of la n d wh ich is su fficien t t o m a in t a in h im .”
As equ a lit y of for t u n es su ppor t s fr u ga lit y, so t h e la t t er m a in t a in s t h e for m er .
Th ese t h in gs, t h ou gh in t h em selves differ en t , a r e of su ch a n a t u r e a s t o be
u n a ble t o su bsist sepa r a t ely; t h ey r ecipr oca lly a ct u pon ea ch ot h er ; if on e
wit h dr a ws it self fr om a dem ocr a cy, t h e ot h er su r ely follows it .
Tr u e is it t h a t wh en a dem ocr a cy is fou n ded on com m er ce, pr iva t e people m a y
a cqu ir e va st r ich es wit h ou t a cor r u pt ion of m or a ls.
Th is is beca u se t h e spir it of com m er ce is n a t u r a lly a t t en ded wit h t h a t of
fr u ga lit y, econ om y, m oder a t ion , la bou r , pr u den ce, t r a n qu illit y, or der , a n d r u le.
So lon g a s t h is spir it su bsist s, t h e r ich es it pr odu ces h a ve n o ba d effect . Th e
m isch ief is, wh en excessive wea lt h dest r oys t h e spir it of com m er ce, t h en it is
t h a t t h e in con ven ien ces of in equ a lit y begin t o be felt .
In or der t o su ppor t t h is spir it , com m er ce sh ou ld be ca r r ied on by t h e pr in cipa l
cit izen s; t h is sh ou ld be t h eir sole a im a n d st u dy; t h is t h e ch ief object of t h e
la ws: a n d t h ese ver y la ws, by dividin g t h e est a t es of in dividu a ls in pr opor t ion
t o t h e in cr ea se of com m er ce, sh ou ld set ever y poor cit izen so fa r a t h is ea se a s
t o be a ble t o wor k like t h e r est , a n d ever y wea lt h y cit izen in su ch a m ediocr it y
a s t o be obliged t o t a ke som e pa in s eit h er in pr eser vin g or a cqu ir in g a for t u n e.
It is a n excellen t la w in a t r a din g r epu blic t o m a ke a n equ a l division of t h e
pa t er n a l est a t e a m on g t h e ch ildr en . Th e con sequ en ce of t h is is t h a t h ow gr ea t
soever a for t u n e t h e fa t h er h a s m a de, h is ch ildr en , bein g n ot so r ich a s h e, a r e
in du ced t o a void lu xu r y, a n d t o wor k a s h e h a s don e. I spea k h er e on ly of
t r a din g r epu blics; a s t o t h ose t h a t h a ve n o com m er ce, t h e legisla t or m u st pu r su e
qu it e differ en t m ea su r es. 14
In Gr eece t h er e wer e t wo sor t s of r epu blics: t h e on e m ilit a r y, like Spa r t a ; t h e
ot h er com m er cia l, a s At h en s. In t h e for m er , t h e cit izen s wer e obliged t o be idle;

in t h e la t t er , en dea vou r s wer e u sed t o in spir e t h em wit h t h e love of in du st r y
a n d la bou r . Solon m a de idlen ess a cr im e, a n d in sist ed t h a t ea ch cit izen sh ou ld
give a n a ccou n t of h is m a n n er of get t in g a livelih ood. An d, in deed, in a
well-r egu la t ed dem ocr a cy, wh er e people’s expen ses sh ou ld ext en d on ly t o wh a t
is n ecessa r y, ever y on e ou gh t t o h a ve it ; for h ow sh ou ld t h eir wa n t s be ot h er wise
su pplied?
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An equ a l division of la n ds ca n n ot be est a blish ed in a ll dem ocr a cies. Th er e a r e
som e cir cu m st a n ces in wh ich a r egu la t ion of t h is na t u r e wou ld be im pr a ct ica ble,
da n ger ou s, a n d even su bver sive of t h e con st it u t ion . We a r e n ot a lwa ys obliged
t o pr oceed t o ext r em es. If it a ppea r s t h a t t h is division of la n ds, wh ich wa s
design ed t o pr eser ve t h e people’s m or a ls, does n ot su it t h e dem ocr a cy, r ecou r se
m u st be h a d t o ot h er m et h ods.
If a per m a n en t body be est a blish ed t o ser ve a s a r u le a n d pa t t er n of m a n n er s;
a sen a t e, t o wh ich yea r s, vir t u e, gr a vit y, a n d em in en t ser vices pr ocu r e
a dm it t a n ce; t h e sen a t or s, by bein g exposed t o pu blic view like t h e st a t u es of t h e
gods, m u st n a t u r a lly in spir e ever y fa m ily wit h sen t im en t s of vir t u e.
Above a ll, t h is sen a t e m u st st ea dily a dh er e t o t h e a n cien t in st it u t ion s, a n d
m in d t h a t t h e people a n d t h e m a gist r a t es n ever swer ve fr om t h em .
Th e pr eser va t ion of t h e a n cien t cu st om s is a ver y con sider a ble poin t in r espect
t o m a n n er s. Sin ce a cor r u pt people seldom per for m a n y m em or a ble a ct ion s,
seldom est a blish societ ies, bu ild cit ies, or en a ct la ws; on t h e con t r a r y, sin ce
m ost in st it u t ion s a r e der ived fr om people wh ose m a n n er s a r e pla in a n d sim ple,
t o keep u p t h e a n cien t cu st om s is t h e wa y t o pr eser ve t h e or igin a l pu r it y of
m or a ls.
Besides, if by som e r evolu t ion t h e st a t e h a s h a ppen ed t o a ssu m e a n ew for m ,
t h is seldom ca n be effect ed wit h ou t in fin it e pa in s a n d la bou r , a n d h a r dly ever
by idle a n d deba u ch ed per son s. E ven t h ose wh o h a d been t h e in st r u m en t s of t h e
r evolu t ion wer e desir ou s it sh ou ld be r elish ed, wh ich is difficu lt t o com pa ss
wit h ou t good la ws. H en ce it is t h a t a n cien t in st it u t ion s gen er a lly t en d t o r efor m
t h e people’s m a n n er s, a n d t h ose of m oder n da t e t o cor r u pt t h em . In t h e cou r se
of a lon g a dm in ist r a t ion , t h e descen t t o vice is in sen sible; bu t t h er e is n o

r ea scen din g t o vir t u e wit h ou t m a kin g t h e m ost gen er ou s effor t s.
It h a s been qu est ion ed wh et h er t h e m em ber s of t h e sen a t e we a r e spea kin g
of ou gh t t o be for life or on ly ch osen for a t im e. Dou bt less t h ey ou gh t t o be for
life, a s wa s t h e cu st om a t Rom e, 15 a t Spa r t a , 16 a n d even a t At h en s. F or we m u st
n ot con fou n d t h e sen a t e a t At h en s, wh ich wa s a body t h a t ch a n ged ever y t h r ee
m on t h s, wit h t h e Ar eopa gu s, wh ose m em ber s, a s st a n din g pa t t er n s, wer e
est a blish ed for life.
Let t h is be t h er efor e a gen er a l m a xim ; t h a t in a sen a t e design ed t o be a r u le,
a n d t h e deposit or y, a s it wer e, of m a n n er s, t h e m em ber s ou gh t t o be ch osen for
life: in a sen a t e in t en ded for t h e a dm in ist r a t ion of a ffa ir s, t h e m em ber s m a y be
ch a n ged.
Th e spir it , sa ys Ar ist ot le, wa xes old a s well a s t h e body. Th is r eflect ion h olds
good on ly in r ega r d t o a sin gle m a gist r a t e, bu t ca n n ot be a pplied t o a sen a t or ia l
a ssem bly.
At At h en s, besides t h e Ar eopa gu s, t h er e wer e gu a r dia n s of t h e pu blic m or a ls,
a s well a s of t h e la ws. 17 At Spa r t a , a ll t h e old m en wer e cen sor s. At Rom e, t h e
cen sor sh ip wa s com m it t ed t o t wo pa r t icu la r m a gist r a t es. As t h e sen a t e wa t ch ed
over t h e people, t h e cen sor s wer e t o h a ve a n eye over t h e people a n d t h e sen a t e.
Th eir office wa s t o r efor m t h e cor r u pt ion s of t h e r epu blic, t o st igm a t ise
in dolen ce, t o cen su r e n eglect s, a n d t o cor r ect m ist a kes; a s t o fla gr a n t cr im es,
t h ese wer e left t o t h e pu n ish m en t of t h e la ws.
Th a t Rom a n la w wh ich r equ ir ed t h e a ccu sa t ion s in ca ses of a du lt er y t o be
pu blic wa s a dm ir a bly well ca lcu la t ed for pr eser vin g t h e pu r it y of m or a ls; it
in t im ida t ed m a r r ied wom en , a s well a s t h ose wh o wer e t o wa t ch over t h eir
con du ct .
Not h in g con t r ibu t es m or e t o t h e pr eser va t ion of m or a ls t h a n a n ext r em e
su bor din a t ion of t h e you n g t o t h e old. Th u s t h ey a r e bot h r est r a in ed, t h e for m er
by t h eir r espect for t h ose of a dva n ced a ge, a n d t h e la t t er by t h eir r ega r d for
t h em selves.
Not h in g gives a gr ea t er for ce t o t h e la w t h a n a per fect su bor din a t ion bet ween
t h e cit izen s a n d t h e m a gist r a t e. “Th e gr ea t differ en ce wh ich Lycu r gu s
est a blish ed bet ween Spa r t a a n d t h e ot h er cit ies,” sa ys Xen oph on ,18 “con sist s
ch iefly in t h e obedien ce t h e cit izen s sh ow t o t h eir la ws; t h ey r u n wh en t h e

m a gist r a t e ca lls t h em . Bu t a t At h en s a r ich m a n wou ld be h igh ly displea sed t o
be t h ou gh t depen den t on t h e m a gist r a t e.”
P a t er n a l a u t h or it y is likewise of gr ea t u se t owa r ds t h e pr eser va t ion of m or a ls.
We h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved t h a t in a r epu blic t h er e is n ot so coer cive a for ce a s
in ot h er gover n m en t s. Th e la ws m u st t h er efor e en dea vou r t o su pply t h is defect
by som e m ea n s or ot h er ; a n d t h is is don e by pa t er n a l a u t h or it y.
F a t h er s a t Rom e h a d t h e power of life a n d dea t h over t h eir ch ildr en . 19 At
Spa r t a , ever y fa t h er h a d a r igh t t o cor r ect a n ot h er m a n ’s ch ild.
P a t er n a l a u t h or it y en ded a t Rom e t oget h er wit h t h e r epu blic. In m on a r ch ies,
wh er e su ch a pu r it y of m or a ls is n ot r equ ir ed, t h ey a r e con t r olled by n o ot h er
a u t h or it y t h a n t h a t of t h e m a gist r a t es.
Th e Rom a n la ws, wh ich a ccu st om ed you n g people t o depen den ce, est a blish ed
a lon g m in or it y. P er h a ps we a r e m ist a ken in con for m in g t o t h is cu st om ; t h er e
is n o n ecessit y for so m u ch con st r a in t in m on a r ch ies.
Th is ver y su bor din a t ion in a r epu blic m igh t m a ke it n ecessa r y for t h e fa t h er
t o con t in u e in t h e possession of h is ch ildr en ’s for t u n e du r in g life, a s wa s t h e
cu st om a t Rom e. Bu t t h is is n ot a gr eea ble t o t h e spir it of m on a r ch y.
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If t h e people a r e vir t u ou s in a n a r ist ocr a cy, t h ey en joy ver y n ea r ly t h e sa m e
h a ppin ess a s in a popu la r gover n m en t , a n d t h e st a t e gr ows power fu l. Bu t a s a
gr ea t sh a r e of vir t u e is ver y r a r e wh er e m en ’s for t u n es a r e so u n equ a l, t h e la ws
m u st t en d a s m u ch a s possible t o in fu se a spir it of m oder a t ion , a n d en dea vou r
t o r e-est a blish t h a t equ a lit y wh ich wa s n ecessa r ily r em oved by t h e con st it u t ion .
Th e spir it of m oder a t ion is wh a t we ca ll vir t u e in a n a r ist ocr a cy; it su pplies
t h e pla ce of t h e spir it of equ a lit y in a popu la r st a t e.
As t h e pom p a n d splen dou r wit h wh ich kin gs a r e su r r ou n ded for m a pa r t of
t h eir power , so m odest y a n d sim plicit y of m a n n er s con st it u t e t h e st r en gt h of a n
a r ist ocr a t ic n obilit y. 20 Wh en t h ey a ffect n o dist in ct ion , wh en t h ey m ix wit h t h e
people, dr ess like t h em , a n d wit h t h em sh a r e a ll t h eir plea su r es, t h e people a r e
a pt t o for get t h eir su bject ion a n d wea kn ess.
E ver y gover n m en t h a s it s n a t u r e a n d pr in ciple. An a r ist ocr a cy m u st n ot

t h er efor e a ssu m e t h e n a t u r e a n d pr in ciple of m on a r ch y; wh ich wou ld be t h e
ca se wer e t h e n obles t o be in vest ed wit h per son a l pr ivileges dist in ct fr om t h ose
of t h eir body; pr ivileges ou gh t t o be for t h e sen a t e, a n d sim ple r espect for t h e
sen a t or s.
In a r ist ocr a t ic gover n m en t s t h er e a r e t wo pr in cipa l sou r ces of disor der :
excessive in equ a lit y bet ween t h e gover n or s a n d t h e gover n ed; a n d t h e sa m e
in equ a lit y bet ween t h e differ en t m em ber s of t h e body t h a t gover n s. F r om t h ese
t wo in equ a lit ies, h a t r eds a n d jea lou sies a r ise, wh ich t h e la ws ou gh t ever t o
pr even t or r epr ess.
Th e fir st in equ a lit y is ch iefly wh en t h e pr ivileges of t h e n obilit y a r e
h on ou r a ble on ly a s t h ey a r e ign om in iou s t o t h e people. Su ch wa s t h e la w a t
Rom e by wh ich t h e pa t r icia n s wer e for bidden t o m a r r y plebeia n s;21 a la w t h a t
h a d n o ot h er effect t h a n t o r en der t h e pa t r icia n s on t h e on e side m or e h a u gh t y,
a n d on t h e ot h er m or e odiou s. Th e r ea der m a y see wh a t a dva n t a ges t h e
t r ibu n es der ived t h en ce in t h eir h a r a n gu es.
Th is in equ a lit y occu r s likewise wh en t h e con dit ion of t h e cit izen s differ s wit h
r ega r d t o t a xes, wh ich m a y h a ppen in fou r differ en t wa ys: wh en t h e n obles
a ssu m e t h e pr ivilege of pa yin g n on e; wh en t h ey com m it fr a u ds t o exem pt
t h em selves;22 wh en t h ey en gr oss t h e pu blic m on ey, u n der pr et en ce of r ewa r ds
or a ppoin t m en t s for t h eir r espect ive em ploym en t s; in fin e, wh en t h ey r en der t h e
com m on people t r ibu t a r y, a n d divide a m on g t h eir own body t h e pr ofit s a r isin g
fr om t h e sever a l su bsidies. Th is la st ca se is ver y r a r e; a n a r ist ocr a cy so
in st it u t ed wou ld be t h e m ost in t oler a ble of a ll gover n m en t s.
Wh ile Rom e in clin ed t owa r ds a r ist ocr a cy, sh e a voided a ll t h ese
in con ven ien ces. Th e m a gist r a t es n ever r eceived a n y em olu m en t s fr om t h eir
office. Th e ch ief m en of t h e r epu blic wer e t a xed like t h e r est , n a y, m or e h ea vily;
a n d som et im es t h e t a xes fell u pon t h em a lon e. In fin e, fa r fr om sh a r in g a m on g
t h em selves t h e r even u es of t h e st a t e, a ll t h ey cou ld dr a w fr om t h e pu blic
t r ea su r e, a n d a ll t h e wea lt h t h a t for t u n e flu n g in t o t h eir la ps, t h ey best owed
fr eely on t h e people, t o be excu sed fr om a ccept in g pu blic h on ou r s.23
It is a fu n da m en t a l m a xim t h a t la r gesses a r e per n iciou s t o t h e people in a
dem ocr a cy, bu t sa lu t a r y in a n a r ist ocr a t ic gover n m en t . Th e for m er m a ke t h em
for get t h ey a r e cit izen s, t h e la t t er br in g t h em t o a sen se of it . If t h e r even u es of

t h e st a t e a r e n ot dist r ibu t ed a m on g t h e people, t h ey m u st be con vin ced a t lea st
of t h eir bein g well a dm in ist er ed: t o fea st t h eir eyes wit h t h e pu blic t r ea su r e is
wit h t h em t h e sa m e t h in g a lm ost a s en joyin g it . Th e golden ch a in displa yed a t
Ven ice, t h e r ich es exh ibit ed a t Rom e in pu blic t r iu m ph s, t h e t r ea su r es
pr eser ved in t h e t em ple of Sa t u r n , wer e in r ea lit y t h e wea lt h of t h e people.
It is a ver y essen t ia l poin t in a n a r ist ocr a cy t h a t t h e n obles t h em selves sh ou ld
n ot levy t h e t a xes. Th e fir st or der of t h e st a t e in Rom e n ever con cer n ed
t h em selves wit h it ; t h e levyin g of t h e t a xes wa s com m it t ed t o t h e secon d, a n d
even t h is in pr ocess of t im e wa s a t t en ded wit h gr ea t in con ven ien ces. In a n
a r ist ocr a cy of t h is kin d, wh er e t h e n obles levied t h e t a xes, t h e pr iva t e people
wou ld be a ll a t t h e discr et ion of per son s in pu blic em ploym en t s; a n d t h er e
wou ld be n o su ch t h in g a s a su per ior t r ibu n a l t o ch eck t h eir power . Th e
m em ber s a ppoin t ed t o r em ove t h e a bu ses wou ld r a t h er en joy t h em . Th e n obles
wou ld be like t h e pr in ces of despot ic gover n m en t s, wh o con fisca t e wh a t ever
est a t es t h ey plea se.
Soon wou ld t h e pr ofit s h en ce a r isin g be con sider ed a s a pa t r im on y, wh ich
a va r ice wou ld en la r ge a t plea su r e. Th e fa r m s wou ld be lower ed, a n d t h e pu blic
r even u es r educed t o n ot h in g. Th is is t h e r ea son t h a t som e gover n m en t s, wit h ou t
h a vin g ever r eceived a n y r em a r ka ble sh ock, h a ve dwin dled a wa y t o su ch a
degr ee a s n ot on ly t h eir n eigh bou r s, bu t even t h eir own su bject s, h a ve been
su r pr ised a t it .
Th e la ws sh ou ld likewise for bid t h e n obles a ll kin ds of com m er ce: m er ch a n t s
of su ch u n bou n ded cr edit wou ld m on opolise a ll t o t h em selves. Com m er ce is a
pr ofession of people wh o a r e u pon a n equ a lit y; h en ce a m on g despot ic st a t es t h e
m ost m iser a ble a r e t h ose in wh ich t h e pr in ce a pplies h im self t o t r a de.
Th e la ws of Ven ice deba r 24 t h e n obles fr om com m er ce, by wh ich t h ey m igh t
even in n ocen t ly a cqu ir e exor bit a n t wea lt h .
Th e la ws ou gh t t o em ploy t h e m ost effect u a l m ea n s for m a kin g t h e n obles do
ju st ice t o t h e people. If t h ey h a ve n ot est a blish ed a t r ibu n e, t h ey ou gh t t o be a
t r ibu n e t h em selves.
E ver y sor t of a sylu m in opposit ion t o t h e execu t ion of t h e la ws dest r oys
a r ist ocr a cy, a n d is soon su cceeded by t yr a n n y. Th ey ou gh t a lwa ys t o m or t ify t h e
lu st of dom in ion . Th er e sh ou ld be eit h er a t em por a r y or per pet u a l m a gist r a t e

t o keep t h e n obles in a we, a s t h e E ph or i a t Spa r t a a n d t h e St a t e In qu isit or s a t
Ven ice — m a gist r a t es su bject t o n o for m a lit ies. Th is sor t of gover n m en t st a n ds
in n eed of t h e st r on gest spr in gs: t h u s a m ou t h of st on e 25 is open t o ever y
in for m er a t Ven ice — a m ou t h t o wh ich on e wou ld be a pt t o give t h e a ppella t ion
of t yr a n n y.
Th ese a r bit r a r y m a gist r a t es in a n a r ist ocr a cy bea r som e a n a logy t o t h e
cen sor sh ip in dem ocr a cies, wh ich of it s own n a t u r e is equ a lly in depen den t . An d,
in deed, t h e cen sor s ou gh t t o be su bject t o n o in qu ir y in r ela t ion t o t h eir con du ct
du r in g t h eir office; t h ey sh ou ld m eet wit h a t h or ou gh con fiden ce, a n d n ever be
discou r a ged. In t h is r espect t h e pr a ct ice of t h e Rom a n s deser ved a dm ir a t ion ;
m a gist r a t es of a ll den om in a t ion s wer e a ccou n t a ble for t h eir a dm in ist r a t ion , 26
except t h e cen sor s. 27
Th er e a r e t wo ver y per n iciou s t h in gs in a n a r ist ocr a cy — excess eit h er of
pover t y, or of wea lt h in t h e n obilit y. To pr even t t h eir pover t y, it is n ecessa r y,
a bove a ll t h in gs, t o oblige t h em t o pa y t h eir debt s in t im e. To m oder a t e t h e
excess of wea lt h , pr u den t a n d gr a du a l r egu la t ion s sh ou ld be m a de; bu t n o
con fisca t ion s, n o a gr a r ia n la ws, n o expu n gin g of debt s; t h ese a r e pr odu ct ive of
in fin it e m isch ief.
Th e la ws ou gh t t o a bolish t h e r igh t of pr im ogen it u r e a m on g t h e n obles 28 t o t h e
en d t h a t by a con t in u a l division of t h e in h er it a n ces t h eir for t u n es m a y be
a lwa ys u pon a level.
Th er e sh ou ld be n o su bst it u t ion s, n o power s of r edem pt ion , n o r igh t s of
Ma jor a sgo, or a dopt ion . Th e con t r iva n ces for per pet u a t in g t h e gr a n deu r of
fa m ilies in m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t s ou gh t n ever t o be em ployed in
a r ist ocr a cies. 29
Wh en t h e la ws h a ve com pa ssed t h e equ a lit y of fa m ilies, t h e n ext t h in g is t o
pr eser ve a pr oper h a r m on y a n d u n ion a m on g t h em . Th e qu a r r els of t h e n obilit y
ou gh t t o be qu ickly decided; ot h er wise t h e con t est s of in dividu a ls becom e t h ose
of fa m ilies. Ar bit er s m a y t er m in a t e, or even pr even t , t h e r ise of dispu t es.
In fin e, t h e la ws m u st n ot fa vou r t h e dist in ct ion s r a ised by va n it y a m on g
fa m ilies, u n der pr et en ce t h a t t h ey a r e m or e n oble or a n cien t t h a n ot h er s.
P r et en ces of t h is n a t u r e ou gh t t o be r a n ked a m on g t h e wea kn esses of pr iva t e
per son s.
We h a ve on ly t o ca st a n eye u pon Spa r t a ; t h er e we m a y see h ow t h e E ph or i
con t r ived t o ch eck t h e foibles of t h e kin gs, a s well a s t h ose of t h e n obilit y a n d
com m on people.
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As h on ou r is t h e pr in ciple of a m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t , t h e la ws ou gh t t o be
in r ela t ion t o t h is pr in ciple.
Th ey sh ou ld en dea vou r t o su ppor t t h e n obilit y, in r espect t o wh om h on ou r
m a y be, in som e m ea su r e, deem ed bot h ch ild a n d pa r en t .
Th ey sh ou ld r en der t h e n obilit y h er edit a r y, n ot a s a bou n da r y bet ween t h e
power of t h e pr in ce a n d t h e wea k n ess of t h e people, bu t a s t h e lin k wh ich
con n ect s t h em bot h .
In t h is gover n m en t , su bst it u t ion s wh ich pr eser ve t h e est a t es of fa m ilies
u n divided a r e ext r em ely u sefu l, t h ou gh in ot h er s n ot so pr oper .
H er e t h e power of r edem pt ion is of ser vice, a s it r est or es t o n oble fa m ilies t h e
la n ds t h a t h a d been a lien a t ed by t h e pr odiga lit y of a pa r en t .
Th e la n d of t h e n obilit y ou gh t t o h a ve pr ivileges a s well a s t h eir per son s. Th e
m on a r ch ’s dign it y is in sepa r a ble fr om t h a t of h is kin gdom ; a n d-t h e dign it y of
t h e n oblem a n fr om t h a t of h is fief.
All t h ese pr ivileges m u st be pecu lia r t o t h e n obilit y, a n d in com m u n ica ble t o
t h e people, u n less we in t en d t o a ct con t r a r y t o t h e pr in ciple of gover n m en t , a n d
t o dim in ish t h e power of t h e n obles t oget h er wit h t h a t of t h e people.
Su bst it u t ion s a r e a r est r a in t t o com m er ce, t h e power of r edem pt ion pr odu ces
a n in fin it e n u m ber of pr ocesses; ever y est a t e in la n d t h a t is sold t h r ou gh ou t t h e
kin gdom is in som e m ea su r e wit h ou t a n own er for t h e spa ce of a yea r . P r ivileges
a n n exed t o fiefs give a power ver y bu r den som e t o t h ose gover n m en t s wh ich
t oler a t e t h em . Th ese a r e t h e in con ven ien ces of n obilit y — in con ven ien ces,
h owever , t h a t va n ish wh en con fr on t ed wit h it s gen er a l u t ilit y: bu t wh en t h ese
pr ivileges a r e com m u n ica t ed t o t h e people, ever y pr in ciple of gover n m en t is
wa n t on ly viola t ed.
In m on a r ch ies a per son m a y lea ve t h e bu lk of h is est a t e t o on e of h is ch ildr en
— a per m ission im pr oper in a n y ot h er gover n m en t .

Th e la ws ou gh t t o fa vou r a ll kin ds of com m er ce 30 con sist en t wit h t h e
con st it u t ion , t o t h e en d t h a t t h e su bject s m a y, wit h ou t r u in in g t h em selves, be
a ble t o sa t isfy t h e con t in u a l cr a vin gs of t h e pr in ce a n d h is cou r t .
Th ey sh ou ld est a blish som e r egu la t ion t h a t t h e m a n n er of collect in g t h e t a xes
m a y n ot be m or e bu r den som e t h a n t h e t a xes t h em selves.
Th e weigh t of du t ies pr odu ces la bou r , la bou r wea r in ess, a n d wea r in ess t h e
spir it of in dolen ce.
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Gr ea t is t h e a dva n t a ge wh ich a m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t h a s over a r epu blic:
a s t h e st a t e is con du ct ed by a sin gle per son , t h e execu t ive power is t h er eby
en a bled t o a ct wit h gr ea t er expedit ion . Bu t a s t h is expedit ion m a y degen er a t e
in t o r a pidit y, t h e la ws sh ou ld u se som e con t r iva n ce t o sla cken it . Th ey ou gh t
n ot on ly t o fa vou r t h e n a t u r e of ea ch con st it u t ion , bu t likewise t o r em edy t h e
a bu ses t h a t m igh t r esu lt fr om t h is ver y n a t u r e.
Ca r din a l Rich elieu 31 a dvises m on a r ch s t o per m it n o su ch t h in gs a s societ ies
or com m u n it ies t h a t r a ise difficu lt ies u pon ever y t r ifle. If t h is m a n ’s h ea r t h a d
n ot been bewit ch ed wit h t h e love of despot ic power , st ill t h ese a r bit r a r y n ot ion s
wou ld h a ve filled h is h ea d.
Th e bodies en t r u st ed wit h t h e deposit ion of t h e la ws a r e n ever m or e obedien t
t h a n wh en t h ey pr oceed slowly, a n d u se t h a t r eflect ion in t h e pr in ce’s a ffa ir s
wh ich ca n sca r cely be expect ed fr om t h e ign or a n ce of a cou r t , or fr om t h e
pr ecipit a t ion of it s cou n cils.32
Wh a t wou ld h a ve becom e of t h e fin est m on a r ch y in t h e wor ld if t h e
m a gist r a t es, by t h eir dela ys, t h eir com pla in t s, a n d en t r ea t ies, h a d n ot ch ecked
t h e r a pidit y even of t h eir pr in ces’ vir t u es, wh en t h ese m on a r ch s, con su lt in g on ly
t h e gen er ou s im pu lse of t h eir m in ds, wou ld fa in h a ve given a bou n dless r ewa r d
t o ser vices per for m ed wit h a n u n lim it ed cou r a ge a n d fidelit y?
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Mon a r ch y h a s a gr ea t a dva n t a ge over a despot ic gover n m en t . As it n a t u r a lly
r equ ir es t h er e sh ou ld be sever a l or der s or r a n ks of su bject s, t h e st a t e is m or e
per m a n en t , t h e con st it u t ion m or e st ea dy, a n d t h e per son of h im wh o gover n s
m or e secu r e.
Cicer o is of opin ion t h a t t h e est a blish in g of t h e t r ibu n es pr eser ved t h e
r epu blic. “An d in deed,” sa ys h e, “t h e violen ce of a h ea dless people is m or e
t er r ible. A ch ief or h ea d is sen sible t h a t t h e a ffa ir depen ds u pon h im self, a n d
t h er efor e h e t h in ks; bu t t h e people in t h eir im pet u osit y a r e ign or a n t of t h e
da n ger in t o wh ich t h ey h u r r y t h em selves.” Th is r eflect ion m a y be a pplied t o a
despot ic gover n m en t , wh ich is a people wit h ou t t r ibu n es; a n d t o a m on a r ch y,
wh er e t h e people h a ve som e sor t of t r ibu n es.
Accor din gly it is obser va ble t h a t in t h e com m ot ion s of a despot ic gover n m en t ,
t h e people, h u r r ied a wa y by t h eir pa ssion s, a r e a pt t o pu sh t h in gs a s fa r a s t h ey
ca n go. Th e disor der s t h ey com m it a r e a ll ext r em e; wh er ea s in m on a r ch ies
m a t t er s a r e seldom ca r r ied t o excess. Th e ch iefs a r e a ppr eh en sive on t h eir own
a ccou n t ; t h ey a r e a fr a id of bein g a ba n don ed, a n d t h e in t er m edia t e depen den t
power s do n ot ch oose t h a t t h e popu la ce sh ou ld h a ve t oo m u ch t h e u pper h a n d.
It r a r ely h a ppen s t h a t t h e st a t es of t h e kin gdom a r e en t ir ely cor r u pt ed: t h e
pr in ce a dh er es t o t h ese; a n d t h e sedit iou s, wh o h a ve n eit h er will n or h opes t o
su bver t t h e gover n m en t , h a ve n eit h er power n or will t o det h r on e t h e pr in ce.
In t h ese cir cu m st a n ces m en of pr u den ce a n d a u t h or it y in t er fer e; m oder a t e
m ea su r es a r e fir st pr oposed, t h en com plied wit h , a n d t h in gs a t len gt h a r e
r edr essed; t h e la ws r esu m e t h eir vigou r , a n d com m a n d su bm ission .
Th u s a ll ou r h ist or ies a r e fu ll of civil wa r s wit h ou t r evolu t ion s, wh ile t h e
h ist or ies of despot ic gover n m en t s a bou n d wit h r evolu t ion s wit h ou t civil wa r s.
Th e wr it er s of t h e h ist or y of t h e civil wa r s of som e cou n t r ies, even t h ose wh o
fom en t ed t h em , su fficien t ly dem on st r a t e t h e lit t le fou n da t ion pr in ces h a ve t o
su spect t h e a u t h or it y wit h wh ich t h ey in vest pa r t icu la r bodies of m en ; sin ce,
even u n der t h e u n h a ppy cir cu m st a n ce of t h eir er r or s, t h ey sigh ed on ly a ft er t h e
la ws a n d t h eir du t y; a n d r est r a in ed, m or e t h a n t h ey wer e ca pa ble of in fla m in g,
t h e im pet u osit y of t h e r evolt ed. 33 Ca r din a l Rich elieu , r eflect in g per h a ps t h a t h e
h a d t oo m u ch r edu ced t h e st a t es of t h e kin gdom , h a s r ecou r se t o t h e vir t u es of
t h e pr in ce a n d of h is m in ist er s for t h e su ppor t 34 of gover n m en t : bu t h e r equ ir es

so m a n y t h in gs, t h a t in deed t h er e is n on e bu t a n a n gel ca pa ble of su ch
a t t en t ion , su ch r esolu t ion a n d kn owledge; a n d sca r cely ca n we fla t t er ou r selves
t h a t we sh a ll ever see su ch a pr in ce a n d m in ist er s wh ile m on a r ch y su bsist s.
As people wh o live u n der a good gover n m en t a r e h a ppier t h a n t h ose wh o
wit h ou t r u le or lea der s wa n der a bou t t h e for est s, so m on a r ch s wh o live u n der
t h e fu n da m en t a l la ws of t h eir cou n t r y a r e fa r h a ppier t h a n despot ic pr in ces wh o
h a ve n ot h in g t o r egu la t e, n eit h er t h eir own pa ssion s n or t h ose of t h eir su bject s.
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Let u s n ot look for m a gn a n im it y in despot ic gover n m en t s; t h e pr in ce ca n n ot
im pa r t a gr ea t n ess wh ich h e h a s n ot h im self; wit h h im t h er e is n o su ch t h in g
a s glor y.
It is in m on a r ch ies t h a t we beh old t h e su bject s en cir clin g t h e t h r on e, a n d
ch eer ed by t h e ir r a dia n cy of t h e sover eign ; t h er e it is t h a t ea ch per son fillin g,
a s it wer e, a la r ger spa ce, is ca pa ble of exer cisin g t h ose vir t u es wh ich a dor n t h e
sou l, n ot wit h in depen den ce, bu t wit h t r u e dign it y a n d gr ea t n ess.
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Wh en t h e sa va ges of Lou isia n a a r e desir ou s of fr u it , t h ey cu t t h e t r ee t o t h e
r oot , a n d ga t h er t h e fr u it .35 Th is is a n em blem of despot ic gover n m en t .
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Th e pr in ciple of despot ic gover n m en t is fea r ; bu t a t im id, ign or a n t , a n d
fa in t -spir it ed people h a ve n o occa sion for a gr ea t n u m ber of la ws.
E ver yt h in g ou gh t t o depen d h er e on t wo or t h r ee idea s; h en ce t h er e is n o
n ecessit y t h a t a n y n ew n ot ion s sh ou ld be a dded. Wh en we wa n t t o br ea k a
h or se, we t a ke ca r e n ot t o let h im ch a n ge h is m a st er , h is lesson , or h is pa ce.
Th u s a n im pr ession is m a de on h is br a in by t wo or t h r ee m ot ion s, a n d n o m or e.
If a pr in ce is sh u t u p in a ser a glio, h e ca n n ot lea ve h is volu pt u ou s a bode
wit h ou t a la r m in g t h ose wh o k eep h im con fin ed. Th ev will n ot bea r t h a t h is
per son a n d power sh ou ld pa ss in t o ot h er h a n ds. H e seldom t h er efor e wa ges wa r

in per son , a n d h a r dly ven t u r es t o en t r u st t h e com m a n d t o h is gen er a ls.
A pr in ce of t h is st a m p, u n a ccu st om ed t o r esist a n ce in h is pa la ce, is en r a ged
t o see h is will opposed by a r m ed for ce; h en ce h e is gen er a lly gover n ed by wr a t h
or ven gea n ce. Besides, h e ca n h a ve n o n ot ion of t r u e glor y. Wa r t h er efor e is
ca r r ied on u n der su ch a gover n m en t in it s fu ll n a t u r a l fu r y, a n d less ext en t is
given t o t h e la w of n a t ion s t h a n in ot h er st a t es.
Su ch a pr in ce h a s so m a n y im per fect ion s t h a t t h ey a r e a fr a id t o expose h is
n a t u r a l st u pidit y t o pu blic view. H e is con cea led in h is pa la ce, a n d t h e people
a r e ign or a n t of h is sit u a t ion . It is lu cky for h im t h a t t h e in h a bit a n t s of t h ose
cou n t r ies n eed on ly t h e n a m e of a pr in ce t o gover n t h em .
Wh en Ch a r les XII wa s a t Ben der , h e m et wit h som e opposit ion fr om t h e
sen a t e of Sweden ; u pon wh ich h e wr ot e wor d h om e t h a t h e wou ld sen d on e of
h is boot s t o com m a n d t h em . Th is boot wou ld h a ve gover n ed like a despot ic
pr in ce.
If t h e pr in ce is a pr ison er , h e is su pposed t o be dea d, a n d a n ot h er m ou n t s t h e
t h r on e. Th e t r ea t ies m a de by t h e pr ison er a r e void, h is su ccessor will n ot r a t ify
t h em ; a n d in deed, a s h e is t h e la w, t h e st a t e, a n d t h e pr in ce: wh en h e is n o
lon ger a pr in ce, h e is n ot h in g: wer e h e n ot t h er efor e deem ed t o be decea sed, t h e
st a t e wou ld be su bver t ed.
On e t h in g wh ich ch iefly det er m in ed t h e Tu r ks t o con clu de a sepa r a t e pea ce
wit h P et er I wa s t h e Mu scovit es t ellin g t h e Vizir t h a t in Sweden a n ot h er pr in ce
h a d been pla ced u pon t h e t h r on e.36
Th e pr eser va t ion of t h e st a t e is on ly t h e pr eser va t ion of t h e pr in ce, or r a t h er
of t h e pa la ce wh er e h e is con fin ed. Wh a t ever does n ot dir ect ly m en a ce t h is
pa la ce or t h e ca pit a l m a kes n o im pr ession on ign or a n t , pr ou d, a n d pr eju diced
m in ds; a n d a s for t h e con ca t en a t ion of even t s, t h ey a r e u n a ble t o t r a ce, t o
for esee, or even t o con ceive it . P olit ics, wit h it s sever a l spr in gs a n d la ws, m u st
h er e be ver y m u ch lim it ed; t h e polit ica l gover n m en t is a s sim ple a s t h e civil.37
Th e wh ole is r edu ced t o r econ cilin g t h e polit ica l a n d civil a dm in ist r a t ion t o t h e
dom est ic gover n m en t , t h e officer s of st a t e t o t h ose of t h e ser a glio.
Su ch a st a t e is h a ppiest wh en it ca n look u pon it self a s t h e on ly on e in t h e
wor ld, wh en it is en vir on ed wit h deser t s, a n d sepa r a t ed fr om t h ose people
wh om t h ey ca ll Ba r ba r ia n s. Sin ce it ca n n ot depen d on t h e m ilit ia , it is pr oper

it sh ou ld dest r oy a pa r t of it self.
As fea r is t h e pr in ciple of despot ic gover n m en t , it s en d is t r a n qu illit y; bu t t h is
t r a n qu illit y ca n n ot be ca lled a pea ce: n o, it is on ly t h e silen ce of t h ose t own s
wh ich t h e en em y is r ea dy t o in va de.
Sin ce st r en gt h does n ot lie in t h e st a t e, bu t in t h e a r m y t h a t fou n ded it , in
or der t o defen d t h e st a t e t h e a r m y m u st be pr eser ved, h ow for m ida ble soever
t o t h e pr in ce. H ow, t h en , ca n we r econ cile t h e secu r it y of t h e gover n m en t t o t h a t
of t h e pr in ce’s per son ?
Obser ve h ow in du st r iou sly t h e Ru ssia n gover n m en t en dea vou r s t o t em per it s
a r bit r a r y power , wh ich it fin ds m or e bu r den som e t h a n t h e people t h em selves.
Th ey h a ve br oken t h eir n u m er ou s gu a r ds, m it iga t ed cr im in a l pu n ish m en t s,
er ect ed t r ibu n a ls, en t er ed in t o a kn owledge of t h e la ws, a n d in st r u ct ed t h e
people. Bu t t h er e a r e pa r t icu la r ca u ses t h a t will pr oba bly on ce m or e in volve
t h em in t h e ver y m iser y wh ich t h ey n ow en dea vou r t o a void.
In t h ose st a t es r eligion h a s m or e in flu en ce t h a n a n ywh er e else; it is fea r
a dded t o fea r . In Ma h om eda n cou n t r ies, it is pa r t ly fr om t h eir r eligion t h a t t h e
people der ive t h e su r pr isin g ven er a t ion t h ey h a ve for t h eir pr in ce.
It is r eligion t h a t a m en ds in som e m ea su r e t h e Tu r kish con st it u t ion . Th e
su bject s, wh o h a ve n o a t t a ch m en t of h on ou r t o t h e glor y a n d gr a n deu r of t h e
st a t e, a r e con n ect ed wit h it by t h e for ce a n d pr in ciple of r eligion .
Of a ll despot ic gover n m en t s t h er e is n on e t h a t la bou r s m or e u n der it s own
weigh t t h a n t h a t wh er ein t h e pr in ce decla r es h im self pr opr iet or of a ll t h e la n ds,
a n d h eir t o a ll h is su bject s. H en ce t h e n eglect of a gr icu lt u r e a r ises; a n d if t h e
pr in ce in t er m eddles likewise in t r a de, a ll m a n n er of in du st r y is r u in ed.
Un der t h is sor t of gover n m en t , n ot h in g is r epa ir ed or im pr oved. 38 H ou ses a r e
bu ilt on ly for t h e n ecessit y of h a bit a t ion ; t h er e is n o diggin g of dit ch es or
pla n t in g of t r ees; ever yt h in g is dr a wn fr om , bu t n ot h in g r est or ed t o, t h e ea r t h ;
t h e gr ou n d lies u n t illed, a n d t h e wh ole cou n t r y becom es a deser t .
Is it t o be im a gin ed t h a t t h e la ws wh ich a bolish t h e pr oper t y of la n d a n d t h e
su ccession of est a t es will dim in ish t h e a va r ice a n d cu pidit y of t h e gr ea t ? By n o
m ea n s. Th ey will r a t h er st im u la t e t h is cu pidit y a n d a va r ice. Th e gr ea t m en will
be pr om pt ed t o u se a t h ou sa n d oppr essive m et h ods, im a gin in g t h ey h a ve n o
ot h er pr oper t y t h a n t h e gold a n d silver wh ich t h ey a r e a ble t o seize u pon by

violen ce, or t o con cea l.
To pr even t , t h er efor e, t h e u t t er r u in of t h e st a t e, t h e a vidit y of t h e pr in ce
ou gh t t o be m oder a t ed by som e est a blish ed cu st om . Th u s, in Tu r key, t h e
sover eign is sa t isfied wit h t h e r igh t of t h r ee per cen t on t h e va lu e of
in h er it a n ces. 39 Bu t a s h e gives t h e gr ea t est pa r t of t h e la n ds t o h is soldier y, a n d
disposes of t h em a s h e plea ses; a s h e seizes on a ll t h e in h er it a n ces of t h e officer s
of t h e em pir e a t t h eir decea se; a s h e h a s t h e pr oper t y of t h e possession s of t h ose
wh o die wit h ou t issu e, a n d t h e da u gh t er s h a ve on ly t h e u su fr u ct ; it t h en ce
follows t h a t t h e gr ea t est pa r t of t h e est a t es of t h e cou n t r y a r e h eld in a
pr eca r iou s m a n n er .
By t h e la ws of Ba n t a m , 40 t h e kin g seizes on t h e wh ole in h er it a n ce, even wife,
ch ildr en , a n d h a bit a t ion . In or der t o elu de t h e cr u elest pa r t of t h is la w, t h ey a r e
obliged t o m a r r y t h eir ch ildr en a t eigh t , n in e, or t en yea r s of a ge, a n d
som et im es you n ger , t o t h e en d t h a t t h ey m a y n ot be a wr et ch ed pa r t of t h e
fa t h er ’s su ccession .
In cou n t r ies wh er e t h er e a r e n o fu n da m en t a l la ws, t h e su ccession t o t h e
em pir e ca n n ot be fixed. Th e cr own is t h en elect ive, a n d t h e r igh t of elect in g is
in t h e pr in ce, wh o n a m es a su ccessor eit h er of h is own or of som e ot h er fa m ily.
In va in wou ld it be t o est a blish h er e t h e su ccession of t h e eldest son ; t h e pr in ce
m igh t a lwa ys ch oose a n ot h er . Th e su ccessor is decla r ed by t h e pr in ce h im self,
or by a civil wa r . H en ce a despot ic st a t e is, u pon a n ot h er a ccou n t , m or e lia ble
t h a n a m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t t o dissolu t ion .
As ever y pr in ce of t h e r oya l fa m ily is h eld equ a lly ca pa ble of bein g ch osen ,
h en ce it follows t h a t t h e pr in ce wh o a scen ds t h e t h r on e im m edia t ely st r a n gles
h is br ot h er s, a s in Tu r key; or pu t s ou t t h eir eyes, a s in P er sia ; or ber ea ves t h em
of t h eir u n der st a n din g, a s in t h e Mogu l’s cou n t r y; or if t h ese pr eca u t ion s a r e n ot
u sed, a s in Mor occo, t h e va ca n cy of t h e t h r on e is a lwa ys a t t en ded wit h t h e
h or r or s of a civil wa r .
By t h e con st it u t ion of Ru ssia 41 t h e Cza r m a y ch oose wh om h e h a s a m in d for
h is su ccessor , wh et h er of h is own or of a st r a n ge fa m ily. Su ch a set t lem en t
pr odu ces a t h ou sa n d r evolu t ion s, a n d r en der s t h e t h r on e a s t ot t er in g a s t h e
su ccession is a r bit r a r y. Th e r igh t of su ccession bein g on e of t h ose t h in gs wh ich
a r e of m ost im por t a n ce t o t h e people t o kn ow, t h e best is t h a t wh ich m ost

sen sibly st r ikes t h em . Su ch a s a cer t a in or der of bir t h . A set t lem en t of t h is kin d
pu t s a st op t o in t r igu es, a n d st ifles a m bit ion ; t h e m in d of a wea k pr in ce is n o
lon ger en sla ved, n or is h e m a de t o spea k h is will a s h e is ju st expir in g.
Wh en t h e su ccession is est a blish ed by a fu n da m en t a l la w, on ly on e pr in ce is
t h e su ccessor , a n d h is br ot h er s h a ve n eit h er a r ea l n or a ppa r en t r igh t t o dispu t e
t h e cr own wit h h im . Th ey ca n n eit h er pr et en d t o n or t a ke a n y a dva n t a ge of t h e
will of a fa t h er . Th er e is t h en n o m or e occa sion t o con fin e or kill t h e kin g’s
br ot h er t h a n a n y ot h er su bject .
Bu t in despot ic gover n m en t s, wh er e t h e pr in ce’s br ot h er s a r e equ a lly h is
sla ves a n d h is r iva ls, pr udence r equ ir es t h a t t h eir per son s be secu r ed; especia lly
in Ma h om eda n cou n t r ies, wh er e r eligion con sider s vict or y or su ccess a s a divin e
decision in t h eir fa vou r ; so t h a t t h ey h a ve n o su ch t h in g a s a m on a r ch de ju r e,
bu t on ly de fa ct o.
Th er e is a fa r gr ea t er in cen t ive t o a m bit ion in cou n t r ies wh er e t h e pr in ces of
t h e blood a r e sen sible t h a t if t h ey do n ot a scen d t h e t h r on e t h ey m u st be eit h er
im pr ison ed or pu t t o dea t h , t h a n a m on g u s, wh er e t h ey a r e pla ced in su ch a
st a t ion a s m a y sa t isfy, if n ot t h eir a m bit ion , a t lea st t h eir m oder a t e desir es.
Th e pr in ces of despot ic gover n m en t s h a ve ever per ver t ed t h e u se of m a r r ia ge.
Th ey gen er a lly t a ke a gr ea t m a n y wives, especia lly in t h a t pa r t of t h e wor ld
wh er e a bsolu t e power is in som e m easu r e n a t u r a lised, n a m ely, Asia . H en ce t h ey
com e t o h a ve su ch a m u lt it u de of ch ildr en t h a t t h ey ca n h a r dly h a ve a n y gr ea t
a ffect ion for t h em , n or t h e ch ildr en for on e a n ot h er .
Th e r eign in g fa m ily r esem bles t h e st a t e; it is t oo wea k it self, a n d it s h ea d t oo
power fu l; it seem s ver y n u m er ou s a n d ext en sive, a n d yet is su dden ly ext in ct .
Ar t a xer xes 42 pu t a ll h is ch ildr en t o dea t h for con spir in g a ga in st h im .
It is n ot a t a ll pr oba ble t h a t fift y ch ildr en wou ld con spir e a ga in st t h eir fa t h er ,
a n d m u ch less t h a t t h is con spir a cy wou ld be owin g t o h is h a vin g r efu sed t o
r esign h is con cu bin e t o h is eldest son . It is m or e n a t u r a l t o believe t h a t t h e
wh ole wa s a n in t r igu e of t h ose or ien t a l ser a glios, wh er e fr a u d, t r ea ch er y, a n d
deceit r eign in silen ce a n d da r kn ess; a n d wh er e a n old pr in ce, gr own ever y da y
m or e in fir m , is t h e fir st pr ison er of t h e pa la ce.
Aft er wh a t h a s been sa id, on e wou ld im a gin e t h a t h u m a n n a t u r e sh ou ld
per pet u a lly r ise u p a ga in st despot ism . Bu t n ot wit h st a n din g t h e love of liber t y,
so n a t u r a l t o m a n kin d, n ot wit h st a n din g t h eir in n a t e det est a t ion of for ce a n d
violen ce, m ost n a t ion s a r e su bject t o t h is ver y gover n m en t . Th is is ea sily
a ccou n t ed for . To for m a m oder a t e gover n m en t , it is n ecessa r y t o com bin e t h e
sever a l power s; t o r egu la t e, t em per , a n d set t h em in m ot ion ; t o give, a s it wer e,
ba lla st t o on e, in or der t o en a ble it t o cou n t er poise t h e ot h er . Th is is a
m a st er piece of legisla t ion ; r a r ely pr odu ced by h a za r d, a n d seldom a t t a in ed by
pr u den ce. On t h e con t r a r y, a despot ic gover n m en t offer s it self, a s it wer e, a t
fir st sigh t ; it is u n ifor m t h r ou gh ou t ; a n d a s pa ssion s on ly a r e r equ isit e t o
est a blish it , t h is is wh a t ever y ca pa cit y m a y r ea ch .
BL1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
In wa r m clim a t es, wh er e despot ic power gen er a lly pr eva ils, t h e pa ssion s
disclose t h em selves ea r lier , a n d a r e soon er ext in gu ish ed;43 t h e u n der st a n din g
is soon er r ipen ed; t h ey a r e less in da n ger of squ a n der in g t h eir for t u n es; t h er e
is less fa cilit y of dist in gu ish in g t h em selves in t h e wor ld; less com m u n ica t ion
bet ween you n g people, wh o a r e con fin ed a t h om e; t h ey m a r r y m u ch ea r lier , a n d
con sequ en t ly m a y be soon er of a ge t h a n in ou r E u r opea n clim a t es. In Tu r key
t h ey a r e of a ge a t fift een .44
Th ey h a ve n o su ch t h in g a s a cession of goods; in a gover n m en t wh er e t h er e
is n o fixed pr oper t y, people depen d r a t h er on t h e per son t h a n on h is est a t e.
Th e cession of goods is n a t u r a lly a dm it t ed in m oder a t e gover n m en t s, 45 bu t
especia lly in r epu blics, beca u se of t h e gr ea t er con fiden ce u su a lly pla ced in t h e
pr obit y of t h e cit izen s, a n d t h e len it y a n d m oder a t ion a r isin g fr om a for m of
gover n m en t wh ich ever y su bject seem s t o n a ve pr efer r ed t o a ll ot h er s.
H a d t h e legisla t or s of t h e Rom a n r epu blic est a blish ed t h e cession of goods,46
t h ey n ever wou ld h a ve been exposed t o so m a n y sedit ion s a n d civil discor ds;
n eit h er wou ld t h ey h a ve exper ien ced t h e da n ger of t h e evils, n or t h e
in con ven ien ce of t h e r em edies.
P over t y a n d t h e pr eca r iou sn ess of pr oper t y in a despot ic st a t e r en der u su r y
n a t u r a l, ea ch per son r a isin g t h e va lu e of h is m on ey in pr opor t ion t o t h e da n ger
h e sees in len din g it . Miser y t h er efor e pou r s fr om a ll pa r t s in t o t h ose u n h a ppy
cou n t r ies; t h ey a r e ber eft of ever yt h in g, even of t h e r esou r ce of bor r owin g.
H en ce it is t h a t a m er ch a n t u n der t h is gover n m en t is u n a ble t o ca r r y on a n

ext en sive com m er ce; h e lives fr om h a n d t o m ou t h ; a n d wer e h e t o en cu m ber
h im self wit h a la r ge qu a n t it y of m er ch a n dise, h e wou ld lose m or e by t h e
exor bit a n t in t er est h e m u st give for m on ey t h a n h e cou ld possibly get by t h e
goods. H en ce t h ey h a ve n o la ws h er e r ela t in g t o com m er ce; t h ey a r e a ll r edu ced
t o wh a t is ca lled t h e ba r e police.
A gover n m en t ca n n ot be u n ju st wit h ou t h a vin g h a n ds t o exer cise it s in ju st ice.
Now, it is im possible bu t t h a t t h ese h a n ds will be gr a spin g for t h em selves. Th e
em bezzlin g of t h e pu blic m on ey is t h er efor e n a t u r a l in despot ic st a t es.
As t h is is a com m on cr im e u n der su ch a gover n m en t , con fisca t ion s a r e ver y
u sefu l. By t h ese t h e people a r e ea sed; t h e m on ey dr a wn by t h is m et h od bein g
a con sider a ble t r ibu t e wh ich cou ld h a r dly be r a ised on t h e exh a u st ed su bject :
n eit h er is t h er e in t h ose cou n t r ies a n y on e fa m ily wh ich t h e pr in ce wou ld be
gla d t o pr eser ve.
In m oder a t e gover n m en t s it is qu it e a differ en t t h in g. Con fisca t ion s wou ld
r en der pr oper t y u n cer t a in , would st r ip in n ocen t ch ildr en , wou ld dest r oy a wh ole
fa m ily, in st ea d of pu n ish in g a sin gle cr im in a l. In r epu blics t h ey wou ld be
a t t en ded wit h t h e m isch ief of su bver t in g equ a lit y, wh ich is t h e ver y sou l of t h is
gover n m en t , by depr ivin g a cit izen of h is n ecessa r y su bsist en ce.47
Th er e is a Rom a n la w 48 a ga in st con fisca t ion s, except in t h e ca se of crim en
m ajestatis, or h igh t r ea son of t h e m ost h ein ou s n a t u r e. It wou ld be a pr u den t
t h in g t o follow t h e spir it of t h is la w, a n d t o lim it con fisca t ion s t o pa r t icu la r
cr im es. In cou n t r ies wh er e a loca l cu st om h a s r en der ed r ea l est a t es a lien a ble,
Bodin ver y ju st ly obser ves t h a t con fisca t ion s sh ou ld ext en d on ly t o su ch a s a r e
pu r ch a sed or a cqu ir ed. 49
BO1&@(&+-%&)'<<F*59"+5'*&'(&8'7%.1
In a despot ic gover n m en t t h e power is com m u n ica t ed en t ir e t o t h e per son
en t r u st ed wit h it . Th e vizir h im self is t h e despot ic pr in ce; a n d ea ch pa r t icu la r
officer is t h e vizir . In m on a r ch ies t h e power is less im m edia t ely a pplied, bein g
t em per ed by t h e m on a r ch a s h e gives it .50 H e m a kes su ch a dist r ibu t ion of h is
a u t h or it y a s n ever t o com m u n ica t e a pa r t of it wit h ou t r eser vin g a gr ea t er sh a r e
t o h im self.
H en ce in m on a r ch ies t h e gover n or s of t own s a r e n ot so depen den t on t h e

gover n or of t h e pr ovin ce a s n ot t o be st ill m or e so on t h e pr in ce; a n d t h e pr iva t e
officer s or m ilit a r y bodies a r e n ot so fa r su bject t o t h eir gen er a l a s n ot t o owe
st ill a gr ea t er su bject ion t o t h eir sover eign .
In m ost m on a r ch ies it h a s been wisely r egu la t ed t h a t t h ose wh o h a ve a n
ext en sive com m a n d sh ou ld n ot belon g t o a n y m ilit a r y cor ps; so t h a t a s t h ey
h a ve n o a u t h or it y bu t t h r ou gh t h e pr in ce’s plea su r e, a n d a s t h ey m a y be
em ployed or n ot , t h ey a r e in som e m ea su r e in t h e ser vice, a n d in som e m ea su r e
ou t of it .
Th is is in com pa t ible wit h a despot ic gover n m en t . F or if t h ose wh o a r e n ot
a ct u a lly em ployed wer e st ill in vest ed wit h pr ivileges a n d t it les, t he con sequ en ce
m u st be t h a t t h er e wou ld be m en in t h e st a t e wh o m igh t be sa id t o be gr ea t of
t h em selves; a t h in g dir ect ly opposit e t o t h e n a t u r e of t h is gover n m en t .
Wer e t h e gover n or of a t own in depen den t of t h e pa sh a , expedien t s wou ld be
da ily n ecessa r y t o m a ke t h em a gr ee; wh ich is h igh ly a bsu r d in a despot ic st a t e.
Besides, if a pa r t icu la r gover n or sh ou ld r efu se t o obey, h ow cou ld t h e ot h er
a n swer for h is pr ovin ce wit h h is h ea d?
In t h is kin d of gover n m en t , a u t h or it y m u st ever be wa ver in g; n or is t h a t of t h e
lowest m a gist r a t e m or e st ea dy t h a n t h a t of t h e despot ic pr in ce. Un der m oder a t e
gover n m en t s, t h e la w is pr u den t in a ll it s pa r t s, a n d per fect ly well k n own , so
t h a t even t h e pet t iest m a gist r a t es a r e ca pa ble of followin g it . Bu t in a despot ic
st a t e, wh er e t h e pr in ce’s will is t h e la w, t h ou gh t h e pr in ce wer e wise, yet h ow
cou ld t h e m a gist r a t e follow a will h e does n ot kn ow? H e m u st cer t a in ly follow
h is own .
Aga in , a s t h e la w is on ly t h e pr in ce’s will, a n d a s t h e pr in ce ca n on ly will wh a t
h e kn ows, t h e con sequ en ce is t h a t t h er e a r e a n in fin it e n u m ber of people wh o
m u st will for h im , a n d m a ke t h eir wills keep pa ce wit h h is. In fin e, a s t h e la w
is t h e m om en t a r y will of t h e pr in ce, it is n ecessa r y t h a t t h ose wh o will for h im
sh ou ld follow h is su dden m a n n er of willin g.
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It is a r eceived cu st om in despot ic cou n t r ies n ever t o a ddr ess a n y su per ior
wh om soever , n ot except in g t h eir k in gs, wit h ou t m a kin g t h em a pr esen t . Th e
Mogu l 51 n ever r eceives t h e pet it ion s of h is su bject s if t h ey com e wit h em pt y

h a n ds. Th ese pr in ces spoil even t h eir own fa vou r s.
Bu t t h u s it m u st ever be in a gover n m en t wh er e n o m a n is a cit izen ; wh er e
t h ey h a ve a ll a n ot ion t h a t a su per ior is u n der n o obliga t ion t o a n in fer ior ;
wh er e m en im a gin e t h em selves bou n d by n o ot h er t ie t h a n t h e ch a st isem en t s
in flict ed by on e pa r t y u pon a n ot h er ; wh er e, in fin e, t h er e is ver y lit t le t o do, a n d
wh er e t h e people h a ve seldom a n occa sion of pr esen t in g t h em selves befor e t h e
gr ea t , of offer in g t h eir pet it ion s, a n d m u ch less t h eir com pla in t s.
In a r epu blic, pr esen t s a r e odiou s, beca u se vir t u e st a n ds in n o n eed of t h em .
In m on a r ch ies, h on ou r is a m u ch st r on ger in cen t ive t h a n pr esen t s. Bu t in a
despot ic gover n m en t , wh er e t h er e is n eit h er h on ou r n or vir t u e, people ca n n ot
be det er m in ed t o a ct bu t t h r ou gh h ope of t h e con ven ien ces of life.
It is in con for m it y wit h r epu blica n idea s t h a t P la t o52 or der ed t h ose wh o
r eceived pr esen t s for doin g t h eir du t y t o be pu n ish ed wit h dea t h . “Th ey m u st
n ot t a ke pr esen t s,” sa ys h e, “n eit h er for good n or for evil a ct ion s.”
A ver y ba d la w wa s t h a t a m on g t h e Rom a n s 53 wh ich ga ve t h e m a gist r a t es
lea ve t o a ccept sm a ll pr esen t s 54 pr ovided t h ey did n ot exceed on e h u n dr ed
cr own s in t h e wh ole yea r . Th ey wh o r eceive n ot h in g expect n ot h in g; t h ey wh o
r eceive a lit t le soon covet m or e, t ill a t len gt h t h eir desir es swell t o a n exor bit a n t
h eigh t .
Besides, it is m u ch ea sier t o con vict a m a n wh o kn ows h im self obliged t o
a ccept n o pr esen t a t a ll, a n d yet will a ccept som et h in g, t h a n a per son wh o t a kes
m or e wh en h e ou gh t t o t a ke less, a n d wh o a lwa ys fin ds pr et ext s, excu ses, a n d
pla u sible r ea son s in ju st ifica t ion of h is con du ct .
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In despot ic gover n m en t s, wh er e, a s we h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved, t h e pr in cipa l
m ot ive of a ct ion is t h e h ope of t h e con ven ien ces of life, t h e pr in ce wh o con fer s
r ewa r ds h a s n ot h in g t o best ow bu t m on ey. In m on a r ch ies, wh er e h on ou r a lon e
pr edom in a t es, t h e pr in ce’s r ewa r ds wou ld con sist on ly of m a r ks of dist in ct ion ,
if t h e dist in ct ion s est a blish ed by h on ou r wer e n ot a t t en ded wit h lu xu r y, wh ich
n ecessa r ily br in gs on it s wa n t s: t h e pr in ce t h er efor e is obliged t o con fer su ch
h on ou r s a s lea d t o wea lt h . Bu t in a r epu blic wh er e vir t u e r eign s — a m ot ive
self-su fficien t , a n d wh ich exclu des a ll ot h er s — t h e r ecom pen ses of t h e st a t e

con sist on ly of pu blic a t t est a t ion s of t h is vir t u e.
It is a gen er a l r u le t h a t gr ea t r ewa r ds in m on a r ch ies a n d r epu blics a r e a sign
of t h eir declin e; beca u se t h ey a r e a pr oof of t h eir pr in ciples bein g cor r u pt ed, a n d
t h a t t h e idea of h on ou r h a s n o lon ger t h e sa m e for ce in a m on a r ch y, n or t h e t it le
of cit izen t h e sa m e weigh t in a r epu blic.
Th e ver y wor st Rom a n em per or s wer e t h ose wh o wer e m ost pr ofu se in t h eir
la r gesses; for exa m ple, Ca ligu la , Cla u diu s, Ner o, Ot h o, Vit elliu s, Com m odu s,
H elioga balus, and Car acalla. The best , as Au gu st u s, Vespa sia n , An t on in u s P iu s,
Ma r cu s Au r eliu s, a n d P er t in a x, wer e econ om ist s. Un der good em per or s t h e
st a t e r esu m ed it s pr in ciples; a ll ot h er t r ea su r es wer e su pplied by t h a t of
h on ou r .
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I ca n n ot con clu de t h is book wit h ou t m a kin g som e a pplica t ion s of m y t h r ee
pr in ciples.
1st Qu est ion . It is a qu est ion wh et h er t h e la ws ou gh t t o oblige a su bject t o
a ccept a pu blic em ploym en t . My opin ion is t h a t t h ey ou gh t in a r epu blic, bu t n ot
in a m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t . In t h e for m er , pu blic em ploym en t s a r e
a t t est a t ion s of vir t u e, deposit ion s wit h wh ich a cit izen is en t r u st ed by h is
cou n t r y, for wh ose sa ke a lon e h e ou gh t t o live, t o a ct , a n d t o t h in k, con sequ en t ly
lie ca n n ot r efu se t h em . 55 In t h e la t t er , pu blic offices a r e t est im on ia ls of h on ou r ;
n ow su ch is t h e ca pr iciou sn ess of h on ou r t h a t it ch ooses t o a ccept n on e of t h ese
t est im on ies bu t wh en a n d in wh a t m a n n er it plea ses.
Th e la t e Kin g of Sa r din ia 56 in flict ed pu n ish m en t s on h is su bject s wh o r efu sed
t h e dign it ies a n d pu blic offices of t h e st a t e. In t h is h e u n k n owin gly followed
r epu blica n idea s: bu t h is m et h od of gover n in g in ot h er r espect s su fficien t ly
pr oves t h a t t h is wa s n ot h is in t en t ion .
2n d Qu est ion . Secon dly, it is qu est ion ed wh et h er a su bject sh ou ld be obliged
t o a ccept a post in t h e a r m y in fer ior t o t h a t wh ich h e h eld befor e. Am on g t h e
Rom a n s it wa s u su a l t o see a ca pt a in ser ve t h e n ext yea r u n der h is lieu t en a n t .57
Th is is beca u se vir t u e in r epu blics r equ ir es a con t in u a l sa cr ifice of ou r per son s
a n d of ou r r epu gn a n ces for t h e good of t h e st a t e. Bu t in m on a r ch ies, h on ou r ,
t r u e or fa lse, will n ever bea r wit h wh a t it ca lls degr a din g it self.

In despot ic gover n m en t s, wh er e h on ou r , post s, a n d r a n ks a r e equ a lly a bu sed,
t h ey in discr im in a t ely m a ke a pr in ce a scu llion , a n d a scu llion a pr in ce.
3r d Qu est ion . Th ir dly, it m a y be in qu ir ed, wh et h er civil a n d m ilit a r y
em ploym en t s sh ou ld be con fer r ed on t h e sa m e per son . In r epu blics I t h in k t h ey
sh ou ld be join ed, bu t in m on a r ch ies sepa r a t ed. In t h e for m er it wou ld be
ext r em ely da n ger ou s t o m a ke t h e pr ofession of a r m s a pa r t icu la r st a t e, dist in ct
fr om t h a t of civil fu n ct ion s; a n d in t h e la t t er , n o less da n ger ou s wou ld it be t o
con fer t h ese t wo em ploym en t s on t h e sa m e per son .
In r epu blics a per son t a kes u p a r m s on ly wit h a view t o defen d h is cou n t r y
a n d it s la ws; it is beca u se h e is a cit izen h e m a kes h im self for a wh ile a soldier .
Wer e t h ese t wo dist in ct st a t es, t h e per son wh o u n der a r m s t h in ks h im self a
cit izen wou ld soon be m a de sen sible h e is on ly a soldier .
In m on a r ch ies, t h ey wh ose con dit ion en ga ges t h em in t h e pr ofession of a r m s
h a ve n ot h in g bu t glor y, or a t lea st h on ou r or for t u n e, in view. To m en , t h er efor e,
like t h ese, t h e pr in ce sh ou ld n ever give a n y civil em ploym en t s; on t h e con t r a r y,
t h ey ou gh t t o be ch ecked by t h e civil m a gist r a t e, t h a t t h e sa m e per son s m a y n ot
h a ve a t t h e sa m e t im e t h e con fiden ce of t h e people a n d t h e power t o a bu se it . 58
We h a ve on ly t o ca st a n eye on a n a t ion t h a t m a y be ju st ly ca lled a r epu blic,
disgu ised u n der t h e for m of m on a r ch y, a n d we sh a ll see h ow jea lou s t h ey a r e of
m a kin g a sepa r a t e or der of t h e pr ofession of a r m s, a n d h ow t h e m ilit a r y st a t e
is con st a n t ly a llied wit h t h a t of t h e cit izen , a n d even som et im es of t h e
m a gist r a t e, t o t h e en d t h a t t h ese qu a lit ies m a y be a pledge for t h eir cou n t r y,
wh ich sh ou ld n ever be for got t en .
Th e division of civil a n d m ilit a r y em ploym en t s, m a de by t h e Rom a n s a ft er t h e
ext in ct ion of t h e r epu blic, wa s n ot a n a r bit r a r y t h in g. It wa s a con sequ en ce of
t h e ch a n ge wh ich h a ppen ed in t h e con st it u t ion of Rom e; it wa s n a t u r a l t o a
m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t ; a n d wh a t wa s on ly com m en ced u n der Au gu st u s 59
su cceedin g em per or s 60 wer e obliged t o fin ish , in or der t o t em per t h e m ilit a r y
gover n m en t .
P r ocopiu s, t h er efor e, t h e com pet it or of Va len s t h e em per or , wa s ver y m u ch t o
bla m e wh en , con fer r in g t h e pr o-con su la r dign it y 61 u pon H or m isda s, a pr in ce of
t h e blood r oya l of P er sia , h e r est or ed t o t h is m a gist r a cy t h e m ilit a r y com m a n d
of wh ich it h a d been for m er ly possessed; u n less in deed h e h a d ver y pa r t icu la r

r ea son s for so doin g. A per son t h a t a spir es t o t h e sover eign t y con cer n s h im self
less a bou t wh a t is ser vicea ble t o t h e st a t e t h a n wh a t is likely t o pr om ot e h is
own in t er est .
4t h Qu est ion . F ou r t h ly, it is a qu est ion wh et h er pu blic em ploym en t s sh ou ld
be sold. Th ey ou gh t n ot , I t h in k, in despot ic gover n m en t s, wh er e t h e su bject s
m u st be in st a n t a n eou sly pla ced or displa ced by t h e pr in ce.
Bu t in m on a r ch ies t h is cu st om is n ot a t a ll im pr oper , by r ea son it is a n
in du cem en t t o en ga ge in t h a t a s a fa m ily em ploym en t wh ich wou ld n ot be
u n der t a ken t h r ou gh a m ot ive of vir t u e; it fixes likewise ever y on e in h is du t y,
a n d r en der s t h e sever a l or der s of t h e kin gdom m or e per m a n en t . Su ida s ver y
ju st ly obser ves t h a t An a st a siu s h a d ch a n ged t h e em pir e in t o a kin d of
a r ist ocr a cy, by sellin g a ll pu blic em ploym en t s.
P la t o62 ca n n ot bea r wit h t h is pr ost it u t ion : “Th is is exa ct ly,” sa ys h e, “a s if a
per son wer e t o be m a de a m a r in er or pilot of a sh ip for h is m on ey. Is it possible
t h a t t h is r u le sh ou ld be ba d in ever y ot h er em ploym en t of life, a n d h old good
on ly in t h e a dm in ist r a t ion of a r epu blic?” Bu t P la t o spea ks of a r epu blic fou n ded
on vir t u e, a n d we of a m on a r ch y. Now, in m on a r ch ies (wh er e, t h ou gh t h er e wer e
n o su ch t h in g a s a r egu la r sa le of pu blic offices, st ill t h e in digen ce a n d a vidit y
of t h e cou r t ier wou ld equ a lly pr om pt h im t o expose t h em t o sa le) ch a n ce will
fu r n ish bet t er su bject s t h a n t h e pr in ce’s ch oice. In sh or t , t h e m et h od of
a t t a in in g t o h on ou r s t h r ou gh r ich es in spir es a n d ch er ish es in du st r y,63 a t h in g
ext r em ely wa n t in g in t h is kin d of gover n m en t .
5t h Qu est ion . Th e fift h qu est ion is in wh a t kin d of gover n m en t cen sor s a r e
n ecessa r y. My a n swer is, t h a t t h ey a r e n ecessa r y in a r epu blic, wh er e t h e
pr in ciple of gover n m en t is vir t u e. We m u st n ot im a gin e t h a t cr im in a l a ct ion s
on ly a r e dest r u ct ive of vir t u e; it is dest r oyed a lso by om ission s, by n eglect s, by
a cer t a in cooln ess in t h e love of ou r cou n t r y, by ba d exa m ples, a n d by t h e seeds
of cor r u pt ion : wh a t ever does n ot open ly viola t e bu t elu de t h e la ws, does n ot
su bver t bu t wea ken t h em , ou gh t t o fa ll u n der t h e in qu ir y a n d cor r ect ion of t h e
cen sor s.
We a r e su r pr ised a t t h e pu n ish m en t of t h e Ar eopa git e for killin g a spa r r ow
wh ich , t o esca pe t h e pu r su it of a h a wk, h a d t a ken sh elt er in h is bosom .
Su r pr ised we a r e a lso t h a t a n Ar eopa git e sh ou ld pu t h is son t o dea t h for pu t t in g

ou t t h e eyes of a lit t le bir d. Bu t let u s r eflect t h a t t h e qu est ion h er e does n ot
r ela t e t o a cr im in a l sen t en ce, bu t t o a ju dgm en t con cer n in g m a n n er s in a
r epu blic fou n ded on m a n n er s.
In m on a r ch ies t h er e sh ou ld be n o cen sor s; t h e for m er a r e fou n ded on h on ou r ,
a n d t h e n a t u r e of h on ou r is t o h a ve t h e wh ole wor ld for it s cen sor . E ver y m a n
wh o fa ils in t h is a r t icle is su bject t o t h e r epr oa ch es even of t h ose wh o a r e void
of h on ou r .
H er e t h e cen sor s wou ld be spoiled by t h e ver y people wh om t h ey ou gh t t o
cor r ect : t h ey cou ld n ot pr eva il a ga in st t h e cor r u pt ion of a m on a r ch y; t h e
cor r u pt ion r a t h er wou ld be t oo st r on g a ga in st t h em .
H en ce it is obviou s t h a t t h er e ou gh t t o be n o cen sor s in despot ic gover n m en t s.
Th e exa m ple of Ch in a seem s t o der oga t e fr om t h is r u le; bu t we sh a ll see, in t h e
cou r se of t h is wor k, t h e pa r t icu la r r ea son s of t h a t in st it u t ion .
2'+%,1
1. P lu t a r ch , S olon .
2. Ibid.
3. P h ilola u s of Cor in t h m a de a la w a t At h en s t h a t t h e n u m ber of t h e por t ion s
of la n d a n d t h a t of in h er it a n ces sh ou ld be a lwa ys t h e sa m e. — Ar ist ot le,
Politics, ii. 7, 12.
4. La ws, xi.
5. Cor n eliu s Nepos, pr efa ce. Th is cu st om bega n in t h e ea r liest t im es. Th u s
Abr a h a m sa ys of Sa r a h , “Sh e is m y sist er , m y fa t h er ’s da u gh t er , bu t n ot m y
m ot h er ’s.” Th e sa m e r ea son s occa sion ed t h e est a blish in g t h e sa m e la w
a m on g differ en t n a t ion s.
6. De specia libu s legibu s qu a e per t in en t a d pr a ecept a r Deca logi.
7. Book x.
8. At h en is dim idiu m licet , Alexa n dr ia e t ot u m . — Sen eca , De Mor t e Cla u dii.
9. P la t o h a s a la w of t h is kin d. La ws, v.
10. Ar ist ot le. ii. 7.
11. Solon m a de fou r cla sses: t h e fir st , of t h ose wh o h a d a n in com e of 500 m in a s
eit h er in cor n or liqu id fr u it s; t h e secon d, of t h ose wh o h a d 300, a n d wer e
a ble t o keep a h or se; t h e t h ir d, of su ch a s h a d on ly 200; t h e fou r t h , of a ll

t h ose wh o lived by t h eir m a n u a l la bou r . — P lu t a r ch , Solon .
12. Solon exclu des fr om pu blic em ploym en t s a ll t h ose of t h e fou r t h cla ss.
13. Th ey in sist ed u pon a la r ger division of t h e con qu er ed la n ds. — P lu t a r ch ,
Lives of t h e a n cien t Kin gs a n d Com m a n der s.
14. In t h ese, t h e por t ion s or for t u n es of wom en ou gh t t o be ver y m u ch lim it ed.
15. Th e m a gist r a t es t h er e wer e a n n u a l, a n d t h e sen a t or s for life.
16. Lycu r gu s, sa ys Xen oph on , De Repu b. La ceda em ., 10. § 1, 2, or da in ed t h a t
t h e sen a t or s sh ou ld be ch osen fr om a m on gst t h e old m en , t o t h e en d t h a t
t h ey m igh t n ot be n eglect ed in t h e declin e of life; t h u s by m a kin g t h em
ju dges of t h e cou r a ge of you n g people, h e r en der ed t h e old a ge of t h e for m er
m or e h on ou r a ble t h a n t h e st r en gt h a n d vigou r of t h e la t t er .
17. E ven t h e Ar eopa gu s it self wa s su bject t o t h eir cen su r e.
18. De Repu b. La ceda em ., 8.
19. We m a y see in t h e Rom a n H ist or y h ow u sefu l t h is power wa s t o t h e
r epu blic. I sh a ll give a n in st a n ce even in t h e t im e of it s gr ea t est cor r u pt ion .
Au lu s F u lviu s wa s set ou t on h is jou r n ey in or der t o join Ca t ilin e; h is fa t h er
ca lled h im ba ck, a n d pu t h im t o dea t h . — Sa llu st , De Bello Ca t il., xxxiv.
20. In ou r da ys t h e Ven et ia n s, wh o in m a n y r espect s m a y be sa id t o h a ve a ver y
wise gover n m en t , decided a dispu t e bet ween a n oble Ven et ia n a n d a
gen t lem a n of Ter r a F ir m a in r espect t o pr eceden cy in a ch u r ch , by decla r in g
t h a t ou t of Ven ice a n oble Ven et ia n h a d n o pr e-em in en ce over a n y ot h er
cit izen .
21. It wa s in ser t ed by t h e decem vir s in t h e t wo la st t a bles. See Dion ysiu s
H elica r n a ssu s, x.
22. As in som e a r ist ocr a cies in ou r t im e; n ot h in g is m or e pr eju dicia l t o t h e
gover n m en t .
23. See in St r a bo, xiv., in wh a t m a n n er t h e Rh odia n s beh a ved in t h is r espect .
24. Am elot de la H ou ssa ye, Of th e Govern m en t of Ven ice, pa r t III. Th e Cla u dia n
la w for ba de t h e sen a t or s t o h a ve a n y sh ip a t sea t h a t h eld a bove for t y
bu sh els. — Livy, xxi. 63.
25. Th e in for m er s t h r ow t h eir scr olls in t o it .
26. See Livy, xlix. A cen sor cou ld n ot be t r ou bled even by a cen sor ; ea ch m a de
h is r em a r k wit h ou t t a kin g t h e opin ion of h is collea gu e; a n d wh en it

ot h er wise h a ppen ed, t h e cen sor sh ip wa s in a m a n n er a bolish ed.
27. At At h en s t h e Logist a e, wh o m a de a ll t h e m a gist r a t es a ccou n t a ble for t h eir
con du ct , ga ve n o a ccou n t t h em selves.
28. It is so pr a ct ised a t Ven ice. — Am elot de la H ou ssa ye, pp. 30, 31.
29. Th e m a in design of som e a r ist ocr a cies seem s t o be less t h e su ppor t of t h e
st a t e t h a n of t h eir n obilit y.
30. It is t oler a t ed on ly in t h e com m on people. See Leg. 3, Cod. de com m . et
m er ca t or ibu s, wh ich is fu ll of good sen se.
31. Test a m en t polit .
32. Ba r ba r is cu n ct a t io ser vilis, st a t im exequ i r egiu m videt u r . — Ta cit u s,
An n a ls., v. 32.
33. Mem oir s of Ca r din a l de Ret z, a n d ot h er h ist or ies.
34. Test a m en t polit .
35. E difyin g Let t er s, coll. ii, p. 315.
36. Con t in u a t ion of P u fen dor f, In trod u ction to th e H istory of E u rope, in t h e
a r t icle on Sweden , 10.
37. Accor din g t o Sir J oh n Ch a r din , t h er e is n o cou n cil of st a t e in P er sia .
38. See Rica u t , S tate of th e Ottom an E m pire, p. 196.
39. See con cer n in g t h e in h er it a n ces of t h e Tu r ks, An cien t a n d Moder n Spa r t a .
See a lso Rica u t on t h e Ot t om a n em pir e.
40. Collection of Voyages th at Con tribu ted to th e E stablish m en t of th e E ast In d ia
Com pan y, i. Th e la w of P egu is less cr u el; if t h er e h a ppen t o be ch ildr en , t h e
kin g su cceeds on ly t o t wo-t h ir ds. Ibid., iii, p. 1.
41. See t h e differ en t con st it u t ion s, especia lly t h a t of 1722.
42. See J u st in .
43. See t h e book of la ws a s r ela t ive t o t h e n a t u r e of t h e clim a t e. Book xiv, below.
44. La qu illet ier e, An cien t a n d Moder n Spa r t a , p. 463.
45. Th e sa m e m a y be sa id of com posit ion s in r ega r d t o fa ir ba n kr u pt s.
46. Th er e wa s n o su ch est a blish m en t m a de t ill t h e J u lia n la w, De Cession e
bon or u m ; wh ich pr eser ved t h em fr om pr ison a n d fr om a n ign om in iou s
division of t h eir goods. — Cod., ii. t it . 12.
47 Th ey seem t o h a ve been t oo fon d of con fisca t ion s in t h e r epu blic of At h en s.
48. Au t h en t ica bon a da m n a t or u m . — Cod. de bon . pr oscr ipt . seu da m n .

49. De la Repu bliqu e, v. 3.
50. Ut esse P h oebi du lciu s lu m en solet J a m ja m ca den t is — Sen eca , Tr oa s, V. i.
1.
51. Collect ion of Voya ges t h a t Con t r ibu t ed t o t h e E st a blish m en t of t h e E a st
In dia Com pa n y, i, p. 80.
52. La ws, xii.
53. Leg. 6, § 2; Dig. a d leg. J u l. r epet .
54. Mu n u scu la .
55. P la t o, in h is Repu blic, viii, r a n ks t h ese r efu sa ls a m on g t h e m a r ks of t h e
cor r u pt ion of a r epu blic. In h is La ws, vi, h e or der s t h em t o be pu n ish ed by
a fin e; a t Ven ice t h ey a r e pu n ish ed wit h ba n ish m en t .
56. Vict or Am a deu s.
57. Som e cen t u r ion s h a vin g a ppea led t o t h e people for t h e em ploym en t s wh ich
t h ey h a d befor e en joyed, “It is ju st , m y com r a des,” sa id a cen t u r ion , “t h a t
you sh ou ld look u pon ever y post a s h on ou r a ble in wh ich you h a ve a n
oppor t u n it y of defen din g t h e r epu blic.” — Livy, dec. 5, xlii, 34.
58. Ne im per iu m a d opt im os n obiliu m t r a n sfer r et u r , Sen a t u m m ilit ia vet u it
Ga llien u s, et ia m a dir e exer cit u m . — Au r eliu s Vict or , De Ca esa r ibu s.
59. Au gu st u s depr ived t h e sen a t or s, pr ocon su ls, a n d gover n or s of t h e pr ivilege
of wea r in g a r m s. — Dio, xxxiii.
60. Con st a n t in e. See Zozim u s, ii.
61. Am m ia n u s Ma r cellin u s, xxvi, E t Civilia , m or e vet er u m , et bella r ect u r o.
62. Repu blic, viii.
63. We see t h e la zin ess of Spa in , wh er e a ll pu blic em ploym en t s a r e given a wa y.
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6"7,I&+-%&Y'.<&'(&[F0D<%*+,I&"*0&+-%&?*($59+5*D&'(&8F*5,-<%*+,1
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Mon a r ch ies do n ot per m it of so gr ea t a sim plicit y of la ws a s despot ic
gover n m en t s. F or in m on a r ch ies t h er e m u st be cou r t s of ju dica t u r e; t h ese m u st
give t h eir decision s; t h e decision s m u st be pr eser ved a n d lea r n ed, t h a t we m a y
ju dge in t h e sa m e m a n n er t o-da y a s yest er da y, a n d t h a t t h e lives a n d pr oper t y
of t h e cit izen s m a y be a s cer t a in a n d fixed a s t h e ver y con st it u t ion of t h e st a t e.
In m on a r ch ies, t h e a dm in ist r a t ion of ju st ice, wh ich decides n ot on ly in
wh a t ever belon gs t o life a n d pr oper t y, bu t likewise t o h on ou r , dem a n ds ver y
scr u pu lou s in qu ir ies. Th e delica cy of t h e ju dge in cr ea ses in pr opor t ion t o t h e
in cr ea se of h is t r u st , a n d of t h e im por t a n ce of t h e in t er est s on wh ich h e
det er m in es.
We m u st n ot , t h er efor e, be su r pr ised t o fin d so m a n y r u les, r est r ict ion s, a n d
ext en sion s in t h e la ws of t h ose cou n t r ies — r u les t h a t m u lt iply t h e pa r t icu la r
ca ses, a n d seem t o m a ke of r ea son it self a n a r t .
Th e differ en ce of r a n k, bir t h , a n d con dit ion est a blish ed in m on a r ch ica l
gover n m en t s is fr equ en t ly a t t en ded wit h dist in ct ion s in t h e n a t u r e of pr oper t y;
a n d t h e la ws r ela t in g t o t h e con st it u t ion of t h is gover n m en t m a y a u gm en t t h e
n u m ber of t h ese dist in ct ion s. H en ce, a m on g u s goods a r e divided in t o r ea l
est a t es, pu r ch a ses, dowr ies, pa r a ph er n a lia , pa t er n a l a n d m a t er n a l in h er it a n ces;
m ova bles of differ en t kin ds; est a t es h eld in fee-sim ple, or in t a il; a cqu ir ed by
descen t or con veya n ce; a llodia l, or h eld by socca ge; gr ou n d r en t s; or a n n u it ies.
E a ch sor t of goods is su bject t o pa r t icu la r r u les, wh ich m u st be com plied wit h
in t h e disposa l of t h em . Th ese t h in gs m u st n eeds dim in ish t h e sim plicit y of t h e
la ws.
In ou r gover n m en t s t h e fiefs h a ve becom e h er edit a r y. It wa s n ecessa r y t h a t

t h e n obilit y sh ou ld h a ve a fixed pr oper t y, t h a t is, t h e fief sh ou ld h a ve a cer t a in
con sist en cy, t o t h e en d t h a t t h e pr opr iet or m igh t be a lwa ys in a ca pa cit y of
ser vin g t h e pr in ce. Th is m u st h a ve been pr odu ct ive of gr ea t va r iet ies; for
in st a n ce, t h er e a r e cou n t r ies wh er e fiefs cou ld n ot be divided a m on g t h e
br ot h er s; in ot h er s, t h e you n ger br ot h er s m a y be a llowed a m or e gen er ou s
su bsist en ce.
Th e m on a r ch wh o kn ows ea ch of h is pr ovin ces m a y est a blish differ en t la ws,
or t oler a t e differ en t cu st om s. Bu t a s t h e despot ic pr in ce kn ows n ot h in g, a n d ca n
a t t en d t o n ot h in g, h e m u st t a ke gen er a l m ea su r es, a n d gover n by a r igid a n d
in flexible will, wh ich t h r ou gh ou t h is wh ole dom in ion s pr odu ces t h e sa m e effect ;
in sh or t , ever yt h in g ben ds u n der h is feet .
In pr opor t ion a s t h e decision s of t h e cou r t s of ju dica t u r e a r e m u lt iplied in
m on a r ch ies, t h e la w is loa ded wit h decr ees t h a t som et im es con t r a dict on e
a n ot h er ; eit h er beca u se su cceedin g ju dges a r e of a differ en t wa y of t h in kin g, or
beca u se t h e sa m e ca u ses a r e som et im es well, a n d a t ot h er t im es ill, defen ded;
or , in fin e, by r ea son of a n in fin it e n u m ber of a bu ses, t o wh ich a ll h u m a n
r egu la t ion s a r e lia ble. Th is is a n ecessa r y evil, wh ich t h e legisla t or r edr esses
fr om t im e t o t im e, a s con t r a r y even t o t h e spir it of m oder a t e gover n m en t s. F or
wh en people a r e obliged t o h a ve r ecou r se t o cou r t s of ju dica t u r e, t h is sh ou ld
com e fr om t h e n a t u r e of t h e con st it u t ion , a n d n ot fr om t h e con t r a dict ion or
u n cer t a in t y of t h e la w.
In gover n m en t s wh er e t h er e a r e n ecessa r y dist in ct ion s of per son s, t h er e m u st
likewise be pr ivileges. Th is a lso dim in ish es t h e sim plicit y, a n d cr ea t es a
t h ou sa n d except ion s.
On e of t h e pr ivileges lea st bu r den som e t o societ y, a n d especia lly t o h im wh o
con fer s it , is t h a t of plea din g in on e cou r t in pr efer en ce t o a n ot h er . H er e n ew
difficu lt ies a r ise, wh en it becom es a qu est ion befor e wh ich cou r t we sh a ll plea d.
F a r differ en t is t h e ca se of t h e people u n der despot ic gover n m en t s. In t h ose
cou n t r ies I ca n see n ot h in g t h a t t h e legisla t or is a ble t o decr ee, or t h e
m a gist r a t e t o ju dge. As t h e la n ds belon g t o t h e pr in ce, it follows t h a t t h er e a r e
sca r cely a n y civil la ws in r ega r d t o la n ded pr oper t y. F r om t h e r igh t t h e
sover eign h a s t o su ccession s, it follows, likewise, t h a t t h er e a r e n on e r ela t in g
t o in h er it a n ces. Th e m on opolies est a blish ed by t h e pr in ce for h im self in som e

cou n t r ies r en der a ll sor t s of com m er cia l la ws qu it e u seless. Th e m a r r ia ges
wh ich t h ey u su a lly con t r a ct wit h fem a le sla ves a r e t h e ca u se t h a t t h er e a r e
sca r cely a n y civil la ws r ela t in g t o dowr ies, or t o t h e pa r t icu la r a dva n t a ge of
m a r r ied wom en . F r om t h e pr odigiou s m u lt it u de of sla ves, it follows, likewise,
t h a t t h er e a r e ver y few wh o h a ve a n y su ch t h in g a s a will of t h eir own , a n d of
cou r se a r e a n swer a ble for t h eir con du ct befor e a ju dge. Most m or a l a ct ion s t h a t
a r e on ly in con sequ en ce of a fa t h er ’s, a h u sba n d’s, or a m a st er ’s will, a r e
r egu la t ed by t h em , a n d n ot by t h e m a gist r a t es.
I for got t o obser ve t h a t a s wh a t we ca ll h on ou r is a t h in g h a r dly kn own in
t h ose cou n t r ies, t h e sever a l difficu lt ies r ela t in g t o t h is a r t icle, t h ou gh of su ch
im por t a n ce wit h u s, a r e wit h t h em qu it e ou t of t h e qu est ion . Despot ic power is
self-su fficien t ; r ou n d it t h er e is a n a bsolu t e va cu u m . H en ce it is t h a t wh en
t r a veller s fa vou r u s wit h t h e descr ipt ion of cou n t r ies wh er e a r bit r a r y swa y
pr eva ils, t h ey seldom m a ke m en t ion of civil la ws.1
All occa sion s, t h er efor e, of wr a n glin g a n d la w-su it s a r e h er e r em oved. An d t o
t h is in pa r t is it owin g t h a t lit igiou s people in t h ose cou n t r ies a r e so r ou gh ly
h a n dled. As t h e in ju st ice of t h eir dem a n d is n eit h er scr een ed, pa llia t ed, n or
pr ot ect ed by a n in fin it e n u m ber of la ws, of cou r se it is im m edia t ely discover ed.
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We h ea r it gen er a lly sa id, t h a t ju st ice ou gh t t o be a dm in ist er ed wit h u s a s in
Tu r key. Is it possible, t h en , t h a t t h e m ost ign or a n t of a ll n a t ion s sh ou ld be t h e
m ost clea r -sigh t ed on a poin t wh ich it m ost beh oves m a n kin d t o kn ow?
If we exa m in e t h e set for m s of ju st ice wit h r espect t o t h e t r ou ble t h e su bject
u n der goes in r ecover in g h is pr oper t y, or in obt a in in g sa t isfa ct ion for a n in ju r y
or a ffr on t , we sh a ll fin d t h em dou bt less t oo n u m er ou s: bu t if we con sider t h em
in t h e r ela t ion t h ey bea r t o t h e liber t y a n d secu r it y of ever y in dividu a l, we sh a ll
oft en fin d t h em t oo few; a n d be con vin ced t h a t t h e t r ou ble, expen se, dela ys, a n d
even t h e ver y da n ger s of ou r ju dicia r y pr oceedin gs, a r e t h e pr ice t h a t ea ch
su bject pa ys for h is liber t y.
In Tu r key, wh er e lit t le r ega r d is sh own t o t h e h on ou r , life, or est a t e of t h e
su bject , a ll ca u ses a r e speedily decided. Th e m et h od of det er m in in g t h em is a
m a t t er of in differ en ce, pr ovided t h ey be det er m in ed. Th e pa sh a , a ft er a qu ick

h ea r in g, or der s wh ich pa r t y h e plea ses t o be ba st in a doed, a n d t h en sen ds t h em
a bou t t h eir bu sin ess.
H er e it wou ld be da n ger ou s t o be of a lit igiou s disposit ion ; t h is su pposes a
st r on g desir e of obt a in in g ju st ice, a set t led a ver sion , a n a ct ive m in d, a n d a
st ea din ess in pu r su in g on e’s poin t . All t h is sh ou ld be a voided in a gover n m en t
wh er e fea r ou gh t t o be t h e on ly pr eva ilin g sen t im en t , a n d in wh ich popu la r
dist u r ba n ces a r e fr equ en t ly a t t en ded wit h su dden a n d u n for eseen r evolu t ion s.
H er e ever y m a n ou gh t t o k n ow t h a t t h e m a gist r a t e m u st n ot h ea r h is n a m e
m en t ion ed, a n d t h a t h is secu r it y depen ds en t ir ely on h is bein g r edu ced t o a kin d
of a n n ih ila t ion .
Bu t in m oder a t e gover n m en t s, wh er e t h e life of t h e m ea n est su bject is deem ed
pr eciou s, n o m a n is st r ipped of h is h on ou r or pr oper t y u n t il a ft er a lon g in qu ir y;
a n d n o m a n is ber eft of life t ill h is ver y cou n t r y h a s a t t a cked h im — a n a t t a ck
t h a t is n ever m a de wit h ou t lea vin g h im a ll possible m ea n s of m a kin g h is
defen ce.
H en ce it is t h a t wh en a per son r en der s h im self a bsolu t e,2 h e im m edia t ely
t h in ks of r edu cin g t h e n u m ber of la ws. In a gover n m en t t h u s con st it u t ed t h ey
a r e m or e a ffect ed wit h pa r t icu la r in con ven ien ces t h a n wit h t h e liber t y of t h e
su bject , wh ich is ver y lit t le m in ded.
In r epu blics, it is pla in t h a t a s m a n y for m a lit ies a t lea st a r e n ecessa r y a s in
m on a r ch ies. In bot h gover n m en t s t h ey in cr ea se in pr opor t ion t o t h e va lu e wh ich
is set on t h e h on ou r , for t u n e, liber t y, a n d life of t h e su bject .
In r epu blica n gover n m en t s, m en a r e a ll equ a l; equ a l t h ey a r e a lso in despot ic
gover n m en t s: in t h e for m er , beca u se t h ey a r e ever yt h in g; in t h e la t t er , beca u se
t h ey a r e n ot h in g.
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Th e n ea r er a gover n m en t a ppr oa ch es t owa r ds a r epu blic, t h e m or e t h e
m a n n er of ju dgin g becom es set t led a n d fixed; h en ce it wa s a fa u lt in t h e
r epu blic of Spa r t a for t h e E ph or i t o pa ss su ch a r bit r a r y ju dgm en t s wit h ou t
h a vin g a n y la ws t o dir ect t h em . Th e fir st con su ls a t Rom e pr on ou n ced sen t en ce
in t h e sa m e m a n n er a s t h e E ph or i; bu t t h e in con ven ien ce of t h is pr oceedin g wa s

soon felt , a n d t h ey wer e obliged t o h a ve r ecou r se t o expr ess a n d det er m in a t e
la ws.
In despot ic gover n m en t s t h er e a r e n o la ws; t h e ju dge h im self is h is own r u le.
Th er e a r e la ws in m on a r ch ies; a n d wh er e t h ese a r e explicit , t h e ju dge con for m s
t o t h em ; wh er e t h ey a r e ot h er wise, h e en dea vou r s t o in vest iga t e t h eir spir it . In
r epu blics, t h e ver y n a t u r e of t h e con st it u t ion r equ ir es t h e ju dges t o follow t h e
let t er of t h e la w; ot h er wise t h e la w m igh t be expla in ed t o t h e pr eju dice of ever y
cit izen , in ca ses wh er e t h eir h on ou r , pr oper t y, or life is con cer n ed.
At Rom e t h e ju dges h a d n o m or e t o do t h a n t o decla r e t h a t t h e per son s
a ccu sed wer e gu ilt y of a pa r t icu la r cr im e, a n d t h en t h e pu n ish m en t wa s fou n d
in t h e la ws, a s m a y be seen in diver s la ws st ill ext a n t . In E n gla n d t h e ju r y give
t h eir ver dict wh et h er t h e fa ct br ou gh t u n der t h eir cogn isa n ce be pr oved or n ot ;
if it be pr oved, t h e ju dge pr on ou n ces t h e pu n ish m en t in flict ed by t h e la w, a n d
for t h is h e n eeds on ly t o open h is eyes.
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H en ce a r ise t h e differ en t m odes of pa ssin g ju dgm en t . In m on a r ch ies t h e
ju dges ch oose t h e m et h od of a r bit r a t ion ; t h ey deliber a t e t oget h er , t h ey
com m u n ica t e t h eir sen t im en t s for t h e sa ke of u n a n im it y; t h ey m oder a t e t h eir
opin ion s, in or der t o r en der t h em con for m a ble t o t h ose of ot h er s: a n d t h e lesser
n u m ber a r e obliged t o give wa y t o t h e m a jor it y. Bu t t h is is n ot a gr eea ble t o t h e
n a t u r e of a r epu blic. At Rom e, a n d in t h e cit ies of Gr eece, t h e ju dges n ever
en t er ed in t o a con su lt a t ion ; ea ch ga ve h is opin ion in on e of t h ese t h r ee wa ys: “I
a bsolve,” “I con dem n ,” “It does n ot a ppea r clea r t o m e”;3 t h is wa s beca u se t h e
people ju dged, or wer e su pposed t o ju dge. Bu t t h e people a r e fa r fr om bein g
civilia n s; a ll t h ese r est r ict ion s a n d m et h ods of a r bit r a t ion a r e a bove t h eir r ea ch ;
t h ey m u st h a ve on ly on e object a n d on e sin gle fa ct set befor e t h em ; a n d t h en
t h ey h a ve on ly t o see wh et h er t h ey ou gh t t o con dem n , t o a cqu it , or t o su spen d
t h eir ju dgm en t .
Th e Rom a n s in t r odu ced set for m s of a ct ion s, 4 a ft er t h e exa m ple of t h e Gr eeks,
a n d est a blish ed a r u le t h a t ea ch ca u se sh ou ld be dir ect ed by it s pr oper a ct ion .
Th is wa s n ecessa r y in t h eir m a n n er of ju dgin g; it wa s n ecessa r y t o fix t h e st a t e
of t h e qu est ion , t h a t t h e people m igh t h a ve it a lwa ys befor e t h eir eyes.

Ot h er wise, in a lon g pr ocess, t h is st a t e of t h e qu est ion wou ld con t in u a lly
ch a n ge, a n d be n o lon ger dist in gu ish ed.
H en ce it followed t h a t t h e Rom a n ju dges gr a n t ed on ly t h e sim ple dem a n d,
wit h ou t m a kin g a n y a ddit ion , dedu ct ion , or lim it a t ion . Bu t t h e pr a et or s devised
ot h er for m s of a ct ion s, wh ich wer e ca lled ex bon a fide, in wh ich t h e m et h od of
pr on ou n cin g sen t en ce wa s left t o t h e disposit ion of t h e ju dge. Th is wa s m or e
a gr eea ble t o t h e spir it of m on a r ch y. H en ce it is a sa yin g a m on g t h e F r en ch
la wyer s, t h a t in F r a n ce 5 a ll a ct ion s a r e ex bon a fid e.
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Ma ch ia vel 6 a t t r ibu t es t h e loss of t h e liber t y of F lor en ce t o t h e people’s n ot
ju dgin g in a body in ca ses of h igh t r ea son a ga in st t h em selves, a s wa s cu st om a r y
a t Rom e. F or t h is pu r pose t h ey h a d eigh t ju dges: “bu t t h e few,” sa ys Ma ch ia vel,
“a r e cor r u pt ed by a few.” I sh ou ld willin gly a dopt t h e m a xim of t h is gr ea t m a n .
Bu t a s in t h ose ca ses t h e polit ica l in t er est pr eva ils in som e m ea su r e over t h e
civil (for it is a lwa ys a n in con ven ien ce t h a t t h e people sh ou ld be ju dges in t h eir
own ca u se), in or der t o r em edy t h is evil, t h e la ws m u st pr ovide a s m u ch a s
possible for t h e secu r it y of in dividu a ls.
Wit h t h is view t h e Rom a n legisla t or s did t wo t h in gs: t h ey ga ve t h e per son s
a ccu sed per m ission t o ba n ish t h em selves 7 befor e sen t en ce wa s pr on ou n ced;8 a n d
t h ey or da in ed t h a t t h e goods of t h ose wh o wer e con dem n ed sh ou ld be sa cr ed, t o
pr even t t h eir bein g con fisca t ed t o t h e people. We sh a ll see in Book XI t h e ot h er
lim it a t ion s t h a t wer e set t o t h e ju dica t or y power r esidin g in t h e people.
Solon kn ew h ow t o pr even t t h e a bu se wh ich t h e people m igh t m a ke of t h eir
power in cr im in a l ju dgm en t s. H e or da in ed t h a t t h e Cou r t of Ar eopa gu s sh ou ld
r e-exa m in e t h e a ffa ir ; t h a t if t h ey believed t h e pa r t y a ccu sed wa s u n ju st ly
a cqu it t ed 9 t h ey sh ou ld im pea ch h im a ga in befor e t h e people; t h a t if t h ey
believed h im u n ju st ly con dem n ed 10 t h ey sh ou ld pr even t t h e execu t ion of t h e
sen t en ce, a n d m a ke t h em r eju dge t h e pr oceedin g — a n a dm ir a ble la w, t h a t
su bject ed t h e people t o t h e cen su r e of t h e m a gist r a cy wh ich t h ey m ost r ever ed,
a n d even t o t h eir own !
In a ffa ir s of t h is kin d it is a lwa ys pr oper t o t h r ow in som e dela ys, especia lly
wh en t h e pa r t y a ccu sed is u n der con fin em en t ; t o t h e en d t h a t t h e people m a y

gr ow ca lm a n d give t h eir ju dgm en t coolly.
In despot ic gover n m en t s, t h e pr in ce h im self m a y be ju dge. Bu t in m on a r ch ies
t h is ca n n ot be; t h e con st it u t ion by su ch m ea n s wou ld be su bver t ed, a n d t h e
depen den t in t er m edia t e power s a n n ih ila t ed; a ll set for m s of ju dgm en t wou ld
cea se; fea r wou ld t a ke possession of t h e people’s m in ds, a n d pa len ess spr ea d
it self over ever y cou n t en a n ce: t h e m or e con fiden ce, h on ou r , a ffect ion , a n d
secu r it y in t h e su bject , t h e m or e ext en ded is t h e power of t h e m on a r ch .
We sh a ll give h er e a few m or e r eflect ion s on t h is poin t . In m on a r ch ies, t h e
pr in ce is t h e pa r t y t h a t pr osecu t es t h e per son a ccu sed, a n d ca u ses h im t o be
pu n ish ed or a cqu it t ed. Now, wer e h e h im self t o sit u pon t h e t r ia l, h e wou ld be
bot h ju dge a n d pa r t y.
In t h is gover n m en t t h e pr in ce h a s fr equ en t ly t h e ben efit of con fisca t ion , so
t h a t h er e a ga in , by det er m in in g cr im in a l ca u ses, h e wou ld be bot h ju dge a n d
pa r t y.
F u r t h er , by t h is m et h od h e wou ld depr ive h im self of t h e m ost glor iou s
a t t r ibu t e of sover eign t y, n a m ely, t h a t of gr a n t in g pa r don , 11 for it wou ld be qu it e
r idicu lou s of h im t o m a ke a n d u n m a ke h is decision s; su r ely h e wou ld n ot ch oose
t o con t r a dict h im self.
Besides, t h is wou ld be con fou n din g a ll idea s; it wou ld be im possible t o t ell
wh et h er a m a n wa s a cqu it t ed, or r eceived h is pa r don .
Lou is XIII bein g desir ou s t o sit in ju dgm en t u pon t h e t r ia l of t h e Du ke de la
Va let t e, 12 sen t for som e m em ber s of t h e pa r lia m en t a n d of t h e pr ivy cou n cil, t o
deba t e t h e m a t t er ; u pon t h eir bein g or der ed by t h e kin g t o give t h eir opin ion
con cer n in g t h e wa r r a n t for h is a r r est , t h e pr esiden t , De Believr e, sa id “t h a t h e
fou n d it ver y st r a n ge t h a t a pr in ce sh ou ld pa ss sen t en ce u pon a su bject ; t h a t
kin gs h a d r eser ved t o t h em selves t h e power of pa r don in g, a n d left t h a t of
con dem n in g t o t h eir officer s; t h a t h is m a jest y wa n t ed t o see befor e h im a t t h e
ba r a per son wh o, by h is decision , wa s t o be h u r r ied a wa y in t o t h e ot h er wor ld!
Th a t t h e pr in ce’s cou n t en a n ce sh ou ld in spir e wit h h opes, a n d n ot con fou n d wit h
fea r s; t h a t h is pr esen ce a lon e r em oved ecclesia st ic cen su r es; a n d t h a t su bject s
ou gh t n ot t o go a wa y dissa t isfied fr om t h e sover eign .” Wh en sen t en ce wa s
pa ssed, t h e sa m e m a gist r a t e decla r ed, “Th is is a n u n pr eceden t ed ju dgm en t t o
see, con t r a r y t o t h e exa m ple of pa st a ges — a kin g of F r a n ce, in t h e qu a lit y of

a ju dge, con dem n in g a gen t lem a n t o dea t h .”13
Aga in , sen t en ces pa ssed by t h e pr in ce wou ld be a n in exh a u st ible sou r ce of
in ju st ice a n d a bu se; t h e cou r t ier s by t h eir im por t u n it y wou ld a lwa ys be a ble t o
ext or t h is decision s. Som e Rom a n em per or s wer e so m a d a s t o sit a s ju dges
t h em selves; t h e con sequ en ce wa s t h a t n o r eign s ever so su r pr ised t h e wor ld
wit h oppr ession a n d in ju st ice.
“Cla u diu s,” sa ys Ta cit u s,14 “h a vin g a ppr opr ia t ed t o h im self t h e det er m in a t ion
of la wsu it s, a n d t h e fu n ct ion of m a gist r a t es, ga ve occa sion t o a ll m a n n er of
r a pin e.” Bu t Ner o, u pon com in g t o t h e em pir e a ft er Cla u diu s, en dea vou r ed t o
con cilia t e t h e m in ds of t h e people by decla r in g “t h a t h e wou ld t a ke ca r e n ot t o
be ju dge h im self in pr iva t e ca u ses, t h a t t h e pa r t ies m igh t n ot be exposed wit h in
t h e wa lls of a pa la ce t o t h e in iqu it ou s in flu en ce of a few fr eedm en .”15
“Un der t h e r eign of Ar ca diu s,” sa ys Zozim u s, 16 “a swa r m of ca lu m n ia t or s
spr ea d t h em selves on ever y side, a n d in fest ed t h e cou r t . Upon a per son ’s
decea se, it wa s im m edia t ely su pposed h e h a d left n o ch ildr en ;17 a n d, in
con sequ en ce of t h is, h is pr oper t y wa s given a wa y by a r escr ipt . F or a s t h e pr in ce
wa s su r pr isin gly st u pid, a n d t h e em pr ess excessively en t er pr isin g, sh e wa s a
sla ve t o t h e in sa t ia ble a va r ice of h er dom est ics a n d con fida n t s; in som u ch t h a t
t o a n h on est m a n n ot h in g cou ld be m or e desir a ble t h a n dea t h .”
“F or m er ly,” sa ys P r ocopiu s 18 “t h er e u sed t o be ver y few people a t cou r t ; bu t in
J u st in ia n ’s r eign , a s t h e ju dges h a d n o lon ger t h e liber t y of a dm in ist er in g
ju st ice, t h eir t r ibu n a ls wer e deser t ed, wh ile t h e pr in ce’s pa la ce r esou n ded wit h
t h e lit igiou s cla m ou r s of t h e sever a l pa r t ies.” E ver ybody kn ows wh a t a
pr ost it u t ion t h er e wa s of pu blic ju dgm en t s, a n d even of t h e ver y la ws
t h em selves, a t t h a t em per or ’s cou r t .
Th e la ws a r e t h e eye of t h e pr in ce; by t h em h e sees wh a t wou ld ot h er wise
esca pe h is obser va t ion . Sh ou ld h e a t t em pt t h e fu n ct ion of a ju dge, h e wou ld n ot
t h en la bou r for h im self, bu t for im post or s, wh ose a im is t o deceive h im .
O1&!-"+&5*&K'*".9-5%,&K5*5,+%.,&'FD-+&*'+&+'&,5+&",&[F0D%,1&
It is likewise a ver y gr ea t in con ven ien ce in m on a r ch ies for t h e m in ist er s of t h e
pr in ce t o sit a s ju dges. We h a ve st ill in st a n ces of st a t es wh er e t h er e a r e a gr ea t
n u m ber of ju dges t o decide exch equ er ca u ses, a n d wh er e t h e m in ist er s

n ever t h eless (a t h in g m ost in cr edible!) wou ld fa in det er m in e t h em . Ma n y a r e
t h e r eflect ion s t h a t h er e a r ise; bu t t h is sin gle on e will su ffice for m y pu r pose.
Th er e is in t h e ver y n a t u r e of t h in gs a kin d of con t r a st bet ween a pr in ce’s
cou n cil a n d h is cou r t s of ju dica t u r e. Th e kin g’s cou n cil ou gh t t o be com posed of
a few per son s, a n d t h e cou r t s of ju dica t u r e of a gr ea t m a n y. Th e r ea son is, in t h e
for m er , t h in gs sh ou ld be u n der t a ken a n d con du ct ed wit h a kin d of wa r m t h a n d
pa ssion , wh ich ca n h a r dly be expect ed bu t fr om fou r or five m en wh o m a ke it
t h eir sole bu sin ess. On t h e con t r a r y, in cou r t s of ju dica t u r e a cer t a in cooln ess
in r equ isit e, a n d a n in differ en ce, in som e m ea su r e, t o a ll m a n n er of a ffa ir s.
P1&@(&"&,5*D$%&K"D5,+."+%1
A m a gist r a cy of t h is kin d ca n n ot t a ke pla ce bu t in a despot ic gover n m en t . We
h a ve a n in st a n ce in t h e Rom a n h ist or y h ow fa r a sin gle m a gist r a t e m a y a bu se
h is power . Migh t it n ot be ver y well expect ed t h a t Appiu s on h is t r ibu n a l sh ou ld
con t em n a ll la ws, a ft er h a vin g viola t ed t h a t of h is own en a ct in g?19 Livy h a s
given u s t h e in iqu it ou s dist in ct ion of t h e Decem vir . H e h a d su bor n ed a m a n t o
r ecla im Vir gin ia in h is pr esen ce a s h is sla ve; Vir gin ia ’s r ela t ives in sist ed t h a t
by vir t u e of h is own la w sh e sh ou ld be con sign ed t o t h em , t ill t h e defin it ive
ju dgm en t wa s pa ssed. Upon wh ich h e decla r ed t h a t h is la w h a d been en a ct ed
on ly in fa vou r of t h e fa t h er , a n d t h a t a s Vir gin iu s wa s a bsen t , n o a pplica t ion
cou ld be m a de of it t o t h e pr esen t ca se.20
Q1&@(&:99F,"+5'*&5*&05((%.%*+&A';%.*<%*+,1
At Rom e 21 it wa s la wfu l for on e cit izen t o a ccu se a n ot h er . Th is wa s a gr eea ble
t o t h e spir it of a r epu blic, wh er e ea ch cit izen ou gh t t o h a ve a n u n lim it ed zea l for
t h e pu blic good, a n d is su pposed t o h old a ll t h e r igh t s of h is cou n t r y in h is own
h a n ds. Un der t h e em per or s, t h e r epu blica n m a xim s wer e st ill pu r su ed; a n d
in st a n t ly a ppea r ed a per n iciou s t r ibe, a swa r m of in for m er s. Cr a ft y, wicked
m en , wh o cou ld st oop t o a n y in dign it y t o ser ve t h e pu r poses of t h eir a m bit ion ,
wer e su r e t o bu sy t h em selves in t h e sea r ch of cr im in a ls wh ose con dem n a t ion
m igh t be a gr eea ble t o t h e pr in ce; t h is wa s t h e r oa d t o h on ou r a n d pr efer m en t , 22
bu t lu ckily we a r e st r a n ger s t o it in ou r cou n t r y.
We h a ve a t pr esen t a n a dm ir a ble la w, n a m ely, t h a t by wh ich t h e pr in ce, wh o

is est a blish ed for t h e execu t ion of t h e la ws, a ppoin t s a n officer in ea ch cou r t of
ju dica t u r e t o pr osecu t e a ll sor t s of cr im es in h is n a m e; h en ce t h e pr ofession of
in for m er s is a t h in g u n kn own t o u s, for if t h is pu blic a ven ger wer e su spect ed t o
a bu se h is office, h e wou ld soon be obliged t o m en t ion h is a u t h or .
By P la t o’s L aw s 23 t h ose wh o n eglect t o in for m or t o a ssist t h e m a gist r a t es a r e
lia ble t o pu n ish m en t . Th is wou ld n ot be so pr oper in ou r da ys. Th e pu blic
pr osecu t or wa t ch es for t h e sa fet y of t h e cit izen s; h e pr oceeds in h is office wh ile
t h ey en joy t h eir qu iet a n d ea se.
S1&@(&+-%&3%;%.5+H&'(&8F*5,-<%*+,&5*&05((%.%*+&A';%.*<%*+,1
Th e sever it y of pu n ish m en t s is fit t er for despot ic gover n m en t s, wh ose
pr in ciple is t er r or , t h a n for a m on a r ch y or a r epu blic, wh ose spr in g is h on ou r
a n d vir t u e.
In m oder a t e gover n m en t s, t h e love of on e’s cou n t r y, sh a m e, a n d t h e fea r of
bla m e a r e r est r a in in g m ot ives, ca pa ble of pr even t in g a m u lt it u de of cr im es.
H er e t h e gr ea t est pu n ish m en t of a ba d a ct ion is con vict ion . Th e civil la ws h a ve
t h er efor e a soft er wa y of cor r ect in g, a n d do n ot r equ ir e so m u ch for ce a n d
sever it y.
In t h ose st a t es a good legisla t or is less ben t u pon pu n ish in g t h a n pr even t in g
cr im es; h e is m or e a t t en t ive t o in spir e good m or a ls t h a n t o in flict pen a lt ies.
It is a con st a n t r em a r k of t h e Ch in ese a u t h or s 24 t h a t t h e m or e t h e pen a l la ws
wer e in cr ea sed in t h eir em pir e, t h e n ea r er t h ey dr ew t owa r ds a r evolu t ion . Th is
is beca u se pu n ish m en t s wer e a u gm en t ed in pr opor t ion a s t h e pu blic m or a ls
wer e cor r u pt ed.
It wou ld be a n ea sy m a t t er t o pr ove t h a t in a ll, or a lm ost a ll, t h e gover n m en t s
of E u r ope, pen a lt ies h a ve in cr ea sed or dim in ish ed in pr opor t ion a s t h ose
gover n m en t s fa vou r ed or discou r a ged liber t y.
In despot ic gover n m en t s, people a r e so u n h a ppy a s t o h a ve a gr ea t er dr ea d of
dea t h t h a n r egr et for t h e loss of life; con sequ en t ly t h eir pu n ish m en t s ou gh t t o
be m or e sever e. In m oder a t e st a t es t h ey a r e m or e a fr a id of losin g t h eir lives
t h a n a ppr eh en sive of t h e pa in of dyin g; t h ose pu n ish m en t s, t h er efor e, wh ich
depr ive t h em sim ply of life a r e su fficien t .
Men in excess of h a ppin ess or m iser y a r e equ a lly in clin a ble t o sever it y;
wit n ess con qu er or s a n d m on ks. It is m ediocr it y a lon e, a n d a m ixt u r e of
pr osper ou s a n d a dver se for t u n e, t h a t in spir es u s wit h len it y a n d pit y.
Wh a t we see pr a ct ised by in dividu a ls is equ a lly obser va ble in r ega r d t o
n a t ion s. In cou n t r ies in h a bit ed by sa va ges wh o lea d a ver y h a r d life, a n d in
despot ic gover n m en t s, wh er e t h er e is on ly on e per son on wh om for t u n e la vish es
h er fa vou r s, wh ile t h e m iser a ble su bject s lie exposed t o h er in su lt s, people a r e
equ a lly cr u el. Len it y r eign s in m oder a t e gover n m en t s.
Wh en in r ea din g h ist or y we obser ve t h e cr u elt y of t h e su lt a n s in
a dm in ist r a t ion of ju st ice, we sh u dder a t t h e ver y t h ou gh t of t h e m iser ies of
h u m a n n a t u r e.
In m oder a t e gover n m en t s, a good legisla t or m a y m a ke u se of ever yt h in g by
wa y of pu n ish m en t . Is it n ot ver y ext r a or din a r y t h a t on e of t h e ch ief pen a lt ies
a t Spa r t a wa s t o depr ive a per son of t h e power of len din g ou t h is wife, or of
r eceivin g t h e wife of a n ot h er m a n , a n d t o oblige h im t o h a ve n o com pa n y a t
h om e bu t vir gin s? In sh or t , wh a t ever t h e la w ca lls a pu n ish m en t is su ch
effect ively.
BT1&@(&+-%&"*95%*+&Y.%*9-&6"7,1
In t h e a n cien t F r en ch la ws we fin d t h e t r u e spir it of m on a r ch y. In ca ses
r ela t in g t o pecu n ia r y m u lct s, t h e com m on people a r e less sever ely pu n ish ed
t h a n t h e n obilit y. 25 Bu t in cr im in a l 26 ca ses it is qu it e t h e r ever se; t h e n oblem a n
loses h is h on ou r a n d h is voice in cou r t , wh ile t h e pea sa n t , wh o h a s n o h on ou r
t o lose, u n der goes a cor por a l pu n ish m en t .
BB1&!-"+&7-%*&8%'4$%&".%&;5.+F'F,&(%7&8F*5,-<%*+,&".%&*%9%,,".H1
Th e people of Rom e h a d som e sh a r e of pr obit y. Su ch wa s t h e for ce of t h is
pr obit y t h a t t h e legisla t or h a d fr equ en t ly n o fu r t h er occa sion t h a n t o poin t ou t
t h e r igh t r oa d, a n d t h ey wer e su r e t o follow it ; on e wou ld im a gin e t h a t in st ea d
of pr ecept s it wa s su fficien t t o give t h em cou n sels.
Th e pu n ish m en t s of t h e r ega l la ws, a n d t h ose of t h e Twelve Ta bles, wer e
a lm ost a ll a bolish ed in t h e t im e of t h e r epu blic, in con sequ en ce eit h er of t h e
Va ler ia n 27 or of t h e P or cia n la w.28 It wa s n ever obser ved t h a t t h is st ep did a n y
m a n n er of pr eju dice t o t h e civil a dm in ist r a t ion .

Th is Va ler ia n la w, wh ich r est r a in ed t h e m a gist r a t es fr om u sin g violen t
m et h ods a ga in st a cit izen t h a t h a d a ppea led t o t h e people, in flict ed n o ot h er
pu n ish m en t on t h e per son wh o in fr in ged it t h a n t h a t of bein g r epu t ed a
dish on est m a n . 29
BE1&@(&+-%&8'7%.&'(&8F*5,-<%*+,1&
E xper ien ce sh ows t h a t in cou n t r ies r em a r ka ble for t h e len it y of t h eir la ws t h e
spir it of t h e in h a bit a n t s is a s m u ch a ffect ed by sligh t pen a lt ies a s in ot h er
cou n t r ies by sever er pu n ish m en t s.
If a n in con ven ien ce or a bu se a r ises in t h e st a t e, a violen t gover n m en t
en dea vou r s su dden ly t o r edr ess it ; a n d in st ea d of pu t t in g t h e old la ws in
execu t ion , it est a blish es som e cr u el pu n ish m en t , wh ich in st a n t ly pu t s a st op t o
t h e evil. Bu t t h e spr in g of gover n m en t h er eby loses it s ela st icit y; t h e
im a gin a t ion gr ows a ccu st om ed t o t h e sever e a s well a s t h e m ilder pu n ish m en t ;
a n d a s t h e fea r of t h e la t t er dim in ish es, t h ey a r e soon obliged in ever y ca se t o
h a ve r ecou r se t o t h e for m er . Robber ies on t h e h igh wa y beca m e com m on in som e
cou n t r ies; in or der t o r em edy t h is evil, t h ey in ven t ed t h e pu n ish m en t of
br ea kin g u pon t h e wh eel, t h e t er r or of wh ich pu t a st op for a wh ile t o t h is
m isch ievou s pr a ct ice. Bu t soon a ft er r obber ies on t h e h igh wa ys beca m e a s
com m on a s ever .
Deser t ion in ou r da ys h a s gr own t o a ver y gr ea t h eigh t ; in con sequ en ce of
wh ich it wa s ju dged pr oper t o pu n ish t h ose delin qu en t s wit h dea t h ; a n d yet
t h eir n u m ber did n ot dim in ish . Th e r ea son is ver y n a t u r a l; a soldier ,
a ccu st om ed t o ven t u r e h is life, despises, or a ffect s t o despise, t h e da n ger of
losin g it . H e is h a bit u a t ed t o t h e fea r of sh a m e; it wou ld h a ve been t h er efor e
m u ch bet t er t o h a ve con t in u ed a pu n ish m en t 30 wh ich br a n ded h im wit h in fa m y
for life; t h e pen a lt y wa s pr et en ded t o be in cr ea sed, wh ile it r ea lly dim in ish ed.
Ma n kin d m u st n ot be gover n ed wit h t oo m u ch sever it y; we ou gh t t o m a ke a
pr u den t u se of t h e m ea n s wh ich n a t u r e h a s given u s t o con du ct t h em . If we
in qu ir e in t o t h e ca u se of a ll h u m a n cor r u pt ion s, we sh a ll fin d t h a t t h ey pr oceed
fr om t h e im pu n it y of cr im in a ls, a n d n ot fr om t h e m oder a t ion of pu n ish m en t s.
Let u s follow n a t u r e, wh o h a s given sh a m e t o m a n for h is scou r ge; a n d let t h e
h ea viest pa r t of t h e pu n ish m en t be t h e in fa m y a t t en din g it .

Bu t if t h er e be som e cou n t r ies wh er e sh a m e is n ot a con sequ en ce of
pu n ish m en t , t h is m u st be owin g t o t yr a n n y, wh ich h a s in flict ed t h e sa m e
pen a lt ies on villa in s a n d h on est m en .
An d if t h er e a r e ot h er s wh er e m en a r e det er r ed on ly by cr u el pu n ish m en t s, we
m a y be su r e t h a t t h is m u st , in a gr ea t m ea su r e, a r ise fr om t h e violen ce of t h e
gover n m en t wh ich h a s u sed su ch pen a lt ies for sligh t t r a n sgr ession s.
It oft en h a ppen s t h a t a legisla t or , desir ou s of r em edyin g a n a bu se, t h in ks of
n ot h in g else; h is eyes a r e open on ly t o t h is object , a n d sh u t t o it s
in con ven ien ces. Wh en t h e a bu se is r edr essed, you see on ly t h e sever it y of t h e
legisla t or ; yet t h er e r em a in s a n evil in t h e st a t e t h a t h a s spr u n g fr om t h is
sever it y; t h e m in ds of t h e people a r e cor r u pt ed, a n d becom e h a bit u a t ed t o
despot ism .
Lysa n der 31 h a vin g obt a in ed a vict or y over t h e At h en ia n s, t h e pr ison er s wer e
or der ed t o be t r ied, in con sequ en ce of a n a ccu sa t ion br ou gh t a ga in st t h a t n a t ion
of h a vin g t h r own a ll t h e ca pt ives of t wo ga lleys down a pr ecipice, a n d of h a vin g
r esolved in fu ll a ssem bly t o cu t off t h e h a n ds of t h ose wh om t h ey sh ou ld ch a n ce
t o m a ke pr ison er s. Th e At h en ia n s wer e t h er efor e a ll m a ssa cr ed, except
Adym a n t es, wh o h a d opposed t h is decr ee. Lysa n der r epr oa ch ed P h ylocles,
befor e h e wa s pu t t o dea t h , wit h h a vin g depr a ved t h e people’s m in ds, a n d given
lesson s of cr u elt y t o a ll Gr eece.
“Th e Ar gives,” sa ys P lu t a r ch , 32 “h a vin g pu t fift een h u n dr ed of t h eir cit izen s
t o dea t h , t h e At h en ia n s or der ed sa cr ifices of expia t ion , t h a t it m igh t plea se t h e
gods t o t u r n t h e h ea r t s of t h e At h en ia n s fr om so cr u el a t h ou gh t .”
Th er e a r e t wo sor t s of cor r u pt ion s — on e wh en t h e people do n ot obser ve t h e
la ws; t h e ot h er wh en t h ey a r e cor r u pt ed by t h e la ws: a n in cu r a ble evil, beca u se
it is in t h e ver y r em edy it self.
BG1&?*,F((595%*9H&'(&+-%&6"7,&'(&["4"*1
E xcessive pu n ish m en t s m a y even cor r u pt a despot ic gover n m en t ; of t h is we
h a ve a n in st a n ce in J a pa n .
H er e a lm ost a ll cr im es a r e pu n ish ed wit h dea t h , 33 beca u se disobedien ce t o so
gr ea t a n em per or a s t h a t of J a pa n is r eckon ed a n en or m ou s cr im e. Th e qu est ion
is n ot so m u ch t o cor r ect t h e delin qu en t a s t o vin dica t e t h e a u t h or it y of t h e

pr in ce. Th ese n ot ion s a r e der ived fr om ser vit u de, a n d a r e owin g especia lly t o
t h is, t h a t a s t h e em per or is u n iver sa l pr opr iet or , a lm ost a ll cr im es a r e dir ect ly
a ga in st h is in t er est s.
Th ey pu n ish wit h dea t h lies spoken befor e t h e m a gist r a t e;34 a pr oceedin g
con t r a r y t o n a t u r a l defen ce.
E ven t h in gs wh ich h a ve n ot t h e a ppea r a n ce of a cr im e a r e sever ely pu n ish ed;
for in st a n ce, a m a n t h a t ven t u r es h is m on ey a t pla y is pu t t o dea t h .
Tr u e it is t h a t t h e ch a r a ct er of t h is people, so a m a zin gly obst in a t e, ca pr iciou s,
a n d r esolu t e a s t o defy a ll da n ger s a n d ca la m it ies, seem s t o a bsolve t h eir
legisla t or s fr om t h e im pu t a t ion of cr u elt y, n ot wit h st a n din g t h e sever it y of t h eir
la ws. Bu t a r e m en wh o h a ve a n a t u r a l con t em pt for dea t h , a n d wh o r ip open
t h eir bellies for t h e lea st fa n cy — a r e su ch m en , I sa y, m en ded or det er r ed, or
r a t h er a r e t h ey n ot h a r den ed, by t h e con t in u a l pr ospect of pu n ish m en t s?
Th e r ela t ion s of t r a veller s in for m u s, wit h r espect t o t h e edu ca t ion of t h e
J a pa n ese, t h a t ch ildr en m u st be t r ea t ed t h er e wit h m ildn ess, beca u se t h ey
becom e h a r den ed t o pu n ish m en t ; t h a t t h eir sla ves m u st n ot be t oo r ou gh ly u sed,
beca u se t h ey im m edia t ely st a n d u pon t h eir defen ce. Wou ld n ot on e im a gin e t h a t
t h ey m igh t ea sily h a ve ju dged of t h e spir it wh ich ou gh t t o r eign in t h eir polit ica l
a n d civil gover n m en t fr om t h a t wh ich sh ou ld pr eva il in t h eir dom est ic con cer n s?
A wise legisla t or wou ld h a ve en dea vou r ed t o r ecla im people by a ju st
t em per a t u r e of pu n ish m en t s a n d r ewa r ds; by m a xim s of ph ilosoph y, m or a lit y,
a n d r eligion , a da pt ed t o t h ose ch a r a ct er s; by a pr oper a pplica t ion of t h e r u les
of h on ou r , a n d by t h e en joym en t of ea se a n d t r a n qu illit y of life. An d sh ou ld h e
h a ve en t er t a in ed a n y a ppr eh en sion t h a t t heir m in ds, bein g in u r ed t o t h e cr u elt y
of pu n ish m en t s, wou ld n o lon ger be r est r a in ed by t h ose of a m ilder n a t u r e, h e
wou ld h a ve con du ct ed h im self35 in a n ot h er m a n n er , a n d ga in ed h is poin t by
degr ees, in pa r t icu la r ca ses t h a t a dm it t ed of a n y in du lgen ce, h e wou ld h a ve
m it iga t ed t h e pu n ish m en t , t ill h e sh ou ld h a ve been a ble t o ext en d t h is
m it iga t ion t o a ll ca ses.
Bu t t h ese a r e spr in gs t o wh ich despot ic power is a st r a n ger ; it m a y a bu se
it self, a n d t h a t is a ll it ca n do: in J a pa n it h a s m a de it s u t m ost effor t , a n d h a s
su r pa ssed even it self in cr u elt y.
As t h e m in ds of t h e people gr ew wild a n d in t r a ct a ble, t h ey wer e obliged t o

h a ve r ecou r se t o t h e m ost h or r id sever it y.
Th is is t h e or igin , t h is t h e spir it , of t h e la ws of J a pa n . Th ey h a d m or e fu r y,
h owever , t h a n for ce. Th ey su cceeded t h e ext ir pa t ion of Ch r ist ia n it y; bu t su ch
u n a ccou n t a ble effor t s a r e a pr oof of t h eir in sufficien cy. Th ey wa n t ed t o est a blish
a good policy, a n d t h ey h a ve sh own gr ea t er m a r ks of t h eir wea kn ess.
We h a ve on ly t o r ea d t h e r ela t ion of t h e in t er view bet ween t h e E m per or a n d
t h e Deyr o a t Mea co. 36 Th e n u m ber of t h ose wh o wer e su ffoca t ed or m u r der ed in
t h a t cit y by r u ffia n s is in cr edible; you n g m a ids a n d boys wer e ca r r ied off by
for ce, a n d fou n d a ft er wa r ds exposed in pu blic pla ces, a t u n sea son a ble h ou r s,
qu it e n a ked, a n d sewn in lin en ba gs, t o pr even t t h eir kn owin g wh ich wa y t h ey
h a d pa ssed; r obber ies wer e com m it t ed in a ll pa r t s; t h e bellies of h or ses wer e
r ipped open , t o br in g t h eir r ider s t o t h e gr ou n d; a n d coa ch es wer e over t u r n ed,
in or der t o st r ip t h e la dies. Th e Du t ch , wh o wer e t old t h ey cou ld n ot pa ss t h e
n igh t on t h e sca ffolds wit h ou t exposin g t h em selves t o t h e da n ger of bein g
a ssa ssin a t ed, ca m e down , &c.
I sh a ll h er e give on e in st a n ce m or e fr om t h e sa m e n a t ion . Th e E m per or
h a vin g a ba n don ed h im self t o in fa m ou s plea su r es, lived u n m a r r ied, a n d wa s
con sequ en t ly in da n ger of dyin g wit h ou t issu e. Th e Deyr o sen t h im t wo
bea u t ifu l da m sels; on e h e m a r r ied ou t of r espect , bu t wou ld n ot m eddle wit h
h er . H is n u r se ca u sed t h e fin est wom en of t h e em pir e t o be sen t for , bu t a ll t o
n o pu r pose. At len gt h , a n a r m ou r er ’s da u gh t er h a vin g plea sed h is fa n cy, 37 h e
det er m in ed t o espou se h er , a n d h a d a son . Th e la dies belon gin g t o t h e cou r t ,
en r a ged t o see a per son of su ch m ea n ext r a ct ion pr efer r ed t o t h em selves, st ifled
t h e ch ild. Th e cr im e wa s con cea led fr om t h e E m per or ; for h e wou ld h a ve
delu ged t h e la n d wit h blood. Th e excessive sever it y of t h e la ws h in der s,
t h er efor e, t h eir execu t ion : wh en t h e pu n ish m en t su r pa sses a ll m ea su r e, t h ey
a r e fr equ en t ly obliged t o pr efer im pu n it y t o it .
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Un der t h e con su la t e of Aciliu s Gla br io a n d P iso, t h e Asilia n la w 38 wa s m a de
t o pr even t t h e in t r igu in g for pla ces. Dio sa ys 39 t h a t t h e sen a t e en ga ged t h e
con su ls t o pr opose it , by r ea son t h a t C. Cor n eliu s, t h e t r ibu n e, h a d r esolved t o
ca u se m or e sever e pu n ish m en t s t o be est a blish ed a ga in st t h is cr im e; t o wh ich

t h e people seem ed gr ea t ly in clin ed. Th e sen a t e r igh t ly ju dged t h a t im m oder a t e
pu n ish m en t s wou ld st r ike, in deed, a t er r or in t o people’s m in ds, bu t m u st h a ve
a lso t h is effect , t h a t t h er e wou ld be n obody a ft er wa r ds t o a ccu se or con dem n ;
wh er ea s, by pr oposin g m oder a t e pen a lt ies, t h er e wou ld be a lwa ys ju dges a n d
a ccu ser s.
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I a m st r on gly con fir m ed in m y sen t im en t s u pon fin din g t h e Rom a n s on m y
side; a n d I t h in k t h a t pu n ish m en t s a r e con n ect ed wit h t h e n a t u r e of
gover n m en t s wh en I beh old t h is gr ea t people ch a n gin g in t h is r espect t h eir civil
la ws, in pr opor t ion a s t h ey a lt er ed t h eir for m of gover n m en t .
Th e r ega l la ws, m a de for fu git ives, sla ves, a n d va ga bon ds, wer e ver y sever e.
Th e spir it of a r epu blic wou ld h a ve r equ ir ed t h a t t h e decem vir s sh ou ld n ot h a ve
in ser t ed t h ose la ws in t h eir Twelve Ta bles; bu t m en wh o a im ed a t t yr a n n y wer e
fa r fr om con for m in g t o a r epu blica n spir it .
Livy sa ys, 40 in r ela t ion t o t h e pu n ish m en t of Met iu s Su ffet iu s, dict a t or of Alba ,
wh o wa s con dem n ed by Tu lliu s H ost iliu s t o be fa st en ed t o t wo ch a r iot s dr a wn
by h or ses, a n d t or n a su n der , t h a t t h is wa s t h e fir st a n d la st pu n ish m en t in
wh ich t h e r em em br a n ce of h u m a n it y seem ed t o h a ve been lost . H e is m ist a ken ;
t h e Twelve Ta bles a r e fu ll of ver y cr u el la ws. 41
Th e design of t h e decem vir s a ppea r s m or e con spicu ou s in t h e ca pit a l
pu n ish m en t pr on ou n ced a ga in st libeller s a n d poet s. Th is is n ot a gr eea ble t o t h e
gen iu s of a r epu blic, wh er e t h e people like t o see t h e gr ea t m en h u m bled. Bu t
per son s wh o a im ed a t t h e su bver sion of liber t y wer e a fr a id of wr it in gs t h a t
m igh t r evive it s spir it .42
Aft er t h e expu lsion of t h e decem vir s, a lm ost a ll t h e pen a l la ws wer e a bolish ed.
It is t r u e t h ey wer e n ot expr essly r epea led; bu t a s t h e P or cia n la w h a d or da in ed
t h a t n o cit izen of Rom e sh ou ld be pu t t o dea t h , t h ey wer e of n o fu r t h er u se.
Th is is exa ct ly t h e t im e t o wh ich we m a y r efer wh a t Livy sa ys 43 of t h e
Rom a n s, t h a t n o people wer e ever fon der of m oder a t ion in pu n ish m en t s.
Bu t if t o t h e len it y of pen a l la ws we a dd t h e r igh t wh ich t h e pa r t y a ccu sed h a d
of wit h dr a win g befor e ju dgm en t wa s pr on ou n ced, we sh a ll fin d t h a t t h e Rom a n s
followed t h e spir it wh ich I h a ve obser ved t o be n a t u r a l t o a r epu blic.

Su lla , wh o con fou n ded t yr a n n y, a n a r ch y, a n d liber t y, m a de t h e Cor n elia n
la ws. H e seem ed t o h a ve con t r ived r egu la t ion s m er ely wit h a view t o cr ea t e n ew
cr im es. Th u s dist in gu ish in g a n in fin it e n u m ber of a ct ion s by t h e n a m e of
m u r der , h e fou n d m u r der er s in a ll pa r t s; a n d by a pr a ct ice t oo m u ch followed,
h e la id sn a r es, sowed t h or n s, a n d open ed pr ecipices, wh er esoever t h e cit izen s
set t h eir feet .
Alm ost a ll Su lla ’s la ws con t a in ed on ly t h e in t er dict ion of fir e a n d wa t er . To
t h is Ca esa r a dded t h e con fisca t ion of goods 44 beca u se t h e r ich , by pr eser vin g
t h eir est a t es in exile, beca m e bolder in t h e per pet r a t ion of cr im es.
Th e em per or s, h a vin g est a blish ed a m ilit a r y gover n m en t , soon fou n d t h a t it
wa s a s t er r ible t o t h e pr in ce a s t o t h e su bject ; t h ey en dea vou r ed t h er efor e t o
t em per it , a n d wit h t h is view h a d r ecou r se t o dign it ies, a n d t o t h e r espect wit h
wh ich t h ose dign it ies wer e a t t en ded.
Th e gover n m en t t h u s dr ew n ea r er a lit t le t o m on a r ch y, a n d pu n ish m en t s wer e
divided in t o t h r ee cla sses:45 t h ose wh ich r ela t ed t o t h e pr in cipa l per son s in t h e
st a t e, 46 wh ich wer e ver y m ild: t h ose wh ich wer e in flict ed on per son s of a n
in fer ior r a n k, 47 a n d wer e m or e sever e; a n d, in fin e, su ch a s con cer n ed on ly
per son s of t h e lowest con dit ion , 48 wh ich wer e t h e m ost r igor ou s.
Ma xim in u s, t h a t fier ce a n d st u pid pr in ce, in cr ea sed t h e r igou r of t h e m ilit a r y
gover n m en t wh ich h e ou gh t t o h a ve soft en ed. Th e sen a t e wer e in for m ed, sa ys
Ca pit olin u s, 49 t h a t som e h a d been cr u cified, ot h er s exposed t o wild bea st s, or
sewn u p in t h e skin s of bea st s la t ely killed, wit h ou t a n y m a n n er of r ega r d t o
t h eir dign it y. It seem ed a s if h e wa n t ed t o exer cise t h e m ilit a r y disciplin e, on
t h e m odel of wh ich h e pr et en ded t o r egu la t e t h e civil a dm in ist r a t ion .
In Th e Con sider a t ion on t h e Rise a n d Declen sion of t h e Rom a n Gr a n deu r 50 we
fin d in wh a t m a n n er Con st a n t in e ch a n ged t h e m ilit a r y despot ism in t o a
m ilit a r y a n d civil gover n m en t , a n d dr ew n ea r er t o m on a r ch y. Th er e we m a y
t r a ce t h e differ en t r evolu t ion s of t h is st a t e, a n d see h ow t h ey fell fr om r igou r t o
in dolen ce, a n d fr om in dolen ce t o im pu n it y.
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It is a n essen t ia l poin t , t h a t t h er e sh ou ld be a cer t a in pr opor t ion in
pu n ish m en t s, beca u se it is essen t ia l t h a t a gr ea t cr im e sh ou ld be a voided r a t h er
t h a n a sm a ller , a n d t h a t wh ich is m or e per n iciou s t o societ y r a t h er t h a n t h a t
wh ich is less.
“An im post or ,51 wh o ca lled h im self Con st a n t in e Du ca s, r a ised a gr ea t
in su r r ect ion a t Con st a n t in ople. H e wa s t a ken a n d con dem n ed t o be wh ipped;
bu t u pon in for m in g a ga in st sever a l per son s of dist in ct ion , h e wa s sen t en ced t o
be bu r n ed a s a ca lu m n ia t or .” It is ver y ext r a or din a r y t h a t t h ey sh ou ld t h u s
pr opor t ion t h e pu n ish m en t s bet ween t h e cr im e of h igh t r ea son a n d t h a t of
ca lu m n y.
Th is pu t s m e in m in d of a sa yin g of Ch a r les II, Kin g of Gr ea t Br it a in . H e sa w
a m a n on e da y st a n din g in t h e pillor y; u pon wh ich h e a sked wh a t cr im e t h e m a n
h a d com m it t ed. H e wa s a n swer ed, “P lea se you r Ma jest y, h e h a s wr it t en a libel
a ga in st you r m in ist er s.” “Th e fool!” sa id t h e Kin g, “wh y did h e n ot wr it e a ga in st
m e? Th ey wou ld h a ve don e n ot h in g t o h im .”
“Seven t y per son s h a vin g con spir ed a ga in st t h e E m per or Ba sil, h e or der ed
t h em t o be wh ipped, a n d t h e h a ir of t h eir h ea ds a n d bea r ds t o be bu r n ed. A
st a g, on e da y, h a vin g t a ken h old of h im by t h e gir dle wit h h is h or n , on e of h is
r et in u e dr ew h is swor d, cu t t h e gir dle, a n d sa ved h im ; u pon wh ich h e or der ed
t h a t per son ’s h ea d t o be cu t off, for h a vin g,” sa id h e, “dr a wn h is swor d a ga in st
h is sover eign .”52 Wh o cou ld im a gin e t h a t t h e sa m e pr in ce cou ld ever h a ve
pa ssed t wo su ch differ en t ju dgm en t s?
It is a gr ea t a bu se a m on gst u s t o con dem n t o t h e sa m e pu n ish m en t a per son
t h a t on ly r obs on t h e h igh wa y a n d a n ot h er wh o r obs a n d m u r der s. Su r ely, for
t h e pu blic secu r it y, som e differ en ce sh ou ld be m a de in t h e pu n ish m en t .
In Ch in a , t h ose wh o a dd m u r der t o r obber y a r e cu t in pieces:53 bu t n ot so t h e
ot h er s; t o t h is differ en ce it is owin g t h a t t h ou gh t h ey r ob in t h a t cou n t r y t h ey
n ever m u r der .
In Ru ssia , wh er e t h e pu n ish m en t of r obber y a n d m u r der is t h e sa m e, t h ey
a lwa ys m u r der .54 Th e dea d, sa y t h ey, t ell n o t a les.
Wh er e t h er e is n o differ en ce in t h e pen a lt y, t h er e sh ou ld be som e in t h e
expect a t ion of pa r don . In E n gla n d t h ey n ever m u r der on t h e h igh wa y, beca u se
r obber s h a ve som e h opes of t r a n spor t a t ion , wh ich is n ot t h e ca se in r espect t o

t h ose t h a t com m it m u r der .
Let t er s of gr a ce a r e of excellen t u se in m oder a t e gover n m en t s. Th is power
wh ich t h e pr in ce h a s of pa r don in g, exer cised wit h pr u den ce, is ca pa ble of
pr odu cin g a dm ir a ble effect s. Th e pr in ciple of despot ic gover n m en t , wh ich
n eit h er gr a n t s n or r eceives a n y pa r don , depr ives it of t h ese a dva n t a ges.
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Th e wickedn ess of m a n kin d m a kes it n ecessa r y for t h e la w t o su ppose t h em
bet t er t h a n t h ey r ea lly a r e. H en ce t h e deposit ion of t wo wit n esses is su fficien t
in t h e pu n ish m en t of a ll cr im es. Th e la w believes t h em , a s if t h ey spoke by t h e
m ou t h of t r u t h . Th u s we ju dge t h a t ever y ch ild con ceived in wedlock is
legit im a t e; t h e la w h a vin g a con fiden ce in t h e m ot h er , a s if sh e wer e ch a st it y
it self. Bu t t h e u se of t h e r a ck a ga in st cr im in a ls ca n n ot be defen ded on a like
plea of n ecessit y.
We h a ve befor e u s t h e exa m ple of a n a t ion blessed wit h a n excellen t civil
gover n m en t , 55 wh er e wit h ou t a n y in con ven ien ce t h e pr a ct ice of r a ckin g
cr im in a ls is r eject ed. It is n ot , t h er efor e, in it s own n a t u r e n ecessa r y.56
So m a n y m en of lea r n in g a n d gen iu s h a ve wr it t en a ga in st t h e cu st om of
t or t u r in g cr im in a ls, t h a t a ft er t h em I da r e n ot pr esu m e t o m eddle wit h t h e
su bject . I wa s goin g t o sa y t h a t it m igh t su it despot ic st a t es, wh er e wh a t ever
in spir es fea r is t h e fit t est spr in g of gover n m en t . I wa s goin g t o sa y t h a t t h e
sla ves a m on g t h e Gr eeks a n d Rom a n s — bu t n a t u r e cr ies ou t a lou d, a n d a sser t s
h er r igh t s.
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Ou r a n cest or s, t h e Ger m a n s, a dm it t ed of n on e bu t pecu n ia r y pu n ish m en t s.
Th ose fr ee a n d wa r like people wer e of opin ion t h a t t h eir blood ou gh t n ot t o be
spilled bu t wit h swor d in h a n d. On t h e con t r a r y, t h ese pu n ish m en t s a r e r eject ed
by t h e J a pa n ese, 57 u n der pr et en ce t h a t t h e r ich m igh t elu de t h em . Bu t a r e n ot
t h e r ich a fr a id of bein g st r ipped of t h eir pr oper t y? An d m igh t n ot pecu n ia r y
pen a lt ies be pr opor t ion ed t o people’s for t u n es? An d, in fin e, m igh t n ot in fa m y
be a dded t o t h ose pu n ish m en t s?
A good legisla t or t a kes a ju st m ediu m ; h e or da in s n eit h er a lwa ys pecu n ia r y,

n or a lwa ys cor por a l pu n ish m en t s.
BS1&@(&+-%&6"7&'(&/%+"$5"+5'*1
Th e u se of t h e la w of r et a lia t ion 58 is ver y fr equ en t in despot ic cou n t r ies, wh er e
t h ey a r e fon d of sim ple la ws. Moder a t e gover n m en t s a dm it of it som et im es; bu t
wit h t h is differ en ce, t h a t t h e for m er exer cise it in fu ll r igou r , wh er ea s a m on g
t h e la t t er it ever r eceives som e kin d of lim it a t ion .
Th e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles a dm it t ed t wo: fir st , it n ever con dem n ed t o
r et a lia t ion , bu t wh en t h e pla in t iff cou ld n ot be sa t isfied in a n y ot h er m a n n er . 59
Secon dly, a ft er con dem n a t ion t h ey m igh t pa y da m a ges a n d in t er est , 60 a n d t h en
t h e cor por a l wa s ch a n ged in t o a pecu n ia r y pu n ish m en t .61
ET1&@(&+-%&8F*5,-<%*+&'(&Y"+-%.,&('.&+-%&).5<%,&'(&+-%5.&)-5$0.%*1
In Ch in a , fa t h er s a r e pu n ish ed for t h e cr im es of t h eir ch ildr en . Th is wa s
likewise t h e cu st om of P er u 62 — a cu st om der ived fr om t h e n ot ion of despot ic
power . Lit t le does it sign ify t o sa y t h a t in Ch in a t h e fa t h er is pu n ish ed for n ot
h a vin g exer t ed t h a t pa t er n a l a u t h or it y wh ich n a t u r e h a s est a blish ed, a n d t h e
la ws t h em selves h a ve im pr oved. Th is st ill su pposes t h a t t h er e is n o h on ou r
a m on g t h e Ch in ese. Am on gst u s, pa r en t s wh ose ch ildr en a r e con dem n ed by t h e
la ws of t h eir cou n t r y, a n d ch ildr en 63 wh ose pa r en t s h a ve u n der gon e t h e like
fa t e, a r e a s sever ely pu n ish ed by sh a m e, a s t h ey wou ld be in Ch in a by t h e loss
of t h eir lives.
EB1&@(&+-%&)$%<%*9H&'(&+-%&8.5*9%1
Clem en cy is t h e ch a r a ct er ist ic of m on a r ch s. In r epu blics, wh ose pr in ciple is
vir t u e, it is n ot so n ecessa r y. In despot ic gover n m en t s, wh er e fea r
pr edom in a t es, it is less cu st om a r y, beca u se t h e gr ea t m en a r e t o be r est r a in ed
by exa m ples of sever it y. It is m or e n ecessa r y in m on a r ch ies, wh er e t h ey a r e
gover n ed by h on ou r , wh ich fr equ en t ly r equ ir es wh a t t h e ver y la w for bids.
Disgr a ce is h er e equ iva len t t o ch a st isem en t ; a n d even t h e for m s of ju st ice a r e
pu n ish m en t s. Th is is beca u se pa r t icu la r kin ds of pen a lt y a r e for m ed by sh a m e,
wh ich on ever y side in va des t h e delin qu en t .

Th e gr ea t m en in m on a r ch ies a r e so h ea vily pu n ish ed by disgr a ce, by t h e loss
(t h ou gh oft en im a gin a r y) of t h eir for t u n e, cr edit , a cqu a in t a n ces, a n d plea su r es,
t h a t r igou r in r espect t o t h em is n eedless. It ca n t en d on ly t o divest t h e su bject
of t h e a ffect ion h e h a s for t h e per son of h is pr in ce, a n d of t h e r espect h e ou gh t
t o h a ve for pu blic post s a n d em ploym en t s.
As t h e in st a bilit y of t h e gr ea t is n a t u r a l t o a despot ic gover n m en t , so t h eir
secu r it y is in t er woven wit h t h e n a t u r e of m on a r ch y.
So m a n y a r e t h e a dva n t a ges wh ich m on a r ch s ga in by clem en cy, so gr ea t ly
does it r a ise t h eir fa m e, a n d en dea r t h em t o t h eir su bject s, t h a t it is gen er a lly
h a ppy for t h em t o h a ve a n oppor t u n it y of displa yin g it ; wh ich in t h is pa r t of t h e
wor ld is seldom wa n t in g.
Som e br a n ch , per h a ps, of t h eir a u t h or it y, bu t n ever h a r dly t h e wh ole, will be
dispu t ed; a n d if t h ey som et im es figh t for t h eir cr own , t h ey do n ot figh t for t h eir
life.
Bu t som e m a y a sk wh en it is pr oper t o pu n ish , a n d wh en t o pa r don . Th is is
a poin t m or e ea sily felt t h a t pr escr ibed. Wh en t h er e is da n ger in t h e exer cise of
clem en cy, it is visible; n ot h in g so ea sy a s t o dist in gu ish it fr om t h a t im becilit y
wh ich exposes pr in ces t o con t em pt a n d t o t h e ver y in ca pa cit y of pu n ish in g.
Th e E m per or Ma u r ice m a de a r esolu t ion n ever t o spill t h e blood of h is
su bject s. An a st a siu s 64 pu n ish ed n o cr im es a t a ll. Isa a c An gelu s t ook a n oa t h
t h a t n o on e sh ou ld be pu t t o dea t h du r in g h is r eign . Th ose Gr eek em per or s
for got t h a t it wa s n ot for n ot h in g t h ey wer e en t r u st ed wit h t h e swor d.
2'+%,1
1. In Ma zu lipa t a m it cou ld n ever be fou n d ou t t h a t t h er e wa s su ch a t h in g a s a
wr it t en la w. See t h e Collection of Voyages th at Con tribu ted to th e
E stablish m en t of th e E ast In d ia Com pan y, iv., pa r t I, p. 391. Th e In dia n s a r e
r egu la t ed in t h eir decision s by cer t a in cu st om s. Th e Veda n a n d su ch books
do n ot con t a in civil la ws, bu t r eligiou s pr ecept s. See E d ifyin g L etters, coll.
xiv.
2. Ca esa r , Cr om well, a n d m a n y ot h er s.
3. Non liqu et .
4. Qu a s a ct ion es n e popu lu s pr ou t vellet in st it u er et , cer t a s solem n esqu e esse
volu er u n t — Dig. de Or ig. J u r ., ii, § 6.

5. In F r a n ce a per son , t h ou gh su ed for m or e t h a n h e owes, loses h is cost s if h e
h a s n ot offer ed t o pa y t h e exa ct debt .
6. Discou r se on t h e fir st discou r se of Livy, i. 7.
7. Th is is well expla in ed in Cicer o’s or a t ion P r o Ca ecin a , t owa r ds t h e en d, 100.
8. Th is wa s t h e la w a t At h en s, a s a ppea r s by Dem ost h en es. Socr a t es r efu sed t o
m a ke u se of it .
9. Dem ost h en es, Pro Coron a, p. 494, F r a n kfor t , 1604.
10. See P h ilost r a t u s, L ives of th e S oph ists, i. Life of Æ sch in es.
11. P la t o does n ot t h in k it r igh t t h a t kin gs, wh o, a s h e sa ys, a r e pr iest s, sh ou ld
pr eside a t t r ia ls wh er e people a r e con dem n ed t o dea t h , t o exile, or t o
im pr ison m en t .
12. See t h e a ccou n t of t h e t r ia l of t h e Du ke de la Va let t e. It is pr in t ed in t h e
Mem oir s of Mon t r esor , ii, p. 62.
13. It wa s a ft er wa r ds r evoked. See t h e sa m e a ccou n t , ii. p. 236. It wa s
or din a r ily a r igh t of t h e peer a ge t h a t a peer cr im in a lly a ccu sed sh ou ld be
ju dged by t h e kin g, a s F r a n cis II in t h e t r ia l of t h e P r in ce of Con dé, a n d
Ch a r les VII in t h e ca se of t h e Du c d’Alen çon . To-da y, t h e pr esen ce of t h e
kin g a t t h e t r ia l of a peer , in or der t o con dem n h im wou ld seem a n a ct of
t yr a n n y. — Volt a ir e.
14. An n a ls, xi. 5.
15. Ibid., xiii. 4.
16. H ist or ies, v.
17. Th e sa m e disor der h a ppen ed u n der Th eodosiu s t h e you n ger .
18. Secr et H ist or y.
19. See Leg. 2, § 24, Dig. ff. de or ig. ju r .
20. Qu od pa t er pu ellce a besset , locu m in ju r ia esse r a t u s. — Livy, dec. I, iii. 44.
21. An d in a gr ea t m a n y ot h er cit ies.
22. See in Ta cit u s t h e r ewa r ds given t o t h ose in for m er s. — An n a ls, i. 30.
23. Book ix.
24. I sh a ll sh ow h er ea ft er t h a t Ch in a is, in t h is r espect , in t h e sa m e ca se a s a
r epu blic or a m on a r ch y.
25. Su ppose, for in st a n ce, t o pr even t t h e execu t ion of a decr ee, t h e com m on
people pa id a fin e of for t y sou s, a n d t h e n obilit y of sixt y livr es. — Som m e
Ru r a le, ii, p. 198, ed. Got h . 1512; a n d Bea u m a n oir , 61, p. 309.
26. See t h e Cou n cil of P et er Defon t a in es, 13, especia lly a r t . 22.
27. It wa s m a de by Va ler iu s P u blicola soon a ft er t h e expu lsion of t h e kin gs, a n d

wa s t wice r en ewed, bot h t im es by m a gist r a t es of t h e sa m e fa m ily. As Livy
obser ves, x, 9, t h e qu est ion wa s n ot t o give it a gr ea t er for ce, bu t t o r en der
it s in ju n ct ion s m or e per fect . “Diligen t iu s sa n ct u m ,” sa ys Livy, ibid.
28. Lex P or cia pr o t er go civiu m la t a . It wa s m a de in t h e 454t h yea r of t h e
fou n da t ion of Rom e.
29. Nih il u lt r a qu a m im pr obe fa ct u m a djecet — Livy, loc. cit .
30. Th ey slit h is n ose or cu t off h is ea r s.
31. Xen oph on , H ist ., iii. 8, §§ 20-22.
32. Of Th ose Wh o Ar e In t r u st ed wit h t h e Dir ect ion of t h e St a t e Affa ir s, 14.
33. See Kem pfer .
In dia Com pa n y, iii, pa r t I, p. 428.
35. Let t h is be obser ved a s a m a xim in pr a ct ice, wit h r ega r d t o ca ses wh er e t h e
m in ds of people h a ve been depr a ved by t oo gr ea t a sever it y of pu n ish m en t s.
In dia Com pa n y, v, p. 2.
37. Ibid.
38. Th e gu ilt y wer e con dem n ed t o a fin e; t h ey cou ld n ot be a dm it t ed in t o t h e
r a n k of sen a t or s, n or n om in a t ed t o a n y pu blic office. — Dio, xxxvi. 21.
39. Ibid.
40. Book i. 28.
41. We fin d t h er e t h e pu n ish m en t of fir e, a n d gen er a lly ca pit a l pu n ish m en t s,
t h eft pu n ish ed wit h dea t h , &c.
42. Su lla , a n im a t ed wit h t h e sa m e spir it a s t h e decem vir s, followed t h eir
exa m ple in a u gm en t in g t h e pen a l la ws a ga in st sa t ir ica l wr it er s.
43. Book i, 28.
44. P oen a s fa cin or u m a u xit , cu m locu plet es eo fa ciliu s sceler e se obliga r en t ,
qu od in t egr is pa t r im on iis exu la r en t . — Su et on iu s in Life of J u liu s Ca esa r ,
162.
45. See t h e Leg. 3, § legis, a d leg. Cor n el, de sica r iis, a n d a va st n u m ber of
ot h er s in t h e Digest a n d in t h e Codex.
46. Su blim ior es.
47. Medios.
48. In fir n os. Leg. 3, § legis, a d leg. Cor n el, de sica r iis.
49. J u l. Ca p., Ma xim in i du o, 8.
50. Ch a pt er 17.
51. H ist . of Niceph or u s, pa t r ia r ch of Con st a n t in ople.
52. In Niceph or u s’ H ist or y.
53. F a t h er Du H a lde, i, p. 6.
54. P r esen t St a t e of Ru ssia , P er r y.
55. Th e E n glish .
56. Th e cit izen s of At h en s cou ld n ot be pu t t o t h e r a ck (Lysia s, Or a t . con t r a
Agor a t .) u n less it wa s for h igh t r ea son . Th e t or t u r e wa s u sed wit h in t h ir t y
da ys a ft er con dem n a t ion . (Cu r iu s F or t u n a t u s. Rh et or , scol., ii.) Th er e wa s
n o pr epa r a t or y t or t u r e. In r ega r d t o t h e Rom a n s, t h e Leg. 3, 4, a d leg. J u l.
m a jest ., sh ow t h a t bir t h , dign it y, a n d t h e m ilit a r y pr ofession exem pt ed
people fr om t h e r a ck, except in ca ses of h igh t r ea son . See t h e pr u den t
r est r ict ion s of t h is pr a ct ice m a de by t h e la ws of t h e Visigot h s.
57. See Kem pfer .
58. It is est a blish ed in t h e Kor a n . See t h e ch a pt er , Of t h e Cow.
59. Si m em br u m r u pit , n i cu m eo pa cit , t a lio est o. Au lu s Gelliu s, xx. i.
60. Ibid.
61. See a lso t h e La w of t h e Visigot h s, vi, t it . 4, §§ 3, 5.
62. See Ga r cila sso, H ist or y of t h e Civil Wa r s of t h e Spa n ia r ds in t h e West
In dies.
63. “In st ea d of pu n ish in g t h em ,” sa ys P la t o, “t h ey ou gh t t o be com m en ded for
n ot h a vin g followed t h eir fa t h er s’ exa m ple.” — L aw s, ix.
64. F r a gm en t of Su ida s, in Con st a n t in e P or ph yr ogen it u s.
=''>&N??1&)'*,%XF%*9%,&'(&+-%&C5((%.%*+&8.5*954$%,&'(&+-%&!-.%%
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)'*05+5'*&'(&W'<%*1
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Lu xu r y is ever in pr opor t ion t o t h e in equ a lit y of for t u n es. If t h e r ich es of a
st a t e a r e equ a lly divided t h er e will be n o lu xu r y; for it is fou n ded m er ely on t h e
con ven ien ces a cqu ir ed by t h e la bou r of ot h er s.
In or der t o h a ve t h is equ a l dist r ibu t ion of r ich es, t h e la w ou gh t t o give t o ea ch
m a n on ly wh a t is n ecessa r y for n a t u r e. If t h ey exceed t h ese bou n ds, som e will
spen d, a n d ot h er s will a cqu ir e, by wh ich m ea n s a n in equ a lit y will be
est a blish ed.
Su pposin g wh a t is n ecessa r y for t h e su ppor t of n a t u r e t o be equ a l t o a given
su m , t h e lu xu r y of t h ose wh o h a ve on ly wh a t is ba r ely n ecessa r y will be equ a l
t o a ciph er : if a per son h a ppen s t o h a ve dou ble t h a t su m , h is lu xu r y will be
equ a l t o on e; h e t h a t h a s dou ble t h e la t t er ’s su bst a n ce will h a ve a lu xu r y equ a l
t o t h r ee; if t h is be st ill dou bled, t h er e will be a lu xu r y equ a l t o seven ; so t h a t t h e
pr oper t y of t h e su bsequ en t in dividu a l bein g a lwa ys su pposed dou ble t o t h a t of
t h e pr ecedin g, t h e lu xu r y will in cr ea se dou ble, a n d a u n it be a lwa ys a dded, in
t h is pr ogr ession , 0, 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, 63, 127
In P la t o’s r epu blic, 1 lu xu r y m igh t h a ve been exa ct ly ca lcu la t ed. Th er e wer e
fou r sor t s of cen su ses or r a t es of est a t es. Th e fir st wa s exa ct ly t h e t er m beyon d
pover t y, t h e secon d wa s dou ble, t h e t h ir d t r iple, t h e fou r t h qu a dr u ple t o t h e
fir st . In t h e fir st cen su s, lu xu r y wa s equ a l t o a ciph er ; in t h e secon d t o on e, in
t h e t h ir d t o t wo, in t h e fou r t h t o t h r ee: a n d t h u s it followed in a n a r it h m et ica l
pr opor t ion .
Con sider in g t h e lu xu r y of differ en t n a t ion s wit h r espect t o on e a n ot h er , it is
in ea ch st a t e a com pou n d pr opor t ion t o t h e in equ a lit y of for t u n es a m on g t h e
su bject s, a n d t o t h e in equ a lit y of wea lt h in differ en t st a t es. In P ola n d, for
exa m ple, t h er e is a n ext r em e in equ a lit y of for t u n es, bu t t h e pover t y of t h e wh ole

bin der s t h em fr om h a vin g so m u ch lu xu r y a s in a m or e opu len t gover n m en t .
Lu xu r y is a lso in pr opor t ion t o t h e popu lou sn ess of t h e t own s, a n d especia lly
of t h e ca pit a l; so t h a t it is in a com pou n d pr opor t ion t o t h e r ich es of t h e st a t e,
t o t h e in equ a lit y of pr iva t e for t u n es, a n d t o t h e n u m ber of people set t led in
pa r t icu la r pla ces.
In pr opor t ion t o t h e popu lou sn ess of t own s, t h e in h a bit a n t s a r e filled wit h
n ot ion s of va n it y, a n d a ct u a t ed by a n a m bit ion of dist in gu ish in g t h em selves by
t r ifles. 2 If t h ey a r e ver y n u m er ou s, a n d m ost of t h em st r a n ger s t o on e a n ot h er ,
t h eir va n it y r edou bles, beca u se t h er e a r e gr ea t er h opes of su ccess. As lu xu r y
in spir es t h ese h opes, ea ch m a n a ssu m es t h e m a r ks of a su per ior con dit ion . Bu t
by en dea vou r in g t h u s a t dist in ct ion , ever y on e becom es equ a l, a n d dist in ct ion
cea ses; a s a ll a r e desir ou s of r espect , n obody is r ega r ded.
H en ce a r ises a gen er a l in con ven ien ce. Th ose wh o excel in a pr ofession set
wh a t va lu e t h ey plea se on t h eir la bou r ; t h is exa m ple is followed by people of
in fer ior a bilit ies, a n d t h en t h er e is a n en d of a ll pr opor t ion bet ween ou r wa n t s
a n d t h e m ea n s of sa t isfyin g t h em . Wh en I a m for ced t o go t o la w, I m u st be a ble
t o fee cou n sel; wh en I a m sick, I m u st h a ve it in m y power t o fee a ph ysicia n .
It is t h e opin ion of sever a l t h a t t h e a ssem bla ge of so gr ea t a m u lt it u de of
people in ca pit a l cit ies is a n obst r u ct ion t o com m er ce, beca u se t h e in h a bit a n t s
a r e n o lon ger a t a pr oper dist a n ce fr om ea ch ot h er . Bu t I ca n n ot t h in k so; for
m en h a ve m or e desir es, m or e wa n t s, m or e fa n cies, wh en t h ey live t oget h er .
E1&@(&,F<4+F".H&6"7,&5*&"&C%<'9."9H1
We h a ve obser ved t h a t in a r epu blic, wh er e r ich es a r e equ a lly divided, t h er e
ca n be n o su ch t h in g a s lu xu r y; a n d a s we h a ve sh own in t h e 5t h Book 3 t h a t t h is
equ a l dist r ibu t ion con st it u t es t h e excellen ce of a r epu blica n gover n m en t ; h en ce
it follows, t h a t t h e less lu xu r y t h er e is in a r epu blic, t h e m or e it is per fect . Th er e
wa s n on e a m on g t h e old Rom a n s, n on e a m on g t h e La ceda em on ia n s; a n d in
r epu blics wh er e t h is equ a lit y is n ot qu it e lost , t h e spir it of com m er ce, in du st r y,
a n d vir t u e r en der s ever y m a n a ble a n d willin g t o live on h is own pr oper t y, a n d
con sequ en t ly pr even t s t h e gr owt h of lu xu r y.
Th e la ws con cer n in g t h e n ew division of la n ds, in sist ed u pon so ea ger ly in
som e r epu blics, wer e of t h e m ost sa lu t a r y n a t u r e. Th ey a r e da n ger ou s, on ly a s

t h ey a r e su dden . By r edu cin g in st a n t ly t h e wea lt h of som e, a n d in cr ea sin g t h a t
of ot h er s, t h ey for m a r evolu t ion in ea ch fa m ily, a n d m u st pr odu ce a gen er a l on e
in t h e st a t e.
In pr opor t ion a s lu xu r y ga in s gr ou n d in a r epu blic, t h e m in ds of t h e people a r e
t u r n ed t owa r ds t h eir pa r t icu la r in t er est s. Th ose wh o a r e a llowed on ly wh a t is
n ecessa r y h a ve n ot h in g bu t t h eir own r epu t a t ion a n d t h eir cou n t r y’s glor y in
view. Bu t a sou l depr a ved by lu xu r y h a s m a n y ot h er desir es, a n d soon becom es
a n en em y t o t h e la ws t h a t con fin e it . Th e lu xu r y in wh ich t h e ga r r ison of
Rh egiu m bega n t o live wa s t h e ca u se of t h eir m a ssa cr in g t h e in h a bit a n t s.
No soon er wer e t h e Rom a n s cor r u pt ed t h a n t h eir desir es beca m e bou n dless
a n d im m en se. Of t h is we m a y ju dge by t h e pr ice t h ey set on t h in gs. A pit ch er
of F a ler n ia n win e 4 wa s sold for a h u n dr ed Rom a n den a r ii; a ba r r el of sa lt m ea t
fr om t h e kin gdom of P on t u s cost fou r h u n dr ed; a good cook fou r t a len t s; a n d for
boys, n o pr ice wa s r eckon ed t oo gr ea t . Wh en t h e wh ole wor ld, im pelled by t h e
for ce of cor r u pt ion , is im m er sed in volu pt u ou sn ess 5 wh a t m u st t h en becom e of
vir t u e?
G1&@(&,F<4+F".H&6"7,&5*&"*&:.5,+'9."9H1
Th er e is t h is in con ven ien ce in a n ill-con st it u t ed a r ist ocr a cy, t h a t t h e wea lt h
cen t r es in t h e n obilit y, a n d yet t h ey a r e n ot a llowed t o spen d; for a s lu xu r y is
con t r a r y t o t h e spir it of m oder a t ion , it m u st be ba n ish ed t h en ce. Th is
gover n m en t com pr eh en ds, t h er efor e, on ly people wh o a r e ext r em ely poor a n d
ca n n ot a cqu ir e, a n d people wh o a r e va st ly r ich a n d ca n n ot spen d.
In Ven ice, t h ey a r e com pelled by t h e la ws t o m oder a t ion . Th ey a r e so
h a bit u a t ed t o pa r sim on y t h a t n on e bu t cou r t esa n s ca n m a ke t h em pa r t wit h
t h eir m on ey. Su ch is t h e m et h od m a de u se of for t h e su ppor t of in du st r y; t h e
m ost con t em pt ible of wom en m a y be pr ofu se wit h ou t da n ger , wh ilst t h ose wh o
con t r ibu t e t o t h eir ext r a va ga n ce con su m e t h eir da ys in t h e gr ea t est obscu r it y.
Adm ir a ble in t h is r espect wer e t h e in st it u t ion s of t h e pr in cipa l r epu blics of
Gr eece. Th e r ich em ployed t h eir m on ey in fest iva ls, m u sica l ch or u ses, ch a r iot s,
hor se-r aces, a n d ch a r gea ble offices. Wea lt h wa s, t h er efor e, a s bu r den som e t her e
a s pover t y.
J1&@(&,F<4+F".H&6"7,&5*&"&K'*".9-H1
Ta cit u s sa ys 6 t h a t t h e Su ion es, a Ger m a n n a t ion , h a s a pa r t icu la r r espect for
r ich es; for wh ich r ea son t h ey live u n der t h e gover n m en t of on e per son . Th is
sh ows t h a t lu xu r y is ext r em ely pr oper for m on a r ch ies, a n d t h a t u n der t h is
gover n m en t t h er e m u st be n o su m pt u a r y la ws.
As r ich es, by t h e ver y con st it u t ion of m on a r ch ies, a r e u n equ a lly divided, t h er e
is a n a bsolu t e n ecessit y for lu xu r y. Wer e t h e r ich n ot t o be la vish , t h e poor
wou ld st a r ve. It is even n ecessa r y h er e t h a t t h e expen ses of t h e opu len t sh ou ld
be in pr opor t ion t o t h e in equ a lit y of for t u n es, a n d t h a t lu xu r y, a s we h a ve
a lr ea dy obser ved, sh ou ld in cr ea se in t h is pr opor t ion . Th e a u gm en t a t ion of
pr iva t e wea lt h is owin g t o it s h a vin g depr ived on e pa r t of t h e cit izen s of t h eir
n ecessa r y su ppor t ; t h is m u st t h er efor e be r est or ed t o t h em .
H en ce it is t h a t for t h e pr eser va t ion of a m on a r ch ica l st a t e, lu xu r y ou gh t
con t in u a lly t o in cr ea se, a n d t o gr ow m or e ext en sive, a s it r ises fr om t h e la bou r er
t o t h e a r t ificer , t o t h e m er ch a n t , t o t h e m a gist r a t e, t o t h e n obilit y, t o t h e gr ea t
officer s of st a t e, u p t o t h e ver y pr in ce; ot h er wise t h e n a t ion will be u n don e.
In t h e r eign of Au gu st u s, a pr oposa l wa s m a de in t h e Rom a n sen a t e, wh ich
wa s com posed of gr a ve m a gist r a t es, lea r n ed civilia n s, a n d of m en wh ose h ea ds
wer e filled wit h t h e n ot ion of t h e pr im it ive t im es, t o r efor m t h e m a n n er s a n d
lu xu r y of wom en . It is cu r iou s t o see in Dio, 7 wit h wh a t a r t t h is pr in ce elu ded
t h e im por t u n a t e solicit a t ion s of t h ose sen a t or s. Th is wa s beca u se h e wa s
fou n din g a m on a r ch y, a n d dissolvin g a r epu blic.
Un der Tiber iu s, t h e Æ diles pr oposed in t h e sen a t e t h e r e-est a blish m en t of t h e
a n cien t su m pt u a r y la ws. 8 Th is pr in ce, wh o did n ot wa n t sen se, opposed it . “Th e
st a t e,” sa id h e, “cou ld n ot possibly su bsist in t h e pr esen t sit u a t ion of t h in gs.
H ow cou ld Rom e, h ow cou ld t h e pr ovin ces, live? We wer e fr u ga l, wh ile we wer e
on ly m a st er s of on e cit y; n ow we con su m e t h e r ich es of t h e wh ole globe, a n d
em ploy bot h t h e m a st er s a n d t h eir sla ves in ou r ser vice.” H e pla in ly sa w t h a t
su m pt u a r y la ws wou ld n ot su it t h e pr esen t for m of gover n m en t .
Wh en a pr oposa l wa s m a de u n der t h e sa m e em per or t o t h e sen a t e, t o pr oh ibit
t h e gover n or s fr om ca r r yin g t h eir wives wit h t h em in t o t h e pr ovin ces, beca u se
of t h e dissolu t en ess a n d ir r egu la r it y wh ich followed t h ose la dies, t h e pr oposa l
wa s r eject ed. It wa s sa id t h a t t h e exa m ples of a n cien t a u st er it y h a d been
ch a n ged in t o a m or e a gr eea ble m et h od of livin g. 9 Th ey fou n d t h er e wa s a

n ecessit y for differ en t m a n n er s.
Lu xu r y is t h er efor e a bsolu t ely n ecessa r y in m on a r ch ies; a s it is a lso in
despot ic st a t es. In t h e for m er , it is t h e u se of liber t y; in t h e la t t er , it is t h e a bu se
of ser vit u de. A sla ve a ppoin t ed by h is m a st er t o t yr a n n ise over ot h er wr et ch es
of t h e sa m e con dit ion , u n cer t a in of en joyin g t om or r ow t h e blessin gs of t o-da y,
h a s n o ot h er felicit y t h a n t h a t of glu t t in g t h e pr ide, t h e pa ssion s, a n d
volu pt u ou sn ess of t h e pr esen t m om en t .
H en ce a r ises a ver y n a t u r a l r eflect ion . Repu blics en d wit h lu xu r y; m on a r ch ies
wit h pover t y.10
L1&?*&7-"+&)",%,&,F<4+F".H&6"7,&".%&F,%(F$&5*&"&K'*".9-H1
Wh et h er it wa s fr om a r epu blica n spir it , or fr om . som e ot h er pa r t icu la r
cir cu m st a n ce, su m pt u a r y la ws wer e m a de in Ar a gon , in t h e m iddle of t h e
t h ir t een t h cen t u r y. J a m es t h e F ir st or da in ed t h a t n eit h er t h e kin g n or a n y of
h is su bject s sh ou ld h a ve a bove t wo sor t s of dish es a t a m ea l, a n d t h a t ea ch dish
sh ou ld be dr essed on ly on e wa y, except it wer e ga m e of t h eir own killin g.11
In ou r da ys, su m pt u a r y la ws h a ve been a lso en a ct ed in Sweden ; bu t wit h a
differ en t view fr om t h ose of Ar a gon .
A gover n m en t m a y m a ke su m pt u a r y la ws wit h a view t o a bsolu t e fr u ga lit y;
t h is is t h e spir it of su m pt u a r y la ws in r epu blics; a n d t h e ver y n a t u r e of t h e
t h in g sh ows t h a t su ch wa s t h e design of t h ose of Ar a gon .
Su m pt u a r y la ws m a y likewise be est a blish ed wit h a design t o pr om ot e a
r ela t ive fr u ga lit y: wh en a gover n m en t , per ceivin g t h a t for eign m er ch a n dise,
bein g a t t oo h igh a pr ice, will r equ ir e su ch a n expor t a t ion of h om e m a n u fa ct u r es
a s t o depr ive t h em of m or e a dva n t a ges by t h e loss of t h e la t t er t h a n t h ey ca n
r eceive fr om t h e possession of t h e for m er , t h ey will for bid t h eir bein g
in t r odu ced. An d t h is is t h e spir it of t h e la ws wh ich in ou r da ys h a ve been
pa ssed in Sweden . 12 Su ch a r e t h e su m pt u a r y la ws pr oper for m on a r ch ies.
In gen er a l, t h e poor er a st a t e, t h e m or e it is r u in ed by it s r ela t ive lu xu r y; a n d
con sequ en t ly t h e m or e occa sion it h a s for r ela t ive su m pt u a r y la ws. Th e r ich er
a st a t e, t h e m or e it t h r ives by it s r ela t ive lu xu r y; for wh ich r ea son it m u st t a ke
pa r t icu la r ca r e n ot t o m a ke a n y r ela t ive su m pt u a r y la ws. Th is we sh a ll bet t er
expla in in t h e book on com m er ce;13 h er e we t r ea t on ly of a bsolu t e lu xu r y.
O1&@(&+-%&6FVF.H&'(&)-5*"1
Su m pt u a r y la ws m a y, in som e gover n m en t s, be n ecessa r y for pa r t icu la r
r ea son s. Th e people, by t h e in flu en ce of t h e clim a t e, m a y gr ow so n u m er ou s, a n d
t h e m ea n s of su bsist in g m a y be so u n cer t a in , a s t o r en der a u n iver sa l
a pplica t ion t o a gr icu lt u r e ext r em ely n ecessa r y. As lu xu r y in t h ose cou n t r ies is
da n ger ou s, t h eir su m pt u a r y la ws sh ou ld be ver y sever e. In or der , t h er efor e, t o
be a ble t o ju dge wh et h er lu xu r y ou gh t t o be en cou r a ged or pr oscr ibed, we sh ou ld
exa m in e fir st wh a t r ela t ion t h er e is bet ween t h e n u m ber of people a n d t h e
fa cilit y t h ey h a ve of pr ocu r in g su bsist en ce. In E n gla n d t h e soil pr odu ces m or e
gr a in t h a n is n ecessa r y for t h e m a in t en a n ce of su ch a s cu lt iva t e t h e la n d, a n d
of t h ose wh o a r e em ployed in t h e woollen m a n u fa ct u r es. Th is cou n t r y m a y be
t h er efor e a llowed t o h a ve som e t r iflin g a r t s, a n d con sequ en t ly lu xu r y. In
F r a n ce, likewise, t h er e is cor n en ou gh for t h e su ppor t of t h e h u sba n dm a n a n d
of t h e m a n u fa ct u r er . Besides, a for eign t r a de m a y br in g in so m a n y n ecessa r ies
in r et u r n for t oys t h a t t h er e is n o da n ger t o be a ppr eh en ded fr om lu xu r y.
On t h e con t r a r y, in Ch in a , t h e wom en a r e so pr olific, a n d t h e h u m a n species
m u lt iplies so fa st , t h a t t h e la n ds, t h ou gh n ever so m u ch cu lt iva t ed, a r e sca r cely
su fficien t t o su ppor t t h e in h a bit a n t s. H er e, t h er efor e, lu xu r y is per n iciou s, a n d
t h e spir it of in du st r y a n d econ om y is a s r equ isit e a s in a n y r epu blic. 14 Th ey a r e
obliged t o pu r su e t h e n ecessa r y a r t s, a n d t o sh u n t h ose of lu xu r y a n d plea su r e.
Th is is t h e spir it of t h e excellen t decr ees of t h e Ch in ese em per or s. “Ou r
a n cest or s,” sa ys a n em per or of t h e fa m ily of t h e Ta n gs 15 “h eld it a s a m a xim t h a t
if t h er e wa s a m a n wh o did n ot wor k, or a wom a n t h a t wa s idle, som ebody m u st
su ffer cold or h u n ger in t h e em pir e.” An d on t h is pr in ciple h e or der ed a va st
n u m ber of t h e m on a st er ies of Bon zes t o be dest r oyed.
Th e t h ir d em per or of t h e on e-a n d-t wen t iet h dyn a st y, 16 t o wh om som e pr eciou s
st on es wer e br ou gh t t h a t h a d been fou n d in a m in e, or der ed it t o be sh u t u p, n ot
ch oosin g t o fa t igu e h is people wit h wor kin g for a t h in g t h a t cou ld n eit h er feed
n or clot h e t h em .
“So gr ea t is ou r lu xu r y,” sa ys Kia yven t i, 17 “t h a t people a dor n wit h em br oider y
t h e sh oes of boys a n d gir ls, wh om t h ey a r e obliged t o sell.” Is em ployin g so m a n y
people in m a kin g clot h es for on e per son t h e wa y t o pr even t a gr ea t m a n y fr om

wa n t in g clot h es? Th er e a r e t en m en wh o ea t t h e fr u it s of t h e ea r t h t o on e
em ployed in a gr icu lt u r e; a n d is t h is t h e m ea n s of pr eser vin g n u m ber s fr om
wa n t in g n ou r ish m en t ?
P1&Y"+"$&)'*,%XF%*9%&'(&6FVF.H&5*&)-5*"1
In t h e h ist or y of Ch in a we fin d it h a s h a d t wen t y-t wo su ccessive dyn a st ies,
t h a t is, it h a s exper ien ced t wen t y-t wo gen er a l, wit h ou t m en t ion in g a pr odigiou s
n u m ber of pa r t icu la r , r evolu t ion s. Th e fir st t h r ee dyn a st ies la st ed a lon g t im e,
beca u se t h ey wer e wisely a dm in ist er ed, a n d t h e em pir e h a d n ot so gr ea t a n
ext en t a s it a ft er wa r ds obt a in ed. Bu t we m a y obser ve in gen er a l t h a t a ll t h ose
dyn a st ies bega n ver y well. Vir t u e, a t t en t ion , a n d vigila n ce a r e n ecessa r y in
Ch in a ; t h ese pr eva iled in t h e com m en cem en t of t h e dyn a st ies, a n d fa iled in t h e
en d. It wa s n a t u r a l t h a t em per or s t r a in ed u p in m ilit a r y t oil, wh o h a d
com pa ssed t h e det h r on in g of a fa m ily im m er sed in plea su r e, sh ou ld a dh er e t o
vir t u e, wh ich t h ey h a d fou n d so a dva n t a geou s, a n d be a fr a id of volu pt u ou sn ess,
wh ich t h ey kn ew h a d pr oved so fa t a l t o t h e fa m ily det h r on ed. Bu t a ft er t h e
t h r ee or fou r fir st pr in ces, cor r u pt ion , lu xu r y, in dolen ce, a n d plea su r e possessed
t h eir su ccessor s; t h ey sh u t t h em selves u p in a pa la ce; t h eir u n der st a n din g wa s
im pa ir ed; t h eir life wa s sh or t en ed; t h e fa m ily declin ed; t h e gr a n dees r ose u p;
t h e eu n u ch s ga in ed cr edit ; n on e bu t ch ildr en wer e set on t h e t h r on e; t h e pa la ce
wa s a t va r ia n ce wit h t h e em pir e; a la zy set of people t h a t dwelt t h er e r u in ed t h e
in du st r iou s pa r t of t h e n a t ion ; t h e em per or wa s killed or dest r oyed by a
u su r per , wh o fou n ded a fa m ily, t h e t h ir d or fou r t h su ccessor of wh ich wen t a n d
sh u t h im self u p in t h e ver y sa m e pa la ce.
Q1&@(&4F#$59&)'*+5*%*9H1&
So m a n y a r e t h e im per fect ion s t h a t a t t en d t h e loss of vir t u e in wom en , a n d so
gr ea t ly a r e t h eir m in ds depr a ved wh en t h is pr in cipa l gu a r d is r em oved, t h a t in
a popu la r st a t e pu blic in con t in en cy m a y be con sider ed a s t h e la st of m iser ies,
a n d a s a cer t a in for er u n n er of a ch a n ge in t h e con st it u t ion .
H en ce it is t h a t t h e sa ge legisla t or s of r epu blica n st a t es h a ve ever r equ ir ed of
wom en a pa r t icu la r gr a vit y of m a n n er s. Th ey h a ve pr oscr ibed n ot on ly vice, bu t
t h e ver y a ppea r a n ce of it . Th ey h a ve ba n ish ed even a ll com m er ce of ga lla n t r y

— a com m er ce t h a t pr odu ces idlen ess, t h a t r en der s t h e wom en cor r u pt er s, even
befor e t h ey a r e cor r u pt ed, t h a t gives a va lu e t o t r ifles, a n d deba ses t h in gs of
im por t a n ce: a com m er ce, in fin e, t h a t m a kes people a ct en t ir ely by t h e m a xim s
of r idicu le, in wh ich t h e wom en a r e so per fect ly skilled.
S1&@(&+-%&)'*05+5'*&'.&3+"+%&'(&W'<%*&5*&05((%.%*+&A';%.*<%*+,1
In m on a r ch ies wom en a r e su bject t o ver y lit t le r est r a in t , beca u se a s t h e
dist in ct ion of r a n ks ca lls t h em t o cou r t , t h er e t h ey a ssu m e a spir it of liber t y,
wh ich is a lm ost t h e on ly on e t oler a t ed in t h a t pla ce. E a ch cou r t ier a va ils
h im self of t h eir ch a r m s a n d pa ssion s, in or der t o a dva n ce h is for t u n e: a n d a s
t h eir wea kn ess a dm it s n ot of pr ide, bu t of va n it y, lu xu r y con st a n t ly a t t en ds
t h em .
In despot ic gover n m en t s wom en do n ot in t r odu ce, bu t a r e t h em selves a n
object of, lu xu r y. Th ey m u st be in a st a t e of t h e m ost r igor ou s ser vit u de. E ver y
on e follows t h e spir it of t h e gover n m en t , a n d a dopt s in h is own fa m ily t h e
cu st om s h e sees elsewh er e est a blish ed. As t h e la ws a r e ver y sever e a n d
execu t ed on t h e spot , t h ey a r e a fr a id lest t h e liber t y of wom en sh ou ld expose
t h em t o da n ger . Th eir qu a r r els, in discr et ion s, r epu gn a n cies, jea lou sies, piqu es,
a n d t h a t a r t , in fin e, wh ich lit t le sou ls h a ve of in t er est in g gr ea t on es, wou ld be
a t t en ded t h er e wit h fa t a l con sequ en ces.
Besides, a s pr in ces in t h ose cou n t r ies m a ke a spor t of h u m a n n a t u r e, t h ey
a llow t h em selves a m u lt it u de of wom en ; a n d a t h ou sa n d con sider a t ion s oblige
t h em t o keep t h ose wom en in close con fin em en t .
In r epu blics wom en a r e fr ee by t h e la ws a n d r est r a in ed by m a n n er s; lu xu r y
is ba n ish ed t h en ce, a n d wit h it cor r u pt ion a n d vice.
In t h e cit ies of Gr eece, wh er e t h ey wer e n ot u n der t h e r est r a in t of a r eligion
wh ich decla r es t h a t even a m on gst m en r egu la r it y of m a n n er s is a pa r t of vir t u e;
wh er e a blin d pa ssion t r iu m ph ed wit h a bou n dless in solen ce, a n d love a ppea r ed
on ly in a sh a pe wh ich we da r e n ot m en t ion , wh ile m a r r ia ge wa s con sider ed a s
n ot h in g m or e t h a n sim ple fr ien dsh ip;18 su ch wa s t h e vir t u e, sim plicit y, a n d
ch a st it y of wom en in t h ose cit ies, t h a t in t h is r espect h a r dly a n y people wer e
ever kn own t o h a ve h a d a bet t er a n d wiser polit y. 19
BT1&@(&+-%&0'<%,+59&!.5#F*"$&"<'*D&+-%&/'<"*,1
Th e Rom a n s h a d n o pa r t icu la r m a gist r a t es, like t h e Gr eeks, t o in spect t h e
con du ct of wom en . Th e cen sor s h a d n ot a n eye over t h em , a s over t h e r est of t h e
r epu blic.
Th e in st it u t ion of t h e dom est ic t r ibu n a l 20 su pplied t h e m a gist r a cy est a blish ed
a m on g t h e Gr eeks.21
Th e h u sba n d su m m on ed t h e wife’s r ela t ives, a n d t r ied h er in t h eir pr esen ce. 22
Th is t r ibu n a l pr eser ved t h e m a n n er s of t h e r epu blic; a n d a t t h e sa m e t im e t h ose
ver y m a n n er s m a in t a in ed t h is t r ibu n a l. F or it decided n ot on ly in r espect t o t h e
viola t ion of t h e la ws, bu t a lso of m a n n er s: n ow, in or der t o ju dge of t h e viola t ion
of t h e la t t er , m a n n er s a r e r equ isit e. Th e pen a lt ies in flict ed by t h is t r ibu n a l
ou gh t t o be, a n d a ct u a lly wer e, a r bit r a r y: for a ll t h a t r ela t es t o m a n n er s, a n d
t o t h e r u les of m odest y, ca n h a r dly be com pr ised u n der on e code of la ws. It is
ea sy in deed t o r egu la t e by la ws wh a t we owe t o ot h er s; bu t it is ver y difficu lt of
com pr ise a ll we owe t o ou r selves.
Th e dom est ic t r ibu n a l in spect ed t h e gen er a l con du ct of wom en : bu t t h er e wa s
on e cr im e wh ich , beside t h e a n im a dver sion of t h is t r ibu n a l, wa s likewise su bject
t o a pu blic a ccu sa t ion . Th is wa s a du lt er y; wh et h er t h a t in a r epu blic so gr ea t a
depr a va t ion of m a n n er s in t er est ed t h e gover n m en t ; or wh et h er t h e wife’s
im m or a lit y m igh t r en der t h e h u sba n d su spect ed; or wh et h er , in fin e, t h ey wer e
a fr a id lest even h on est people m igh t ch oose t h a t t h is cr im e sh ou ld r a t h er be
con cea led t h a n pu n ish ed.
BB1&?*&7-"+&K"**%.&+-%&?*,+5+F+5'*,&9-"*D%0&"+&/'<%I&+'D%+-%.&75+-
+-%&A';%.*<%*+1
As m a n n er s wer e su ppor t ed by t h e dom est ic t r ibu n a l, t h ey wer e a lso
su ppor t ed by t h e pu blic a ccu sa t ion ; a n d h en ce it is t h a t t h ese t wo t h in gs fell
t oget h er wit h t h e pu blic m a n n er s, a n d en ded wit h t h e r epu blic.23
Th e est a blish in g of per pet u a l qu est ion s, t h a t is, t h e division of ju r isdict ion
a m on g t h e pr a et or s, a n d t h e cu st om gr a du a lly in t r odu ced of t h e pr a et or s
det er m in in g a ll ca u ses t h em selves,24 wea ken ed t h e u se of t h e dom est ic t r ibu n a l.
Th is a ppea r s by t h e su r pr ise of h ist or ia n s, wh o look u pon t h e decision s wh ich
Tiber iu s ca u sed t o be given by t h is t r ibu n a l a s sin gu la r fa ct s, a n d a s a r en ewa l

of t h e a n cien t cou r se of plea din g.
Th e est a blish m en t of m on a r ch y a n d t h e ch a n ge of m a n n er s pu t likewise a n
en d t o pu blic a ccu sa t ion s. It m igh t be a ppr eh en ded lest a dish on est m a n ,
a ffr on t ed a t t h e sligh t sh own h im by a wom a n , vexed a t h er r efu sa l, a n d
ir r it a t ed even by h er vir t u e, sh ou ld for m a design t o dest r oy h er . Th e J u lia n la w
or da in ed t h a t a wom a n sh ou ld n ot be a ccu sed of a du lt er y t ill a ft er h er h u sba n d
h a d been ch a r ged wit h fa vou r in g h er ir r egu la r it ies; wh ich lim it ed gr ea t ly, a n d
a n n ih ila t ed, a s it wer e, t h is sor t of a ccu sa t ion . 25 Sext u s Qu in t u s seem ed t o h a ve
been desir ou s of r evivin g t h e pu blic a ccu sa t ion s. 26 Bu t t h er e n eeds ver y lit t le
r eflect ion t o see t h a t t h is la w wou ld be m or e im pr oper in su ch a m on a r ch y a s
h is t h a n in a n y ot h er .
BE1&@(&+-%&AF".05"*,-54&'(&W'<%*&"<'*D&+-%&/'<"*,1
Th e Rom a n la ws su bject ed wom en t o a per pet u a l gu a r dia n sh ip, except t h ey
wer e u n der cover a n d su bject t o t h e a u t h or it y of a h u sba n d. 27 Th is gu a r dia n sh ip
wa s given t o t h e n ea r est of t h e m a le r ela t ives; a n d by a vu lga r expr ession 28 it
a ppea r s t h ey wer e ver y m u ch con fin ed. Th is wa s pr oper for a r epu blic, bu t n ot
a t a ll n ecessa r y in a m on a r ch y. 29
Th a t t h e wom en a m on g t h e a n cien t Ger m a n s wer e likewise u n der a per pet u a l
t u t ela ge a ppea r s fr om t h e differ en t codes of t h e La ws of t h e Ba r ba r ia n s. 30 Th is
cu st om wa s com m u n ica t ed t o t h e m on a r ch ies fou n ded by t h ose people; bu t wa s
n ot of lon g du r a t ion .
BG1&@(&+-%&8F*5,-<%*+,&0%9.%%0&#H&+-%&U<4%.'.,&"D"5*,+&+-%
?*9'*+5*%*9%&'(&W'<%*1&
Th e J u lia n la w or da in ed a pu n ish m en t a ga in st a du lt er y. Bu t so fa r wa s t h is
la w, a n y m or e t h a n t h ose a ft er wa r ds m a de on t h e sa m e a ccou n t , fr om bein g a
m a r k of r egu la r it y of m a n n er s, t h a t on t h e con t r a r y it wa s a pr oof of t h eir
depr a vit y.
Th e wh ole polit ica l syst em in r espect t o wom en r eceived a ch a n ge in t h e
m on a r ch ica l st a t e. Th e qu est ion wa s n o lon ger t o oblige t h em t o a r egu la r it y of
m a n n er s, bu t t o pu n ish t h eir cr im es. Th a t n ew la ws wer e m a de t o pu n ish t h eir

cr im es wa s owin g t o t h eir lea vin g t h ose t r a n sgr ession s u n pu n ish ed wh ich wer e
n ot of so cr im in a l a n a t u r e.
Th e fr igh t fu l dissolu t ion of m a n n er s obliged in deed t h e em per or s t o en a ct
la ws in or der t o pu t som e st op t o lewdn ess; bu t it wa s n ot t h eir in t en t ion t o
est a blish a gen er a l r efor m a t ion . Of t h is t h e posit ive fa ct s r ela t ed by h ist or ia n s
a r e a m u ch st r on ger pr oof t h a n a ll t h ese la ws ca n be of t h e con t r a r y. We m a y
see in Dio t h e con du ct of Au gu st u s on t h is occa sion , a n d in wh a t m a n n er h e
elu ded, bot h in h is pr a et or ia n a n d cen sor ia n office, t h e r epea t ed in st a n ces t h a t
wer e m a de h im 31 for t h a t pu r pose.
It is t r u e t h a t we fin d in h ist or ia n s ver y r igid sen t en ces, pa ssed in t h e r eign s
of Au gu st u s a n d Tiber iu s, a ga in st t h e lewdn ess of som e Rom a n la dies: bu t by
sh owin g u s t h e spir it of t h ose r eign s, a t t h e sa m e t im e t h ey dem on st r a t e t h e
spir it of t h ose decision s.
The pr in cipa l design of Au gu st u s a n d Tiber iu s wa s t o pu n ish t h e dissolu t en ess
of t h eir r ela t ives. It wa s n ot t h eir im m or a lit y t h ey pu n ish ed, bu t a pa r t icu la r
cr im e of im piet y or h igh t r ea son 32 of t h eir own in ven t ion , wh ich ser ved t o
pr om ot e a r espect for m a jest y, a n d a n swer ed t h eir pr iva t e r even ge. H en ce it is
t h a t t h e Rom a n h ist or ia n s in veigh so bit t er ly a ga in st t h is t yr a n n y.
Th e pen a lt y of t h e J u lia n la w wa s sm a ll.33 Th e em per or s in sist ed t h a t in
pa ssin g sen t en ce t h e ju dges sh ou ld in cr ea se t h e pen a lt y of t h e la w. Th is wa s t h e
su bject of t h e in vect ives of h ist or ia n s. Th ey did n ot exa m in e wh et h er t h e wom en
wer e deser vin g of pu n ish m en t , bu t wh et h er t h ey h a d viola t ed t h e la w, in or der
t o pu n ish t h em .
On e of t h e m ost t yr a n n ica l pr oceedin gs of Tiber iu s 34 wa s t h e a bu se h e m a de
of t h e a n cien t la ws. Wh en h e wa n t ed t o ext en d t h e pu n ish m en t of a Rom a n la dy
beyon d t h a t in flict ed by t h e J u lia n la w, h e r evived t h e dom est ic t r ibu n a l.35
Th ese r egu la t ion s in r espect t o wom en con cer n ed on ly sen a t or ia l fa m ilies, n ot
t h e com m on people. P r et en ces wer e wa n t ed t o a ccu se t h e gr ea t , wh ich wer e
con st a n t ly fu r n ish ed by t h e dissolu t e beh a viou r of t h e la dies.
In fin e, wh a t I h a ve a bove obser ved, n a m ely, t h a t r egu la r it y of m a n n er s is n ot
t h e pr in ciple of m on a r ch y, wa s n ever bet t er ver ified t h a n u n der t h ose fir st
em per or s; a n d wh oever dou bt s it n eed on ly r ea d Ta cit u s, Su et on iu s, J u ven a l,
or Ma r t ia l.
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We h a ve spoken of pu blic in con t in en ce beca u se it is t h e in sepa r a ble
com pa n ion of lu xu r y. If we lea ve t h e m ot ion s of t h e h ea r t a t liber t y, h ow sh a ll
we be a ble t o r est r a in t h e wea kn esses of t h e m in d?
At Rom e, besides t h e gen er a l in st it u t ion s, t h e cen sor s pr eva iled on t h e
m a gist r a t es t o en a ct sever a l pa r t icu la r la ws for m a in t a in in g t h e fr u ga lit y of
wom en . Th is wa s t h e design of t h e F a n n ia n , Licin ia n , a n d Oppia n la ws. We m a y
see in Livy 36 t h e gr ea t fer m en t t h e sen a t e wa s in wh en t h e wom en in sist ed u pon
t h e r evoca t ion of t h e Oppia n la w. Th e a br oga t ion of t h is la w is fixed u pon by
Va ler iu s Ma xim u s a s t h e per iod wh en ce we m a y da t e t h e lu xu r y of t h e Rom a n s.
BL1&@(&C'7.5%,&"*0&2F4+5"$&:0;"*+"D%,&5*&05((%.%*+&)'*,+5+F+5'*,1&
Dowr ies ou gh t t o be con sider a ble in m on a r ch ies, in or der t o en a ble h u sba n ds
t o su ppor t t h eir r a n k a n d t h e est a blish ed lu xu r y. In r epu blics, wh er e lu xu r y
sh ou ld n ever r eign , 37 t h ey ou gh t t o be m oder a t e; bu t t h er e sh ou ld be h a r dly a n y
a t a ll in despot ic gover n m en t s, wh er e wom en a r e in som e m ea su r e sla ves.
Th e com m u n it y of goods in t r odu ced by t h e F r en ch la ws bet ween m a n a n d wife
is ext r em ely well a da pt ed t o a m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t ; beca u se t h e wom en a r e
t h er eby in t er est ed in dom est ic a ffa ir s, a n d com pelled, a s it wer e, t o t a ke ca r e
of t h eir fa m ily. It is less so in a r epu blic, wh er e wom en a r e possessed of m or e
vir t u e. Bu t it wou ld be qu it e a bsu r d in despot ic gover n m en t s, wh er e t h e wom en
t h em selves gen er a lly con st it u t e a pa r t of t h e m a st er ’s pr oper t y.
As wom en a r e in a st a t e t h a t fu r n ish es su fficien t in du cem en t s t o m a r r ia ge,
t h e a dva n t a ges wh ich t h e la w gives t h em over t h e h u sba n d’s pr oper t y a r e of n o
ser vice t o societ y. Bu t in a r epu blic t h ey wou ld be ext r em ely pr eju dicia l, beca u se
r ich es a r e pr odu ct ive of lu xu r y. In despot ic gover n m en t s t h e pr ofit s a ccr u in g
fr om m a r r ia ge ou gh t t o be m er e su bsist en ce, a n d n o m or e.
BO1&:*&%V9%$$%*+&)F,+'<&'(&+-%&3"<*5+%,1&
Th e Sa m n it es h a d a cu st om wh ich in so sm a ll a r epu blic, a n d especia lly in
t h eir sit u a t ion , m u st h a ve been pr odu ct ive of a dm ir a ble effect s. Th e you n g
people wer e a ll con ven ed in on e pla ce, a n d t h eir con du ct wa s exa m in ed. H e t h a t
wa s decla r ed t h e best of t h e wh ole a ssem bly h a d lea ve given h im t o t a ke wh ich
gir l h e plea sed for h is wife; t h e secon d best ch ose a ft er h im ; a n d so on . 38
Adm ir a ble in st it u t ion ! Th e on ly r ecom m en da t ion t h a t you n g m en cou ld h a ve on
t h is occa sion wa s t h eir vir t u e a n d t h e ser vices don e t h eir cou n t r y. H e wh o h a d
t h e gr ea t est sh a r e of t h ese en dowm en t s ch ose wh ich gir l h e liked ou t of t h e
wh ole n a t ion . Love, bea u t y, ch a st it y, vir t u e, bir t h , a n d even wea lt h it self, wer e
a ll, in som e m ea su r e, t h e dowr y of vir t u e. A n obler a n d gr a n der r ecom pen se,
less ch a r gea ble t o a pet t y st a t e, a n d m or e ca pa ble of in flu en cin g bot h sexes,
cou ld sca r cely be im a gin ed.
Th e Sa m n it es wer e descen ded fr om t h e La ceda em on ia n s; a n d P la t o, wh ose
in st it u t es a r e on ly a n im pr ovem en t of t h ose of Lycu r gu s, en a ct ed n ea r ly t h e
sa m e la w.39
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It is con t r a r y t o r ea son a n d n a t u r e t h a t wom en sh ou ld r eign in fa m ilies, a s
wa s cu st om a r y a m on g t h e E gypt ia n s; bu t n ot t h a t t h ey sh ou ld gover n a n
em pir e. In t h e for m er ca se t h e st a t e of t h eir n a t u r a l wea kn ess does n ot per m it
t h em t o h a ve t h e pr e-em in en ce; in t h e la t t er t h eir ver y wea kn ess gen er a lly
gives t h em m or e len it y a n d m oder a t ion , qu a lifica t ion s fit t er for a good
a dm in ist r a t ion t h a n r ou gh n ess a n d sever it y.
In t h e In dies t h ey a r e ver y ea sy u n der a fem a le gover n m en t ; a n d it is set t led
t h a t if t h e m a le issu e be n ot of a m ot h er of t h e sa m e blood, t h e fem a les bor n of
a m ot h er of t h e blood-r oya l m u st su cceed. 40 An d t h en t h ey h a ve a cer t a in
n u m ber of per son s wh o a ssist t h em t o bea r t h e weigh t of t h e gover n m en t .
Accor din g t o Mr . Sm it h , 41 t h ey a r e ver y ea sy in Afr ica u n der fem a le
a dm in ist r a t ion . If t o t h is we a dd t h e exa m ple of E n gla n d a n d Ru ssia , we sh a ll
fin d t h a t t h ey su cceed a like bot h in m oder a t e a n d despot ic gover n m en t s.
2'+%,1
1. Th e fir st cen su s wa s t h e h er edit a r y sh a r e in la n d, a n d P la t o wou ld n ot a llow
t h em t o h a ve, in ot h er effect s, a bove a t r iple of t h e h er edit a r y sh a r e. See h is
L aw s, v.
2. “In la r ge a n d popu lou s cit ies,” sa ys t h e a u t h or of t h e Fable of th e B ees, i, p.
133, “t h ey wea r clot h es a bove t h eir r a n k, a n d, con sequ en t ly, h a ve t h e
plea su r e of bein g est eem ed by a va st m a jor it y, n ot a s wh a t t h ey a r e, bu t
wh a t t h ey a ppea r t o be. Th ey h a ve t h e sa t isfa ct ion of im a gin in g t h a t t h ey
a ppea r wh a t t h ey wou ld be: wh ich , t o wea k m in ds, is a plea su r e a lm ost a s
su bst a n t ia l a s t h ey cou ld r ea p fr om t h e ver y a ccom plish m en t of t h eir
wish es.”
3. Ch a pt er s 3, 4.
4. F r a gm en t of t h e 36t h book of Diodor u s, qu ot ed by Con st a n t in e
P or ph yr ogen it u s, in h is E xt r a ct of Vir t u es a n d Vices.
5. Cu m m a xim u s om n iu m im pet u s a d lu xu r ia n t esset . — Ibid.
6. De M oribu s Germ an oru m , 44.
7. Dio Ca ssiu s, liv. 16.
8. Ta cit u s, An n als, iii. 34.
9. Ma lt a du r it iei vet er u m m eliu s et la t iu s m u t a t a — Ta cit u s, An n als, iii. 34.
10. Opu len t ia pa r it u r a m ox egest a t em . — F lor u s, iii. 12.
11. Con st it u t ion of J a m es I in t h e yea r 1234, a r t . 6, in Ma r ca H ispa n ica , p.
1429.
12. Th ey h a ve pr oh ibit ed r ich win es a n d ot h er cost ly m er ch a n dise.
13. L ettres persan es, 106. See below, xx. 20.
14. Lu xu r y h a s been h er e a lwa ys pr oh ibit ed.
15. In a n or din a n ce qu ot ed by F a t h er Du H a lde, ii, p. 497.
16. H ist or y of Ch in a , 21st Dyn a st y, in F a t h er Du H a lde’s wor k, i.
17. In a discou r se cit ed by F a t h er Du H a lde, iii, p. 418.
18. “In r espect t o t r u e love,” sa ys P lu t a r ch , “t h e wom en h a ve n ot h in g t o sa y t o
it .” In h is Tr ea t ise of Love, p. 600. H e spok e in t h e st yle of h is t im e. See
Xen oph on in t h e dia logu e in t it led H ier o.
19. At At h en s t h er e wa s a pa r t icu la r m a gist r a t e wh o in spect ed t h e con du ct of
wom en .
20. Rom u lu s in st it u t ed t h is t r ibu n a l, a s a ppea r s fr om Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s,

ii, p. 96.
21. See in Livy, xxxix, t h e u se t h a t wa s m a de of t h is t r ibu n a l a t t h e t im e of t h e
con spir a cy of t h e Ba cch a n a lia n s (t h ey ga ve t h e n a m e of con spir a cy a ga in st
t h e r epu blic t o a ssem blies in wh ich t h e m or a ls of wom en a n d you n g people
wer e deba u ch ed.)
22. It a ppea r s fr om Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, ii, t h a t Rom u lu s’s in st it u t ion wa s
t h a t in or din a r y ca ses t h e h u sba n d sh ou ld sit a s ju dge in t h e pr esen ce of t h e
wife’s r ela t ives, bu t t h a t in h ein ou s cr im es h e sh ou ld det er m in e in
con ju n ct ion wit h five of t h em . H en ce Ulpia n , t it . 6, 9, 12, 13, dist in gu ish es
in r espect t o t h e differ en t ju dgm en t s of m a n n er s bet ween t h ose wh ich h e
ca lls im por t a n t , a n d t h ose wh ich a r e less so: m or es gr a vior es, m or es
levior es.
23. J u dicio de m or ibu s (qu od a n t ea qu idem in a n t iqu is legibu s posit u m er a t ,
n on a u t em fr equ en t a ba t u r ) pen it u s a bolit o. Leg. 11. Cod. de r epu d.
24. J u dicia ext r a or din a r ia .
25. It wa s en t ir ely a bolish ed by Con st a n t in e: “It is a sh a m e,” sa id h e, “t h a t
set t led m a r r ia ges sh ou ld be dist u r bed by t h e pr esu m pt ion of st r a n ger s.”
26. Sext u s Qu in t u s or da in ed, t h a t if a h u sba n d did n ot com e a n d m a ke h is
com pla in t t o h im of h is wife’s in fidelit y, h e sh ou ld be pu t t o dea t h . See Let i,
Life of Sext u s V.
27. Nisi con ven issen t in m a n u m vir i.
28. Ne sis m ih i pa t r u u s or o.
29. Th e P a pia n la w or da in ed, u n der Au gu st u s, t h a t wom en wh o h a d bor n e t h r ee
ch ildr en sh ou ld be exem pt fr om t h is t u t ela ge.
30. Th is t u t ela ge wa s by t h e Ger m a n s ca lled Mu n debu r diu m .
31. Upon t h eir br in gin g befor e h im a you n g m a n wh o h a d m a r r ied a wom a n
wit h wh om h e h a d befor e ca r r ied on a n illicit com m er ce, h e h esit a t ed a lon g
wh ile, n ot da r in g t o a ppr ove or t o pu n ish t h ese t h in gs. At len gt h r ecollect in g
h im self, “Sedit ion s,” sa ys h e, “h a ve been t h e ca u se of ver y gr ea t evils; let u s
for get t h em .” Dio, liv. 16. Th e sen a t e h a vin g desir ed h im t o give t h em som e
r egu la t ion s in r espect t o wom en ’s m or a ls, h e eva ded t h eir pet it ion by t ellin g
t h em t h a t t h ey sh ou ld ch a st ise t h eir wives in t h e sa m e m a n n er a s h e did
h is; u pon wh ich t h ey desir ed h im t o t ell t h em h ow h e beh a ved t o h is wife.

(I t h in k a ver y in discr eet qu est ion .)
32. Ta cit u s, An n als, iii. 24.
33. Th is la w is given in t h e Digest , bu t wit h ou t m en t ion in g t h e pen a lt y. It is
su pposed it wa s on ly r elega t io, beca u se t h a t of in cest wa s on ly depor t a t io.
Leg., si qu is vidu a m , ff. de qu a est .
34. Ta cit u s, An n als, iv. 19.
35. Ibid., ii. 50.
36. Dec. 4, iv.
37. Ma r seilles wa s t h e wisest of a ll t h e r epu blics in it s t im e; h er e it wa s
or da in ed t h a t dowr ies sh ou ld n ot exceed on e h u n dr ed cr own s in m on ey, a n d
five in clot h es, a s St r a bo obser ves, iv.
38. F r a gm en t of Nicola u s Da m a scen u s, t a ken fr om St oba eu s in t h e collect ion
of Con st a n t in e P or ph yr ogen it u s.
39. H e even per m it s t h em t o h a ve a m or e fr equ en t in t er view wit h on e a n ot h er .
40. E difyin g Let t er s, coll. xiv.
41. Voya ge t o Gu in ea , pa r t t h e secon d, p. 165, of t h e kin gdom of An gola , on t h e
Golden Coa st .
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Th e cor r u pt ion of t h is gover n m en t gen er a lly begin s wit h t h a t of t h e pr in ciples.
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Th e pr in ciple of dem ocr a cy is cor r u pt ed n ot on ly wh en t h e spir it of equ a lit y
is ext in ct , bu t likewise wh en t h ey fa ll in t o a spir it of ext r em e equ a lit y, a n d
wh en ea ch cit izen wou ld fa in be u pon a level wit h t h ose wh om h e h a s ch osen t o
com m a n d h im . Th en t h e people, in ca pa ble of bea r in g t h e ver y power t h ey h a ve
delega t ed, wa n t t o m a n a ge ever yt h in g t h em selves, t o deba t e for t h e sen a t e, t o
execu t e for t h e m a gist r a t e, a n d t o decide for t h e ju dges.
Wh en t h is is t h e ca se, vir t u e ca n n o lon ger su bsist in t h e r epu blic. Th e people
a r e desir ou s of exer cisin g t h e fu n ct ion s of t h e m a gist r a t es, wh o cea se t o be
r ever ed. Th e deliber a t ion s of t h e sen a t e a r e sligh t ed; a ll r espect is t h en la id
a side for t h e sen a t or s, a n d con sequ en t ly for old a ge. If t h er e is n o m or e r espect
for old a ge, t h er e will be n on e pr esen t ly for pa r en t s; defer en ce t o h u sba n ds will
be likewise t h r own off, a n d su bm ission t o m a st er s. Th is licen ce will soon becom e
gen er a l, a n d t h e t r ou ble of com m a n d be a s fa t igu in g a s t h a t of obedien ce. Wives,
ch ildr en , sla ves will sh a ke off a ll su bject ion . No lon ger will t h er e be a n y su ch
t h in g a s m a n n er s, or der , or vir t u e.
We fin d in Xen oph on ’s Ba n qu et a ver y lively descr ipt ion of a r epu blic in wh ich
t h e people a bu sed t h eir equ a lit y. E a ch gu est gives in h is t u r n t h e r ea son wh y
h e is sa t isfied. “Con t en t I a m ,” sa ys Ch a m ides, “beca u se of m y pover t y. Wh en
I wa s r ich , I wa s obliged t o pa y m y cou r t t o in for m er s, kn owin g I wa s m or e
lia ble t o be h u r t by t h em t h a n ca pa ble of doin g t h em h a r m . Th e r epu blic
con st a n t ly dem a n ded som e n ew t a x of m e; a n d I cou ld n ot declin e pa yin g. Sin ce
I h a ve gr own poor , I h a ve a cqu ir ed a u t h or it y; n obody t h r ea t en s m e; I r a t h er

t h r ea t en ot h er s. I ca n go or st a y wh er e I plea se. Th e r ich a lr ea dy r ise fr om t h eir
sea t s a n d give m e t h e wa y. I a m a kin g, I wa s befor e a sla ve: I pa id t a xes t o t h e
r epu blic, n ow it m a in t a in s m e: I a m n o lon ger a fr a id of losin g: bu t I h ope t o
a cqu ir e.”
Th e people fa ll in t o t h is m isfor t u n e wh en t h ose in wh om t h ey con fide,
desir ou s of con cea lin g t h eir own cor r u pt ion , en dea vou r t o cor r u pt t h em . To
disgu ise t h eir own a m bit ion , t h ey spea k t o t h em on ly of t h e gr a n deu r of t h e
st a t e; t o con cea l t h eir own a va r ice, t h ey in cessa n t ly fla t t er t h eir s.
Th e cor r u pt ion will in cr ea se a m on g t h e cor r u pt or s, a n d likewise a m on g t h ose
wh o a r e a lr ea dy cor r u pt ed. Th e people will divide t h e pu blic m on ey a m on g
t h em selves, a n d, h a vin g a dded t h e a dm in ist r a t ion of a ffa ir s t o t h eir in dolen ce,
will be for blen din g t h eir pover t y wit h t h e a m u sem en t s of lu xu r y. Bu t wit h t h eir
in dolen ce a n d lu xu r y, n ot h in g bu t t h e pu blic t r ea su r e will be a ble t o sa t isfy
t h eir dem a n ds.
We m u st n ot be su r pr ised t o see t h eir su ffr a ges given for m on ey. It is
im possible t o m a ke gr ea t la r gesses t o t h e people wit h ou t gr ea t ext or t ion : a n d
t o com pa ss t h is, t h e st a t e m u st be su bver t ed. Th e gr ea t er t h e a dva n t a ges t h ey
seem t o der ive fr om t h eir liber t y, t h e n ea r er t h ey a ppr oa ch t owa r ds t h e cr it ica l
m om en t of losin g it . P et t y t yr a n t s a r ise wh o h a ve a ll t h e vices of a sin gle t yr a n t .
Th e sm a ll r em a in s of liber t y soon becom e in su ppor t a ble; a sin gle t yr a n t st a r t s
u p, a n d t h e people a r e st r ipped of ever yt h in g, even of t h e pr ofit s of t h eir
cor r u pt ion .
Dem ocr a cy h a s, t h er efor e, t wo excesses t o a void — t h e spir it of in equ a lit y,
wh ich lea ds t o a r ist ocr a cy or m on a r ch y, a n d t h e spir it of ext r em e equ a lit y,
wh ich lea ds t o despot ic power , a s t h e la t t er is com plet ed by con qu est .
Tr u e it is t h a t t h ose wh o cor r u pt ed t h e Gr eek r epu blics did n ot a lwa ys becom e
t yr a n t s. Th is wa s beca u se t h ey h a d a gr ea t er pa ssion for eloqu en ce t h a n for t h e
m ilit a r y a r t . Besides t h er e r eign ed a n im pla ca ble h a t r ed in t h e br ea st s of t h e
Gr eeks a ga in st t h ose wh o su bver t ed a r epu blica n gover n m en t ; a n d for t h is
r ea son a n a r ch y degen er a t ed in t o a n n ih ila t ion , in st ea d of bein g ch a n ged in t o
t yr a n n y.
Bu t Syr a cu se bein g sit u a t ed in t h e m idst of a gr ea t n u m ber of pet t y st a t es,
wh ose gover n m en t h a d been ch a n ged fr om oliga r ch y t o t yr a n n y,1 a n d bein g

gover n ed by a sen a t e 2 sca r cely ever m en t ion ed in h ist or y, u n der wen t su ch
m iser ies a s a r e t h e con sequ en ce of a m or e t h a n or din a r y cor r u pt ion . Th is cit y,
ever a pr ey t o licen t iou sn ess 3 or oppr ession , equ a lly la bou r in g u n der t h e su dden
a n d a lt er n a t e su ccession of liber t y a n d ser vit u de, a n d n ot wit h st a n din g h er
ext er n a l st r en gt h , con st a n t ly det er m in ed t o a r evolu t ion by t h e lea st for eign
power — t h is cit y, I sa y, h a d in h er bosom a n im m en se m u lt it u de of people,
wh ose fa t e it wa s t o h a ve a lwa ys t h is cr u el a lt er n a t ive, eit h er of ch oosin g a
t yr a n t t o gover n t h em , or of a ct in g t h e t yr a n t t h em selves.
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As dist a n t a s h ea ven is fr om ea r t h , so is t h e t r u e spir it of equ a lit y fr om t h a t
of ext r em e equ a lit y. Th e for m er does n ot im ply t h a t ever ybody sh ou ld
com m a n d, or t h a t n o on e sh ou ld be com m a n ded, bu t t h a t we obey or com m a n d
ou r equ a ls. It en dea vou r s n ot t o sh a ke off t h e a u t h or it y of a m a st er , bu t t h a t it s
m a st er s sh ou ld be n on e bu t it s equ a ls.
In t h e st a t e of n a t u r e, in deed, a ll m en a r e bor n equ a l, bu t t h ey ca n n ot
con t in u e in t h is equ a lit y. Societ y m a kes t h em lose it , a n d t h ey r ecover it on ly
by t h e pr ot ect ion of t h e la ws.
Su ch is t h e differ en ce bet ween a well-r egu la t ed dem ocr a cy a n d on e t h a t is n ot
so, t h a t in t h e for m er m en a r e equ a l on ly a s cit izen s, bu t in t h e la t t er t h ey a r e
equ a l a lso a s m a gist r a t es, a s sen a t or s, a s ju dges, a s fa t h er s, a s h u sba n ds, or a s
m a st er s.
Th e n a t u r a l pla ce of vir t u e is n ea r t o liber t y; bu t it is n ot n ea r er t o excessive
liber t y t h a n t o ser vit u de.
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Gr ea t su ccess, especia lly wh en ch iefly owin g t o t h e people, in t oxica t es t h em
t o su ch a degr ee t h a t it is im possible t o con t a in t h em wit h in bou n ds. J ea lou s of
t h eir m a gist r a t es, t h ey soon beca m e jea lou s likewise of t h e m a gist r a cy; en em ies
t o t h ose wh o gover n , t h ey soon pr ove en em ies a lso t o t h e con st it u t ion . Th u s it
wa s t h a t t h e vict or y over t h e P er sia n s in t h e st r a it s of Sa la m is cor r u pt ed t h e
r epu blic of At h en s;4 a n d t h u s t h e defea t of t h e At h en ia n s r u in ed t h e r epu blic of
Syr a cu se.5
Ma r seilles n ever exper ien ced t h ose gr ea t t r a n sit ion s fr om lown ess t o
gr a n deu r ; t h is wa s owin g t o t h e pr u den t con du ct of t h a t r epu blic, wh ich a lwa ys
pr eser ved h er pr in ciples.
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Ar ist ocr a cy is cor r u pt ed if t h e power of t h e n obles becom es a r bit r a r y: wh en
t h is is t h e ca se, t h er e ca n n o lon ger be a n y vir t u e eit h er in t h e gover n or s or t h e
gover n ed.
If t h e r eign in g fa m ilies obser ve t h e la ws, it is a m on a r ch y wit h sever a l
m on a r ch s, a n d in it s own n a t u r e on e of t h e m ost excellen t ; for a lm ost a ll t h ese
m on a r ch s a r e t ied down by t h e la ws. Bu t wh en t h ey do n ot obser ve t h em , it is
a despot ic st a t e swa yed by a gr ea t m a n y despot ic pr in ces.
In t h e la t t er ca se, t h e r epu blic con sist s on ly in t h e n obles. Th e body gover n in g
is t h e r epu blic; a n d t h e body gover n ed is t h e despot ic st a t e; wh ich for m s t wo of
t h e m ost h et er ogen eou s bodies in t h e wor ld.
Th e ext r em it y of cor r u pt ion is wh en t h e power of t h e n obles becom es
h er edit a r y;6 for t h en t h ey ca n h a r dly h a ve a n y m oder a t ion . If t h ey a r e on ly a
few, t h eir power is gr ea t er , bu t t h eir secu r it y less: if t h ey a r e a la r ger n u m ber ,
t h eir power is less, a n d t h eir secu r it y gr ea t er , in som u ch t h a t power goes on
in cr ea sin g, a n d secu r it y dim in ish in g, u p t o t h e ver y despot ic pr in ce wh o is
en cir cled wit h excess of power a n d da n ger .
Th e gr ea t n u m ber , t h er efor e, of n obles in a n h er edit a r y a r ist ocr a cy r en der s
t h e gover n m en t less violen t : bu t a s t h er e is less vir t u e, t h ey fa ll in t o a spir it of
su pin en ess a n d n egligen ce, by wh ich t h e st a t e loses a ll it s st r en gt h a n d
a ct ivit y. 7
An a r ist ocr a cy m a y m a in t a in t h e fu ll vigou r of it s con st it u t ion if t h e la ws be
su ch a s a r e a pt t o r en der t h e n obles m or e sen sible of t h e per ils a n d fa t igu es
t h a n of t h e plea su r e of com m a n d: a n d if t h e gover n m en t be in su ch a sit u a t ion
a s t o h a ve som et h in g t o dr ea d, wh ile secu r it y sh elt er s u n der it s pr ot ect ion , a n d
u n cer t a in t y t h r ea t en s fr om a br oa d.
As a cer t a in kin d of con fiden ce for m s t h e glor y a n d st a bilit y of m on a r ch ies,
r epu blics, on t h e con t r a r y, m u st h a ve som et h in g t o a ppr eh en d. 8 A fea r of t h e
P er sia n s su ppor t ed t h e la ws of Gr eece. Ca r t h a ge a n d Rom e wer e a la r m ed, a n d

st r en gt h en ed by ea ch ot h er . St r a n ge, t h a t t h e gr ea t er secu r it y t h ose st a t es
en joyed, t h e m or e, like st a gn a t ed wa t er s, t h ey wer e su bject t o cor r u pt ion !
O1&@(&+-%&)'..F4+5'*&'(&+-%&8.5*954$%&'(&K'*".9-H1&
As dem ocr a cies a r e su bver t ed wh en t h e people despoil t h e sen a t e, t h e
m a gist r a t es, t h e ju dges of t h eir fu n ct ion s, so m on a r ch ies a r e cor r u pt ed wh en
t h e pr in ce in sen sibly depr ives societ ies or cit ies of t h eir pr ivileges. In t h e for m er
ca se t h e m u lt it u de u su r p t h e power , in t h e la t t er it is u su r ped by a sin gle
per son .
“Th e dest r u ct ion of t h e dyn a st ies of Tsin a n d Sou i,” sa ys a Ch in ese a u t h or ,
“wa s owin g t o t h is: t h e pr in ces, in st ea d of con fin in g t h em selves, like t h eir
a n cest or s, t o a gen er a l in spect ion , t h e on ly on e wor t h y of a sover eign , wa n t ed
t o gover n ever yt h in g im m edia t ely by t h em selves.”9 Th e Ch in ese a u t h or gives u s
in t h is in st a n ce t h e ca u se of t h e cor r u pt ion of a lm ost a ll m on a r ch ies.
Mon a r ch y is dest r oyed wh en a pr in ce t h in ks h e sh ows a gr ea t er exer t ion of
power in ch a n gin g t h a n in con for m in g t o t h e or der of t h in gs; wh en h e depr ives
som e of h is su bject s of t h eir h er edit a r y em ploym en t s t o best ow t h em a r bit r a r ily
u pon ot h er s; a n d wh en h e is fon der of bein g gu ided by fa n cy t h a n ju dgm en t .
Aga in , it is dest r oyed wh en t h e pr in ce, dir ect in g ever yt h in g en t ir ely t o
h im self, ca lls t h e st a t e t o h is ca pit a l, t h e ca pit a l t o h is cou r t , a n d t h e cou r t t o
h is own per son .
It is dest r oyed, in fin e, wh en t h e pr in ce m ist a kes h is a u t h or it y, h is sit u a t ion
a n d t h e love of h is people, a n d wh en h e is n ot fu lly per su a ded t h a t a m on a r ch
ou gh t t o t h in k h im self secu r e, a s a despot ic pr in ce ou gh t t o t h in k h im self in
da n ger .
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Th e pr in ciple of m on a r ch y is cor r u pt ed wh en t h e fir st dign it ies a r e m a r ks of
t h e fir st ser vit u de, wh en t h e gr ea t m en a r e depr ived of pu blic r espect , a n d
r en der ed t h e low t ools of a r bit r a r y power .
It is st ill m or e cor r u pt ed wh en h on ou r is set u p in con t r a dict ion t o h on ou r s,
a n d wh en m en a r e ca pa ble of bein g loa ded a t t h e ver y sa m e t im e wit h in fa m y 10
a n d wit h dign it ies.

It is cor r u pt ed wh en t h e pr in ce ch a n ges h is ju st ice in t o sever it y; wh en h e
pu t s, like t h e Rom a n em per or s, a Medu sa ’s h ea d on h is br ea st ;11 a n d wh en h e
a ssu m es t h a t m en a cin g a n d t er r ible a ir wh ich Com m odu s or der ed t o be given
t o h is st a t u es. 12
Aga in , it is cor r u pt ed wh en m ea n a n d a bject sou ls gr ow va in of t h e pom p
a t t en din g t h eir ser vit u de, a n d im a gin e t h a t t h e m ot ive wh ich in du ces t h em t o
be en t ir ely devot ed t o t h eir pr in ce exem pt s t h em fr om a ll du t y t o t h eir cou n t r y.
Bu t if it be t r u e (a n d in deed t h e exper ien ce of a ll a ges h a s sh own it ) t h a t in
pr opor t ion a s t h e power of t h e m on a r ch becom es bou n dless a n d im m en se, h is
secu r it y dim in ish es, is t h e cor r u pt in g of t h is power , a n d t h e a lt er in g of it s ver y
n a t u r e, a less cr im e t h a n t h a t of h igh t r ea son a ga in st t h e pr in ce?
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Th e da n ger is n ot wh en t h e st a t e pa sses fr om on e m oder a t e t o a n ot h er
m oder a t e gover n m en t , a s fr om a r epu blic t o a m on a r ch y, or fr om a m on a r ch y
t o a r epu blic; bu t wh en it is pr ecipit a t ed fr om a m oder a t e t o a despot ic
gover n m en t .
Most of t h e E u r opea n n a t ion s a r e st ill gover n ed by t h e pr in ciples of m or a lit y.
Bu t if fr om a lon g a bu se of power or t h e fu r y of con qu est , despot ic swa y sh ou ld
pr eva il t o a cer t a in degr ee, n eit h er m or a ls n or clim a t e wou ld be a ble t o
wit h st a n d it s ba lefu l in flu en ce: a n d t h en h u m a n n a t u r e wou ld be exposed, for
som e t im e a t lea st , even in t h is bea u t ifu l pa r t of t h e wor ld, t o t h e in su lt s wit h
wh ich sh e h a s been a bu sed in t h e ot h er t h r ee.
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Th e E n glish n obilit y bu r ied t h em selves wit h Ch a r les t h e F ir st u n der t h e r u in s
of t h e t h r on e; a n d befor e t h a t t im e, wh en P h ilip t h e Secon d en dea vou r ed t o
t em pt t h e F r en ch wit h t h e a llu r em en t of liber t y, t h e cr own wa s con st a n t ly
su ppor t ed by a n obilit y wh o t h in k it a n h on ou r t o obey a kin g, bu t con sider it
a s t h e lowest disgr a ce t o sh a r e t h e power wit h t h e people.
Th e h ou se of Au st r ia h a s ever u sed h er en dea vou r s t o oppr ess t h e H u n ga r ia n

n obilit y; lit t le t h in kin g h ow ser vicea ble t h a t ver y n obilit y wou ld be on e da y t o
h er . Sh e wou ld fa in h a ve dr a in ed t h eir cou n t r y of m on ey, of wh ich t h ey h a d n o
plen t y; bu t t ook n o n ot ice of t h e m en , wit h wh om it a bou n ded. Wh en pr in ces
com bin ed t o dism em ber h er dom in ion s, t h e sever a l pa r t s of t h a t m on a r ch y fell
m ot ion less, a s it wer e on e u pon a n ot h er . No life wa s t h en t o be seen bu t in t h ose
ver y n obles, wh o, r esen t in g t h e a ffr on t s offer ed t o t h e sover eign , a n d for get t in g
t h e in ju r ies don e t o t h em selves, t ook u p a r m s t o a ven ge h er ca u se, a n d
con sider ed it t h e h igh est glor y br a vely t o die a n d t o for give.
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Th e pr in ciple of despot ic gover n m en t is su bject t o a con t in u a l cor r u pt ion ,
beca u se it is even in it s n a t u r e cor r u pt . Ot h er gover n m en t s a r e dest r oyed by
pa r t icu la r a cciden t s, wh ich do violen ce t o t h e pr in ciples of ea ch con st it u t ion ;
t h is is r u in ed by it s own in t r in sic im per fect ion s, wh en som e a cciden t a l ca u ses
do n ot pr even t t h e cor r u pt in g of it s pr in ciples. It m a in t a in s it self t h er efor e on ly
wh en cir cu m st a n ces, dr a wn fr om t h e clim a t e, r eligion , sit u a t ion , or gen iu s of
t h e people, oblige it t o con for m t o or der , a n d t o a dm it of som e r u le. By t h ese
t h in gs it s n a t u r e is for ced wit h ou t bein g ch a n ged; it s fer ocit y r em a in s; a n d it is
m a de t a m e a n d t r a ct a ble on ly for a t im e.
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'(&A';%.*<%*+1
Wh en on ce t h e pr in ciples of gover n m en t a r e cor r u pt ed, t h e ver y best la ws
becom e ba d, a n d t u r n a ga in st t h e st a t e: bu t wh en t h e pr in ciples a r e sou n d, even
ba d la ws h a ve t h e sa m e effect a s good; t h e for ce of t h e pr in ciple dr a ws
ever yt h in g t o it .
Th e in h a bit a n t s of Cr et e u sed a ver y sin gu la r m et h od t o keep t h e pr in cipa l
m a gist r a t es depen den t on t h e la ws, wh ich wa s t h a t of In su r r ect ion . P a r t of t h e
cit izen s r ose u p in a r m s, 13 pu t t h e m a gist r a t es t o fligh t , a n d obliged t h em t o
r et u r n t o a pr iva t e life. Th is wa s su pposed t o be don e in con sequ en ce of t h e la w.
On e wou ld h a ve im a gin ed t h a t a n in st it u t ion of t h is n a t u r e, wh ich est a blish ed
sedit ion t o h in der t h e a bu se of power , wou ld h a ve su bver t ed a n y r epu blic

wh a t soever ; a n d yet it did n ot su bver t t h a t of Cr et e. Th e r ea son is t h is.14
Wh en t h e a n cien t s wou ld cit e a people t h a t h a d t h e st r on gest a ffect ion for
t h eir cou n t r y, t h ey wer e su r e t o m en t ion t h e in h a bit a n t s of Cr et e: “Ou r
Cou n t r y,” sa id P la t o, 15 “a n a m e so dea r t o t h e Cr et a n s.” Th ey ca lled it by a n a m e
wh ich sign ifies t h e love of a m ot h er for h er ch ildr en . 16 Now t h e love of ou r
cou n t r y set s ever yt h in g r igh t .
Th e la ws of P ola n d h a ve likewise t h eir In su r r ect ion : bu t t h e in con ven ien ces
t h en ce a r isin g pla in ly sh ow t h a t t h e people of Cr et e a lon e wer e ca pa ble of u sin g
su ch a r em edy wit h su ccess.
Th e gym n ic exer cises est a blish ed a m on g t h e Gr eek s ha d t h e sa m e depen den ce
on t h e goodn ess of t h e pr in ciple of gover n m en t . “It wa s t h e La ceda em on ia n s a n d
Cr et a n s,” sa id P la t o, 17 “t h a t open ed t h ose celebr a t ed a ca dem ies wh ich ga ve
t h em so em in en t a r a n k in t h e wor ld. Modest y a t fir st wa s a la r m ed; bu t it
yielded t o t h e pu blic u t ilit y.” In P la t o’s t im e t h ese in st it u t ion s wer e a dm ir a ble:18
a s t h ey bor e a r ela t ion t o a ver y im por t a n t object , wh ich wa s t h e m ilit a r y a r t .
Bu t wh en vir t u e fled fr om Gr eece, t h e m ilit a r y a r t wa s dest r oyed by t h ese
in st it u t ion s; people a ppea r ed t h en on t h e a r en a , n ot for im pr ovem en t , bu t for
deba u ch . 19 P lu t a r ch in for m s u s 20 t h a t t h e Rom a n s in h is t im e wer e of opin ion
t h a t t h ose ga m es h a d been t h e pr in cipa l ca u se of t h e sla ver y in t o wh ich t h e
Gr eeks h a d fa llen . On t h e con t r a r y, it wa s t h e sla ver y of t h e Gr eek s t h a t
cor r u pt ed t h ose exer cises. In P lu t a r ch ’s t im e, 21 t h eir figh t in g n a ked in t h e
pa r ks, a n d t h eir wr est lin g, in fect ed t h e you n g people wit h a spir it of cowa r dice,
in clin ed t h em t o in fa m ou s pa ssion s, a n d m a de t h em m er e da n cer s. Bu t u n der
E pa m in on da s t h e exer cise of wr est lin g m a de t h e Th eba n s win t h e fa m ou s ba t t le
of Leu ct r a . 22
Th er e a r e ver y few la ws wh ich a r e n ot good, wh ile t h e st a t e r et a in s it s
pr in ciples: h er e I m a y a pply wh a t E picu r u s sa id of r ich es. “It is n ot t h e liqu or ,
bu t t h e vessel t h a t is cor r u pt ed.”
BE1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
In Rom e t h e ju dges wer e ch osen a t fir st fr om t h e or der of sen a t or s. Th is
pr ivilege t h e Gr a cch i t r a n sfer r ed t o t h e kn igh t s; Dr u su s ga ve it t o t h e sen a t or s
a n d kn igh t s; Su lla t o t h e sen a t or s on ly: Cot t a t o t h e sen a t or s, kn igh t s, a n d

pu blic t r ea su r er s; Ca esa r exclu ded t h e la t t er ; Ant on y m a de decu r ies of sen a t or s,
kn igh t s, a n d cen t u r ion s.
Wh en on ce a r epu blic is cor r u pt ed, t h er e is n o possibilit y of r em edyin g a n y of
t h e gr owin g evils, bu t by r em ovin g t h e cor r u pt ion a n d r est or in g it s lost
pr in ciples; ever y ot h er cor r ect ion is eit h er u seless or a n ew evil. Wh ile Rom e
pr eser ved h er pr in ciples en t ir e, t h e ju dicia l power m igh t wit h ou t a n y a bu se be
lodged in t h e h a n ds of sen a t or s; bu t a s soon a s t h is cit y beca m e cor r u pt , t o
wh a t soever body t h a t power wa s t r a n sfer r ed, wh et h er t o t h e sen a t e, t o t h e
kn igh t s, t o t h e t r ea su r er s, t o t wo of t h ose bodies, t o a ll t h r ee t oget h er , or t o a n y
ot h er , m a t t er s st ill wen t wr on g. Th e kn igh t s h a d n o m or e vir t u e t h a n t h e
sen a t e, t h e t r ea su r er s n o m or e t h a n t h e kn igh t s, a n d t h ese a s lit t le a s t h e
cen t u r ion s.
Aft er t h e people of Rom e h a d obt a in ed t h e pr ivilege of sh a r in g t h e m a gist r a cy
wit h t h e pa t r icia n s, it wa s n a t u r a l t o t h in k t h a t t h eir fla t t er er s wou ld
im m edia t ely becom e a r bit er s of t h e gover n m en t . Bu t n o su ch t h in g ever
h a ppen ed. — It wa s obser va ble t h a t t h e ver y people wh o h a d r en der ed t h e
plebeia n s ca pa ble of pu blic offices ever fixed t h eir ch oice u pon t h e pa t r icia n s.
Beca u se t h ey wer e vir t u ou s, t h ey wer e m a gn a n im ou s; a n d beca u se t h ey wer e
fr ee, t h ey h a d a con t em pt of power .
Bu t wh en t h eir m or a ls wer e cor r u pt ed, t h e m or e power t h ey wer e possessed
of, t h e less pr u den t wa s t h eir con du ct , t ill a t len gt h , u pon becom in g t h eir own
t yr a n t s a n d sla ves, t h ey lost t h e st r en gt h of liber t y t o fa ll in t o t h e wea kn ess a n d
im pot en cy of licen t iou sn ess.
BG1&!-%&U((%9+&'(&"*&@"+-&"<'*D&;5.+F'F,&8%'4$%1
Th er e is n o n a t ion , sa ys Livy, 23 t h a t h a s been lon ger u n cor r u pt ed t h a n t h e
Rom a n s; n o n a t ion wh er e m oder a t ion a n d pover t y h a ve been lon ger r espect ed.
Su ch wa s t h e in flu en ce of a n oa t h a m on g t h ose people t h a t n ot h in g bou n d
t h em m or e st r on gly t o t h e la ws. Th ey oft en did m or e for t h e obser va n ce of a n
oa t h t h a n t h ey wou ld ever h a ve per for m ed for t h e t h ir st of glor y or for t h e love
of t h eir cou n t r y.
Wh en Qu in t u s Cin cin n a t u s, t h e con su l, wa n t ed t o r a ise a n a r m y in t h e cit y
a ga in st t h e Æ qu i a n d t h e Volsci, t h e t r ibu n es opposed h im . “Well,” sa id h e, “let

a ll t h ose wh o h a ve t a ken a n oa t h t o t h e con su l of t h e pr ecedin g yea r m a r ch
u n der m y ba n n er .”24 In va in did t h e t r ibu n es cr y ou t t h a t t h is oa t h wa s n o
lon ger bin din g, a n d t h a t wh en t h ey t ook it Qu in t u s wa s bu t a pr iva t e per son :
t h e people wer e m or e r eligiou s t h a n t h ose wh o pr et en ded t o dir ect t h em ; t h ey
wou ld n ot list en t o t h e dist in ct ion s or equ ivoca t ion s of t h e t r ibu n es.
Wh en t h e sa m e people t h ou gh t of r et ir in g t o t h e Sa cr ed Mou n t , t h ey felt som e
r em or se fr om t h e oa t h t h ey h a d t a ken t o t h e con su ls, t h a t t h ey wou ld follow
t h em in t o t h e field. 25 Th ey en t er ed t h en in t o a design of killin g t h e con su ls; bu t
dr opped it wh en t h ey wer e given t o u n der st a n d t h a t t h eir oa t h wou ld st ill be
bin din g. Now it is ea sy t o ju dge of t h e n ot ion t h ey en t er t a in ed of t h e viola t ion
of a n oa t h fr om t h e cr im e t h ey in t en ded t o com m it .
Aft er t h e ba t t le of Ca n n a e, t h e people wer e seized wit h su ch a pa n ic t h a t t h ey
wou ld fa in h a ve r et ir ed t o Sicily. Bu t Scipio h a vin g pr eva iled u pon t h em t o
swea r t h ey wou ld n ot st ir fr om Rom e, t h e fea r of viola t in g t h is oa t h su r pa ssed
a ll ot h er a ppr eh en sion s. Rom e wa s a sh ip h eld by t wo a n ch or s, r eligion a n d
m or a lit y, in t h e m idst of a fu r iou s t em pest .
BJ1&R'7&+-%&,<"$$%,+&)-"*D%&'(&+-%&)'*,+5+F+5'*&5,&"++%*0%0&75+-
+-%&/F5*&'(&5+,&8.5*954$%,1
Ar ist ot le m en t ion s t h e cit y of Ca r t h a ge a s a well-r egu la t ed r epu blic. P olybiu s
t ells u s 26 t h a t t h er e wa s t h is in con ven ien ce a t Ca r t h a ge in t h e secon d P u n ic
wa r , t h a t t h e sen a t e h a d lost a lm ost a ll it s a u t h or it y. We a r e in for m ed by Livy
t h a t wh en H a n n iba l r et u r n ed t o Ca r t h a ge h e fou n d t h a t t h e m a gist r a t es a n d
t h e pr in cipa l cit izen s h a d a bu sed t h eir power , a n d con ver t ed t h e pu blic
r even u es t o t h eir pr iva t e em olu m en t . Th e vir t u e, t h er efor e, of t h e m a gist r a t es,
a n d t h e a u t h or it y of t h e sen a t e, bot h fell a t t h e sa m e t im e; a n d a ll wa s owin g
t o t h e sa m e ca u se.
E ver y on e kn ows t h e won der fu l effect s of t h e cen sor sh ip a m on g t h e Rom a n s.
Th er e wa s a t im e wh en it gr ew bu r den som e; bu t st ill it wa s su ppor t ed beca u se
t h er e wa s m or e lu xu r y t h a n cor r u pt ion . Cla u diu s 27 wea ken ed it s a u t h or it y, by
wh ich m ea n s t h e cor r u pt ion becam e gr ea t er t h a n t h e lu xu r y, a n d t h e cen sor sh ip
dwin dled a wa y of it self.28 Aft er va r iou s in t er r u pt ion s a n d r esu m pt ion s, it wa s
en t ir ely la id a side, t ill it beca m e a lt oget h er u seless, t h a t is, t ill t h e r eign s of

Au gu st u s a n d Cla u diu s.
BL1&3F.%&K%+-'0,&'(&4.%,%.;5*D&+-%&+-.%%&8.5*954$%,1
I sh a ll n ot be a ble t o m a ke m yself r igh t ly u n der st ood t ill t h e r ea der h a s
per u sed t h e fou r followin g ch a pt er s.
BO1&C5,+5*9+5;%&8.'4%.+5%,&'(&"&/%4F#$591
It is n a t u r a l for a r epu blic t o h a ve on ly a sm a ll t er r it or y; ot h er wise it ca n n ot
lon g su bsist . In a n ext en sive r epu blic t h er e a r e m en of la r ge for t u n es, a n d
con sequ en t ly of less m oder a t ion ; t h er e a r e t r u st s t oo con sider a ble t o be pla ced
in a n y sin gle su bject ; h e h a s in t er est s of h is own ; h e soon begin s t o t h in k t h a t
h e m a y be h a ppy a n d glor iou s, by oppr essin g h is fellow-cit izen s; a n d t h a t h e
m a y r a ise h im self t o gr a n deu r on t h e r u in s of h is cou n t r y.
In a n ext en sive r epu blic t h e pu blic good is sa cr ificed t o a t h ou sa n d pr iva t e
views; it is su bor din a t e t o except ion s, a n d depen ds on a cciden t s. In a sm a ll on e,
t h e in t er est of t h e pu blic is m or e obviou s, bet t er u n der st ood, a n d m or e wit h in
t h e r ea ch of ever y cit izen ; a bu ses h a ve less ext en t , a n d of cou r se a r e less
pr ot ect ed.
Th e lon g du r a t ion of t h e r epu blic of Spa r t a wa s owin g t o h er h a vin g con t in u ed
in t h e sa m e ext en t of t er r it or y a ft er a ll h er wa r s. Th e sole a im of Spa r t a wa s
liber t y; a n d t h e sole a dva n t a ge of h er liber t y, glor y.
It wa s t h e spir it of t h e Gr eek r epu blics t o be a s con t en t ed wit h t h eir
t er r it or ies a s wit h t h eir la ws. At h en s wa s fir st fir ed wit h a m bit ion a n d ga ve it
t o La ceda em on ; bu t it wa s a n a m bit ion r a t h er of com m a n din g a fr ee people t h a n
of gover n in g sla ves; r a t h er of dir ect in g t h a n of br ea kin g t h e u n ion . All wa s lost
u pon t h e st a r t in g u p of m on a r ch y — a gover n m en t wh ose spir it is m or e t u r n ed
t o in cr ea se of dom in ion .
E xcept in g pa r t icu la r cir cu m st a n ces, 29 it is difficu lt for a n y ot h er t h a n a
r epu blica n gover n m en t t o su bsist lon ger in a sin gle t own . A pr in ce of so pet t y
a st a t e wou ld n a t u r a lly en dea vou r t o oppr ess h is su bject s, beca u se h is power
wou ld be gr ea t , wh ile t h e m ea n s of en joyin g it or of ca u sin g it t o be r espect ed
wou ld be in con sider a ble. Th e con sequ en ce is, h e wou ld t r a m ple u pon h is people.
On t h e ot h er h a n d, su ch a pr in ce m igh t be ea sily cr u sh ed by a for eign or even

a dom est ic for ce; t h e people m igh t a n y in st a n t u n it e a n d r ise u p a ga in st h im .
Now a s soon a s t h e sover eign of a sin gle t own is expelled, t h e qu a r r el is over ;
bu t if h e h a s m a n y t own s, it on ly begin s.
BP1&C5,+5*9+5;%&8.'4%.+5%,&'(&"&K'*".9-H1
A m on a r ch ica l st a t e ou gh t t o be of m oder a t e ext en t . Wer e it sm a ll, it wou ld
for m it self in t o a r epu blic; wer e it ver y la r ge, t h e n obilit y, possessed of gr ea t
est a t es, fa r fr om t h e eye of t h e pr in ce, wit h a pr iva t e cou r t of t h eir own , a n d
secu r e, m or eover , fr om su dden execu t ion s by t h e la ws a n d m a n n er s of t h e
cou n t r y — su ch a n obilit y, I sa y, m igh t t h r ow off t h eir a llegia n ce, h a vin g
n ot h in g t o fea r fr om t oo slow a n d t oo dist a n t a pu n ish m en t .
Th u s Ch a r lem a gn e h a d sca r cely fou n ded h is em pir e wh en h e wa s obliged t o
divide it ; wh et h er t h e gover n or s of t h e pr ovin ces r efu sed t o obey; or wh et h er , in
or der t o keep t h em m or e u n der su bject ion , t h er e wa s a n ecessit y of pa r cellin g
t h e em pir e in t o sever a l kin gdom s.
Aft er t h e decea se of Alexa n der h is em pir e wa s divided. H ow wa s it possible
for t h ose Gr eek a n d Ma cedon ia n ch iefs, wh o wer e ea ch of t h em fr ee a n d
in depen den t , or com m a n der s a t lea st of t h e vict or iou s ba n ds disper sed
t h r ou gh ou t t h a t va st ext en t of con qu er ed la n d — h ow wa s it possible, I sa y, for
t h em t o obey?
At t ila ’s em pir e wa s dissolved soon a ft er h is dea t h ; su ch a n u m ber of kin gs,
wh o wer e n o lon ger u n der r est r a in t , cou ld n ot r esu m e t h eir fet t er s.
Th e su dden est a blish m en t of u n lim it ed power is a r em edy, wh ich in t h ose
ca ses m a y pr even t a dissolu t ion : bu t h ow dr ea dfu l t h e r em edy, wh ich a ft er t h e
en la r gem en t of dom in ion open s a n ew scen e of m iser y!
Th e r iver s h a st en t o m in gle t h eir wa t er s wit h t h e sea ; a n d m on a r ch ies lose
t h em selves in despot ic power .
BQ1&8".+59F$".&)",%&'(&+-%&34"*5,-&K'*".9-H1
Let n ot t h e exa m ple of Spa in be pr odu ced a ga in st m e, it r a t h er pr oves wh a t
I a ffir m . To pr eser ve Am er ica sh e did wh a t even despot ic power it self does n ot
a t t em pt : sh e dest r oyed t h e in h a bit a n t s. To pr eser ve h er colon y, sh e wa s obliged
t o keep it depen den t even for it s su bsist en ce.

In t h e Net h er la n ds, sh e essa yed t o r en der h er self a r bit r a r y; a n d a s soon a s
sh e a ba n don ed t h e a t t em pt , h er per plexit y in cr ea sed. On t h e on e h a n d t h e
Wa lloon s wou ld n ot be gover n ed by Spa n ia r ds; a n d on t h e ot h er , t h e Spa n ish
soldier s r efu sed t o su bm it t o Wa lloon officer s. 30
In It a ly sh e m a in t a in ed h er gr ou n d, m er ely by exh a u st in g h er self a n d by
en r ich in g t h a t cou n t r y. F or t h ose wh o wou ld h a ve been plea sed t o h a ve got r id
of t h e kin g of Spa in wer e n ot in a h u m ou r t o r efu se h is gold.
BS1&C5,+5*9+5;%&8.'4%.+5%,&'(&"&0%,4'+59&A';%.*<%*+1&
A la r ge em pir e su pposes a despot ic a u t h or it y in t h e per son wh o gover n s. It is
n ecessa r y t h a t t h e qu ickn ess of t h e pr in ce’s r esolu t ion s sh ou ld su pply t h e
dist a n ce of t h e pla ces t h ey a r e sen t t o; t h a t fea r sh ou ld pr even t t h e r em issn ess
of t h e dist a n t gover n or or m a gist r a t e; t h a t t h e la w sh ou ld be der ived fr om a
sin gle per son , a n d sh ou ld sh ift con t in u a lly, a ccor din g t o t h e a cciden t s wh ich
n ecessa r ily m u lt iply in a st a t e in pr opor t ion t o it s ext en t .
ET1&)'*,%XF%*9%&'(&+-%&4.%9%05*D&)-"4+%.,1
If it be, t h er efor e, t h e n a t u r a l pr oper t y of sm a ll st a t es t o be gover n ed a s a
r epu blic, of m iddlin g on es t o be su bject t o a m on a r ch , a n d of la r ge em pir es t o be
swa yed by a despot ic pr in ce; t h e con sequ en ce is, t h a t in or der t o pr eser ve t h e
pr in ciples of t h e est a blish ed gover n m en t , t h e st a t e m u st be su ppor t ed in t h e
ext en t it h a s a cqu ir ed, a n d t h a t t h e spir it of t h is st a t e will a lt er in pr opor t ion
a s it con t r a ct s or ext en ds it s lim it s.
EB1&@(&+-%&U<45.%&'(&)-5*"1
Befor e I con clu de t h is book, I sh a ll a n swer a n object ion t h a t m a y be m a de t o
t h e for egoin g doct r in e.
Ou r m ission a r ies in for m u s t h a t t h e gover n m en t of t h e va st em pir e of Ch in a
is a dm ir a ble, a n d t h a t it h a s a pr oper m ixt u r e of fea r , h on ou r , a n d vir t u e.
Con sequ en t ly I m u st h a ve given a n idle dist in ct ion in est a blish in g t h e
pr in ciples of t h e t h r ee gover n m en t s.
Bu t I ca n n ot con ceive wh a t t h is h on ou r ca n be a m on g a people wh o a ct on ly

t h r ou gh fea r of bein g ba st in a doed. 31
Aga in , ou r m er ch a n t s a r e fa r fr om givin g u s a n y su ch a ccou n t s of t h e vir t u e
so m u ch t a lked of by t h e m ission a r ies; we n eed on ly con su lt t h em in r ela t ion t o
t h e r obber ies a n d ext or t ion s of t h e m a n da r in s. 32 I likewise a ppea l t o a n ot h er
u n except ion a l wit n ess, t h e gr ea t Lor d An son .
Besides, F a t h er P er en n in ’s let t er s con cer n in g t h e em per or ’s pr oceedin gs
a ga in st som e of t h e pr in ces of t h e blood 33 wh o h a d in cu r r ed h is displea su r e by
t h eir con ver sion , pla in ly sh ow u s a set t led pla n of t yr a n n y, a n d ba r ba r it ies
com m it t ed by r u le, t h a t is, in cold blood.
We h a ve likewise Mon sieu r de Ma ir a n ’s, a n d t h e sa m e F a t h er P er en n in ’s,
let t er s on t h e gover n m en t of Ch in a . I fin d t h er efor e t h a t a ft er a few pr oper
qu est ion s a n d a n swer s t h e wh ole m yst er y is u n folded.
Migh t n ot ou r m ission a r ies h a ve been deceived by a n a ppea r a n ce of or der ?
Migh t n ot t h ey h a ve been st r u ck wit h t h a t con st a n t exer cise of a sin gle per son ’s
will — a n exer cise by wh ich t h ey t h em selves a r e gover n ed, a n d wh ich t h ey a r e
so plea sed t o fin d in t h e cou r t s of t h e In dia n pr in ces; beca u se a s t h ey go t h it h er
on ly in or der t o in t r odu ce gr ea t ch a n ges, it is m u ch ea sier t o per su a de t h ose
pr in ces t h a t t h er e a r e n o bou n ds t o t h eir power , t h a n t o con vin ce t h e people
t h a t t h er e a r e n on e t o t h eir su bm ission .34
In fin e, t h er e is fr equ en t ly som e kin d of t r u t h even in er r or s t h em selves. It
m a y be owin g t o pa r t icular a n d, per h a ps, ver y ext r a or din a r y cir cu m st a n ces t h a t
t h e Ch in ese gover n m en t is n ot so cor r u pt a s on e m igh t n a t u r a lly expect . Th e
clim a t e a n d som e ot h er ph ysica l ca u ses m a y, in t h a t cou n t r y, h a ve h a d so
st r on g a n in flu en ce on t h eir m or a ls a s in som e m ea su r e t o pr odu ce won der s.
Th e clim a t e of Ch in a is su r pr isin gly fa vou r a ble t o t h e pr opa ga t ion of t h e
h u m a n species. 35 Th e wom en a r e t h e m ost pr olific in t h e wh ole wor ld. Th e m ost
ba r ba r ou s t yr a n n y ca n pu t n o st op t o t h e pr ogr ess of pr opa ga t ion . Th e pr in ce
ca n n ot sa y t h er e like P h a r a oh , “Let u s dea l wisely wit h t h em , lest t h ey
m u lt iply.” H e wou ld be r a t h er r edu ced t o Ner o’s wish , t h a t m a n kin d h a d a ll bu t
on e h ea d. In spit e of t yr a n n y, Ch in a by t h e for ce of it s clim a t e will be ever
popu lou s, a n d t r iu m ph over t h e t yr a n n ica l oppr essor .
Ch in a , like a ll ot h er cou n t r ies t h a t live ch iefly u pon r ice, is su bject t o fr equ en t
fa m in es. Wh en t h e people a r e r ea dy t o st a r ve, t h ey disper se in or der t o seek for

n ou r ish m en t ; in con sequ en ce of wh ich , ga n gs of r obber s a r e for m ed on ever y
side. Most of t h em a r e ext ir pa t ed in t h eir ver y in fa n cy; ot h er s swell, a n d a r e
likewise su ppr essed. An d yet in so gr ea t a n u m ber of su ch dist a n t pr ovin ces,
som e ba n d or ot h er m a y h a ppen t o m eet wit h su ccess. In t h a t ca se t h ey
m a in t a in t h eir gr ou n d, st r en gt h en t h eir pa r t y, for m t h em selves in t o a m ilit a r y
body, m a r ch u p t o t h e ca pit a l, a n d pla ce t h eir lea der on t h e t h r on e.
F r om t h e ver y n a t u r e of t h in gs, a ba d a dm in ist r a t ion is h er e im m edia t ely
pu n ish ed. Th e wa n t of su bsist en ce in so popu lou s a cou n t r y pr odu ces su dden
disor der s. Th e r ea son wh y t h e r edr ess of a bu ses in ot h er cou n t r ies is a t t en ded
wit h su ch difficu lt y is beca u se t h eir effect s a r e n ot im m edia t ely felt ; t h e pr in ce
is n ot in for m ed in so su dden a n d sen sible a m a n n er a s in Ch in a .
Th e E m per or of Ch in a is n ot t a u gh t like ou r pr in ces t h a t if h e gover n s ill h e
will be less h a ppy in t h e ot h er life, less power fu l a n d less opu len t in t h is. H e
kn ows t h a t if h is gover n m en t be n ot ju st h e will be st r ipped bot h of em pir e a n d
life.
As Ch in a gr ows ever y da y m or e popu lou s, n ot wit h st a n din g t h e exposin g of
ch ildr en , 36 t h e in h a bit a n t s a r e in cessa n t ly em ployed in t illin g t h e la n ds for t h eir
su bsist en ce. Th is r equ ir es a ver y ext r a or din a r y a t t en t ion in t h e gover n m en t . It
is t h eir per pet u a l con cer n t h a t ever y m a n sh ou ld h a ve it in h is power t o wor k,
wit h ou t t h e a ppr eh en sion of bein g depr ived of t h e fr u it s of h is la bou r .
Con sequ en t ly t h is is n ot so m u ch a civil a s a dom est ic gover n m en t .
Su ch h a s been t h e or igin of t h ose r egu la t ion s wh ich h a ve been so gr ea t ly
ext olled. Th ey wa n t ed t o m a ke t h e la ws r eign in con ju n ct ion wit h despot ic
power ; bu t wh a t ever is join ed t o t h e la t t er loses a ll it s for ce. In va in did t h is
a r bit r a r y swa y, la bou r in g u n der it s own in con ven ien ces, desir e t o be fet t er ed;
it a r m ed it self wit h it s ch a in s, a n d h a s becom e st ill m or e t er r ible.
Ch in a is t h er efor e a despot ic st a t e, wh ose pr in ciple is fea r . P er h a ps in t h e
ea r liest dyn a st ies, wh en t h e em pir e h a d n ot so la r ge a n ext en t , t h e gover n m en t
m igh t h a ve devia t ed a lit t le fr om t h is spir it ; bu t t h e ca se is ot h er wise a t
pr esen t .
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1. See P lu t a r ch in Tim oleon a n d Dion .
2. It wa s t h a t of t h e Six H u n dr ed, of wh om m en t ion is m a de by Diodor u s, xix.
5.
3. Upon t h e expu lsion s of t h e t yr a n t s, t h ey m a de cit izen s of st r a n ger s a n d
m er cen a r y t r oops, wh ich ga ve r ise t o civil wa r s. — Ar ist ot le, P olit ics, v. 3.
Th e people h a vin g been t h e ca u se of t h e vict or y over t h e At h en ia n s, t h e
r epu blic wa s ch a n ged. — Ibid., 4. Th e pa ssion of t wo you n g m a gist r a t es, on e
of wh om ca r r ied off t h e ot h er ’s boy, a n d in r even ge t h e ot h er deba u ch ed h is
wife, wa s a t t en ded wit h a ch a n ge in t h e for m of t h is r epu blic. — Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. Th e a r ist ocr a cy is ch a n ged in t o a n oliga r ch y.
7. Ven ice is on e of t h ose r epu blics t h a t h a s en a ct ed t h e best la ws for cor r ect in g
t h e in con ven ien ces of a n h er edit a r y a r ist ocr a cy.
8. J u st in a t t r ibu t es t h e ext in ct ion of At h en ia n vir t u e t o t h e dea t h of
E pa m in on da s. H a vin g n o fu r t h er em u la t ion , t h ey spen t t h eir r even u es in
fea st s, fr equ en t iu s coen a m , qu a m ca st r a visen t es. Th en it wa s t h a t t h e
Ma cedon ia n s em er ged fr om obscu r it y, 9, 1. 6.
9. Com pila t ion of wor ks m a de u n der t h e Min gs, r ela t ed by F a t h er Du H a lde,
Descr ipt ion of Ch in a , ii, p. 648.
10. Du r in g t h e r eign of Tiber iu s st a t u es wer e er ect ed t o, a n d t r iu m ph a l
or n a m en t s con fer r ed on , in for m er s; wh ich deba sed t h ese h on ou r s t o su ch a
degr ee t h a t t h ose wh o h a d r ea lly m er it ed t h em disda in ed t o a ccept t h em .
F r a g. of Dio, lviii. 14, t a ken fr om t h e E xt r a ct of Vir t u es a n d Vices, by
Con st a n t in e P or ph yr ogen it u s. See in Ta cit u s in wh a t m a n n er Ner o, on t h e
discover y a n d pu n ish m en t of a pr et en ded con spir a cy, best owed t r iu m ph a l
or n a m en t s on P et r on iu s Tu r pilia n u s, Ner va , a n d Tigellin u s. — An n a ls, xiv.
72. See likewise h ow t h e gen er a ls r efu sed t o ser ve, beca u se t h ey con dem n ed
t h e m ilit a r y h on ou r s: per vu lga t is t r iu m ph i in sign ibu s — Ibid., xiii. 53.
11. In t h is st a t e t h e pr in ce kn ew ext r em ely well t h e pr in ciple of h is gover n m en t .
12. H er odia n .
13. Ar ist ot le, Politics, ii. 10.
14. Th ey a lwa ys u n it ed im m edia t ely a ga in st for eign en em ies, wh ich wa s ca lled

Syn cr et ism . — P lu t a r ch M oralia, p. 88.
15. R epu blic, ix.
16. P lu t a r ch , Wh eth er a M an Ad van ced in Y ears Ou gh t to M ed d le w ith Pu blic
Affairs.
17. R epu blic, v.
18. Th e Gym n ic a r t wa s divided in t o t wo pa r t s, da n cin g a n d wr est lin g. In Cr et e
t h ey h a d t h e a r m ed da n ces of t h e Cu r et es; a t Spa r t a t h ey h a d t h ose of
Ca st or a n d P ollu x; a t At h en s t h e a r m ed da n ces of P a lla s, wh ich wer e
ext r em ely pr oper for t h ose t h a t wer e n ot yet of a ge for m ilit a r y ser vice.
Wr est lin g is t h e im a ge of wa r , sa id P la t o La ws, vii. H e com m en ds a n t iqu it y
for h a vin g est a blish ed on ly t wo da n ces, t h e pa cific a n d t h e P yr r h ic. See h ow
t h e la t t er da n ce wa s a pplied t o t h e m ilit a r y a r t , P la t o, ibid.
19. Au t libidin osce. La da ea s La ceda m on is pa la est r a s. — Mu t u a l, iv, 55.
20. P lu t a r ch , in t h e t r ea t ise en t it led Qu est ion s Con cer n in g t h e Affa ir s of t h e
Rom a n s, qu est ion 40.
21. Ibid.
22. P lu t a r ch , Ta ble P r oposit ion s, book ii, qu est ion 5.
23. Book i, pr ef.
24. Livy, iii. 20.
25. Ibid., 32.
26. Abou t a h u n dr ed yea r s a ft er .
27. See xi, 12.
28. See Dio, xxxviii, Cicer o in P lu t a r ch , Cicer o t o At t icu s, iv. 10, 15. Ascon iu s on
Cicer o, De Divin a t ion e.
29. As wh en a pet t y sover eign su ppor t s h im self bet ween t wo gr ea t power s by
m ea n s of t h eir m u t u a l jea lou sy; bu t t h en h e h a s on ly a pr eca r iou s exist en ce.
30. See M. Le Cler c, t h e H istory of th e Un ited Provin ces.
31. “It is t h e cu dgel t h a t gover n s Ch in a ,” sa ys F a t h er Du H a lde, Disc. d e la
Ch in e, ii, p. 134.
32. Am on g ot h er s, De La n ge’s a ccou n t .
33. Of t h e F a m ily of Sou r n ia m a , E d ifyin g L etters, coll. xviii.
34. See in F a t h er Du H a lde h ow t h e m ission a r ies a va iled t h em selves of t h e
a u t h or it y of Ca n h i t o silen ce t h e m a n da r in s, wh o con st a n t ly decla r ed t h a t

by t h e la ws of t h e cou n t r y n o for eign wor sh ip cou ld be est a blish ed in t h e
em pir e.
35. See L ettres persan es, 210.
36. See t h e or der of Tson gt ou for t illin g t h e la n d, in t h e E difyin g Let t er s, coll.
xxi.
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If a r epu blic be sm a ll, it is dest r oyed by a for eign for ce; if it be la r ge, it is
r u in ed by a n in t er n a l im per fect ion .
To t h is t wofold in con venience dem ocr acies an d a r ist ocr a cies a r e equ a lly lia ble,
wh et h er t h ey be good or ba d. Th e evil is in t h e ver y t h in g it self, a n d n o for m ca n
r edr ess it .
It is, t h er efor e, ver y pr oba ble t h a t m a n kin d wou ld h a ve been , a t len gt h ,
obliged t o live con st a n t ly u n der t h e gover n m en t of a sin gle per son , h a d t h ey n ot
con t r ived a kin d of con st it u t ion t h a t h a s a ll t h e in t er n a l a dva n t a ges of a
r epu blica n , t oget h er wit h t h e ext er n a l for ce of a m on a r ch ica l, gover n m en t . I
m ea n a con feder a t e r epu blic.
Th is for m of gover n m en t is a con ven t ion by wh ich sever a l pet t y st a t es a gr ee
t o becom e m em ber s of a la r ger on e, wh ich t h ey in t en d t o est a blish . It is a kin d
of a ssem bla ge of societ ies, t h a t con st it u t e a n ew on e, ca pa ble of in cr ea sin g by
m ea n s of fu r t h er a ssocia t ion s, t ill t h ey a r r ive a t su ch a degr ee of power a s t o be
a ble t o pr ovide for t h e secu r it y of t h e wh ole body.
It wa s t h ese a ssocia t ion s t h a t so lon g con t r ibu t ed t o t h e pr osper it y of Gr eece.
By t h ese t h e Rom a n s a t t a cked t h e wh ole globe, a n d by t h ese a lon e t h e wh ole
globe wit h st ood t h em ; for wh en Rom e h a d a r r ived a t h er h igh est pit ch of
gr a n deu r , it wa s t h e a ssocia t ion s beyon d t h e Da n u be a n d t h e Rh in e —
a ssocia t ion s for m ed by t h e t er r or of h er a r m s — t h a t en a bled t h e ba r ba r ia n s t o
r esist h er .
H en ce it pr oceeds t h a t H olla n d, 1 Ger m a n y, a n d t h e Swiss ca n t on s a r e
con sider ed in E u r ope a s per pet u a l r epu blics.
Th e a ssocia t ion s of cit ies wer e for m er ly m or e n ecessa r y t h a n in ou r t im es. A
wea k, defen celess t own wa s exposed t o gr ea t er da n ger . By con qu est it wa s

depr ived n ot on ly of t h e execu t ive a n d legisla t ive power , a s a t pr esen t , bu t
m or eover of a ll h u m a n pr oper t y.2
A r epu blic of t h is kin d, a ble t o wit h st a n d a n ext er n a l for ce, m a y su ppor t it self
wit h ou t a n y in t er n a l cor r u pt ion ; t h e for m of t h is societ y pr even t s a ll m a n n er of
in con ven ien ces.
If a sin gle m em ber sh ou ld a t t em pt t o u su r p t h e su pr em e power , h e cou ld n ot
be su pposed t o h a ve a n equ a l a u t h or it y a n d cr edit in a ll t h e con feder a t e st a t es.
Wer e h e t o h a ve t oo gr ea t a n in flu en ce over on e, t h is wou ld a la r m t h e r est ; wer e
h e t o su bdu e a pa r t , t h a t wh ich wou ld st ill r em a in fr ee m igh t oppose h im wit h
for ces in depen den t of t h ose wh ich h e h a d u su r ped, a n d over power h im befor e
h e cou ld be set t led in h is u su r pa t ion .
Sh ou ld a popu la r in su r r ect ion h a ppen in on e of t h e con feder a t e st a t es, t h e
ot h er s a r e a ble t o qu ell it . Sh ou ld a bu ses cr eep in t o on e pa r t , t h ey a r e r efor m ed
by t h ose t h a t r em a in sou n d. Th e st a t e m a y be dest r oyed on on e side, a n d n ot on
t h e ot h er ; t h e con feder a cy m a y be dissolved, a n d t h e con feder a t es pr eser ve t h eir
sover eign t y.
As t h is gover n m en t is com posed of pet t y r epu blics, it en joys t h e in t er n a l
h a ppin ess of ea ch ; a n d wit h r ega r d t o it s ext er n a l sit u a t ion , by m ea n s of t h e
a ssocia t ion , it possesses a ll t h e a dva n t a ges of la r ge m on a r ch ies.
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Th e Ca n a a n it es wer e dest r oyed by r ea son t h a t t h ey wer e pet t y m on a r ch ies,
t h a t h a d n o u n ion or con feder a cy for t h eir com m on defen ce; a n d, in deed, a
con feder a cy is n ot a gr eea ble t o t h e n a t u r e of pet t y m on a r ch ies.
As t h e con feder a t e r epu blic of Ger m a n y con sist s of fr ee cit ies, a n d of pet t y
st a t es su bject t o differ en t pr in ces, exper ien ce sh ows u s t h a t it is m u ch m or e
im per fect t h a n t h a t of H olla n d a n d Swit zer la n d.
Th e spir it of m on a r ch y is wa r a n d en la r gem en t of dom in ion : pea ce a n d
m oder a t ion a r e t h e spir it of a r epu blic. Th ese t wo kin ds of gover n m en t ca n n ot
n a t u r a lly su bsist in a con feder a t e r epu blic.
Th u s we obser ve, in t h e Rom a n h ist or y, t h a t wh en t h e Veien t es h a d ch osen
a kin g, t h ey wer e im m edia t ely a ba n don ed by a ll t h e ot h er pet t y r epu blics of

Tu sca n y. Gr eece wa s u n don e a s soon a s t h e kin gs of Ma cedon obt a in ed a sea t
a m on g t h e Am ph ykt yon s.
Th e con feder a t e r epu blic of Ger m a n y, com posed of pr in ces a n d fr ee t own s,
su bsist s by m ea n s of a ch ief, wh o is, in som e r espect s, t h e m a gist r a t e of t h e
u n ion , in ot h er s, t h e m on a r ch .
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In t h e r epu blic of H olla n d on e pr ovin ce ca n n ot con clu de a n a llia n ce wit h ou t
t h e con sen t of t h e ot h er s. Th is la w, wh ich is a n excellen t on e, a n d even
n ecessa r y in a con feder a t e r epu blic, is wa n t in g in t h e Ger m a n ic con st it u t ion ,
wh er e it wou ld pr even t t h e m isfor t u n es t h a t m a y h a ppen t o t h e wh ole
con feder a cy, t h r ou gh t h e im pr u den ce, a m bit ion , or a va r ice of a sin gle m em ber .
A r epu blic u n it ed by a polit ica l con feder a cy h a s given it self en t ir ely u p, a n d h a s
n ot h in g m or e t o r esign .
It is difficu lt for t h e u n it ed st a t es t o be a ll of equ a l power a n d ext en t . Th e
Lycia n 3 r epu blic wa s a n a ssocia t ion of t wen t y-t h r ee t own s; t h e la r ge on es h a d
t h r ee vot es in t h e com m on cou n cil, t h e m iddlin g on es t wo, a n d t h e sm a ll t own s
on e. Th e Du t ch r epu blic con sist s of seven pr ovin ces of differ en t ext en t of
t er r it or y, wh ich h a ve ea ch on e voice.
Th e cit ies of Lycia 4 con t r ibu t ed t o t h e expen ses of t h e st a t e, a ccor din g t o t h e
pr opor t ion of su ffr a ges. Th e pr ovin ces of t h e Un it ed Net h er la n ds ca n n ot follow
t h is pr opor t ion ; t h ey m u st be dir ect ed by t h a t of t h eir power .
In Lycia 5 t h e ju dges a n d t own m a gist r a t es wer e elect ed by t h e com m on
cou n cil, a n d a ccor din g t o t h e pr opor t ion a lr ea dy m en t ion ed. In t h e r epu blic of
H olla n d t h ey a r e n ot ch osen by t h e com m on cou n cil, bu t ea ch t own n a m es it s
m a gist r a t es. Wer e I t o give a m odel of a n excellen t con feder a t e r epu blic, I
sh ou ld pit ch u pon t h a t of Lycia .
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As r epu blics pr ovide for t h eir secu r it y by u n it in g, despot ic gover n m en t s do it
by sepa r a t in g, a n d by keepin g t h em selves, a s it wer e, sin gle. Th ey sa cr ifice a
pa r t of t h e cou n t r y; a n d by r a va gin g a n d desola t in g t h e fr on t ier s t h ey r en der
t h e h ea r t of t h e em pir e in a ccessible.
It is a r eceived a xiom in geom et r y t h a t t h e gr ea t er t h e ext en t of bodies, t h e
m or e t h eir cir cu m fer en ce is r ela t ively sm a ll. Th is pr a ct ice, t h er efor e, of la yin g
t h e fr on t ier s wa st e is m or e t oler a ble in la r ge t h a n in m iddlin g st a t es.
A despot ic gover n m en t does a ll t h e m isch ief t o it self t h a t cou ld be com m it t ed
by a cr u el en em y, wh ose a r m s it wer e u n a ble t o r esist .
It pr eser ves it self likewise by a n ot h er kin d of sepa r a t ion , wh ich is by pu t t in g
t h e m ost dist a n t pr ovin ces in t o t h e h a n ds of a gr ea t va ssa l. Th e Mogu l, t h e kin g
of P er sia , a n d t h e em per or s of Ch in a h a ve t h eir feu da t or ies; a n d t h e Tu r ks h a ve
fou n d t h eir a ccou n t in pu t t in g t h e Ta r t a r s, t h e Molda via n s, t h e Wa lla ch ia n s,
a n d for m er ly t h e Tr a n sylva n ia n s, bet ween t h em selves a n d t h eir en em ies.
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A m on a r ch y n ever dest r oys it self like a despot ic gover n m en t . Bu t a kin gdom
of a m oder a t e ext en t is lia ble t o su dden in va sion s: it m u st t h er efor e h a ve
for t r esses t o defen d it s fr on t ier s; a n d t r oops t o ga r r ison t h ose for t r esses. Th e
lea st spot of gr ou n d is dispu t ed wit h m ilit a r y skill a n d r esolu t ion . Despot ic
st a t es m a ke in cu r sion s a ga in st on e a n ot h er ; it is m on a r ch ies on ly t h a t wa ge
wa r .
F or t r esses a r e pr oper for m on a r ch ies; despot ic gover n m en t s a r e a fr a id of
t h em . Th ey da r e n ot en t r u st t h eir officer s wit h su ch a com m a n d, a s n on e of
t h em h a ve a n y a ffect ion for t h e pr in ce or h is gover n m en t .
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To pr eser ve a st a t e in it s du e for ce, it m u st h a ve su ch a n ext en t a s t o a dm it
of a pr opor t ion bet ween t h e celer it y wit h wh ich it m a y be in va ded, a n d t h a t
wit h wh ich it m a y defea t t h e in va sion . As a n in va der m a y a ppea r on ever y side,
it is r equ isit e t h a t t h e st a t e sh ou ld be a ble t o m a ke on ever y side it s defen ce;
con sequ en t ly it sh ou ld be of a m oder a t e ext en t , pr opor t ion ed t o t h e degr ee of
velocit y t h a t n a t u r e h a s given t o m a n , t o en a ble h im t o m ove fr om on e pla ce t o
a n ot h er .
F r a n ce a n d Spa in a r e exa ct ly of a pr oper ext en t . Th ey h a ve so ea sy a

com m u n ica t ion for t h eir for ces a s t o be a ble t o con vey t h em im m edia t ely t o
wh a t pa r t t h ey h a ve a m in d; t h e a r m ies u n it e a n d pa ss wit h r a pidit y fr om on e
fr on t ier t o a n ot h er , wit h ou t a n y a ppr eh en sion of su ch difficu lt ies a s r equ ir e
t im e t o r em ove.
It is ext r em ely h a ppy for F r a n ce t h a t t h e ca pit a l st a n ds n ea r t o t h e differ en t
fr on t ier s in pr opor t ion t o t h eir wea kn ess; a n d t h e pr in ce h a s a bet t er view of
ea ch pa r t of h is cou n t r y a ccor din g a s it is m or e exposed.
Bu t wh en a va st em pir e, like P er sia , is a t t a cked, it is sever a l m on t h s befor e
t h e t r oops a r e a ssem bled in a body; a n d t h en t h ey a r e n ot a ble t o m a ke su ch
for ced m a r ch es, for t h a t spa ce of t im e, a s t h ey cou ld for fift een da ys. Sh ou ld t h e
a r m y on t h e fr on t ier s be defea t ed, it is soon disper sed, beca u se t h er e is n o
n eigh bou r in g pla ce of r et r ea t . Th e vict or , m eet in g wit h n o r esist a n ce, a dva n ces
wit h a ll expedit ion , sit s down befor e t h e ca pit a l, a n d la ys siege t o it , wh en t h er e
is sca r cely t im e su fficien t t o su m m on t h e gover n or s of t h e pr ovin ces t o it s r elief.
Th ose wh o for esee a n a ppr oa ch in g r evolu t ion h a st en it by t h eir disobedien ce.
F or m en wh ose fidelit y is en t ir ely owin g t o t h e da n ger of pu n ish m en t a r e ea sily
cor r u pt ed a s soon a s it becom es dist a n t ; t h eir a im is t h eir own pr iva t e in t er est .
Th e em pir e is su bver t ed, t h e ca pit a l t a ken , a n d t h e con qu er or dispu t es t h e
sever a l pr ovin ces wit h t h e gover n or s.
Th e r ea l power of a pr in ce does n ot con sist so m u ch in t h e fa cilit y h e m eet s
wit h in m a kin g con qu est s a s in t h e difficu lt y a n en em y fin ds in a t t a ckin g h im ,
a n d, if I m a y so spea k, in t h e im m u t a bilit y of h is con dit ion . Bu t t h e in cr ea se of
t er r it or y obliges a gover n m en t t o la y it self m or e open t o a n en em y.
As m on a r ch s t h er efor e ou gh t t o be en du ed wit h wisdom in or der t o in cr ea se
t h eir power , t h ey ou gh t likewise t o h a ve a n equ a l sh a r e of pr u den ce t o con fin e
it wit h in bou n ds. Upon r em ovin g t h e in con ven ien ces of t oo sm a ll a t er r it or y,
t h ey sh ou ld h a ve t h eir eye con st a n t ly on t h e in con ven ien ces wh ich a t t en d it s
ext en t .
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Th e en em ies of a gr ea t pr in ce, wh ose r eign wa s pr ot r a ct ed t o a n u n u su a l
len gt h , h a ve ver y oft en a ccu sed h im , r a t h er , I believe, fr om t h eir own fea r s t h a n
u pon a n y solid fou n da t ion , of h a vin g for m ed a n d ca r r ied on a pr oject of

u n iver sa l m on a r ch y. H a d h e a t t a in ed h is a im , n ot h in g wou ld h a ve been m or e
fa t a l t o h is su bject s, t o h im self, t o h is fa m ily, a n d t o a ll E u r ope. H ea ven , t h a t
kn ows ou r t r u e in t er est s, fa vou r ed h im m or e by pr even t in g t h e su ccess of h is
a r m s t h a n it cou ld h a ve don e by cr own in g h im wit h vict or ies. In st ea d of r a isin g
h im t o be t h e on ly sover eign in E u r ope, it m a de h im h a ppier by r en der in g h im
t h e m ost power fu l.
Th e su bject s of t h is pr in ce, wh o in t r a vellin g a br oa d a r e n ever a ffect ed bu t
wit h wh a t t h ey h a ve left a t h om e; wh o on qu it t in g t h eir own h a bit a t ion s look
u pon glor y a s t h eir ch ief object , a n d in dist a n t cou n t r ies a s a n obst a cle t o t h eir
r et u r n ; wh o disgu st you even by t h eir good qu a lit ies, beca u se t h ey a r e t a in t ed
wit h so m u ch va n it y; wh o a r e ca pa ble of su ppor t in g wou n ds, per ils, a n d
fa t igu es, bu t n ot of for egoin g t h eir plea su r es; wh o a r e su pr em ely fon d of ga iet y,
a n d com for t t h em selves for t h e loss of a ba t t le by a son g u pon t h e gen er a l: t h ose
su bject s, I sa y, wou ld n ever h a ve t h e solidit y r equ isit e for a n en t er pr ise of t h is
kin d, wh ich if defea t ed in on e cou n t r y wou ld be u n su ccessfu l ever ywh er e else;
a n d if on ce u n su ccessfu l, wou ld be so for ever .
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+'&+-%&'((%*,5;%1&
It wa s a sa yin g of t h e Lor d of Cou cy t o Kin g Ch a r les V t h a t t h e E n glish a r e
n ever wea ker , n or m or e ea sily over com e, t h a n in t h eir own cou n t r y. Th e sa m e
wa s obser ved of t h e Rom a n s; t h e sa m e of t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s; a n d t h e sa m e will
h a ppen t o ever y power t h a t sen ds a r m ies t o dist a n t cou n t r ies, in or der t o
r eu n it e by disciplin e a n d m ilit a r y for ce t hose wh o a r e divided a m on g t h em selves
by polit ica l or civil in t er est s. Th e st a t e fin ds it self wea ken ed by t h e disor der
t h a t st ill con t in u es, a n d m or e so by t h e r em edy.
Th e Lor d of Cou cy’s m a xim is a n except ion t o t h e gen er a l r u le, wh ich
disa ppr oves of wa r s a ga in st dist a n t cou n t r ies. An d t h is except ion con fir m s
likewise t h e r u le beca u se it t a kes pla ce on ly wit h r ega r d t o t h ose by wh om su ch
wa r s a r e u n der t a ken .
S1&@(&+-%&.%$"+5;%&Y'.9%&'(&3+"+%,1&
All gr a n deu r , for ce, a n d power a r e r ela t ive. Ca r e t h er efor e m u st be t a ken t h a t
in en dea vou r in g t o in cr ea se t h e r ea l gr a n deu r , t h e r ela t ive be n ot dim in ish ed.
Du r in g t h e r eign of Lou is XIV F r a n ce wa s a t it s h igh est pit ch of r ela t ive
gr a n deu r . Ger m a n y h a d n ot yet pr odu ced su ch power fu l pr in ces a s h a ve sin ce
a ppea r ed in t h a t cou n t r y. It a ly wa s in t h e sa m e ca se. E n gla n d a n d Scot la n d
wer e n ot yet for m ed in t o on e u n it ed kin gdom . Ar a gon wa s n ot join ed t o Ca st ile:
t h e dist a n t br a n ch es of t h e Spa n ish m on a r ch y wer e wea ken ed by it , a n d
wea ken ed it in t h eir t u r n ; a n d Mu scovy wa s a s lit t le kn own in E u r ope a s Cr im
Ta r t a r y.
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Wh en soever a st a t e lies con t igu ou s t o a n ot h er t h a t h a ppen s t o be in it s
declin e, t h e for m er ou gh t t o t a ke pa r t icu la r ca r e n ot t o pr ecipit a t e t h e r u in of
t h e la t t er , beca u se t h is is t h e h a ppiest sit u a t ion im a gin a ble; n ot h in g bein g so
con ven ien t a s for on e pr in ce t o be n ea r a n ot h er , wh o r eceives for h im a ll t h e
r ebu ffs a n d in su lt s of for t u n e. An d it seldom h a ppen s t h a t by su bdu in g su ch a
st a t e t h e r ea l power of t h e con qu er or is a s m u ch in cr ea sed a s t h e r ela t ive is
dim in ish ed.
2'+%,1
1. It is com posed of a bou t fift y differ en t r epu blics, a ll differ en t fr om on e
a n ot h er . — M. J a n isson , S tate of th e Un ited Provin ces.
2. Civil liber t y, goods, wives, ch ildr en , t em ples, a n d even bu r yin g-pla ces.
3. St r a bo, xiv.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
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B1&@(&@((%*,5;%&Y'.9%1&
Offen sive for ce is r egu la t ed by t h e la w of n a t ion s, wh ich is t h e polit ica l la w of
ea ch cou n t r y con sider ed in it s r ela t ion t o ever y ot h er .
E1&@(&W".1
Th e life of gover n m en t s is like t h a t of m a n . Th e la t t er h a s a r igh t t o kill in
ca se of n a t u r a l defen ce: t h e for m er h a ve a r igh t t o wa ge wa r for t h eir own
pr eser va t ion .
In t h e ca se of n a t u r a l defen ce I h a ve a r igh t t o kill, beca u se m y life is in
r espect t o m e wh a t t h e life of m y a n t a gon ist is t o h im : in t h e sa m e m a n n er a
st a t e wa ges wa r beca u se it s pr eser va t ion is like t h a t of a n y ot h er bein g.
Wit h in dividu a ls t h e r igh t of n a t u r a l defen ce does n ot im ply a n ecessit y of
a t t a ckin g. In st ea d of a t t a ckin g t h ey n eed on ly h a ve r ecou r se t o pr oper
t r ibu n a ls. Th ey ca n n ot t h er efor e exer cise t h is r igh t of defen ce bu t in su dden
ca ses, wh en im m edia t e dea t h wou ld be t h e con sequ en ce of wa it in g for t h e
a ssist a n ce of t h e la w. Bu t wit h st a t es t h e r igh t of n a t u r a l defen ce ca r r ies a lon g
wit h it som et im es t h e n ecessit y of a t t a ckin g; a s for in st a n ce, wh en on e n a t ion
sees t h a t a con t in u a n ce of pea ce will en a ble a n ot h er t o dest r oy h er , a n d t h a t t o
a t t a ck t h a t n a t ion in st a n t ly is t h e on ly wa y t o pr even t h er own dest r u ct ion .
Th en ce it follows t h a t pet t y st a t es h a ve oft en er a r igh t t o decla r e wa r t h a n
gr ea t on es, beca u se t h ey a r e oft en er in t h e ca se of bein g a fr a id of dest r u ct ion .
Th e r igh t of wa r , t h er efor e, is der ived fr om n ecessit y a n d st r ict ju st ice. If
t h ose wh o dir ect t h e con scien ce or cou n cils of pr in ces do n ot a bide by t h is
m a xim , t h e con sequ en ce is dr ea dfu l: wh en t h ey pr oceed on a r bit r a r y pr in ciples
of glor y, con ven ien ce, a n d u t ilit y, t or r en t s of blood m u st over spr ea d t h e ea r t h .
Bu t , a bove a ll, let t h em n ot plea d su ch a n idle pr et ext a s t h e glor y of t h e
pr in ce: h is glor y is n ot h in g bu t pr ide; it is a pa ssion , a n d n ot a legit im a t e r igh t .

It is t r u e t h e fa m e of h is power m igh t in cr ea se t h e st r en gt h of h is gover n m en t ;
bu t it m igh t be equ a lly in cr ea sed by t h e r epu t a t ion of h is ju st ice.
G1&@(&+-%&/5D-+&'(&)'*XF%,+1
F r om t h e r igh t of wa r com es t h a t of con qu est ; wh ich is t h e con sequ en ce of t h a t
r igh t , a n d ou gh t t h er efor e t o follow it s spir it .
Th e r igh t t h e con qu er or h a s over a con qu er ed people is dir ect ed by fou r sor t s
of la ws: t h e la w of n a t u r e, wh ich m a kes ever yt h in g t en d t o t h e pr eser va t ion of
t h e species; t h e la w of n a t u r a l r ea son , wh ich t ea ch es u s t o do t o ot h er s wh a t we
wou ld h a ve don e t o ou r selves; t h e la w t h a t for m s polit ica l societ ies, wh ose
du r a t ion n a t u r e h a s n ot lim it ed; a n d, in fin e, t h e la w der ived fr om t h e n a t u r e
of t h e t h in g it self. Con qu est is a n a cqu isit ion , a n d ca r r ies wit h it t h e spir it of
pr eser va t ion a n d u se, n ot of dest r u ct ion .
Th e in h a bit a n t s of a con qu er ed cou n t r y a r e t r ea t ed by t h e con qu er or in on e
of t h e fou r followin g wa ys: E it h er h e con t in u es t o r u le t h em a ccor din g t o t h eir
own la ws, a n d a ssu m es t o h im self on ly t h e exer cise of t h e polit ica l a n d civil
gover n m en t ; or h e gives t h em n ew polit ica l a n d civil gover n m en t ; or h e dest r oys
a n d disper ses t h e societ y; or , in fin e, h e ext er m in a t es t h e people.
Th e fir st wa y is con for m a ble t o t h e la w of n a t ion s n ow followed; t h e fou r t h is
m or e a gr eea ble t o t h e la w of n a t ion s followed by t h e Rom a n s: in r espect t o
wh ich I lea ve t h e r ea der t o ju dge h ow fa r we h a ve im pr oved u pon t h e a n cien t s.
We m u st give du e com m en da t ion s t o ou r m oder n r efin em en t s in r ea son ,
r eligion , ph ilosoph y, a n d m a n n er s.
Th e a u t h or s of ou r pu blic la w, gu ided by a n cien t h ist or ies, wit h ou t con fin in g
t h em selves t o ca ses of st r ict n ecessit y, h a ve fa llen in t o ver y gr ea t er r or s. Th ey
h a ve a dopt ed t yr a n n ica l a n d a r bit r a r y pr in ciples, by su pposin g t h e con qu er or s
t o be in vest ed wit h I k n ow n ot wh a t r igh t t o kill: t h en ce t h ey h a ve dr a wn
con sequ en ces a s t er r ible a s t h e ver y pr in ciple, a n d est a blish ed m a xim s wh ich
t h e con qu er or s t h em selves, wh en possessed of t h e lea st gr a in of sen se, n ever
pr esu m ed t o follow. It is a pla in ca se t h a t wh en t h e con qu est is com plet ed, t h e
con qu er or h a s n o lon ger a r igh t t o kill, beca u se h e h a s n o lon ger t h e plea of
n a t u r a l defen ce a n d self-pr eser va t ion .
Wh a t h a s led t h em in t o t h is m ist a ke is, t h a t t h ey im a gin ed a con qu er or h a d

a r igh t t o dest r oy t h e st a t e; wh en ce t h ey in fer r ed t h a t h e h a d a r igh t t o dest r oy
t h e m en t h a t com pose it : a wr on g con sequ en ce fr om a fa lse pr in ciple. F or fr om
t h e dest r u ct ion of t h e st a t e it does n ot a t a ll follow t h a t t h e people wh o com pose
it ou gh t t o be a lso dest r oyed. Th e st a t e is t h e a ssocia t ion of m en , a n d n ot t h e
m en t h em selves; t h e cit izen m a y per ish , a n d t h e m a n r em a in .
F r om t h e r igh t of killin g in t h e ca se of con qu est , polit icia n s h a ve dr a wn t h a t
of r edu cin g t o sla ver y — a con sequ en ce a s ill-gr ou n ded a s t h e pr in ciple.
Th er e is n o su ch t h in g a s a r igh t of r edu cin g people t o sla ver y, sa ve wh en it
becom es n ecessa r y for t h e pr eser va t ion of t h e con qu est . P r eser va t ion , a n d n ot
ser vit u de, is t h e en d of con qu est ; t h ou gh ser vit u de m a y h a ppen som et im es t o
be a n ecessa r y m ea n s of pr eser va t ion .
E ven in t h a t ca se it is con t r a r y t o t h e n a t u r e of t h in gs t h a t t h e sla ver y sh ou ld
be per pet u a l. Th e people en sla ved ou gh t t o be r en der ed ca pa ble of becom in g
su bject s. Sla ver y in con qu est s is a n a cciden t a l t h in g. Wh en a ft er t h e expir a t ion
of a cer t a in spa ce of t im e a ll t h e pa r t s of t h e con qu er in g st a t e a r e con n ect ed
wit h t h e con qu er ed n a t ion , by cu st om , m a r r ia ges, la ws, a ssocia t ion s, a n d by a
cer t a in con for m it y of disposit ion , t h er e ou gh t t o be a n en d of t h e sla ver y. F or
t h e r igh t s of t h e con qu er or a r e fou n ded en t ir ely on t h e opposit ion bet ween t h e
t wo n a t ion s in t h ose ver y a r t icles, wh en ce pr eju dices a r ise, a n d t h e wa n t of
m u t u a l con fiden ce.
A con qu er or , t h er efor e, wh o r edu ces t h e con qu er ed people t o sla ver y, ou gh t
a lwa ys t o r eser ve t o h im self t h e m ea n s (for m ea n s t h er e a r e wit h ou t n u m ber )
of r est or in g t h em t o t h eir liber t y.
Th ese a r e fa r fr om bein g va gu e a n d u n cer t a in n ot ion s. Th u s ou r a n cest or s
a ct ed, t h ose a n cest or s wh o con qu er ed t h e Rom a n em pir e. Th e la ws t h ey m a de
in t h e h ea t a n d t r a n spor t of pa ssion a n d in t h e in solen ce of vict or y wer e
gr a du a lly soft en ed; t h ose la ws wer e a t fir st sever e, bu t wer e a ft er wa r ds
r en der ed im pa r t ia l. Th e Bu r gu n dia n s, Got h s, a n d Lom ba r ds wou ld h a ve t h e
Rom a n s con t in u e a con qu er ed people; bu t t h e la ws of E u r ic, Gu n deba ld, a n d
Rot h a r is m a de t h e Rom a n s a n d ba r ba r ia n s fellow-cit izen s.1
Ch a r lem a gn e, t o t a m e t h e Sa xon s, depr ived t h em of t h eir liber t y a n d
pr oper t y. Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e m a de t h em a fr ee people, 2 a n d t h is wa s on e of
t h e m ost pr u den t r egu la t ion s du r in g h is wh ole r eign . Tim e a n d ser vit u de h a d

soft en ed t h eir m a n n er s, a n d t h ey ever a ft er a dh er ed t o h im wit h t h e gr ea t est
fidelit y.
J1&3'<%&:0;"*+"D%,&'(&"&9'*XF%.%0&8%'4$%1
In st ea d of in fer r in g su ch dest r u ct ive con sequ en ces fr om t h e r igh t of con qu est ,
m u ch bet t er wou ld it h a ve been for polit icia n s t o m en t ion t h e a dva n t a ges wh ich
t h is ver y r igh t m a y som et im es give t o a con qu er ed people — a dva n t a ges wh ich
wou ld be m or e sen sibly a n d m or e u n iver sa lly exper ien ced wer e ou r la w of
n a t ion s exa ct ly followed, a n d est a blish ed in ever y pa r t of t h e globe.
Con qu er ed cou n t r ies a r e, gen er a lly spea kin g, degen er a t ed fr om t h eir or igin a l
in st it u t ion . Cor r u pt ion h a s cr ept in , t h e execu t ion of t h e la ws h a s been
n eglect ed, a n d t h e gover n m en t h a s gr own oppr essive. Wh o ca n qu est ion bu t
su ch a st a t e wou ld be a ga in er , a n d der ive som e a dva n t a ges fr om t h e ver y
con qu est it self, if it did n ot pr ove dest r u ct ive? Wh en a gover n m en t h a s a r r ived
a t t h a t degr ee of cor r u pt ion a s t o be in ca pa ble of r efor m in g it self, it wou ld n ot
lose m u ch by bein g n ewly m ou lded. A con qu er or wh o en t er s t r iu m ph a n t in t o a
cou n t r y wh er e t h e m on eyed m en h a ve, by a va r iet y of a r t ifices, in sen sibly
a r r ived a t in n u m er a ble wa ys of en cr oa ch in g on t h e pu blic, wh er e t h e m iser a ble
people, wh o see a bu ses gr own in t o la ws, a r e r ea dy t o sin k u n der t h e weigh t of
im pr ession , yet t h in k t h ey h a ve n o r igh t t o a pply for r edr ess — a con qu er or , I
sa y, m a y m a ke a t ot a l ch a n ge, a n d t h en t h e t yr a n n y of t h ose wr et ch es will be
t h e fir st t h in g exposed t o h is r esen t m en t .
We h a ve beh eld, for in st a n ce, cou n t r ies oppr essed by t h e fa r m er s of t h e
r even u es, a n d ea sed a ft er wa r ds by t h e con qu er or , wh o h a d n eit h er t h e
en ga gem en t s n or wa n t s of t h e legit im a t e pr in ce. E ven t h e a bu ses h a ve been
oft en r edr essed wit h ou t a n y in t er posit ion of t h e con qu er or .
Som et im es t h e fr u ga lit y of a con qu er in g n a t ion h a s en a bled t h em t o a llow t h e
con qu er ed t h ose n ecessa r ies of wh ich t h ey h a d been depr ived u n der a la wfu l
pr in ce.
A con qu est m a y dest r oy per n iciou s pr eju dices, a n d la y, if I m a y pr esu m e t o
u se t h e expr ession , t h e n a t ion u n der a bet t er gen iu s.
Wh a t good m igh t n ot t h e Spa n ia r ds h a ve don e t o t h e Mexica n s? Th ey h a d a
m ild r eligion t o im pa r t t o t h em ; bu t t h ey filled t h eir h ea ds wit h a fr a n t ic

su per st it ion . Th ey m igh t h a ve set sla ves a t liber t y; t h ey m a de fr eem en sla ves.
Th ey m igh t h a ve u n deceived t h em wit h r ega r d t o t h e a bu se of h u m a n sa cr ifices;
in st ea d of t h a t t h ey dest r oyed t h em . N ever sh ou ld I h a ve fin ish ed, wer e I t o
r ecou n t a ll t h e good t h ey m igh t h a ve don e, a n d a ll t h e m isch ief t h ey com m it t ed.
It is a con qu er or ’s bu sin ess t o r epa ir a pa r t of t h e m isch ief h e h a s occa sion ed.
Th e r igh t , t h er efor e, of con qu est I defin e t h u s: a n ecessa r y, la wfu l, bu t u n h a ppy
power , wh ich lea ves t h e con qu er or u n der a h ea vy obliga t ion of r epa ir in g t h e
in ju r ies don e t o h u m a n it y.
L1&A%$'*I&M5*D&'(&3H."9F,%1&
Th e n oblest t r ea t y of pea ce ever m en t ion ed in h ist or y is, in m y opin ion , t h a t
wh ich Gelon m a de wit h t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s. H e in sist ed u pon t h eir a bolish in g
t h e cu st om of sa cr ificin g t h eir ch ildr en . 3 Glor iou s in deed! Aft er h a vin g defea t ed
t h r ee h u n dr ed t h ou sa n d Ca r t h a gin ia n s, h e r equ ir ed a con dit ion t h a t wa s
a dva n t a geou s on ly t o t h em selves, or r a t h er h e st ipu la t ed in fa vou r of h u m a n
n a t u r e.
Th e Ba ct r ia n s exposed t h eir a ged fa t h er s t o be devou r ed by la r ge m a st iffs —
a cu st om su ppr essed by Alexa n der , wh er eby h e obt a in ed a sign a l t r iu m ph over
su per st it ion .
O1&@(&)'*XF%,+&<"0%&#H&"&/%4F#$591&
It is con t r a r y t o t h e n a t u r e of t h in gs t h a t in a con feder a t e gover n m en t on e
st a t e sh ou ld m a ke a n y con qu est over a n ot h er , a s in ou r da ys we h a ve seen in
Swit zer la n d. 4 In m ixed con feder a t e r epu blics, wh er e t h e a ssocia t ion is bet ween
pet t y r epu blics a n d m on a r ch ies, of a sm a ll ext en t , t h is is n ot so a bsu r d.
Con t r a r y is it a lso t o t h e n a t u r e of t h in gs t h a t a dem ocr a t ic r epu blic sh ou ld
con qu er t own s wh ich ca n n ot en t er in t o t h e sph er e of it s dem ocr a cy. It is
n ecessa r y t h a t t h e con qu er ed people sh ou ld be ca pa ble of en joyin g t h e pr ivileges
of sover eign t y, a s wa s set t led in t h e ver y begin n in g a m on g t h e Rom a n s. Th e
con qu est ou gh t t o be lim it ed t o t h e n u m ber of cit izen s fixed for t h e dem ocr a cy.
If a dem ocr a t ic r epu blic su bdu es a n a t ion in or der t o gover n t h em a s su bject s,
it exposes it s own liber t y; beca u se it en t r u st s t oo gr ea t a power t o t h ose wh o a r e
a ppoin t ed t o t h e com m a n d of t h e con qu er ed pr ovin ces.

H ow da n ger ou s wou ld h a ve been t h e sit u a t ion of t h e r epu blic of Ca r t h a ge h a d
H a n n iba l m a de h im self m a st er of Rom e? Wh a t wou ld h e n ot h a ve don e in h is
own cou n t r y, h a d h e been vict or iou s, h e wh o ca u sed so m a n y r evolu t ion s in it
a ft er h is defea t ?5
H a n n o cou ld n ever h a ve dissu a ded t h e sen a t e fr om sen din g su ccou r t o
H a n n iba l, h a d h e u sed n o ot h er a r gu m en t t h a n h is own jea lou sy. Th e
Ca r t h a gin ia n sen a t e, wh ose wisdom is so h igh ly ext olled by Ar ist ot le (a n d
wh ich h a s been eviden t ly pr oved by t h e pr osper it y of t h a t r epu blic), cou ld n ever
h a ve been det er m in ed by ot h er t h a n solid r ea son s. Th ey m u st h a ve been st u pid
n ot t o see t h a t a n a r m y a t t h e dist a n ce of t h r ee h u n dr ed lea gu es wou ld
n ecessa r ily be exposed t o losses wh ich r equ ir ed r epa r a t ion .
H a n n o’s pa r t y in sist ed t h a t H a n n iba l sh ou ld be deliver ed u p t o t h e Rom a n s. 6
Th ey cou ld n ot a t t h a t t im e be a fr a id of t h e Rom a n s; t h ey wer e t h er efor e
a ppr eh en sive of H a n n iba l.
It wa s im possible, som e will sa y, for t h em t o im a gin e t h a t H a n n iba l h a d been
so su ccessfu l. Bu t h ow wa s it possible for t h em t o dou bt it ? Cou ld t h e
Ca r t h a gin ia n s, a people spr ea d over a ll t h e ea r t h , be ign or a n t of wh a t wa s
t r a n sa ct in g in It a ly? No: t h ey wer e su fficien t ly a cqu a in t ed wit h it , a n d for t h a t
r ea son t h ey did n ot ca r e t o sen d su pplies t o H a n n iba l.
H a n n o beca m e m or e r esolu t e a ft er t h e ba t t le of Tr ebia , a ft er t h e ba t t le of
Th r a sim en u s, a ft er t h a t of Ca n n a e; it wa s n ot h is in cr edu lit y t h a t in cr ea sed,
bu t h is fea r .
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Th er e is st ill a n ot h er in con ven ien ce in con qu est s m a de by dem ocr a cies: t h eir
gover n m en t is ever odiou s t o t h e con qu er ed st a t es. It is a ppa r en t ly m on a r ch ica l:
bu t in r ea lit y it is m u ch m or e oppr essive t h a n m on a r ch y, a s t h e exper ien ce of
a ll a ges a n d cou n t r ies evin ces.
Th e con qu er ed people a r e in a m ela n ch oly sit u a t ion ; t h ey n eit h er en joy t h e
a dva n t a ges of a r epu blic, n or t h ose of a m on a r ch y.
Wh a t h a s been h er e sa id of a popu la r st a t e is a pplica ble t o a r ist ocr a cy.
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Wh en a r epu blic, t h er efor e, keeps a n ot h er n a t ion in su bject ion , it sh ou ld
en dea vou r t o r epa ir t h e in con ven ien ces a r isin g fr om t h e n a t u r e of it s sit u a t ion
by givin g it good la ws bot h for t h e polit ica l a n d civil gover n m en t of t h e people.
We h a ve a n in st a n ce of a n isla n d in t h e Medit er r a n ea n , su bject t o a n It a lia n
r epu blic, wh ose polit ica l a n d civil la ws wit h r ega r d t o t h e in h a bit a n t s of t h a t
isla n d wer e ext r em ely defect ive. Th e a ct of in dem n it y, 7 by wh ich it or da in ed
t h a t n o on e sh ou ld be con dem n ed t o bodily pu n ish m en t in con sequ en ce of t h e
pr iva t e kn owledge of t h e gover n or , ex in form ata con scien tia, is st ill r ecen t in
ever ybody’s m em or y. Th er e h a ve been fr equ en t in st a n ces of t h e people’s
pet it ion in g for pr ivileges; h er e t h e sover eign gr a n t s on ly t h e com m on r igh t of
a ll n a t ion s.
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If a m on a r ch y ca n lon g su bsist befor e it is wea ken ed by it s in cr ea se, it will
becom e for m ida ble; a n d it s st r en gt h will r em a in en t ir e, wh ile pen t u p by t h e
n eigh bou r in g m on a r ch ies.
It ou gh t n ot , t h er efor e, t o a im a t con qu est s beyon d t h e n a t u r a l lim it s of it s
gover n m en t . So soon a s it h a s pa ssed t h ese lim it s, it is pr u den ce t o st op.
In t h is kin d of con qu est t h in gs m u st be left a s t h ey wer e fou n d — t h e sa m e
cou r t s of ju dica t u r e, t h e sa m e la ws, t h e sa m e cu st om s, t h e sa m e pr ivileges:
t h er e ou gh t t o be n o ot h er a lt er a t ion t h a n t h a t of t h e a r m y a n d of t h e n a m e of
t h e sover eign .
Wh en a m on a r ch y h a s ext en ded it s lim it s by t h e con qu est of n eigh bou r in g
pr ovin ces, it sh ou ld t r ea t t h ose pr ovin ces wit h gr ea t len it y.
If a m on a r ch y h a s been lon g en dea vou r in g a t con qu est , t h e pr ovin ces of it s
a n cien t dem esn e a r e gen er a lly ill-u sed. Th ey a r e obliged t o su bm it bot h t o t h e
n ew a n d t o t h e a n cien t a bu ses; a n d t o be depopu la t ed by a va st m et r opolis, t h a t
swa llows u p t h e wh ole. Now if, a ft er h a vin g m a de con qu est s r ou n d t h is
dem esn e, t h e con qu er ed people wer e t r ea t ed like t h e a n cien t su bject s, t h e st a t e
wou ld be u n don e; t h e t a xes sen t by t h e con qu er ed pr ovin ces t o t h e ca pit a l wou ld
n ever r et u r n ; t h e in h a bit a n t s of t h e fr on t ier s wou ld be r u in ed, a n d con sequ en t ly
t h e fr on t ier s wou ld be wea ker ; t h e people wou ld be disa ffect ed; a n d t h e
su bsist en ce of t h e a r m ies design ed t o a ct a n d r em a in t h er e wou ld becom e m or e

pr eca r iou s.
Su ch is t h e n ecessa r y st a t e of a con qu er in g m on a r ch y: a sh ockin g lu xu r y in
t h e ca pit a l; m iser y in t h e pr ovin ces som ewh a t dist a n t ; a n d plen t y in t h e m ost
r em ot e. It is t h e sa m e wit h su ch a m on a r ch y a s wit h ou r pla n et ; fir e a t t h e
cen t r e, ver du r e on t h e su r fa ce, a n d bet ween bot h a dr y, cold, a n d ba r r en ea r t h .
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Som et im es on e m on a r ch y su bdu es a n ot h er . Th e sm a ller t h e la t t er , t h e bet t er
it is over a wed by for t r esses; a n d t h e la r ger it is, t h e bet t er will it be pr eser ved
by colon ies.
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It is n ot su fficien t in t h ose con qu est s t o let t h e con qu er ed n a t ion en joy t h eir
own la ws; it is, per h a ps, m or e n ecessa r y t o lea ve t h em a lso t h eir m a n n er s,
beca u se people in gen er a l h a ve a st r on ger a t t a ch m en t t o t h ese t h a n t o t h eir
la ws.
Th e F r en ch h a ve been dr iven n in e t im es ou t of It a ly, beca u se, a s h ist or ia n s
sa y, 8 of t h eir in solen t fa m ilia r it ies wit h t h e fa ir sex. It is t oo m u ch for a n a t ion
t o be obliged t o bea r n ot on ly wit h t h e pr ide of con qu er or s, bu t wit h t h eir
in con t in en ce a n d in discr et ion ; t h ese a r e, wit h ou t dou bt , m ost gr ievou s a n d
in t oler a ble, a s t h ey a r e t h e sou r ce of in fin it e ou t r a ges.
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F a r a m I fr om t h in kin g t h a t a good la w wh ich Cyr u s m a de t o oblige t h e
Lydia n s t o pr a ct ise n on e bu t m ea n or in fa m ou s pr ofession s. It is t r u e h e
dir ect ed h is a t t en t ion t o a n object of t h e gr ea t est im por t a n ce: h e t h ou gh t of
gu a r din g a ga in st r evolt s, a n d n ot in va sion s; bu t in va sion s will soon com e, wh en
t h e P er sia n s a n d Lydia n s u n it e a n d cor r u pt ea ch ot h er . I wou ld t h er efor e m u ch
r a t h er su ppor t by la ws t h e sim plicit y a n d r u den ess of t h e con qu er in g n a t ion
t h a n t h e effem in a cy of t h e con qu er ed.
Ar ist odem u s, t yr a n t of Cu m a e, 9 u sed a ll h is en dea vou r s t o ba n ish cou r a ge,
a n d t o en er va t e t h e m in ds of you t h . H e or der ed t h a t boys sh ou ld let t h eir h a ir

gr ow in t h e sa m e m a n n er a s gir ls, t h a t t h ey sh ou ld deck it wit h flower s, a n d
wea r lon g r obes of differ en t colou r s down t o t h eir h eels; t h a t wh en t h ey wen t t o
t h eir m a st er s of m u sic a n d da n cin g, t h ey sh ou ld h a ve wom en wit h t h em t o
ca r r y t h eir u m br ella s, per fu m es, a n d fa n s, a n d t o pr esen t t h em wit h com bs a n d
lookin g-gla sses wh en ever t h ey ba t h ed. Th is edu ca t ion la st ed t ill t h e a ge of
t wen t y — a n edu ca t ion t h a t cou ld be a gr eea ble t o n on e bu t t o a pet t y t yr a n t ,
wh o exposes h is sover eign t y t o defen d h is life.
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Th is pr in ce, wh o depen ded en t ir ely on h is own st r en gt h , h a st en ed h is r u in by
for m in g design s t h a t cou ld n ever be execu t ed bu t by a lon g wa r — a t h in g wh ich
h is kin gdom wa s u n a ble t o su ppor t .
It wa s n ot a declin in g st a t e h e u n der t ook t o su bver t , bu t a r isin g em pir e. Th e
Ru ssia n s m a de u se of t h e wa r h e wa ged a ga in st t h em a s of a m ilit a r y sch ool.
E ver y defea t br ou gh t t h em n ea r er t o vict or y; a n d, losin g a br oa d, t h ey lea r n ed
t o defen d t h em selves a t h om e.
Ch a r les, in t h e deser t s of P ola n d, im a gin ed h im self sover eign of t h e wh ole
wor ld: h er e h e wa n der ed, a n d wit h h im in som e m ea su r e wa n der ed Sweden ;
wh ile h is ca pit a l en em y a cqu ir ed n ew st r en gt h a ga in st h im , locked h im u p,
m a de set t lem en t s a lon g t h e Ba lt ic, dest r oyed or su bdu ed Livon ia .
Sweden wa s like a r iver wh ose wa t er s a r e cu t off a t t h e fou n t a in h ea d in or der
t o ch a n ge it s cou r se.
It wa s n ot t h e a ffa ir of P u lt owa t h a t r u in ed Ch a r les. H a d h e n ot been
dest r oyed a t t h a t pla ce, h e wou ld h a ve been in a n ot h er . Th e ca su a lt ies of
for t u n e a r e ea sily r epa ir ed; bu t wh o ca n be gu a r ded a ga in st even t s t h a t
in cessa n t ly a r ise fr om t h e n a t u r e of t h in gs?
Bu t n eit h er n a t u r e n or for t u n e wer e ever so m u ch a ga in st h im a s h e h im self.
H e wa s n ot dir ect ed by t h e pr esen t sit u a t ion of t h in gs, bu t by a kin d of pla n
of h is for m in g; a n d even t h is h e followed ver y ill. H e wa s n ot a n Alexa n der ; bu t
h e wou ld h a ve m a de a n excellen t soldier u n der t h a t m on a r ch .
Alexa n der ’s pr oject su cceeded beca u se it wa s pr u den t ly con cer t ed. Th e ba d
su ccess of t h e P er sia n s in t h eir sever a l in va sion s of Gr eece, t h e con qu est s of
Agesila u s, a n d t h e r et r ea t of t h e t en t h ou sa n d h a d sh own t o dem on st r a t ion t h e

su per ior it y of t h e Gr eeks in t h eir m a n n er of figh t in g a n d in t h eir a r m s; a n d it
wa s well kn own t h a t t h e P er sia n s wer e t oo pr ou d t o be cor r ect ed.
It wa s n o lon ger possible for t h em t o wea ken Gr eece by division s: Gr eece wa s
t h en u n it ed u n der on e h ea d, wh ich cou ld n ot pit ch u pon a bet t er m et h od of
r en der in g h er in sen sible t o h er ser vit u de t h a n by fla t t er in g h er va n it y wit h t h e
dest r u ct ion of h er h er edit a r y en em y, a n d wit h t h e h opes of t h e con qu est of Asia .
An em pir e cu lt iva t ed by t h e m ost in du st r iou s n a t ion in t h e wor ld, t h a t
followed a gr icu lt u r e fr om a pr in ciple of r eligion — a n em pir e a bou n din g wit h
ever y con ven ien ce of life, fu r n ish ed t h e en em y wit h a ll n ecessa r y m ea n s of
su bsist in g.
It wa s ea sy t o ju dge by t h e pr ide of t h ose kin gs, wh o in va in wer e m or t ified by
t h eir n u m er ou s defea t s, t h a t t h ey wou ld pr ecipit a t e t h eir r u in by t h eir
for wa r dn ess in ven t u r in g ba t t les; a n d t h a t t h e fla t t er y of t h eir cou r t ier s wou ld
n ever per m it t h em t o dou bt of t h eir gr a n deu r .
Th e pr oject wa s n ot on ly wise, bu t wisely execu t ed. Alexa n der , in t h e r a pidit y
of h is con qu est s, even in t h e im pet u osit y of h is pa ssion , h a d, if I m a y so expr ess
m yself, a fla sh of r ea son by wh ich h e wa s dir ect ed, a n d wh ich t h ose wh o wou ld
fa in h a ve m a de a r om a n ce of h is h ist or y, a n d wh ose m in ds wer e m or e cor r u pt
t h a n h is, cou ld n ot con cea l fr om ou r view. Let u s descen d m or e m in u t ely in t o h is
h ist or y.
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H e did n ot set ou t u pon h is expedit ion t ill h e h a d secu r ed Ma cedon ia a ga in st
t h e n eigh bou r in g ba r ba r ia n s, a n d com plet ed t h e r edu ct ion of Gr eece; h e a va iled
h im self of t h is con qu est for n o ot h er en d t h a n for t h e execu t ion of h is gr a n d
en t er pr ise; h e r en der ed t h e jea lou sy of t h e La ceda em on ia n s of n o effect ; h e
a t t a cked t h e m a r it im e pr ovin ces; h e ca u sed h is la n d for ces t o keep close t o t h e
sea -coa st , t h a t t h ey m igh t n ot be sepa r a t ed fr om h is fleet ; h e m a de a n
a dm ir a ble u se of disciplin e a ga in st n u m ber s; h e n ever wa n t ed pr ovision s; a n d
if it be t r u e t h a t vict or y ga ve h im ever yt h in g, h e, in h is t u r n , did ever yt h in g t o
obt a in it .
In t h e begin n in g of h is en t er pr ise — a t im e wh en t h e lea st ch eck m igh t h a ve
pr oved h is dest r u ct ion — h e t r u st ed ver y lit t le t o for t u n e; bu t wh en h is

r epu t a t ion wa s est a blish ed by a ser ies of pr osper ou s even t s, h e som et im es h a d
r ecou r se t o t em er it y. Wh en befor e h is depa r t u r e for Asia h e m a r ch ed a ga in st
t h e Tr iba llia n s a n d Illyr ia n s, you fin d h e wa ged wa r 10 a ga in st t h ose people in
t h e ver y sa m e m a n n er a s Ca esa r a ft er wa r ds con du ct ed t h a t a ga in st t h e Ga u ls.
U pon h is r et u r n t o Gr eece, 11 it wa s in som e m ea su r e a ga in st h is will t h a t h e
t ook a n d dest r oyed Th ebes. Wh en h e in vest ed t h a t cit y, h e wa n t ed t h e
in h a bit a n t s t o com e in t o t er m s of pea ce; bu t t h ey h a st en ed t h eir own r u in .
Wh en it wa s deba t ed wh et h er h e sh ou ld a t t a ck t h e P er sia n fleet , 12 it is
P a r m en io wh o sh ows h is pr esu m pt ion , Alexa n der h is wisdom . H is a im wa s t o
dr a w t h e P er sia n s fr om t h e sea -coa st , a n d t o la y t h em u n der a n ecessit y of
a ba n don in g t h eir m a r in e, in wh ich t h ey h a d a m a n ifest su per ior it y. Tyr e bein g
fr om pr in ciple a t t a ch ed t o t h e P er sia n s, wh o cou ld n ot su bsist wit h ou t t h e
com m er ce a n d n a viga t ion of t h a t cit y, Alexa n der dest r oyed it . H e su bdu ed
E gypt , wh ich Da r iu s h a d left ba r e of t r oops wh ile h e wa s a ssem blin g im m en se
a r m ies in a n ot h er wor ld.
To t h e pa ssa ge of t h e Gr a n icu s, Alexa n der owed t h e con qu est of t h e Gr eek
colon ies; t o t h e ba t t le of Issu s, t h e r edu ct ion of Tyr e a n d E gypt ; t o t h e ba t t le of
Ar bela , t h e em pir e of t h e wor ld.
Aft er t h e ba t t le of Issu s, h e su ffer ed Da r iu s t o esca pe, a n d em ployed h is t im e
in secu r in g a n d r egu la t in g h is con qu est s: a ft er t h e ba t t le of Ar bela , h e pu r su ed
h im so close 13 a s t o lea ve h im n o pla ce of r efu ge in h is em pir e. Da r iu s en t er s h is
t own s, h is pr ovin ces, t o qu it t h em t h e n ext m om en t ; a n d Alexa n der m a r ch es
wit h su ch r a pidit y t h a t t h e em pir e of t h e wor ld seem s t o be r a t h er t h e pr ize of
a n Olym pia n r a ce t h a n t h e fr u it of a gr ea t vict or y. In t h is m a n n er h e ca r r ied on
h is con qu est s: let u s n ow see h ow h e pr eser ved t h em .
H e opposed t h ose wh o wou ld h a ve h a d h im t r ea t t h e Gr eeks a s m a st er s 14 a n d
t h e P er sia n s a s sla ves. H e t h ou gh t on ly of u n it in g t h e t wo n a t ion s, a n d of
a bolish in g t h e dist in ct ion s of a con qu er in g a n d a con qu er ed people. Aft er h e h a d
com plet ed h is vict or ies, h e r elin qu ish ed a ll t h ose pr eju dices t h a t h a d h elped
h im t o obt a in t h em . H e a ssu m ed t h e m a n n er s of t h e P er sia n s, t h a t h e m igh t n ot
ch a gr in t h em t oo m u ch by obligin g t h em t o con for m t o t h ose of t h e Gr eeks. It
wa s t h is h u m a n it y wh ich m a de h im sh ow so gr ea t a r espect for t h e wife a n d
m ot h er of Da r iu s; a n d t h is t h a t m a de h im so con t in en t . Wh a t a con qu er or ! H e
is la m en t ed by a ll t h e n a t ion s h e h a s su bdu ed! Wh a t a u su r per ! At h is dea t h t h e
ver y fa m ily h e h a s ca st fr om t h e t h r on e is a ll in t ea r s. Th ese wer e t h e m ost
glor iou s pa ssa ges in h is life, a n d su ch a s h ist or y ca n n ot pr odu ce a n in st a n ce of
in a n y ot h er con qu er or .
Not h in g con solida t es a con qu est m or e t h a n t h e u n ion for m ed bet ween t h e t wo
n a t ion s by m a r r ia ges. 15 Alexa n der ch ose h is wives fr om t h e n a t ion h e h a d
su bdu ed; h e in sist ed on h is cou r t ier s doin g t h e sa m e; a n d t h e r est of t h e
Ma cedon ia n s followed t h e exa m ple. Th e F r a n ks a n d Bu r gu n dia n s per m it t ed
t h ose m a r r ia ges;16 t h e Visigot h s for ba de t h em in Spa in , a n d a ft er wa r ds a llowed
t h em . 17 By t h e Lom ba r ds t h ey wer e n ot on ly a llowed bu t en cou r a ged.18 Wh en
t h e Rom a n s wa n t ed t o wea ken Ma cedon ia , t h ey or der ed t h a t t h er e sh ou ld be n o
in t er m a r r ia ges bet ween t h e people of differ en t pr ovin ces.
Alexa n der , wh ose a im wa s t o u n it e t h e t wo n a t ion s, t h ou gh t fit t o est a blish
in P er sia a gr ea t n u m ber of Gr eek colon ies. H e bu ilt , t h er efor e, a m u lt it u de of
t own s; a n d so st r on gly wer e a ll t h e pa r t s of t h is n ew em pir e cem en t ed, t h a t
a ft er h is decea se, a m idst t h e dist u r ba n ces a n d con fu sion of t h e m ost fr igh t fu l
civil wa r s, wh en t h e Gr eeks h a d r edu ced t h em selves, a s it wer e, t o a st a t e of
a n n ih ila t ion , n ot a sin gle pr ovin ce of P er sia r evolt ed.
To pr even t Gr eece a n d Ma cedon fr om bein g t oo m u ch exh a u st ed, h e sen t a
colon y of J ews 19 t o Alexa n dr ia ; t h e m a n n er s of t h ose people sign ified n ot h in g t o
h im , pr ovided h e cou ld be su r e of t h eir fidelit y.
H e n ot on ly su ffer ed t h e con qu er ed n a t ion s t o r et a in t h eir own cu st om s a n d
m a n n er s, bu t likewise t h eir civil la ws; a n d fr equ en t ly t h e ver y kin gs a n d
gover n or s t o wh om t h ey h a d been su bject : t h e Ma cedon ia n s 20 h e pla ced a t t h e
h ea d of t h e t r oops, a n d t h e n a t ives of t h e cou n t r y a t t h e h ea d of t h e
gover n m en t , r a t h er ch oosin g t o r u n t h e h a za r d of a pa r t icu la r disloya lt y (wh ich
som et im es h a ppen ed) t h a n of a gen er a l r evolt .
H e pa id gr ea t r espect t o t h e a n cien t t r a dit ion s, a n d t o a ll t h e pu blic
m on u m en t s of t h e glor y or va n it y of n a t ion s. Th e P er sia n m on a r ch s h a vin g
dest r oyed t h e t em ples of t h e Gr eeks, Ba bylon ia n s, a n d E gypt ia n s, Alexa n der
r ebu ilt t h em :21 few n a t ion s su bm it t ed t o h is yoke t o wh ose r eligion h e did n ot
con for m ; a n d h is con qu est s seem t o h a ve been in t en ded on ly t o m a ke h im t h e
pa r t icu la r m on a r ch of ea ch n a t ion , a n d t h e fir st in h a bit a n t of ea ch cit y. Th e a im

of t h e Rom a n s in con qu est wa s t o dest r oy, h is t o pr eser ve; a n d wh er ever h e
dir ect ed h is vict or iou s a r m s, h is ch ief view wa s t o a ch ieve som et h in g wh en ce
t h a t cou n t r y m igh t der ive a n in cr ea se of pr osper it y a n d power . To a t t a in t h is
en d, h e wa s en a bled fir st of a ll by t h e gr ea t n ess of h is gen iu s; secon dly, by h is
fr u ga lit y a n d pr iva t e econ om y;22 t h ir dly, by h is pr ofu sion in m a t t er s of
im por t a n ce. H e wa s close a n d r eser ved in h is pr iva t e expen ses, bu t gen er ou s t o
t h e h igh est degr ee in t h ose of a pu blic n a t u r e. In r egu la t in g h is h ou seh old, h e
wa s t h e pr iva t e Ma cedon ia n ; bu t in pa yin g t h e t r oops, in sh a r in g h is con qu est s
wit h t h e Gr eeks, a n d in h is la r gesses t o ever y soldier in h is a r m y, h e wa s
Alexa n der .
H e com m it t ed t wo ver y ba d a ct ion s in set t in g P er sepolis on fir e a n d sla yin g
Clit u s; bu t h e r en der ed t h em fa m ou s by h is r epen t a n ce. H en ce it is t h a t h is
cr im es a r e for got t en , wh ile h is r ega r d for vir t u e wa s r ecor ded: t h ey wer e
con sider ed r a t h er a s u n lu cky a cciden t s t h a n a s h is own deliber a t e a ct s.
P ost er it y, st r u ck wit h t h e bea u t y of h is m in d, even in t h e m idst of h is ir r egu la r
pa ssion , ca n view h im on ly wit h pit y, bu t n ever wit h a n eye of h a t r ed.
Let u s dr a w a com pa r ison bet ween h im a n d Ca esa r . Th e Rom a n gen er a l, by
a t t em pt in g t o im it a t e t h e Asia t ic m on a r ch , flu n g h is fellow-cit izen s in t o a st a t e
of despa ir for a m a t t er of m er e ost en t a t ion ; t h e Ma cedon ia n pr in ce, by t h e sa m e
im it a t ion , did a t h in g wh ich wa s qu it e a gr eea ble t o h is or igin a l sch em e of
con qu est .
BL1&2%7&K%+-'0,&'(&4.%,%.;5*D&"&)'*XF%,+1
Wh en a m on a r ch h a s su bdu ed a la r ge cou n t r y, h e m a y m a ke u se of a n
a dm ir a ble m et h od, equ a lly pr oper for m oder a t in g despot ic power , a n d for
pr eser vin g t h e con qu est ; it is a m et h od pr a ct ised by t h e con qu er or s of Ch in a .
In or der t o pr even t t h e va n qu ish ed n a t ion fr om fa llin g in t o despa ir , t h e vict or s
fr om gr owin g in solen t a n d pr ou d, t h e gover n m en t fr om becom in g m ilit a r y, a n d
t o con t a in t h e t wo n a t ion s wit h in t h eir du t y, t h e Ta r t a r fa m ily n ow on t h e
t h r on e of Ch in a h a s or da in ed t h a t ever y m ilit a r y cor ps in t h e pr ovin ces sh ou ld
be com posed h a lf of Ch in ese a n d h a lf Ta r t a r s, t o t h e en d t h a t t h e jea lou sy
bet ween t h e t wo n a t ion s m a y keep t h em wit h in bou n ds. Th e cou r t s of ju dica t u r e
a r e likewise h a lf Ch in ese a n d h a lf Ta r t a r s. Th is is pr odu ct ive of sever a l good

effect s, 1. Th e t wo n a t ion s a r e a ch eck t o on e a n ot h er . 2. Th ey bot h pr eser ve t h e
civil a n d m ilit a r y power , a n d on e is n ot dest r oyed by t h e ot h er , 3. Th e
con qu er in g n a t ion m a y spr ea d it self wit h ou t bein g wea ken ed a n d lost . It is
likewise en a bled t o wit h st a n d civil a n d for eign wa r s. Th e wa n t of so wise a n
in st it u t ion a s t h is h a s been t h e r u in of a lm ost a ll t h e con qu er or s t h a t ever
exist ed.
BO1&@(&)'*XF%,+,&<"0%&#H&"&0%,4'+59&8.5*9%1&
Wh en a con qu est h a ppen s t o be va st ly la r ge, it su pposes a despot ic power ; a n d
t h en t h e a r m y disper sed in t h e pr ovin ces is n ot su fficien t . Th er e sh ou ld be
a lwa ys a body of fa it h fu l t r oops n ea r t h e pr in ce, r ea dy t o fa ll in st a n t ly u pon a n y
pa r t of t h e em pir e t h a t m a y ch a n ce t o wa ver . Th is m ilit a r y cor ps ou gh t t o a we
t h e r est , a n d t o st r ike t er r or in t o t h ose wh o t h r ou gh n ecessit y h a ve been
en t r u st ed wit h a n y a u t h or it y in t h e em pir e. Th e em per or of Ch in a h a s a lwa ys
a la r ge body of Ta r t a r s n ea r h is per son , r ea dy u pon a ll occa sion s. In In dia , in
Tu r key, in J a pa n , t h e pr in ce h a s a lwa ys a body-gu a r d in depen den t of t h e ot h er
r egu la r for ces. Th is pa r t icu la r cor ps keeps t h e disper sed t r oops in a we.
BP1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01&
We h a ve obser ved t h a t t h e cou n t r ies su bdu ed by a despot ic m on a r ch ou gh t t o
be h eld by a va ssa l. H ist or ia n s a r e ver y la vish of t h eir pr a ises of t h e gen er osit y
of t h ose con qu er or s wh o r est or ed t h e pr in ces t o t h e t h r on e wh om t h ey h a d
va n qu ish ed. E xt r em ely gen er ou s t h en wer e t h e Rom a n s, wh o m a de su ch a
n u m ber of kin gs, in or der t o h a ve in st r u m en t s of sla ver y. 23 A pr oceedin g of t h a t
kin d is a bsolu t ely n ecessa r y. If t h e con qu er or in t en ds t o pr eser ve t h e cou n t r y
wh ich h e h a s su bdu ed, n eit h er t h e gover n or s h e sen ds will be a ble t o con t a in
t h e su bject s wit h in du t y, n or h e h im self t h e gover n or s. H e will be obliged t o
st r ip h is a n cien t pa t r im on y of t r oops, in or der t o secu r e h is n ew dom in ion s. Th e
m iser ies of ea ch n a t ion will be com m on t o bot h ; civil br oils will spr ea d
t h em selves fr om on e t o t h e ot h er . On t h e con t r a r y, if t h e con qu er or r est or es t h e
legit im a t e pr in ce t o t h e t h r on e, h e will of cou r se h a ve a n a lly; by t h e ju n ct ion
of wh ose for ces h is own power will be a u gm en t ed. We h a ve a r ecen t in st a n ce of
t h is in Sh a h Na dir , wh o con qu er ed t h e Mogu l, seized h is t r ea su r es, a n d left h im

in possession of H in dost a n .
2'+%,1
1. See t h e Code of Ba r ba r ia n La ws, a n d Book xxviii below.
2. See t h e a n on ym ou s a u t h or of t h e Life of Lou is le Debon n a ir e, in Du ch esn e’s
collect ion , ii, p. 296.
3. See M. Ba r beyr a c’s collect ion , a r t . 112.
4. Wit h r ega r d t o Tocken bu r g.
5. H e wa s a t t h e h ea d of a fa ct ion .
6. H a n n o wa n t ed t o deliver H a n n iba l u p t o t h e Rom a n s, a s Ca t o wou ld fa in
h a ve deliver ed u p Ca esa r t o t h e Ga u ls.
7. Of t h e 18t h of Oct ober , 1738, pr in t ed a t Gen oa by F r a n ch elli. See a lso t h e
Am st er da m Ga zet t e, Dec. 23, 1738.
8. See P u fen dor ff’s Un iversal H istory.
9. Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, vii.
10. See Ar r ia n , De E xped it. Alex., i.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid., iii.
14. Th is wa s Ar ist ot le’s a dvice. P lu t a r ch , Of th e Fortu n e an d Virtu e of
Alexan d er.
15. Ar r ia n , De E xped it. Alex., vii.
16. See t h e L aw of th e B u rgu n d ian s, t it . 12, a r t . 5.
17. See t h e L aw of th e Visigoth s, iii, t it . 1, § 1, wh ich a br oga t es t h e a n cien t la w
t h a t h a d m or e r ega r d, it sa ys, t o t h e differ en ce of n a t ion s t h a n t o t h a t of
people’s con dit ion s.
18. See t h e L aw of th e L om bard s, ii, t it . 7, §§ 1, 2.
19. Th e kin gs of Syr ia , a ba n don in g t h e pla n la id down by t h e fou n der of t h e
em pir e, r esolved t o oblige t h e J ews t o con for m t o t h e m a n n er s of t h e Gr eeks
— a r esolu t ion t h a t ga ve t h e m ost t er r ible sh ock t o t h eir gover n m en t .
20. See Ar r ia n , De E xped it. Alex., iii, a n d ot h er s.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid., vii.

23. Ta cit u s, L ife of Agricola, 14.
=''>&\?1&@(&+-%&6"7,&W-59-&U,+"#$5,-&8'$5+59"$&65#%.+HI&75+-
/%D".0&+'&+-%&)'*,+5+F+5'*1
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I m a ke a dist in ct ion bet ween t h e la ws t h a t est a blish polit ica l liber t y, a s it
r ela t es t o t h e con st it u t ion , a n d t h ose by wh ich it is est a blish ed, a s it r ela t es t o
t h e cit izen . Th e for m er sh a ll be t h e su bject of t h is book; t h e la t t er I sh a ll
exa m in e in t h e n ext .
E1&C5((%.%*+&35D*5(59"+5'*,&'(&+-%&7'.0&65#%.+H1
Th er e is n o wor d t h a t a dm it s of m or e va r iou s sign ifica t ion s, a n d h a s m a de
m or e va r ied im pr ession s on t h e h u m a n m in d, t h a n t h a t of liber t y. Som e h a ve
t a ken it a s a m ea n s of deposin g a per son on wh om t h ey h a d con fer r ed a
t yr a n n ica l a u t h or it y; ot h er s for t h e power of ch oosin g a su per ior wh om t h ey a r e
obliged t o obey; ot h er s for t h e r igh t of bea r in g a r m s, a n d of bein g t h er eby
en a bled t o u se violen ce; ot h er s, in fin e, for t h e pr ivilege of bein g gover n ed by a
n a t ive of t h eir own cou n t r y, or by t h eir own la ws. 1 A cer t a in n a t ion for a lon g
t im e t h ou gh t liber t y con sist ed in t h e pr ivilege of wea r in g a lon g bea r d. 2 Som e
h a ve a n n exed t h is n a m e t o on e for m of gover n m en t exclu sive of ot h er s: t h ose
wh o h a d a r epu blica n t a st e a pplied it t o t h is species of polit y; t h ose wh o liked
a m on a r ch ica l st a t e ga ve it t o m on a r ch y. 3 Th u s t h ey h a ve a ll a pplied t h e n a m e
of liber t y t o t h e gover n m en t m ost su it a ble t o t h eir own cu st om s a n d
in clin a t ion s: a n d a s in r epu blics t h e people h a ve n ot so con st a n t a n d so pr esen t
a view of t h e ca u ses of t h eir m iser y, a n d a s t h e m a gist r a t es seem t o a ct on ly in
con for m it y t o t h e la ws, h en ce liber t y is gen er a lly sa id t o r eside in r epu blics, a n d
t o be ba n ish ed fr om m on a r ch ies. In fin e, a s in dem ocr a cies t h e people seem t o
a ct a lm ost a s t h ey plea se, t h is sor t of gover n m en t h a s been deem ed t h e m ost
fr ee, a n d t h e power of t h e people h a s been con fou n ded wit h t h eir liber t y.
G1&?*&7-"+&65#%.+H&9'*,5,+,1
It is t r u e t h a t in dem ocr a cies t h e people seem t o a ct a s t h ey plea se; bu t
polit ica l liber t y does n ot con sist in a n u n lim it ed fr eedom . In gover n m en t s, t h a t
is, in societ ies dir ect ed by la ws, liber t y ca n con sist on ly in t h e power of doin g
wh a t we ou gh t t o will, a n d in n ot bein g con st r a in ed t o do wh a t we ou gh t n ot t o
will.
We m u st h a ve con t in u a lly pr esen t t o ou r m in ds t h e differ en ce bet ween
in depen den ce a n d liber t y. Liber t y is a r igh t of doin g wh a t ever t h e la ws per m it ,
a n d if a cit izen cou ld do wh a t t h ey for bid h e wou ld be n o lon ger possessed of
liber t y, beca u se a ll h is fellow-cit izen s wou ld h a ve t h e sa m e power .
J1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01&
Dem ocr a t ic a n d a r ist ocr a t ic st a t es a r e n ot in t h eir own n a t u r e fr ee. P olit ica l
liber t y is t o be fou n d on ly in m oder a t e gover n m en t s; a n d even in t h ese it is n ot
a lwa ys fou n d. It is t h er e on ly wh en t h er e is n o a bu se of power . Bu t con st a n t
exper ien ce sh ows u s t h a t ever y m a n in vest ed wit h power is a pt t o a bu se it , a n d
t o ca r r y h is a u t h or it y a s fa r a s it will go. Is it n ot st r a n ge, t h ou gh t r u e, t o sa y
t h a t vir t u e it self h a s n eed of lim it s?
To pr even t t h is a bu se, it is n ecessa r y fr om t h e ver y n a t u r e of t h in gs t h a t
power sh ou ld be a ch eck t o power . A gover n m en t m a y be so con st it u t ed, a s n o
m a n sh a ll be com pelled t o do t h in gs t o wh ich t h e la w does n ot oblige h im , n or
for ced t o a bst a in fr om t h in gs wh ich t h e la w per m it s.
L1&@(&+-%&U*0&'.&N5%7&'(&05((%.%*+&A';%.*<%*+,1
Th ou gh a ll gover n m en t s h a ve t h e sa m e gen er a l en d, wh ich is t h a t of
pr eser va t ion , yet ea ch h a s a n ot h er pa r t icu la r object . In cr ea se of dom in ion wa s
t h e object of Rom e; wa r , t h a t of Spa r t a ; r eligion , t h a t of t h e J ewish la ws;
com m er ce, t h a t of Ma r seilles; pu blic t r a n qu illit y, t h a t of t h e la ws of Ch in a :4
n a viga t ion , t h a t of t h e la ws of Rh odes; n a t u r a l liber t y, t h a t of t h e policy of t h e
Sa va ges; in gen er a l, t h e plea su r es of t h e pr in ce, t h a t of despot ic st a t es; t h a t of
m on a r ch ies, t h e pr in ce’s a n d t h e kin gdom ’s glor y; t h e in depen den ce of
in dividu a ls is t h e en d a im ed a t by t h e la ws of P ola n d, t h en ce r esu lt s t h e
oppr ession of t h e wh ole. 5

On e n a t ion t h er e is a lso in t h e wor ld t h a t h a s for t h e dir ect en d of it s
con st it u t ion polit ica l liber t y. We sh a ll pr esen t ly exa m in e t h e pr in ciples on
wh ich t h is liber t y is fou n ded; if t h ey a r e sou n d, liber t y will a ppea r in it s h igh est
per fect ion .
To discover polit ica l liber t y in a con st it u t ion , n o gr ea t la bou r is r equ isit e. If
we a r e ca pa ble of seein g it wh er e it exist s, it is soon fou n d, a n d we n eed n ot go
fa r in sea r ch of it .
O1&@(&+-%&)'*,+5+F+5'*&'(&U*D$"*01&
In ever y gover n m en t t h er e a r e t h r ee sor t s of power : t h e legisla t ive; t h e
execu t ive in r espect t o t h in gs depen den t on t h e la w of n a t ion s; a n d t h e
execu t ive in r ega r d t o m a t t er s t h a t depen d on t h e civil la w.
By vir t u e of t h e fir st , t h e pr in ce or m a gist r a t e en a ct s t em por a r y or per pet u a l
la ws, a n d a m en ds or a br oga t es t h ose t h a t h a ve been a lr ea dy en a ct ed. By t h e
secon d, h e m a kes pea ce or wa r , sen ds or r eceives em ba ssies, est a blish es t h e
pu blic secu r it y, a n d pr ovides a ga in st in va sion s. By t h e t h ir d, h e pu n ish es
cr im in a ls, or det er m in es t h e dispu t es t h a t a r ise bet ween in dividu a ls. Th e la t t er
we sh a ll ca ll t h e ju dicia r y power , a n d t h e ot h er sim ply t h e execu t ive power of
t h e st a t e.
Th e polit ica l liber t y of t h e su bject is a t r a n qu illit y of m in d a r isin g fr om t h e
opin ion ea ch per son h a s of h is sa fet y. In or der t o h a ve t h is liber t y, it is r equ isit e
t h e gover n m en t be so con st it u t ed a s on e m a n n eed n ot be a fr a id of a n ot h er .
Wh en t h e legisla t ive a n d execu t ive power s a r e u n it ed in t h e sa m e per son , or
in t h e sa m e body of m a gist r a t es, t h er e ca n be n o liber t y; beca u se a ppr eh en sion s
m a y a r ise, lest t h e sa m e m on a r ch or sen a t e sh ou ld en a ct t yr a n n ica l la ws, t o
execu t e t h em in a t yr a n n ica l m a n n er .
Aga in , t h er e is n o liber t y, if t h e ju dicia r y power be n ot sepa r a t ed fr om t h e
legisla t ive a n d execu t ive. Wer e it join ed wit h t h e legisla t ive, t h e life a n d liber t y
of t h e su bject wou ld be exposed t o a r bit r a r y con t r ol; for t h e ju dge wou ld be t h en
t h e legisla t or . Wer e it join ed t o t h e execu t ive power , t h e ju dge m igh t beh a ve
wit h violen ce a n d oppr ession .
Th er e wou ld be a n en d of ever yt h in g, wer e t h e sa m e m a n or t h e sa m e body,
wh et h er of t h e n obles or of t h e people, t o exer cise t h ose t h r ee power s, t h a t of

en a ct in g la ws, t h a t of execu t in g t h e pu blic r esolu t ion s, a n d of t r yin g t h e ca u ses
of in dividu a ls.
Most kin gdom s in E u r ope en joy a m oder a t e gover n m en t beca u se t h e pr in ce
wh o is in vest ed wit h t h e t wo fir st power s lea ves t h e t h ir d t o h is su bject s. In
Tu r key, wh er e t h ese t h r ee power s a r e u n it ed in t h e Su lt a n ’s per son , t h e
su bject s gr oa n u n der t h e m ost dr ea dfu l oppr ession .
In t h e r epu blics of It a ly, wh er e t h ese t h r ee power s a r e u n it ed, t h er e is less
liber t y t h a n in ou r m on a r ch ies. H en ce t h eir gover n m en t is obliged t o h a ve
r ecou r se t o a s violen t m et h ods for it s su ppor t a s even t h a t of t h e Tu r ks; wit n ess
t h e st a t e in qu isit or s, 6 a n d t h e lion ’s m ou t h in t o wh ich ever y in for m er m a y a t a ll
h ou r s t h r ow h is wr it t en a ccu sa t ion s.
In wh a t a sit u a t ion m u st t h e poor su bject be in t h ose r epu blics! Th e sa m e
body of m a gist r a t es a r e possessed, a s execu t or s of t h e la ws, of t h e wh ole power
t h ey h a ve given t h em selves in qu a lit y of legisla t or s. Th ey m a y plu n der t h e st a t e
by t h eir gen er a l det er m in a t ion s; a n d a s t h ey h a ve likewise t h e ju dicia r y power
in t h eir h a n ds, ever y pr iva t e cit izen m a y be r u in ed by t h eir pa r t icu la r decision s.
Th e wh ole power is h er e u n it ed in on e body; a n d t h ou gh t h er e is n o ext er n a l
pom p t h a t in dica t es a despot ic swa y, yet t h e people feel t h e effect s of it ever y
m om en t .
H en ce it is t h a t m a n y of t h e pr in ces of E u r ope, wh ose a im h a s been levelled
a t a r bit r a r y power , h a ve con st a n t ly set ou t wit h u n it in g in t h eir own per son s
a ll t h e br a n ch es of m a gist r a cy, a n d a ll t h e gr ea t offices of st a t e.
I a llow in deed t h a t t h e m er e h er edit a r y a r ist ocr a cy of t h e It a lia n r epu blics
does n ot exa ct ly a n swer t o t h e despot ic power of t h e E a st er n pr in ces. Th e
n u m ber of m a gist r a t es som et im es m oder a t es t h e power of t h e m a gist r a cy; t h e
wh ole body of t h e n obles do n ot a lwa ys con cu r in t h e sa m e design ; a n d differ en t
t r ibu n a ls a r e er ect ed, t h a t t em per ea ch ot h er . Th u s a t Ven ice t h e legisla t ive
power is in t h e cou n cil, t h e execu t ive in t h e pregad i, a n d t h e ju dicia r y in t h e
qu aran tia. Bu t t h e m isch ief is, t h a t t h ese differ en t t r ibu n a ls a r e com posed of
m a gist r a t es a ll belon gin g t o t h e sa m e body; wh ich con st it u t es a lm ost on e a n d
t h e sa m e power .
Th e ju dicia r y power ou gh t n ot t o be given t o a st a n din g sen a t e; it sh ou ld be
exer cised by per son s t a ken fr om t h e body of t h e people 7 a t cer t a in t im es of t h e

yea r , a n d con sist en t ly wit h a for m a n d m a n n er pr escr ibed by la w, in or der t o
er ect a t r ibu n a l t h a t sh ou ld la st on ly so lon g a s n ecessit y r equ ir es.
By t h is m et h od t h e ju dicia l power , so t er r ible t o m a n kin d, n ot bein g a n n exed
t o a n y pa r t icu la r st a t e or pr ofession , becom es, a s it wer e, in visible. P eople h a ve
n ot t h en t h e ju dges con t in u a lly pr esen t t o t h eir view; t h ey fea r t h e office, bu t
n ot t h e m a gist r a t e.
In a ccu sa t ion s of a deep a n d cr im in a l n a t u r e, it is pr oper t h e per son a ccu sed
sh ou ld h a ve t h e pr ivilege of ch oosin g, in som e m ea su r e, h is ju dges, in
con cu r r en ce wit h t h e la w; or a t lea st h e sh ou ld h a ve a r igh t t o except a ga in st
so gr ea t a n u m ber t h a t t h e r em a in in g pa r t m a y be deem ed h is own ch oice.
Th e ot h er t wo power s m a y be given r a t h er t o m a gist r a t es or per m a n en t
bodies, beca u se t h ey a r e n ot exer cised on a n y pr iva t e su bject ; on e bein g n o m or e
t h a n t h e gen er a l will of t h e st a t e, a n d t h e ot h er t h e execu t ion of t h a t gen er a l
will.
Bu t t h ou gh t h e t r ibu n a ls ou gh t n ot t o be fixed, t h e ju dgm en t s ou gh t ; a n d t o
su ch a degr ee a s t o be ever con for m a ble t o t h e let t er of t h e la w. Wer e t h ey t o be
t h e pr iva t e opin ion of t h e ju dge, people wou ld t h en live in societ y, wit h ou t
exa ct ly kn owin g t h e n a t u r e of t h eir obliga t ion s.
Th e ju dges ou gh t likewise t o be of t h e sa m e r a n k a s t h e a ccu sed, or , in ot h er
wor ds, h is peer s; t o t h e en d t h a t h e m a y n ot im a gin e h e is fa llen in t o t h e h a n ds
of per son s in clin ed t o t r ea t h im wit h r igou r .
If t h e legisla t u r e lea ves t h e execu t ive power in possession of a r igh t t o
im pr ison t h ose su bject s wh o ca n give secu r it y for t h eir good beh a viou r , t h er e is
a n en d of liber t y; u n less t h ey a r e t a ken u p, in or der t o a n swer wit h ou t dela y t o
a ca pit a l cr im e, in wh ich ca se t h ey a r e r ea lly fr ee, bein g su bject on ly t o t h e
power of t h e la w.
Bu t sh ou ld t h e legisla t u r e t h in k it self in da n ger by som e secr et con spir a cy
a ga in st t h e st a t e, or by a cor r espon den ce wit h a for eign en em y, it m igh t
a u t h or ise t h e execu t ive power , for a sh or t a n d lim it ed t im e, t o im pr ison
su spect ed per son s, wh o in t h a t ca se wou ld lose t h eir liber t y on ly for a wh ile, t o
pr eser ve it for ever .
An d t h is is t h e on ly r ea son a ble m et h od t h a t ca n be su bst it u t ed t o t h e
t yr a n n ica l m a gist r a cy of t h e E ph or i, a n d t o t h e st a t e in qu isit or s of Ven ice, wh o

a r e a lso despot ic.
As in a cou n t r y of liber t y, ever y m a n wh o is su pposed a fr ee a gen t ou gh t t o be
h is own gover n or ; t h e legisla t ive power sh ou ld r eside in t h e wh ole body of t h e
people. Bu t sin ce t h is is im possible in la r ge st a t es, a n d in sm a ll on es is su bject
t o m a n y in con ven ien ces, it is fit t h e people sh ou ld t r a n sa ct by t h eir
r epr esen t a t ives wh a t t h ey ca n n ot t r a n sa ct by t h em selves.
Th e in h a bit a n t s of a pa r t icu la r t own a r e m u ch bet t er a cqu a in t ed wit h it s
wa n t s a n d in t er est s t h a n wit h t h ose of ot h er pla ces; a n d a r e bet t er ju dges of t h e
ca pa cit y of t h eir n eigh bou r s t h a n of t h a t of t h e r est of t h eir cou n t r ym en . Th e
m em ber s, t h er efor e, of t h e legisla t u r e sh ou ld n ot be ch osen fr om t h e gen er a l
body of t h e n a t ion ; bu t it is pr oper t h a t in ever y con sider a ble pla ce a
r epr esen t a t ive sh ou ld be elect ed by t h e in h a bit a n t s.8
Th e gr ea t a dva n t a ge of r epr esen t a t ives is, t h eir ca pa cit y of discu ssin g pu blic
a ffa ir s. F or t h is t h e people collect ively a r e ext r em ely u n fit , wh ich is on e of t h e
ch ief in con ven ien ces of a dem ocr a cy.
It is n ot a t a ll n ecessa r y t h a t t h e r epr esen t a t ives wh o h a ve r eceived a gen er a l
in st r u ct ion fr om t h eir con st it u en t s sh ou ld wa it t o be dir ect ed on ea ch pa r t icu la r
a ffa ir , a s is pr a ct ised in t h e diet s of Ger m a n y. Tr u e it is t h a t by t h is wa y of
pr oceedin g t h e speech es of t h e depu t ies m igh t wit h gr ea t er pr opr iet y be ca lled
t h e voice of t h e n a t ion ; bu t , on t h e ot h er h a n d, t h is wou ld occa sion in fin it e
dela ys; wou ld give ea ch depu t y a power of con t r ollin g t h e a ssem bly; a n d, on t h e
m ost u r gen t a n d pr essin g occa sion s, t h e wh eels of gover n m en t m igh t be st opped
by t h e ca pr ice of a sin gle per son .
Wh en t h e depu t ies, a s Mr . Sidn ey well obser ves, r epr esen t a body of people,
a s in H olla n d, t h ey ou gh t t o be a ccou n t a ble t o t h eir con st it u en t s; bu t it is a
differ en t t h in g in E n gla n d, wh er e t h ey a r e depu t ed by bor ou gh s.
All t h e in h a bit a n t s of t h e sever a l dist r ict s ou gh t t o h a ve a r igh t of vot in g a t
t h e elect ion of a r epr esen t a t ive, except su ch a s a r e in so m ea n a sit u a t ion a s t o
be deem ed t o h a ve n o will of t h eir own .
On e gr ea t fa u lt t h er e wa s in m ost of t h e a n cien t r epu blics, t h a t t h e people h a d
a r igh t t o a ct ive r esolu t ion s, su ch a s r equ ir e som e execu t ion , a t h in g of wh ich
t h ey a r e a bsolu t ely in ca pa ble. Th ey ou gh t t o h a ve n o sh a r e in t h e gover n m en t
bu t for t h e ch oosin g of r epr esen t a t ives, wh ich is wit h in t h eir r ea ch . F or t h ou gh

few ca n t ell t h e exa ct degr ee of m en ’s ca pa cit ies, yet t h er e a r e n on e bu t a r e
ca pa ble of kn owin g in gen er a l wh et h er t h e per son t h ey ch oose is bet t er qu a lified
t h a n m ost of h is n eigh bou r s.
Neit h er ou gh t t h e r epr esen t a t ive body t o be ch osen for t h e execu t ive pa r t of
gover n m en t , for wh ich it is n ot so fit ; bu t for t h e en a ct in g of la ws, or t o see
wh et h er t h e la ws in bein g a r e du ly execu t ed, a t h in g su it ed t o t h eir a bilit ies,
a n d wh ich n on e in deed bu t t h em selves ca n pr oper ly per for m .
In su ch a st a t e t h er e a r e a lwa ys per son s dist in gu ish ed by t h eir bir t h , r ich es,
or h on ou r s: bu t wer e t h ey t o be con fou n ded wit h t h e com m on people, a n d t o
h a ve on ly t h e weigh t of a sin gle vot e like t h e r est , t h e com m on liber t y wou ld be
t h eir sla ver y, a n d t h ey wou ld h a ve n o in t er est in su ppor t in g it , a s m ost of t h e
popu la r r esolu t ion s wou ld be a ga in st t h em . Th e sh a r e t h ey h a ve, t h er efor e, in
t h e legisla t u r e ou gh t t o be pr opor t ion ed t o t h eir ot h er a dva n t a ges in t h e st a t e;
wh ich h a ppen s on ly wh en t h ey for m a body t h a t h a s a r igh t t o ch eck t h e
licen t iou sn ess of t h e people, a s t h e people h a ve a r igh t t o oppose a n y
en cr oa ch m en t of t h eir s.
Th e legisla t ive power is t h er efor e com m it t ed t o t h e body of t h e n obles, a n d t o
t h a t wh ich r epr esen t s t h e people, ea ch h a vin g t h eir a ssem blies a n d
deliber a t ion s a pa r t , ea ch t h eir sepa r a t e views a n d in t er est s.
Of t h e t h r ee power s a bove m en t ion ed, t h e ju dicia r y is in som e m ea su r e n ext
t o n ot h in g: t h er e r em a in , t h er efor e, on ly t wo; a n d a s t h ese h a ve n eed of a
r egu la t in g power t o m oder a t e t h em , t h e pa r t of t h e legisla t ive body com posed
of t h e n obilit y is ext r em ely pr oper for t h is pu r pose.
Th e body of t h e n obilit y ou gh t t o be h er edit a r y. In t h e fir st pla ce it is so in it s
own n a t u r e; a n d in t h e n ext t h er e m u st be a con sider a ble in t er est t o pr eser ve
it s pr ivileges — pr ivileges t h a t in t h em selves a r e obn oxiou s t o popu la r en vy,
a n d of cou r se in a fr ee st a t e a r e a lwa ys in da n ger .
Bu t a s a h er edit a r y power m igh t be t em pt ed t o pu r su e it s own pa r t icu la r
in t er est s, a n d for get t h ose of t h e people, it is pr oper t h a t wh er e a sin gu la r
a dva n t a ge m a y be ga in ed by cor r u pt in g t h e n obilit y, a s in t h e la ws r ela t in g t o
t h e su pplies, t h ey sh ou ld h a ve n o ot h er sh a r e in t h e legisla t ion t h a n t h e power
of r eject in g, a n d n ot t h a t of r esolvin g.
By t h e power of r esolvin g I m ea n t h e r igh t of or da in in g by t h eir own

a u t h or it y, or of a m en din g wh a t h a s been or da in ed by ot h er s. By t h e power of
r eject in g I wou ld be u n der st ood t o m ea n t h e r igh t of a n n u llin g a r esolu t ion
t a ken by a n ot h er ; wh ich wa s t h e power of t h e t r ibu n es a t Rom e. An d t h ou gh t h e
per son possessed of t h e pr ivilege of r eject in g m a y likewise h a ve t h e r igh t of
a ppr ovin g, yet t h is a ppr oba t ion pa sses for n o m or e t h a n a decla r a t ion t h a t h e
in t en ds t o m a ke n o u se of h is pr ivilege of r eject in g, a n d is der ived fr om t h a t
ver y pr ivilege.
Th e execu t ive power ou gh t t o be in t h e h a n ds of a m on a r ch , beca u se t h is
br a n ch of gover n m en t , h a vin g n eed of despa t ch , is bet t er a dm in ist er ed by on e
t h a n by m a n y: on t h e ot h er h a n d, wh a t ever depen ds on t h e legisla t ive power is
oft en t im es bet t er r egu la t ed by m a n y t h a n by a sin gle per son .
Bu t if t h er e wer e n o m on a r ch , a n d t h e execu t ive power sh ou ld be com m it t ed
t o a cer t a in n u m ber of per son s select ed fr om t h e legisla t ive body, t h er e wou ld
be a n en d t h en of liber t y; by r ea son t h e t wo power s wou ld be u n it ed, a s t h e
sa m e per son s wou ld som et im es possess, a n d wou ld be a lwa ys a ble t o possess,
a sh a r e in bot h .
Wer e t h e legisla t ive body t o be a con sider a ble t im e wit h ou t m eet in g, t h is
wou ld likewise pu t a n en d t o liber t y. F or of t wo t h in gs on e wou ld n a t u r a lly
follow: eit h er t h a t t h er e wou ld be n o lon ger a n y legisla t ive r esolu t ion s, a n d t h en
t h e st a t e wou ld fa ll in t o a n a r ch y; or t h a t t h ese r esolu t ion s wou ld be t a ken by
t h e execu t ive power , wh ich wou ld r en der it a bsolu t e.
It wou ld be n eedless for t h e legisla t ive body t o con t in u e a lwa ys a ssem bled.
Th is wou ld be t r ou blesom e t o t h e r epr esen t a t ives, a n d, m or eover , wou ld cu t ou t
t oo m u ch wor k for t h e execu t ive power , so a s t o t a ke off it s a t t en t ion t o it s
office, a n d oblige it t o t h in k on ly of defen din g it s own pr er oga t ives, a n d t h e r igh t
it h a s t o execu t e.
Aga in , wer e t h e legisla t ive body t o be a lwa ys a ssem bled, it m igh t h a ppen t o
be kept u p on ly by fillin g t h e pla ces of t h e decea sed m em ber s wit h n ew
r epr esen t a t ives; a n d in t h a t ca se, if t h e legisla t ive body wer e on ce cor r u pt ed,
t h e evil wou ld be pa st a ll r em edy. Wh en differ en t legisla t ive bodies su cceed on e
a n ot h er , t h e people wh o h a ve a ba d opin ion of t h a t wh ich is a ct u a lly sit t in g m a y
r ea son a bly en t er t a in som e h opes of t h e n ext : bu t wer e it t o be a lwa ys t h e sa m e
body, t h e people u pon seein g it on ce cor r u pt ed wou ld n o lon ger expect a n y good
fr om it s la ws; a n d of cou r se t h ey wou ld eit h er becom e desper a t e or fa ll in t o a
st a t e of in dolen ce.
Th e legisla t ive body sh ou ld n ot m eet of it self. F or a body is su pposed t o h a ve
n o will bu t wh en it is m et ; a n d besides, wer e it n ot t o m eet u n a n im ou sly, it
wou ld be im possible t o det er m in e wh ich wa s r ea lly t h e legisla t ive body; t h e pa r t
a ssem bled, or t h e ot h er . An d if it h a d a r igh t t o pr or ogu e it self, it m igh t h a ppen
n ever t o be pr or ogu ed; wh ich wou ld be ext r em ely da n ger ou s, in ca se it sh ou ld
ever a t t em pt t o en cr oa ch on t h e execu t ive power . Besides, t h er e a r e sea son s,
som e m or e pr oper t h a n ot h er s, for a ssem blin g t h e legisla t ive body: it is fit ,
t h er efor e, t h a t t h e execu t ive power sh ou ld r egu la t e t h e t im e of m eet in g, a s well
a s t h e du r a t ion of t h ose a ssem blies, a ccor din g t o t h e cir cu m st a n ces a n d
exigen cies of a st a t e kn own t o it self.
Wer e t h e execu t ive power n ot t o h a ve a r igh t of r est r a in in g t h e en cr oa ch m en t s
of t h e legisla t ive body, t h e la t t er wou ld becom e despot ic; for a s it m igh t a r r oga t e
t o it self wh a t a u t h or it y it plea sed, it wou ld soon dest r oy a ll t h e ot h er power s.
Bu t it is n ot pr oper , on t h e ot h er h a n d, t h a t t h e legisla t ive power sh ou ld h a ve
a r igh t t o st a y t h e execu t ive. F or a s t h e execu t ion h a s it s n a t u r a l lim it s, it is
u seless t o con fin e it ; besides, t h e execu t ive power is gen er a lly em ployed in
m om en t a r y oper a t ion s. Th e power , t h er efor e, of t h e Rom a n t r ibu n es wa s fa u lt y,
a s it pu t a st op n ot on ly t o t h e legisla t ion , bu t likewise t o t h e execu t ive pa r t of
gover n m en t ; wh ich wa s a t t en ded wit h in fin it e m isch ief.
Bu t if t h e legisla t ive power in a fr ee st a t e h a s n o r igh t t o st a y t h e execu t ive,
it h a s a r igh t a n d ou gh t t o h a ve t h e m ea n s of exa m in in g in wh a t m a n n er it s
la ws h a ve been execu t ed; a n a dva n t a ge wh ich t h is gover n m en t h a s over t h a t of
Cr et e a n d Spa r t a , wh er e t h e Cosm i9 a n d t h e E ph or i 10 ga ve n o a ccou n t of t h eir
a dm in ist r a t ion .
Bu t wh a t ever m a y be t h e issu e of t h a t exa m in a t ion , t h e legisla t ive body ou gh t
n ot t o h a ve a power of a r r a ign in g t h e per son , n or , of cou r se, t h e con du ct , of h im
wh o is en t r u st ed wit h t h e execu t ive power . H is per son sh ou ld be sa cr ed,
beca u se a s it is n ecessa r y for t h e good of t h e st a t e t o pr even t t h e legisla t ive
body fr om r en der in g t h em selves a r bit r a r y, t h e m om en t h e is a ccu sed or t r ied
t h er e is a n en d of liber t y.
In t h is ca se t h e st a t e wou ld be n o lon ger a m on a r ch y, bu t a kin d of r epu blic,

t h ou gh n ot a fr ee gover n m en t . Bu t a s t h e per son en t r u st ed wit h t h e execu t ive
power ca n n ot a bu se it wit h ou t ba d cou n sellor s, a n d su ch a s h a ve t h e la ws a s
m in ist er s, t h ou gh t h e la ws pr ot ect t h em a s su bject s, t h ese m en m a y be
exa m in ed a n d pu n ish ed — a n a dva n t a ge wh ich t h is gover n m en t h a s over t h a t
of Gn idu s, wh er e t h e la w a llowed of n o su ch t h in g a s ca llin g t h e Am ym on es 11
t o a n a ccou n t , even a ft er t h eir a dm in ist r a t ion ;12 a n d t h er efor e t h e people cou ld
n ever obt a in a n y sa t isfa ct ion for t h e in ju r ies don e t h em .
Th ou gh , in gen er a l, t h e ju dicia r y power ou gh t n ot t o be u n it ed wit h a n y pa r t
of t h e legisla t ive, yet t h is is lia ble t o t h r ee except ion s, fou n ded on t h e pa r t icu la r
in t er est of t h e pa r t y a ccu sed.
Th e gr ea t a r e a lwa ys obn oxiou s t o popu la r en vy; a n d wer e t h ey t o be ju dged
by t h e people, t h ey m igh t be in da n ger fr om t h eir ju dges, a n d wou ld, m or eover ,
be depr ived of t h e pr ivilege wh ich t h e m ea n est su bject is possessed of in a fr ee
st a t e, of bein g t r ied by h is peer s. Th e n obilit y, for t h is r ea son , ou gh t n ot t o be
cit ed befor e t h e or din a r y cou r t s of ju dica t u r e, bu t befor e t h a t pa r t of t h e
legisla t u r e wh ich is com posed of t h eir own body.
It is possible t h a t t h e la w, wh ich is clea r sigh t ed in on e sen se, a n d blin d in
a n ot h er , m igh t , in som e ca ses, be t oo sever e. Bu t a s we h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved,
t h e n a t ion a l ju dges a r e n o m or e t h a n t h e m ou t h t h a t pr on ou n ces t h e wor ds of
t h e la w, m er e pa ssive bein gs, in ca pa ble of m oder a t in g eit h er it s for ce or r igou r .
Th a t pa r t , t h er efor e, of t h e legisla t ive body, wh ich we h a ve ju st n ow obser ved
t o be a n ecessa r y t r ibu n a l on a n ot h er occa sion , is a lso a n ecessa r y t r ibu n a l in
t h is; it belon gs t o it s su pr em e a u t h or it y t o m oder a t e t h e la w in fa vou r of t h e la w
it self, by m it iga t in g t h e sen t en ce.
It m igh t a lso h a ppen t h a t a su bject en t r u st ed wit h t h e a dm in ist r a t ion of
pu blic a ffa ir s m a y in fr in ge t h e r igh t s of t h e people, a n d be gu ilt y of cr im es
wh ich t h e or din a r y m a gist r a t es eit h er cou ld n ot or wou ld n ot pu n ish . Bu t , in
gen er a l, t h e legisla t ive power ca n n ot t r y ca u ses: a n d m u ch less ca n it t r y t h is
pa r t icu la r ca se, wh er e it r epr esen t s t h e pa r t y a ggr ieved, wh ich is t h e people. It
ca n on ly, t h er efor e, im pea ch . Bu t befor e wh a t cou r t sh a ll it br in g it s
im pea ch m en t ? Mu st it go a n d dem ea n it self befor e t h e or din a r y t r ibu n a ls,
wh ich a r e it s in fer ior s, a n d, bein g com posed, m or eover , of m en wh o a r e ch osen
fr om t h e people a s well a s it self, will n a t u r a lly be swa yed by t h e a u t h or it y of so

power fu l a n a ccu ser ? No: in or der t o pr eser ve t h e dign it y of t h e people, a n d t h e
secu r it y of t h e su bject , t h e legisla t ive pa r t wh ich r epr esen t s t h e people m u st
br in g in it s ch a r ge befor e t h e legisla t ive pa r t wh ich r epr esen t s t h e n obilit y, wh o
h a ve n eit h er t h e sa m e in t er est s n or t h e sa m e pa ssion s.
H er e is a n a dva n t a ge wh ich t h is gover n m en t h a s over m ost of t h e a n cien t
r epu blics, wh er e t h is a bu se pr eva iled, t h a t t h e people wer e a t t h e sa m e t im e
bot h ju dge a n d a ccu ser .
Th e execu t ive power , pu r su a n t of wh a t h a s been a lr ea dy sa id, ou gh t t o h a ve
a sh a r e in t h e legisla t u r e by t h e power of r eject in g, ot h er wise it wou ld soon be
st r ipped of it s pr er oga t ive. Bu t sh ou ld t h e legisla t ive power u su r p a sh a r e of t h e
execu t ive, t h e la t t er wou ld be equ a lly u n don e.
If t h e pr in ce wer e t o h a ve a pa r t in t h e legisla t u r e by t h e power of r esolvin g,
liber t y wou ld be lost . Bu t a s it is n ecessa r y h e sh ou ld h a ve a sh a r e in t h e
legisla t u r e for t h e su ppor t of h is own pr er oga t ive, t h is sh a r e m u st con sist in t h e
power of r eject in g.
Th e ch a n ge of gover n m en t a t Rom e wa s owin g t o t h is, t h a t n eit h er t h e sen a t e,
wh o h a d on e pa r t of t h e execu t ive power , n or t h e m a gist r a t es, wh o wer e
en t r u st ed wit h t h e ot h er , h a d t h e r igh t of r eject in g, wh ich wa s en t ir ely lodged
in t h e people.
H er e t h en is t h e fu n da m en t a l con st it u t ion of t h e gover n m en t we a r e t r ea t in g
of. Th e legisla t ive body bein g com posed of t wo pa r t s, t h ey ch eck on e a n ot h er by
t h e m u t u a l pr ivilege of r eject in g. Th ey a r e bot h r est r a in ed by t h e execu t ive
power , a s t h e execu t ive is by t h e legisla t ive.
Th ese t h r ee power s sh ou ld n a t u r a lly for m a st a t e of r epose or in a ct ion . Bu t
a s t h er e is a n ecessit y for m ovem en t in t h e cou r se of h u m a n a ffa ir s, t h ey a r e
for ced t o m ove, bu t st ill in con cer t .
As t h e execu t ive power h a s n o ot h er pa r t in t h e legisla t ive t h a n t h e pr ivilege
of r eject in g, it ca n h a ve n o sh a r e in t h e pu blic deba t es. It is n ot even n ecessa r y
t h a t it sh ou ld pr opose, beca u se a s it m a y a lwa ys disa ppr ove of t h e r esolu t ion s
t h a t sh a ll be t a ken , it m a y likewise r eject t h e decision s on t h ose pr oposa ls
wh ich wer e m a de a ga in st it s will.
In som e a n cien t com m on wea lt h s, wh er e pu blic deba t es wer e ca r r ied on by t h e
people in a body, it wa s n a t u r a l for t h e execu t ive power t o pr opose a n d deba t e

in con ju n ct ion wit h t h e people, ot h er wise t h eir r esolu t ion s m u st h a ve been
a t t en ded wit h a st r a n ge con fu sion .
Wer e t h e execu t ive power t o det er m in e t h e r a isin g of pu blic m on ey, ot h er wise
t h a n by givin g it s con sen t , liber t y wou ld be a t a n en d; beca u se it wou ld becom e
legisla t ive in t h e m ost im por t a n t poin t of legisla t ion .
If t h e legisla t ive power wa s t o set t le t h e su bsidies, n ot fr om yea r t o yea r , bu t
for ever , it wou ld r u n t h e r isk of losin g it s liber t y, beca u se t h e execu t ive power
wou ld be n o lon ger depen den t ; a n d wh en on ce it wa s possessed of su ch a
per pet u a l r igh t , it wou ld be a m a t t er of in differ en ce wh et h er it h eld it of it self
or of a n ot h er . Th e sa m e m a y be sa id if it sh ou ld com e t o a r esolu t ion of
en t r u st in g, n ot a n a n n u a l, bu t a per pet u a l com m a n d of t h e fleet s a n d a r m ies t o
t h e execu t ive power .
To pr even t t h e execu t ive power fr om bein g a ble t o oppr ess, it is r equ isit e t h a t
t h e a r m ies wit h wh ich it is en t r u st ed sh ou ld con sist of t h e people, a n d h a ve t h e
sa m e spir it a s t h e people, a s wa s t h e ca se a t Rom e t ill t h e t im e of Ma r iu s. To
obt a in t h is en d, t h er e a r e on ly t wo wa ys, eit h er t h a t t h e per son s em ployed in
t h e a r m y sh ou ld h a ve su fficien t pr oper t y t o a n swer for t h eir con du ct t o t h eir
fellow-su bject s, a n d be en list ed on ly for a yea r , a s wa s cu st om a r y a t Rom e: or
if t h er e sh ou ld be a st a n din g a r m y, com posed ch iefly of t h e m ost despica ble pa r t
of t h e n a t ion , t h e legisla t ive power sh ou ld h a ve a r igh t t o disba n d t h em a s soon
a s it plea sed; t h e soldier s sh ou ld live in com m on wit h t h e r est of t h e people; a n d
n o sepa r a t e ca m p, ba r r a cks, or for t r ess sh ou ld be su ffer ed.
Wh en on ce a n a r m y is est a blish ed, it ou gh t n ot t o depen d im m edia t ely on t h e
legisla t ive, bu t on t h e execu t ive, power ; a n d t h is fr om t h e ver y n a t u r e of t h e
t h in g, it s bu sin ess con sist in g m or e in a ct ion t h a n in deliber a t ion .
It is n a t u r a l for m a n kin d t o set a h igh er va lu e u pon cou r a ge t h a n t im idit y, on
a ct ivit y t h a n pr u den ce, on st r en gt h t h a n cou n sel. H en ce t h e a r m y will ever
despise a sen a t e, a n d r espect t h eir own officer s. Th ey will n a t u r a lly sligh t t h e
or der s sen t t h em by a body of m en wh om t h ey look u pon a s cowa r ds, a n d
t h er efor e u n wor t h y t o com m a n d t h em . So t h a t a s soon a s t h e t r oops depen d
en t ir ely on t h e legisla t ive body, it becom es a m ilit a r y gover n m en t ; a n d if t h e
con t r a r y h a s ever h a ppen ed, it h a s been owin g t o som e ext r a or din a r y
cir cu m st a n ces. It is beca u se t h e a r m y wa s a lwa ys kept divided; it is beca u se it

wa s com posed of sever a l bodies t h a t depen ded ea ch on a pa r t icu la r pr ovin ce; it
is beca u se t h e ca pit a l t own s wer e st r on g pla ces, defen ded by t h eir n a t u r a l
sit u a t ion , a n d n ot ga r r ison ed wit h r egu la r t r oops. H olla n d, for in st a n ce, is st ill
sa fer t h a n Ven ice; sh e m igh t dr own or st a r ve t h e r evolt ed t r oops; for a s t h ey a r e
n ot qu a r t er ed in t own s ca pa ble of fu r n ish in g t h em wit h n ecessa r y su bsist en ce,
t h is su bsist en ce is of cou r se pr eca r iou s.
In per u sin g t h e a dm ir a ble t r ea t ise of Ta cit u s On th e M an n ers of th e
Germ an s, 13 we fin d it is fr om t h a t n a t ion t h e E n glish h a ve bor r owed t h e idea of
t h eir polit ica l gover n m en t . Th is bea u t ifu l syst em wa s in ven t ed fir st in t h e
woods.
As a ll h u m a n t h in gs h a ve a n en d, t h e st a t e we a r e spea kin g of will lose it s
liber t y, will per ish . H a ve n ot Rom e, Spa r t a , a n d Ca r t h a ge per ish ed? It will
per ish wh en t h e legisla t ive power sh a ll be m or e cor r u pt t h a n t h e execu t ive.
It is n ot m y bu sin ess t o exa m in e wh et h er t h e E n glish a ct u a lly en joy t h is
liber t y or n ot . Su fficien t it is for m y pu r pose t o obser ve t h a t it is est a blish ed by
t h eir la ws; a n d I in qu ir e n o fu r t h er .
Neit h er do I pr et en d by t h is t o u n der va lu e ot h er gover n m en t s, n or t o sa y t h a t
t h is ext r em e polit ica l liber t y ou gh t t o give u n ea sin ess t o t h ose wh o h a ve on ly
a m oder a t e sh a r e of it . H ow sh ou ld I h a ve a n y su ch design , I wh o t h in k t h a t
even t h e h igh est r efin em en t of r ea son is n ot a lwa ys desir a ble, a n d t h a t
m a n kin d gen er a lly fin d t h eir a ccou n t bet t er in m ediu m s t h a n in ext r em es?
H a r r in gt on , in h is Ocean a, h a s a lso in qu ir ed in t o t h e u t m ost degr ee of liber t y
t o wh ich t h e con st it u t ion of a st a t e m a y be ca r r ied. Bu t of h im in deed it m a y be
sa id t h a t for wa n t of kn owin g t h e n a t u r e of r ea l liber t y h e bu sied h im self in
pu r su it of a n im a gin a r y on e; a n d t h a t h e bu ilt a Ch a lcedon , t h ou gh h e h a d a
Byza n t iu m befor e h is eyes.
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Th e m on a r ch ies we a r e a cqu a in t ed wit h h a ve n ot , lik e t h a t we h a ve been
spea kin g of, liber t y for t h eir dir ect view: t h e on ly a im is t h e glor y of t h e su bject ,
of t h e st a t e, a n d of t h e sover eign . Bu t h en ce t h er e r esu lt s a spir it of liber t y,
wh ich in t h ose st a t es is ca pa ble of a ch ievin g a s gr ea t t h in gs, a n d of con t r ibu t in g
a s m u ch per h a ps t o h a ppin ess a s liber t y it self.

H er e t h e t h r ee power s a r e n ot dist r ibu t ed a n d fou n ded on t h e m odel of t h e
con st it u t ion a bove-m en t ion ed; t h ey h a ve ea ch a pa r t icu la r dist r ibu t ion ,
a ccor din g t o wh ich t h ey bor der m or e or less on polit ica l liber t y; a n d if t h ey did
n ot bor der u pon it , m on a r ch y wou ld degen er a t e in t o despot ic gover n m en t .
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Th e a n cien t s h a d n o n ot ion of a gover n m en t fou n ded on a body of n obles, a n d
m u ch less on a legisla t ive body com posed of t h e r epr esen t a t ives of t h e people.
Th e r epu blics of Gr eece a n d It a ly wer e cit ies t h a t h a d ea ch t h eir own for m of
gover n m en t , a n d con ven ed t h eir su bject s wit h in t h eir wa lls. Befor e Rom e h a d
swa llowed u p a ll t h e ot h er r epu blics, t h er e wa s sca r cely a n ywh er e a kin g t o be
fou n d, n o, n ot in It a ly, Ga u l, Spa in , or Ger m a n y; t h ey wer e a ll pet t y st a t es or
r epu blics. E ven Afr ica it self wa s su bject t o a gr ea t com m on wea lt h : a n d Asia
Min or wa s occu pied by Gr eek colon ies. Th er e wa s, t h er efor e, n o in st a n ce of
depu t ies of t own s or a ssem blies of t h e st a t es; on e m u st h a ve gon e a s fa r a s
P er sia t o fin d a m on a r ch y.
I a m n ot ign or a n t t h a t t h er e wer e con feder a t e r epu blics; in wh ich sever a l
t own s sen t depu t ies t o a n a ssem bly. Bu t I a ffir m t h er e wa s n o m on a r ch y on t h a t
m odel.
Th e fir st pla n , t h er efor e, of t h e m on a r ch ies we a r e a cqu a in t ed wit h wa s t h u s
for m ed. Th e Ger m a n n a t ion s t h a t con qu er ed t h e Rom a n em pir e wer e cer t a in ly
a fr ee people. Of t h is we m a y be con vin ced on ly by r ea din g Ta cit u s On t h e
Ma n n er s of t h e Ger m a n s. Th e con qu er or s spr ea d t h em selves over a ll t h e
cou n t r y; livin g m ost ly in t h e fields, a n d ver y lit t le in t own s. Wh en t h ey wer e in
Ger m a n y, t h e wh ole n a t ion wa s a ble t o a ssem ble. Th is t h ey cou ld n o lon ger do
wh en disper sed t h r ou gh t h e con qu er ed pr ovin ces. An d yet a s it wa s n ecessa r y
t h a t t h e n a t ion sh ou ld deliber a t e on pu blic a ffa ir s, pu r su a n t t o t h eir u su a l
m et h od befor e t h e con qu est , t h ey h a d r ecou r se t o r epr esen t a t ives. Su ch is t h e
or igin of t h e Got h ic gover n m en t a m on gst u s. At fir st it wa s m ixed wit h
a r ist ocr a cy a n d m on a r ch y — a m ixt u r e a t t en ded wit h t h is in con ven ien ce, t h a t
t h e com m on people wer e bon dm en . Th e cu st om a ft er wa r ds su cceeded of
gr a n t in g let t er s of en fr a n ch isem en t , a n d wa s soon followed by so per fect a
h a r m on y bet ween t h e civil liber t y of t h e people, t h e pr ivileges of t h e n obilit y

a n d cler gy, a n d t h e pr in ce’s pr er oga t ive, t h a t I r ea lly t h in k t h er e n ever wa s in
t h e wor ld a gover n m en t so well t em per ed a s t h a t of ea ch pa r t of E u r ope, so lon g
a s it la st ed. Su r pr isin g t h a t t h e cor r u pt ion of t h e gover n m en t of a con qu er in g
n a t ion sh ou ld h a ve given bir t h t o t h e best species of con st it u t ion t h a t cou ld
possibly be im a gin ed by m a n !
S1&:.5,+'+$%],&K"**%.&'(&!-5*>5*D1
Ar ist ot le is gr ea t ly pu zzled in t r ea t in g of m on a r ch y. 14 H e m a kes five species;
a n d h e does n ot dist in gu ish t h em by t h e for m of con st it u t ion , bu t by t h in gs
m er ely a cciden t a l, a s t h e vir t u es a n d vices of t h e pr in ce; or by t h in gs ext r in sic,
su ch a s t yr a n n y u su r ped or in h er it ed.
Am on g t h e n u m ber of m on a r ch ies h e r a n ks t h e P er sia n em pir e a n d t h e
kin gdom of Spa r t a . Bu t is it n ot eviden t t h a t t h e on e wa s a despot ic st a t e a n d
t h e ot h er a r epu blic?
Th e a n cien t s, wh o wer e st r a n ger s t o t h e dist r ibu t ion of t h e t h r ee power s in
t h e gover n m en t of a sin gle per son , cou ld n ever for m a ju st idea of m on a r ch y.
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To t em per m on a r ch y, Ar yba s, kin g of E pir u s, 15 fou n d n o ot h er r em edy t h a n a
r epu blic. Th e Molossi, n ot kn owin g h ow t o lim it t h e sa m e power , m a de t wo
kin gs, 16 by wh ich m ea n s t h e st a t e wa s wea ken ed m or e t h a n t h e pr er oga t ive;
t h ey wa n t ed r iva ls, a n d t h ey cr ea t ed en em ies.
Two kin gs wer e t oler a ble n owh er e bu t a t Spa r t a ; h er e t h ey did n ot for m , bu t
wer e on ly a pa r t of t h e con st it u t ion .
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In t h e h er oic t im es of Gr eece, a kin d of m on a r ch y a r ose t h a t wa s n ot of lon g
du r a t ion . 17 Th ose wh o h a d been in ven t or s of a r t s, wh o h a d fou gh t in t h eir
cou n t r y’s ca u se, wh o h a d est a blish ed societ ies, or dist r ibu t ed la n ds a m on g t h e
people, obt a in ed t h e r ega l power , a n d t r a n sm it t ed it t o t h eir ch ildr en . Th ey
wer e kin gs, pr iest s, a n d ju dges. Th is wa s on e of t h e five species of m on a r ch y
m en t ion ed by Ar ist ot le;18 a n d t h e on ly on e t h a t ca n give u s a n y idea of t h e

m on a r ch ica l con st it u t ion . Bu t t h e pla n of t h is con st it u t ion is opposit e t o t h a t of
ou r m oder n m on a r ch ies.
Th e t h r ee power s wer e t h er e dist r ibu t ed in su ch a m a n n er t h a t t h e people
wer e t h e legisla t u r e, 19 a n d t h e kin g h a d t h e execu t ive t oget h er wit h t h e
ju dicia r y power ; wh er ea s in m oder n m on a r ch ies t h e pr in ce is in vest ed wit h t h e
execu t ive a n d legisla t ive power s, or a t lea st wit h pa r t of t h e legisla t ive, bu t does
n ot a ct in a ju dicia r y ca pa cit y.
In t h e gover n m en t of t h e kin gs of t h e h er oic t im es, t h e t h r ee power s wer e
ill-dist r ibu t ed. H en ce t h ose m on a r ch ies cou ld n ot lon g su bsist . F or a s soon a s
t h e people got t h e legisla t ive power in t o t h eir h a n ds, t h ey m igh t , a s t h ey
ever ywh er e did, u pon t h e ver y lea st ca pr ice, su bver t t h e r ega l a u t h or it y.
Am on g a fr ee people possessed of t h e legisla t ive power , a n d en closed wit h in
wa lls, wh er e ever yt h in g t en din g t owa r ds oppr ession a ppea r s st ill m or e odiou s,
it is t h e m a st er piece of legisla t ion t o kn ow wh er e t o pla ce pr oper ly t h e ju dicia r y
power . Bu t it cou ld n ot be in wor se h a n ds t h a n in t h ose of t h e per son t o wh om
t h e execu t ive power h a d been a lr ea dy com m it t ed. F r om t h a t ver y in st a n t t h e
m on a r ch beca m e t er r ible. Bu t a t t h e sa m e t im e a s h e h a d n o sh a r e in t h e
legisla t u r e, h e cou ld m a ke n o defen ce a ga in st it , t h u s h is power wa s in on e
sen se t oo gr ea t , in a n ot h er t oo lit t le.
Th ey h a d n ot a s yet discover ed t h a t t h e t r u e fu n ct ion of a pr in ce wa s t o
a ppoin t ju dges, a n d n ot t o sit a s ju dge h im self. Th e opposit e policy r en der ed t h e
gover n m en t of a sin gle per son in su ppor t a ble. H en ce a ll t h ese kin gs wer e
ba n ish ed. Th e Gr eeks h a d n o n ot ion of t h e pr oper dist r ibu t ion of t h e t h r ee
power s in t h e gover n m en t of on e per son ; t h ey cou ld see it on ly in t h a t of m a n y;
a n d t h is kin d of con st it u t ion t h ey dist in gu ish ed by t h e n a m e of P olit y.20
BE1&@(&+-%&A';%.*<%*+&'(&+-%&M5*D,&'(&/'<%I&"*0&5*&7-"+&K"**%.
+-%&+-.%%&8'7%.,&7%.%&+-%.%&05,+.5#F+%01
Th e gover n m en t of t h e kin gs of Rom e h a d som e r ela t ion t o t h a t of t h e kin gs
of t h e h er oic t im es of Gr eece. It s su bver sion , like t h e la t t er ’s, wa s owin g t o it s
gen er a l defect , t h ou gh in it s own pa r t icu la r n a t u r e it wa s exceedin gly good.
In or der t o give a n a dequ a t e idea of t h is gover n m en t , I sh a ll dist in gu ish t h a t
of t h e fir st five kin gs, t h a t of Ser viu s Tu lliu s, a n d t h a t of Ta r qu in .

Th e cr own wa s elect ive, a n d u n der t h e fir st five kin gs t h e sen a t e h a d t h e
gr ea t est sh a r e in t h e elect ion .
Upon t h e kin g’s decea se t h e sen a t e exa m in ed wh et h er t h ey sh ou ld con t in u e
t h e est a blish ed for m of gover n m en t . If t h ey t h ou gh t pr oper t o con t in u e it , t h ey
n a m ed a m a gist r a t e 21 t a ken fr om t h eir own body, wh o ch ose a kin g; t h e sen a t e
wer e t o a ppr ove of t h e elect ion , t h e people t o con fir m it , a n d t h e a u gu r s t o
decla r e t h e a ppr oba t ion of t h e gods. If a n y of t h ese t h r ee con dit ion s wa s
wa n t in g, t h ey wer e obliged t o pr oceed t o a n ot h er elect ion .
Th e con st it u t ion wa s a m ixt u r e of m on a r ch y, a r ist ocr a cy, a n d dem ocr a cy; a n d
su ch wa s t h e h a r m on y of power t h a t t h er e wa s n o in st a n ce of jea lou sy or
dispu t e in t h e fir st r eign s. Th e kin g com m a n ded t h e a r m ies, a n d h a d t h e
dir ect ion of t h e sa cr ifices: h e h a d t h e power of det er m in in g 22 civil a n d cr im in a l 23
ca u ses; h e ca lled t h e sen a t e t oget h er , con ven ed t h e people, la id som e a ffa ir s
befor e t h e la t t er , a n d r egu la t ed t h e r est wit h t h e sen a t e.24
Th e a u t h or it y of t h e sen a t e wa s ver y gr ea t . Th e kin gs oft en t im es pit ch ed u pon
sen a t or s wit h wh om t h ey sa t in ju dgm en t ; a n d t h ey n ever la id a n y a ffa ir befor e
t h e people t ill it h a d been pr eviou sly deba t ed 25 in t h a t a u gu st a ssem bly.
Th e people h a d t h e r igh t of ch oosin g26 m a gist r a t es, of con sen t in g t o t h e n ew
la ws, a n d, wit h t h e kin g’s per m ission , of m a kin g wa r a n d pea ce; bu t t h ey h a d
n ot t h e ju dicia l power . Wh en Tu lliu s H ost iliu s r efer r ed t h e t r ia l of H or a t iu s t o
t h e people, h e h a d h is pa r t icu la r r ea son s, wh ich m a y be seen in Dion ysiu s
H a lica r n a ssu s. 27
Th e con st it u t ion a lt er ed u n der 28 Ser viu s Tu lliu s. Th e sen a t e h a d n o sh a r e in
h is elect ion ; h e ca u sed h im self t o be pr ocla im ed by t h e people; h e r esign ed t h e
power of h ea r in g civil ca u ses, 29 r eser vin g n on e t o h im self bu t t h ose of a cr im in a l
n a t u r e; h e la id a ll a ffa ir s dir ect ly befor e t h e people, ea sed t h em of t h e t a xes,
a n d im posed t h e wh ole bu r den on t h e pa t r icia n s. H en ce in pr opor t ion a s h e
wea ken ed t h e r ega l t oget h er wit h t h e sen a t or ia l power , h e a u gm en t ed t h a t of
t h e plebeia n s. 30
Ta r qu in wou ld n eit h er be ch osen by t h e sen a t e n or by t h e people; h e
con sider ed Ser viu s Tu lliu s a s a u su r per , a n d seized t h e cr own a s h is h er edit a r y
r igh t . H e dest r oyed m ost of t h e sen a t or s; t h ose wh o r em a in ed h e n ever
con su lt ed; n or did h e even so m u ch a s su m m on t h em t o a ssist a t h is decision s. 31

Th u s h is power in cr ea sed: bu t t h e odiu m of t h a t power r eceived a n ew a ddit ion ,
by u su r pin g a lso t h e a u t h or it y of t h e people, a ga in st wh ose con sen t h e en a ct ed
sever a l la ws. Th e t h r ee power s wer e by t h ese m ea n s r e-u n it ed in h is per son ; bu t
t h e people a t a cr it ica l m in u t e r ecollect ed t h a t t h ey wer e legisla t or s, a n d t h er e
wa s a n en d of Ta r qu in .
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It is im possible t o be t ir ed of so a gr eea ble a su bject a s a n cien t Rom e: t h u s
st r a n ger s a t pr esen t lea ve t h e m oder n pa la ces of t h a t celebr a t ed ca pit a l t o visit
t h e r u in s; a n d t h u s t h e eye, a ft er r ecr ea t in g it self wit h t h e view of flower y
m ea ds, is plea sed wit h t h e wild pr ospect of r ocks a n d m ou n t a in s.
Th e pa t r icia n fa m ilies wer e a t a ll t im es possessed of gr ea t pr ivileges. Th ese
dist in ct ion s, wh ich wer e con sider a ble u n der t h e kin gs, beca m e m u ch m or e
im por t a n t a ft er t h eir expu lsion . H en ce a r ose t h e jea lou sy of t h e plebeia n s, wh o
wa n t ed t o r edu ce t h em . Th e con t est st r u ck a t t h e con st it u t ion , wit h ou t
wea ken in g t h e gover n m en t ; for it wa s ver y in differ en t a s t o wh a t fa m ily wer e
t h e m a gist r a t es, pr ovided t h e m a gist r a cy pr eser ved it s a u t h or it y.
An elect ive m on a r ch y, like t h a t of Rom e, n ecessa r ily su pposes a power fu l
a r ist ocr a t ic body t o su ppor t it , wit h ou t wh ich it ch a n ges im m edia t ely in t o
t yr a n n y or in t o a popu la r st a t e. Bu t a popu la r st a t e h a s n o n eed of t h is
dist in ct ion of fa m ilies t o m a in t a in it self. To t h is it wa s owin g t h a t t h e
pa t r icia n s, wh o wer e a n ecessa r y pa r t of t h e con st it u t ion u n der t h e r ega l
gover n m en t , beca m e a su per flu ou s br a n ch u n der t h e con su ls; t h e people cou ld
su ppr ess t hem wit hout hur t ing t hem selves, a n d ch a n ge t h e con st it u t ion wit h ou t
cor r u pt in g it .
Aft er Ser viu s Tu lliu s h a d r edu ced t h e pa t r icia n s, it wa s n a t u r a l t h a t Rom e
sh ou ld fa ll fr om t h e r ega l h a n ds in t o t h ose of t h e people. Bu t t h e people h a d n o
occa sion t o be a fr a id of r ela psin g u n der a r ega l power by r edu cin g t h e
pa t r icia n s.
A st a t e m a y a lt er in t wo differ en t wa ys, eit h er by t h e a m en dm en t or by t h e
cor r u pt ion of t h e con st it u t ion . If it h a s pr eser ved it s pr in ciples a n d t h e
con st it u t ion ch a n ges, t h is is owin g t o it s a m en dm en t ; if u pon ch a n gin g t h e

con st it u t ion it s pr in ciples a r e lost , t h is is beca u se it h a s been cor r u pt ed.
Th e gover n m en t of Rom e, a ft er t h e expu lsion of t h e kin gs, sh ou ld n a t u r a lly
h a ve been a dem ocr a cy. Th e people h a d a lr ea dy t h e legisla t ive power in t h eir
h a n ds; it wa s t h eir u n a n im ou s con sen t t h a t h a d expelled t h e Ta r qu in s; a n d if
t h ey h a d n ot con t in u ed st ea dy t o t h ose pr in ciples, t h e Ta r qu in s m igh t ea sily
h a ve been r est or ed. To pr et en d t h a t t h eir design in expellin g t h em wa s t o
r en der t h em selves sla ves t o a few fa m ilies is qu it e a bsu r d. Th e sit u a t ion
t h er efor e of t h in gs r equ ir ed t h a t Rom e sh ou ld h a ve for m ed a dem ocr a cy, a n d
yet t h is did n ot h a ppen . Th er e wa s a n ecessit y t h a t t h e power of t h e pr in cipa l
fa m ilies sh ou ld be t em per ed, a n d t h a t t h e la ws sh ou ld h a ve a bia s t o dem ocr a cy.
Th e pr osper it y of st a t es is fr equ en t ly gr ea t er in t h e in sen sible t r a n sit ion fr om
on e con st it u t ion t o a n ot h er t h a n in eit h er of t h ose con st it u t ion s. Th en it is t h a t
a ll t h e spr in gs of gover n m en t a r e u pon t h e st r et ch , t h a t t h e cit izen s a sser t t h eir
cla im s, t h a t fr ien dsh ips or en m it ies a r e for m ed a m on gst t h e ja r r in g pa r t ies, a n d
t h a t t h er e is a n oble em u la t ion bet ween t h ose wh o defen d t h e a n cien t a n d t h ose
wh o a r e st r en u ou s in pr om ot in g t h e n ew con st it u t ion .
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Th er e wer e fou r t h in gs t h a t gr ea t ly pr eju diced t h e liber t y of Rom e. Th e
pa t r icia n s h a d en gr ossed t o t h em selves a ll pu blic em ploym en t s wh a t ever ; a n
exor bit a n t power wa s a n n exed t o t h e con su la t e; t h e people wer e oft en in su lt ed;
a n d, in fin e, t h ey h a d sca r cely a n y in flu en ce a t a ll left in t h e pu blic su ffr a ges.
Th ese fou r a bu ses wer e r edr essed by t h e people.
1st . It wa s r egu la t ed t h a t t h e plebeia n s m igh t a spir e t o som e m a gist r a cies;
a n d by degr ees t h ey wer e r en der ed ca pa ble of t h em a ll, except t h a t of In t er -r ex.
2n d. Th e con su la t e wa s dissolved in t o sever a l ot h er m a gist r a cies;32 pr a et or s
wer e cr ea t ed, on wh om t h e power wa s con fer r ed of t r yin g pr iva t e ca u ses;
qu a est or s 33 wer e n om in a t ed for det er m in in g t h ose of a cr im in a l n a t u r e; a ediles
wer e est a blish ed for t h e civil a dm in ist r a t ion ; t r ea su r er s 34 wer e m a de for t h e
m a n a gem en t of t h e pu blic m on ey; a n d, in fin e, by t h e cr ea t ion of cen sor s t h e
con su ls wer e divest ed of t h a t pa r t of t h e legisla t ive power wh ich r egu la t es t h e
m or a ls of t h e cit izen s a n d t h e t r a n sien t polit y of t h e differ en t bodies of t h e

st a t e. Th e ch ief pr ivileges left t h em wer e t o pr eside in t h e gr ea t m eet in gs 35 of
t h e people, t o a ssem ble t h e sen a t e, a n d t o com m a n d t h e a r m ies.
3r d. Th e sa cr ed la ws a ppoin t ed t r ibu n es, wh o h a d a power of ch eck in g t h e
en cr oa ch m en t s of t h e pa t r icia n s, a n d pr even t ed n ot on ly pr iva t e bu t likewise
pu blic in ju r ies.
In fin e, t h e plebeia n s in cr ea sed t h eir in flu en ce in t h e gen er a l a ssem blies. Th e
people of Rom e wer e divided in t h r ee differ en t m a n n er s — by cen t u r ies, by
cu r ia e, a n d by t r ibes; a n d wh en ever t h ey ga ve t h eir vot es, t h ey wer e con ven ed
in on e of t h ose t h r ee wa ys.
In t h e fir st t h e pa t r icia n s, t h e lea din g m en , t h e r ich a n d t h e sen a t e, wh ich
wa s ver y n ea r ly t h e sa m e t h in g, h a d a lm ost t h e wh ole a u t h or it y; in t h e secon d
t h ey h a d less; a n d less st ill in t h e t h ir d.
Th e division in t o cen t u r ies wa s a division r a t h er of est a t es a n d for t u n es t h a n
of per son s Th e wh ole people wer e dist r ibu t ed in t o a h u n dr ed a n d n in et y-t h r ee
cen t u r ies, 36 wh ich h a d ea ch a sin gle vot e. Th e pa t r icia n s a n d lea din g m en
com posed t h e fir st n in et y-eigh t cen t u r ies; a n d t h e ot h er n in et y-five con sist ed
of t h e r em a in der of t h e cit izen s. In t h is division t h er efor e t h e pa t r icia n s wer e
m a st er s of t h e su ffr a ges.
In t h e division in t o cu r ia e,37 t h e pa t r icia n s h a d n ot t h e sa m e a dva n t a ges;
som e, h owever , t h ey h a d, for it wa s n ecessa r y t o con su lt t h e a u gu r s, wh o wer e
u n der t h e dir ect ion of t h e pa t r icia n s; a n d n o pr oposa l cou ld be m a de t h er e t o t h e
people u n less it h a d been pr eviou sly la id befor e t h e sen a t e, a n d a ppr oved of by
a sen atu s-con su ltu m . Bu t , in t h e division in t o t r ibes t h ey h a d n ot h in g t o do
eit h er wit h t h e a u gu r s or wit h t h e decr ees of t h e sen a t e; a n d t h e pa t r icia n s
wer e exclu ded.
Now t h e people en dea vou r ed con st a n t ly t o h a ve t h ose m eet in gs by cu r ia e
wh ich h a d been cu st om a r y by cen t u r ies, a n d by t r ibes, t h ose t h ey u sed t o h a ve
befor e by cu r ia e; by wh ich m ea n s t h e dir ect ion of pu blic a ffa ir s soon devolved
fr om t h e pa t r icia n s t o t h e plebeia n s.
Th u s wh en t h e plebeia n s obt a in ed t h e power of t r yin g t h e pa t r icia n s — a
power wh ich com m en ced in t h e a ffa ir of Cor iola n u s, 38 t h ey in sist ed u pon
a ssem blin g by t r ibes, 39 a n d n ot by cen t u r ies; a n d wh en t h e n ew m a gist r a cies 40
of t r ibu n es a n d a ediles wer e est a blish ed in fa vou r of t h e people, t h e la t t er

obt a in ed t h a t t h ey sh ou ld m eet by cu r ia e in or der t o n om in a t e t h em ; a n d a ft er
t h eir power wa s qu it e set t led, t h ey ga in ed 41 so fa r t h eir poin t a s t o a ssem ble by
t r ibes t o pr oceed t o t h is n om in a t ion .
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In t h e h ea t of t h e con t est s bet ween t h e pa t r icia n s a n d t h e plebeia n s, t h e la t t er
in sist ed u pon h a vin g fixed la ws, t o t h e en d t h a t t h e pu blic ju dgm en t s sh ou ld n o
lon ger be t h e effect of ca pr iciou s will or a r bit r a r y power . Th e sen a t e, a ft er a
gr ea t dea l of r esist a n ce, a cqu iesced; a n d decem vir s wer e n om in a t ed t o com pose
t h ose la ws. It wa s t h ou gh t pr oper t o gr a n t t h em a n ext r a or din a r y power ,
beca u se t h ey wer e t o give la ws t o pa r t ies wh ose views a n d in t er est it wa s
a lm ost im possible t o u n it e. Th e n om in a t ion of a ll m a gist r a t es wa s su spen ded;
a n d t h e decem vir s wer e ch osen in t h e com it ia sole a dm in ist r a t or s of t h e
r epu blic. Th u s t h ey fou n d t h em selves in vest ed wit h t h e con su la r a n d t h e
t r ibu n it ion power . By on e t h ey h a d t h e pr ivilege of a ssem blin g t h e sen a t e, by
t h e ot h er t h a t of con ven in g t h e people; bu t t h ey a ssem bled n eit h er sen a t e n or
people. Ten m en on ly of t h e r epu blic h a d t h e wh ole legisla t ive, t h e wh ole
execu t ive, a n d t h e wh ole ju dicia r y power . Rom e sa w h er self en sla ved by a s cr u el
a t yr a n n y a s t h a t of Ta r qu in . Wh en Ta r qu in t r a m pled on t h e liber t y of t h a t cit y,
sh e wa s seized wit h in dign a t ion a t t h e power h e h a d u su r ped; wh en t h e
decem vir s exer cised ever y a ct of oppr ession , sh e wa s a st on ish ed a t t h e
ext r a or din a r y power sh e h a d gr a n t ed.
Wh a t a st r a n ge syst em of t yr a n n y — a t yr a n n y ca r r ied on by m en wh o h a d
obt a in ed t h e polit ica l a n d m ilit a r y power , m er ely fr om t h eir kn owledge in civil
a ffa ir s, a n d wh o a t t h a t ver y ju n ct u r e st ood in n eed of t h e cou r a ge of t h ose
cit izen s t o pr ot ect t h em a br oa d wh o so t a m ely su bm it t ed t o dom est ic
oppr ession !
Th e spect a cle of Vir gin ia ’s dea t h , wh om h er fa t h er im m ola t ed t o ch a st it y a n d
liber t y, pu t a n en d t o t h e power of t h e decem vir s. E ver y m a n beca m e fr ee,
beca u se ever y m a n h a d been in ju r ed; ea ch sh owed h im self a cit izen beca u se
ea ch h a d a t ie of t h e pa r en t . Th e sen a t e a n d t h e people r esu m ed a liber t y wh ich
h a d been com m it t ed t o r idicu lou s t yr a n t s.

No people wer e so ea sily m oved by pu blic spect a cles a s t h e Rom a n s. Th a t of
t h e em pu r pled body of Lu cr et ia pu t a n en d t o t h e r ega l gover n m en t . Th e debt or
wh o a ppea r ed in t h e for u m cover ed wit h wou n ds ca u sed a n a lt er a t ion in t h e
r epu blic. Th e decem vir s owed t h eir expu lsion t o t h e t r a gedy of Vir gin ia . To
con dem n Ma n liu s, it wa s n ecessa r y t o keep t h e people fr om seein g t h e Ca pit ol.
Ca esa r ’s bloody ga r m en t flu n g Rom e a ga in in t o sla ver y.
BO1&@(&+-%&$%D5,$"+5;%&8'7%.&5*&+-%&/'<"*&/%4F#$591&
Th er e wer e n o r igh t s t o con t est u n der t h e decem vir s: bu t u pon t h e r est or a t ion
of liber t y, jea lou sies r evived; a n d so lon g a s t h e pa t r icia n s h a d a n y pr ivileges
left , t h ey wer e su r e t o be st r ipped of t h em by t h e plebeia n s.
Th e m isch ief wou ld n ot h a ve been so gr ea t h a d t h e plebeia n s been sa t isfied
wit h t h is su ccess; bu t t h ey a lso in ju r ed t h e pa t r icia n s a s cit izen s. Wh en t h e
people a ssem bled by cu r ia e or cen t u r ies, t h ey wer e com posed of sen a t or s,
pa t r icia n s, a n d plebeia n s; in t h eir dispu t es t h e plebeia n s ga in ed t h is poin t ,42
t h a t t h ey a lon e wit h ou t pa t r icia n s or sen a t e sh ou ld en a ct t h e la ws ca lled
P lebiscit a ; a n d t h e a ssem blies in wh ich t h ey wer e m a de h a d t h e n a m e of com it ia
by t r ibes. Th u s t h er e wer e ca ses in wh ich t h e pa t r icia n s 43 h a d n o sh a r e in t h e
legisla t ive power , bu t 44 wer e su bject t o t h e legisla t ion of a n ot h er body of t h e
st a t e. Th is wa s t h e ext r a va ga n ce of liber t y. Th e people, t o est a blish a
dem ocr a cy, a ct ed a ga in st t h e ver y pr in ciples of t h a t gover n m en t . On e wou ld
h a ve im a gin ed t h a t so exor bit a n t a power m u st h a ve dest r oyed t h e a u t h or it y of
t h e sen a t e. Bu t Rom e h a d a dm ir a ble in st it u t ion s. Two of t h ese wer e especia lly
r em a r ka ble: on e by wh ich t h e legisla t ive power of t h e people wa s est a blish ed,
a n d t h e ot h er by wh ich it wa s lim it ed.
Th e cen sor s, a n d befor e t h em t h e con su ls, m odelled 45 a n d cr ea t ed, a s it wer e,
ever y five yea r s t h e body of t h e people; t h ey exer cised t h e legisla t ion on t h e ver y
pa r t t h a t wa s possessed of t h e legisla t ive power . “Tiber iu s Gr a cch u s,” sa ys
Cicer o, “ca u sed t h e fr eedm en t o be a dm it t ed in t o t h e t r ibes, n ot by t h e for ce of
h is eloqu en ce, bu t by a wor d, by a gest u r e; wh ich h a d h e n ot effect ed, t h e
r epu blic, wh ose dr oopin g h ea d we a r e a t pr esen t sca r cely a ble t o u ph old, wou ld
n ot even exist .”
On t h e ot h er h a n d, t h e sen a t e h a d t h e power of r escu in g, a s it wer e, t h e

r epu blic ou t of t h e h a n ds of t h e people, by cr ea t in g a dict a t or , befor e wh om t h e
sover eign bowed h is h ea d, a n d t h e m ost popu la r la ws wer e silen t .46
BP1&@(&+-%&%V%9F+5;%&8'7%.&5*&+-%&,"<%&/%4F#$591&
J ea lou s a s t h e people wer e of t h eir legisla t ive power , t h ey h a d n o gr ea t
u n ea sin ess a bou t t h e execu t ive. Th is t h ey left a lm ost en t ir ely t o t h e sen a t e a n d
t o t h e con su ls, r eser vin g sca r cely a n yt h in g m or e t o t h em selves t h a n t h e r igh t
of ch oosin g t h e m a gist r a t es, a n d of con fir m in g t h e a ct s of t h e sen a t e a n d of t h e
gen er a ls.
Rom e, wh ose pa ssion wa s t o com m a n d, wh ose a m bit ion wa s t o con qu er , wh ose
com m en cem en t a n d pr ogr ess wer e on e con t in u ed u su r pa t ion , h a d con st a n t ly
a ffa ir s of t h e gr ea t est weigh t u pon h er h a n ds; h er en em ies wer e ever con spir in g
a ga in st h er , or sh e a ga in st h er en em ies.
As sh e wa s obliged t o beh a ve on t h e on e h a n d wit h h er oic cou r a ge, a n d on t h e
ot h er wit h con su m m a t e pr u den ce, it wa s r equ isit e, of cou r se, t h a t t h e
m a n a gem en t of a ffa ir s sh ou ld be com m it t ed t o t h e sen a t e. Th u s t h e people
dispu t ed ever y br a n ch of t h e legisla t ive power wit h t h e sen a t e, beca u se t h ey
wer e jea lou s of t h eir liber t y; bu t t h ey h a d n o dispu t es a bou t t h e execu t ive,
beca u se t h ey wer e a n im a t ed wit h t h e love of glor y.
So gr ea t wa s t h e sh a r e t h e sen a t e t ook in t h e execu t ive power , t h a t , a s
P olybiu s 47 in for m s u s, for eign n a t ion s im a gin ed t h a t Rom e wa s a n a r ist ocr a cy.
Th e sen a t e disposed of t h e pu blic m on ey, a n d fa r m ed ou t t h e r even u e; t h ey wer e
a r bit er s of t h e a ffa ir s of t h eir a llies; t h ey det er m in ed wa r or pea ce, a n d dir ect ed
in t h is r espect t h e con su ls; t h ey fixed t h e n u m ber of t h e Rom a n a n d of t h e a llied
t r oops, disposed of t h e pr ovin ces a n d a r m ies t o t h e con su ls or pr a et or s, a n d
u pon t h e expir a t ion of t h e yea r of com m a n d h a d t h e power of a ppoin t in g
su ccessor s; t h ey decr eed t r iu m ph s, r eceived a n d sen t em ba ssies: t h ey
n om in a t ed, r ewa r ded, pu n ish ed, a n d wer e ju dges of kin gs, decla r ed t h em a llies
of t h e Rom a n people, or st r ipped t h em of t h a t t it le.
Th e con su ls levied t h e t r oops wh ich t h ey wer e t o ca r r y in t o t h e field; h a d t h e
com m a n d of t h e for ces by sea a n d by la n d; disposed of t h e for ces of t h e a llies;
wer e in vest ed wit h t h e wh ole power of t h e r epu blic in t h e pr ovin ces; ga ve pea ce
t o t h e va n qu ish ed n a t ion s, im posed con dit ion s on t h em , or r efer r ed t h em t o t h e

sen a t e.
In t h e ea r liest t im es, wh en t h e people h a d som e sh a r e in t h e a ffa ir s r ela t in g
t o wa r or pea ce, t h ey exer cised r a t h er t h eir legisla t ive t h a n t h eir execu t ive
power . Th ey sca r cely did a n yt h in g else bu t con fir m t h e a ct s of t h e kin gs, a n d
a ft er t h eir expu lsion t h ose of t h e con su ls or sen a t e. So fa r wer e t h ey fr om bein g
t h e a r bit er s of wa r t h a t we h a ve in st a n ces of it s h a vin g been oft en decla r ed,
n ot wit h st a n din g t h e opposit ion of t h e t r ibu n es. Bu t gr owin g wa n t on in t h eir
pr osper it y, t h ey in cr ea sed t h eir execu t ive power . Th u s 48 t h ey cr ea t ed t h e
m ilit a r y t r ibu n es, t h e n om in a t ion of wh om t ill t h en h a d belon ged t o t h e
gen er a ls; a n d som e t im e befor e t h e fir st P u n ic wa r , t h ey decr eed t h a t on ly t h eir
own body sh ou ld h a ve t h e r igh t of decla r in g wa r .49
BQ1&@(&+-%&ZF0595".H&8'7%.&5*&+-%&/'<"*&A';%.*<%*+1
Th e ju dicia r y power wa s given t o t h e people, t o t h e sen a t e, t o t h e m a gist r a t es,
a n d t o pa r t icu la r ju dges. We m u st see in wh a t m a n n er it wa s dist r ibu t ed;
begin n in g wit h t h eir civil a ffa ir s.
Th e con su ls h a d t h e ju dicia r y power 50 a ft er t h e expu lsion of t h e kin gs, a s t h e
pr a et or s wer e ju dges a ft er t h e con su ls. Ser viu s Tu lliu s h a d divest ed h im self of
t h e power of det er m in in g civil ca u ses, wh ich wa s n ot r esu m ed by t h e con su ls,
except in som e 51 ver y r a r e ca ses, for t h a t r ea son ca lled ext r a or din a r y. 52 Th ey
wer e sa t isfied wit h n a m in g t h e ju dges, a n d est a blish in g t h e sever a l t r ibu n a ls.
By a discou r se of Appiu s Cla u diu s, in Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s,53 it a ppea r s t hat
a s ea r ly a s t h e 259t h yea r of Rom e t h is wa s looked u pon a s a set t led cu st om
a m on g t h e Rom a n s; a n d it is n ot t r a cin g it ver y h igh t o r efer it t o Ser viu s
Tu lliu s.
E ver y yea r t h e pr a et or m a de a list 54 of su ch a s h e ch ose for t h e office of ju dges
du r in g h is m a gist r a cy. A su fficien t n u m ber wa s pit ch ed u pon for ea ch ca u se; a
cu st om ver y n ea r ly t h e sa m e a s t h a t n ow pr a ct ised in E n gla n d. An d wh a t wa s
ext r em ely fa vou r a ble t o liber t y55 wa s t h e pr a et or ’s fixin g t h e ju dges wit h t h e
con sen t 56 of t h e pa r t ies. Th e gr ea t n u m ber of except ion s t h a t ca n be m a de in
E n gla n d a m ou n t s pr et t y n ea r ly t o t h is ver y cu st om .
Th e ju dges decided on ly t h e qu est ion s r ela t in g t o m a t t er of fa ct ;57 for exa m ple,
wh et h er a su m of m on ey h a d been pa id or n ot , wh et h er a n a ct h a d been
com m it t ed or n ot . Bu t a s t o qu est ion s of la w,58 a s t h ese r equ ir ed a cer t a in
ca pa cit y, t h ey wer e a lwa ys ca r r ied befor e t h e t r ibu n a l of t h e cen t u m vir s.59
Th e kin gs r eser ved t o t h em selves t h e ju dgm en t of cr im in a l a ffa ir s, a n d in t h is
wer e su cceeded by t h e con su ls. It wa s in con sequ en ce of t h is a u t h or it y t h a t
Br u t u s pu t h is ch ildr en a n d a ll t h ose wh o wer e con cer n ed in t h e Ta r qu in ia n
con spir a cy t o deat h. This wa s a n exor bit a n t power . Th e con su ls a lr ea dy in vest ed
wit h t h e m ilit a r y com m a n d ext en ded t h e exer cise of it even t o civil a ffa ir s; a n d
t h eir pr ocedu r es, bein g st r ipped of a ll for m s of ju st ice, wer e r a t h er exer t ion s of
violen ce t h a n lega l ju dgm en t s.
Th is ga ve r ise t o t h e Va ler ia n la w, by wh ich it wa s m a de la wfu l t o a ppea l t o
t h e people fr om ever y decision of t h e con su ls t h a t en da n ger ed t h e life of a
cit izen . Th e con su ls h a d n o lon ger t h e power of pr on ou n cin g sen t en ce in ca pit a l
ca ses a ga in st a Rom a n cit izen , wit h ou t t h e con sen t of t h e people.60
We see in t h e fir st con spir a cy for t h e r est or a t ion of t h e Ta r qu in s t h a t t h e
cr im in a ls wer e t r ied by Br u t u s t h e con su l; in t h e secon d t h e sen a t e a n d com it ia
wer e a ssem bled t o t r y t h em .61
Th e la ws dist in gu ish ed by t h e n a m e of sa cr ed a llowed t h e plebeia n s t h e
pr ivilege of ch oosin g t r ibu n es; wh en ce wa s for m ed a body wh ose pr et en sion s a t
fir st wer e im m en se. It is h a r d t o det er m in e wh ich wa s gr ea t er , t h e in solen ce of
t h e plebeia n s in dem a n din g, or t h e con descen sion of t h e sen a t e in gr a n t in g. Th e
Va ler ia n la w a llowed a ppea ls t o t h e people, t h a t is, t o t h e people com posed of
sen a t or s, pa t r icia n s, a n d plebeia n s. Th e plebeia n s m a de a la w t h a t a ppea ls
sh ou ld be br ou gh t befor e t h eir own body. A qu est ion wa s soon a ft er st a r t ed,
wh et h er t h e plebeia n s h a d a r igh t t o t r y a pa t r icia n ; t h is wa s t h e su bject of a
dispu t e t o wh ich t h e im pea ch m en t of Cor iola n u s ga ve r ise, a n d wh ich en ded
wit h t h a t a ffa ir . Wh en Cor iola n u s wa s a ccu sed by t h e t r ibu n es befor e t h e
people, h e in sist ed, con t r a r y t o t h e spir it of t h e Va ler ia n la w, t h a t a s h e wa s a
pa t r icia n , n on e bu t t h e con su ls h a d t h e power t o t r y h im ; on t h e ot h er h a n d, t h e
plebeia n s, a lso con t r a r y t o t h e spir it of t h a t sa m e la w, pr et en ded t h a t n on e bu t
t h eir body wer e em power ed t o be h is ju dges, a n d a ccor din gly t h ey pr on ou n ced
sen t en ce u pon h im .
Th is wa s m oder a t ed by t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles; wh er eby it wa s or da in ed
t h a t n on e bu t t h e gr ea t a ssem blies of t h e people 62 sh ou ld t r y a cit izen in ca pit a l

ca ses. H en ce t h e body of t h e plebeia n s, or , wh ich a m ou n t s t o t h e ver y sa m e, t h e
com it ia by t r ibes, h a d n o lon ger a n y power of h ea r in g cr im in a l ca u ses, except
su ch a s wer e pu n ish ed wit h fin es. To in flict a ca pit a l pu n ish m en t a la w wa s
r equ isit e; bu t t o con dem n t o a pecu n ia r y m u lct , t h er e wa s occa sion on ly for a
plebiscit u m .
Th is r egu la t ion of t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles wa s ext r em ely pr u den t . It
pr odu ced a n a dm ir a ble ba la n ce bet ween t h e body of t h e plebeia n s a n d t h e
sen a t e. F or a s t h e fu ll ju dicia r y power of bot h depen ded on t h e gr ea t n ess of t h e
pu n ish m en t a n d t h e n a t u r e of t h e cr im e, it wa s n ecessa r y t h ey sh ou ld bot h
a gr ee.
Th e Va ler ia n la w a bolish ed a ll t h e r em a in s of t h e Rom a n gover n m en t in a n y
wa y r ela t in g t o t h a t of t h e kin gs of t h e h er oic t im es of Gr eece. Th e con su ls wer e
divest ed of t h e power t o pu n ish cr im es. Th ou gh a ll cr im es a r e pu blic, yet we
m u st dist in gu ish bet ween t h ose wh ich m or e n ea r ly con cer n t h e m u t u a l
in t er cou r se of t h e cit izen s a n d t h ose wh ich m or e im m edia t ely in t er est t h e st a t e
in t h e r ela t ion it bea r s t o it s su bject s. Th e fir st a r e ca lled pr iva t e, t h e secon d
pu blic. Th e la t t er wer e t r ied by t h e people; a n d in r ega r d t o t h e for m er , t h ey
n a m ed by pa r t icu la r com m ission a qu a est or for t h e pr osecu t ion of ea ch cr im e.
Th e per son ch osen by t h e people wa s fr equ en t ly on e of t h e m a gist r a t es,
som et im es a pr iva t e m a n . H e wa s ca lled t h e qu a est or of pa r r icide, a n d is
m en t ion ed in t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles. 63
Th e qu a est or n om in a t ed t h e ju dge of t h e qu est ion , wh o dr ew lot s for t h e
ju dges, a n d r egu la t ed t h e t r ibu n a l in wh ich h e pr esided.64
H er e it is pr oper t o obser ve wh a t sh a r e t h e sen a t e h a d in t h e n om in a t ion of
t h e qu a est or , t h a t we m a y see h ow fa r t h e t wo power s wer e ba la n ced.
Som et im es t h e sen a t e ca u sed a dict a t or t o be ch osen , in or der t o exer cise t h e
office of qu a est or ;65 a t ot h er t im es t h ey or da in ed t h a t t h e people sh ou ld be
con ven ed by a t r ibu n e, wit h t h e view of pr oceedin g t o t h e n om in a t ion of a
qu a est or ;66 a n d, in fin e, t h e people fr equ en t ly a ppoin t ed a m a gist r a t e t o m a ke
h is r epor t t o t h e sen a t e con cer n in g a pa r t icu la r cr im e, a n d t o desir e t h em t o
n a m e a qu a est or , a s m a y be seen in t h e ju dgm en t u pon Lu ciu s Scipio67 in Livy. 68
In t h e yea r of Rom e 604, som e of t h ese com m ission s wer e r en der ed
per m a n en t . 69 All cr im in a l ca u ses wer e gr a du a lly divided in t o differ en t pa r t s; t o

wh ich t h ey ga ve t h e n a m e of per pet u a l qu est ion s. Differ en t pr a et or s wer e
cr ea t ed, t o ea ch of wh om som e of t h ose qu est ion s wer e a ssign ed. Th ey h a d a
power con fer r ed u pon t h em for t h e t er m of a yea r , of t r yin g su ch cr im in a l ca u ses
a s bor e a n y r ela t ion t o t h ose qu est ion s, a n d t h en t h ey wer e sen t t o gover n t h eir
pr ovin ce.
At Ca r t h a ge t h e sen a t e of t h e h u n dr ed wa s com posed of ju dges wh o en joyed
t h a t dign it y for life. 70 Bu t a t Rom e t h e pr a et or s wer e a n n u a l; a n d t h e ju dges
wer e n ot even for so lon g a t er m , bu t wer e n om in a t ed for ea ch ca u se. We h a ve
a lr ea dy sh own in t h e sixt h ch a pt er of t h is book h ow fa vou r a ble t h is r egu la t ion
wa s t o liber t y in pa r t icu la r gover n m en t s.
Th e ju dges wer e ch osen fr om t h e or der of sen a t or s, t ill t h e t im e of t h e Gr a cch i.
Tiber iu s Gr a cch u s ca u sed a la w t o pa ss t h a t t h ey sh ou ld be t a ken fr om t h e
equ est r ia n or der ; a ch a n ge so ver y con sider a ble t h a t t h e t r ibu n e boa st ed of
h a vin g cu t , by on e r oga t ion on ly, t h e sin ews of t h e sen a t or ia l dign it y.
It is n ecessa r y t o obser ve t h a t t h e t h r ee power s m a y be ver y well dist r ibu t ed
in r ega r d t o t h e liber t y of t h e con st it u t ion , t h ou gh n ot so well in r espect t o t h e
liber t y of t h e su bject . At Rom e t h e people h a d t h e gr ea t est sh a r e of t h e
legisla t ive, a pa r t of t h e execu t ive, a n d pa r t of t h e ju dicia r y power ; by wh ich
m ea n s t h ey h a d so gr ea t a weigh t in t h e gover n m en t a s r equ ir ed som e ot h er
power t o ba la n ce it . Th e sen a t e in deed h a d pa r t of t h e execu t ive power , a n d
som e sh a r e of t h e legisla t ive;71 bu t t h is wa s n ot su fficien t t o cou n t er ba la n ce t h e
weigh t of t h e people. It wa s n ecessa r y t h a t t h ey sh ou ld pa r t a ke of t h e ju dicia r y
power : a n d a ccor din gly t h ey h a d a sh a r e wh en t h e ju dges wer e ch osen fr om
a m on g t h e sen a t or s. Bu t wh en t h e Gr a cch i depr ived t h e sen a t or s of t h e ju dicia l
power , 72 t h e sen a t e wer e n o lon ger a ble t o wit h st a n d t h e people. To fa vou r ,
t h er efor e, t h e liber t y of t h e su bject , t h ey st r u ck a t t h a t of t h e con st it u t ion ; bu t
t h e for m er per ish ed wit h t h e la t t er .
In fin it e wer e t h e m isch iefs t h a t t h en ce a r ose. Th e con st it u t ion wa s ch a n ged
a t a t im e wh en t h e fir e of civil discor d h a d sca r cely left a n y su ch t h in g a s a
con st it u t ion . Th e kn igh t s cea sed t o be t h a t m iddle or der wh ich u n it ed t h e
people t o t h e sen a t e; a n d t h e ch a in of t h e con st it u t ion wa s br oken .
Th er e wer e even pa r t icu la r r ea son s a ga in st t r a n sfer r in g t h e ju dicia r y power
t o t h e equ est r ia n or der . Th e con st it u t ion of Rom e wa s fou n ded on t h is pr in ciple,

t h a t n on e sh ou ld be en list ed a s soldier s bu t su ch a s wer e m en of su fficien t
pr oper t y t o a n swer for t h eir con du ct t o t h e r epu blic. Th e kn igh t s, a s per son s of
t h e gr ea t est pr oper t y, for m ed t h e ca va lr y of t h e legion s. Bu t wh en t h eir dign it y
in cr ea sed, t h ey r efu sed t o ser ve a n y lon ger in t h a t ca pa cit y, a n d a n ot h er kin d
of ca va lr y wa s obliged t o be r a ised: t h u s Ma r iu s en list ed a ll sor t s of people in t o
h is a r m y, a n d soon a ft er t h e r epu blic wa s lost .73
Besides, t h e kn igh t s wer e t h e fa r m er s of t h e r even u e; m en wh ose gr ea t
r a pa ciou sn ess in cr ea sed t h e pu blic ca la m it ies. In st ea d of givin g t o su ch a s t h ose
t h e ju dicia l power , t h ey ou gh t t o h a ve been con st a n t ly u n der t h e eye of t h e
ju dges. Th is we m u st sa y in com m en da t ion of t h e a n cien t F r en ch la ws, t h a t
t h ey h a ve a ct ed t owa r ds t h e officer s of t h e r even u e wit h a s gr ea t a diffiden ce a s
wou ld be obser ved bet ween en em ies. Wh en t h e ju dicia r y power a t Rom e wa s
t r a n sfer r ed t o t h e pu blica n s, t h er e wa s t h en a n en d of a ll vir t u e, polit y, la ws,
a n d gover n m en t .
Of t h is we fin d a ver y in gen iou s descr ipt ion in som e fr a gm en t s of Diodor u s
Sicu lu s a n d Dio. “Mu t iu s Sca evola ,” sa ys Diodor u s, 74 “wa n t ed t o r evive t h e
a n cien t m a n n er s, a n d t h e la u da ble cu st om of sober a n d fr u ga l livin g. F or h is
pr edecessor s h a vin g en t er ed in t o a con t r a ct wit h t h e fa r m er s of t h e r even u e,
wh o a t t h a t t im e wer e possessed of t h e ju dicia r y power a t Rom e, h a d in fect ed
t h e pr ovin ce wit h a ll m a n n er of cor r u pt ion . Bu t Sca evola m a de a n exa m ple of
t h e pu blica n s, a n d im pr ison ed t h ose by wh om ot h er s h a d been con fin ed.”
Dio in for m s u s 75 t h a t P u bliu s Ru t iliu s, h is lieu t en a n t , wa s equ a lly obn oxiou s
t o t h e equ est r ia n or der , a n d t h a t u pon h is r et u r n t h ey a ccu sed h im of h a vin g
r eceived som e pr esen t s, a n d con dem n ed h im t o a fin e; u pon wh ich h e in st a n t ly
m a de a cession of h is goods. H is in n ocen ce a ppea r ed in t h is, t h a t h e wa s fou n d
t o be wor t h a gr ea t dea l less t h a n wh a t h e wa s ch a r ged wit h h a vin g ext or t ed,
a n d h e sh owed a ju st t it le t o wh a t h e possessed: bu t h e wou ld n ot live a n y
lon ger in t h e sa m e cit y wit h su ch pr ofliga t e wr et ch es.
Th e It a lia n s, sa ys Diodor u s a ga in , 76 bou gh t u p wh ole dr oves of sla ves in Sicily,
t o t ill t h eir la n ds a n d t o t a ke ca r e of t h eir ca t t le; bu t r efu sed t h em a n ecessa r y
su bsist en ce. Th ese wr et ch es wer e t h en for ced t o go a n d r ob on t h e h igh wa ys,
a r m ed wit h la n ces a n d clu bs, cover ed wit h bea st s’ skin s, a n d followed by la r ge
m a st iffs. Th u s t h e wh ole pr ovin ce wa s la id wa st e, a n d t h e in h a bit a n t s cou ld n ot

ca ll a n yt h in g t h eir own bu t wh a t wa s secu r ed by for t r esses. Th er e wa s n eit h er
pr ocon su l n or pr a et or t h a t cou ld or wou ld oppose t h is disor der , or t h a t
pr esu m ed t o pu n ish t h ese sla ves, beca u se t h ey belon ged t o t h e kn igh t s, wh o a t
Rom e wer e possessed of t h e ju dicia r y power . 77 An d yet t h is wa s on e of t h e
ca u ses of t h e wa r of t h e sla ves. Bu t I sh a ll a dd on ly on e wor d m or e. A pr ofession
dea f a n d in exor a ble, t h a t ca n h a ve n o ot h er view t h a n lu cr e, t h a t wa s a lwa ys
a skin g a n d n ever gr a n t in g, t h a t im pover ish ed t h e r ich a n d in cr ea sed even t h e
m iser y of t h e poor — su ch a pr ofession , I sa y, sh ou ld n ever h a ve been en t r u st ed
wit h t h e ju dicia r y power a t Rom e.
BS1&@(&+-%&A';%.*<%*+&'(&+-%&/'<"*&8.';5*9%,1&
Su ch wa s t h e dist r ibu t ion of t h e t h r ee power s in Rom e. Bu t t h ey wer e fa r fr om
bein g t h u s dist r ibu t ed in t h e pr ovin ces. Liber t y pr eva iled in t h e cen t r e a n d
t yr a n n y in t h e ext r em e pa r t s.
Wh ile Rom e ext en ded h er dom in ion s n o fa r t h er t h a n It a ly, t h e people wer e
gover n ed a s con feder a t es, a n d t h e la ws of ea ch r epu blic wer e pr eser ved. Bu t
wh en sh e en la r ged h er con qu est s, a n d t h e sen a t e h a d n o lon ger a n im m edia t e
in spect ion over t h e pr ovin ces, n or t h e m a gist r a t es r esidin g a t Rom e wer e a n y
lon ger ca pa ble of gover n in g t h e em pir e, t h ey wer e obliged t o sen d pr a et or s a n d
pr ocon su ls. Th en it wa s t h a t t h e h a r m on y of t h e t h r ee power s wa s lost . Th e
per son s a ppoin t ed t o t h a t office wer e en t r u st ed wit h a power wh ich
com pr eh en ded t h a t of a ll t h e Rom a n m a gist r a cies; n a y, even t h a t of t h e
people. 78 Th ey wer e despot ic m a gist r a t es, ext r em ely well a da pt ed t o t h e
dist a n ce of t h e pla ces t o wh ich t h ey wer e dest in ed. Th ey exer cised t h e t h r ee
power s; a n d wer e, if I m a y pr esu m e t o u se t h e expr ession , t h e ba sh a ws of t h e
r epu blic.
We h a ve elsewh er e obser ved 79 t h a t in a com m on wea lt h t h e sa m e m a gist r a t e
ou gh t t o be possessed of t h e execu t ive power , a s well civil a s m ilit a r y. H en ce a
con qu er in g r epu blic ca n h a r dly com m u n ica t e h er gover n m en t , a n d r u le t h e
con qu er ed st a t e a ccor din g t o h er own con st it u t ion . An d in deed a s t h e
m a gist r a t e sh e sen ds t o gover n is in vest ed wit h t h e execu t ive power , bot h civil
a n d m ilit a r y, h e m u st a lso h a ve t h e legisla t ive: for wh o is it t h a t cou ld m a ke
la ws wit h ou t h im ? It is n ecessa r y, t h er efor e, t h a t t h e gover n or sh e sen ds be

en t r u st ed wit h t h e t h r ee power s, a s wa s pr a ct ised in t h e Rom a n pr ovin ces.
It is m or e ea sy for a m on a r ch y t o com m u n ica t e it s gover n m en t , beca u se t h e
officer s it sen ds h a ve, som e t h e civil execu t ive, a n d ot h er s t h e m ilit a r y execu t ive
power , wh ich does n ot n ecessa r ily im ply a despot ic a u t h or it y.
It wa s a pr ivilege of t h e u t m ost con sequ en ce t o a Rom a n cit izen t o h a ve n on e
bu t t h e people for h is ju dge. Wer e it n ot for t h is, h e wou ld h a ve been su bject in
t h e pr ovin ces t o t h e a r bit r a r y power of a pr ocon su l or of a pr opr a et or . Th e cit y
n ever felt t h e t yr a n n y wh ich wa s exer cised on ly on con qu er ed n a t ion s.
Th u s, in t h e Rom a n wor ld, a s a t Spa r t a , t h e fr eem en en joyed t h e h igh est
degr ee of liber t y, wh ile t h ose wh o wer e sla ves la bou r ed u n der t h e ext r em it y of
ser vit u de.
Wh ile t h e cit izen s pa id t a xes, t h ey wer e r a ised wit h gr ea t ju st ice a n d equ a lit y.
Th e r egu la t ion of Ser viu s Tu lliu s wa s obser ved, wh o h a d dist r ibu t ed t h e people
in t o six cla sses, a ccor din g t o t h eir differ en ce of pr oper t y, a n d fixed t h e sever a l
sh a r es of t h e pu blic im post s in pr opor t ion t o t h a t wh ich ea ch per son h a d in t h e
gover n m en t . H en ce t h ey bor e wit h t h e gr ea t n ess of t h e t a x beca u se of t h eir
pr opor t ion a ble gr ea t n ess of cr edit , a n d con soled t h em selves for t h e sm a lln ess
of t h eir cr edit beca u se of t h e sm a lln ess of t h e t a x.
Th er e wa s a lso a n ot h er t h in g wor t h y of a dm ir a t ion , wh ich is, t h a t a s Ser viu s
Tu lliu s’s division in t o cla sses wa s in som e m ea su r e t h e fu n da m en t a l pr in ciple
of t h e con st it u t ion , it t h en ce followed t h a t a n equ a l levyin g of t h e t a xes wa s so
con n ect ed wit h t h is fu n da m en t a l pr in ciple t h a t t h e on e cou ld n ot be a bolish ed
wit h ou t t h e ot h er .
Bu t wh ile t h e cit y pa id t h e t a xes a s sh e plea sed, or pa id n on e a t a ll, 80 t h e
pr ovin ces wer e plu n der ed by t h e kn igh t s, wh o wer e t h e fa r m er s of t h e pu blic
r even u e. We h a ve a lr ea dy m a de m en t ion of t h eir oppr essive ext or t ion s, wit h
wh ich a ll h ist or y a bou n ds.
“All Asia ,” sa ys Mit h r ida t es, 81 “expect s m e a s h er deliver er ; so gr ea t is t h e
h a t r ed wh ich t h e r a pa ciou sn ess of t h e pr ocon su ls, 82 t h e con fisca t ion s m a de by
t h e officer s of t h e r even u e, a n d t h e qu ir ks a n d ca vils of ju dicia l pr oceedin gs,83
h a ve excit ed a ga in st t h e Rom a n s.”
H en ce it wa s t h a t t h e st r en gt h of t h e pr ovin ces did n ot in cr ea se, bu t r a t h er
wea ken ed, t h e st r en gt h of t h e r epu blic. H en ce it wa s t h a t t h e pr ovin ces looked

u pon t h e loss of t h e liber t y of Rom e a s t h e epoch of t h eir own fr eedom .
ET1&!-%&U*0&'(&+-5,&=''>1
I sh ou ld be gla d t o in qu ir e in t o t h e dist r ibu t ion of t h e t h r ee power s, in a ll t h e
m oder a t e gover n m en t s we a r e a cqu a in t ed wit h , in or der t o ca lcu la t e t h e degr ees
of liber t y wh ich ea ch m a y en joy. Bu t we m u st n ot a lwa ys exh a u st a su bject , so
a s t o lea ve n o wor k a t a ll for t h e r ea der . My bu sin ess is n ot t o m a ke people
r ea d, bu t t o m a ke t h em t h in k.
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1. “I h a ve copied,” sa ys Cicer o, “Sca evola ’s edict , wh ich per m it s t h e Gr eeks t o
t er m in a t e t h eir differ en ce a m on g t h em selves a ccor din g t o t h eir own la ws;
t h is m a kes t h em con sider t h em selves a fr ee people.”
2. Th e Ru ssia n s cou ld n ot bea r t h a t Cza r P et er sh ou ld m a ke t h em cu t it off.
3. Th e Ca ppa docia n s r efu sed t h e con dit ion of a r epu blica n st a t e, wh ich wa s
offer ed t h em by t h e Rom a n s.
4. Th e n a t u r a l en d of a st a t e t h a t h a s n o for eign en em ies, or t h a t t h in ks it self
secu r ed a ga in st t h em by ba r r ier s.
5. In con ven ien ce of t h e Liber u m vet o.
6. At Ven ice.
7. As a t At h en s.
8. See Ar ist ot le, Politics, iv. 4.
9. See Ar ist ot le, Politics, ii, 10.
10. Ibid., 9.
11. Th ese wer e m a gist r a t es ch osen a n n u a lly by t h e people. See St eph en of
Byza n t iu m .
12. It wa s la wfu l t o a ccu se t h e Rom a n m a gist r a t es a ft er t h e expir a t ion of t h eir
sever a l offices. See in Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, ix, t h e a ffa ir of Gen u t iu s t h e
t r ibu n e.
13. De m in or ibu s r ebu s pr in cipes con su lt a n t , de m a jor ibu s om n es; it a t a m en lit
ea qu oqu e qu or u m pen es plebem a r bit r iu m est , a pu d pr in cipes
per t r a ct en t u r . — ix.
14. Politics, iii. 14.

15. See J u st in , xvii. 3.
16. Ar ist ot le, Politics, v. 11.
17. Ibid., iii. 14.
18. Ibid.
19. See wh a t P lu t a r ch sa ys in t h e Th eseu s. See likewise Th u cydides, i.
20. Ar ist ot le, Politics, iv. 8.
21. Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, ii, p. 120, a n d iv, pp. 242, 243.
22. See Ta n a qu il’s Discou rse on L ivy, i dec. l, a n d t h e r egu la t ion s of Ser viu s
Tu lliu s in Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, iv. p. 229.
23. See Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, ii, p. 118, a n d iii, p. 171.
24. It wa s by vir t u e of a sen a t u s-con su lt u m t h a t Tu lliu s H ost iliu s or der ed Alba
t o be dest r oyed. — Ibid., iii, pp. 167 a n d 172.
25. Ibid., iv, p. 276.
26. Ibid., ii. An d yet t h ey cou ld n ot h a ve t h e n om in a t ion of a ll offices, sin ce
Va ler iu s P u blicola m a de t h a t fa m ou s la w by wh ich ever y cit izen wa s
for bidden t o exer cise a n y em ploym en t , u n less h e h a d obt a in ed it by t h e
su ffr a ge of t h e people.
27. Ibid., iii, p. 159.
28. Ibid., iv.
29. H e divest ed h im self of h a lf t h e r ega l power , sa ys Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s,
iv, p. 229.
30. It wa s t h ou gh t t h a t if h e h a d n ot been pr even t ed by Ta r qu in h e wou ld h a ve
est a blish ed a popu la r gover n m en t . — Ibid., iv, p. 243.
31. Ibid., iv.
32. Livy, dec. 1, vi.
33. Qu a est or es pa r r icidii. — P om pon iu s, Leg. 2,§ 23, ff. de or ig. ju r .
34. P lu t a r ch , P oplicola .
35. Com it iis cen t u r ia t is.
36. See Livy, i, 43; Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, iv, vii.
37. Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, ix, p. 598.
38. Ibid., vii.
39. Con t r a r y t o t h e a n cien t cu st om , a s m a y be seen : ibid., v, p. 320.
40. Ibid., pp. 410, 411.

41. Ibid., ix, p. 605.
42. Ibid., xi, p. 725.
43. By t h e sa cr ed la ws, t h e plebeia n s h a d t h e power of m a kin g t h e plebiscit a by
t h em selves, wit h ou t a dm it t in g t h e pa t r icia n s in t o t h eir a ssem bly — Ibid.,
vi, p. 410; vii, p. 430.
44. By t h e la w en a ct ed a ft er t h e expu lsion of t h e decem vir s, t h e pa t r icia n s wer e
m a de su bject t o t h e plebiscit a , t h ou gh t h ey h a d n ot a r igh t of vot in g t h er e.
Livy, iii. 55, a n d Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, xi, p. 725. Th is la w wa s
con fir m ed by t h a t of P u bliu s P h ilo t h e dict a t or , in t h e yea r of Rom e 416.
Livy, viii. 12.
45. In t h e yea r 312 of Rom e t h e con su ls per for m ed st ill t h e bu sin ess of
su r veyin g t h e people a n d t h eir est a t es, a s a ppea r s by Dion ysiu s
H a lica r n a ssu s, ix.
46. Su ch a s t h ose by wh ich it wa s a llowed t o a ppea l fr om t h e decision s of a ll t h e
m a gist r a t es t o t h e people.
47. Book vi.
48. In t h e yea r of Rom e 444, Livy, dec. 1, ix. 30. As t h e wa r a ga in st P er seu s
a ppea r ed som ewhat danger ous, it was or da in ed by a sen a t u s-con su lt u m t h a t
t h is la w sh ou ld be su spen ded, a n d t h e people a gr eed t o it . Livy, dec. 5, ii.
49. Th ey ext or t ed it fr om t h e sen a t e, sa ys F r ein sh em iu s, dec. 2, vi.
50. Th er e is n o m a n n er of dou bt bu t t h e con su ls h a d t h e power of t r yin g civil
ca u ses befor e t h e cr ea t ion of t h e pr a et or s. See Livy, dec. l, ii. 1; Dion ysiu s
H a lica r n a ssu s, x, pp. 627, 645.
51. Th e t r ibu n es fr equ en t ly t r ied ca u ses by t h em selves on ly, bu t n ot h in g
r en der ed t h em m or e odiou s. — Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, xi, p. 709.
52. J u dicia ext r a or din a r ia . See t h e In stitu tes, iv.
53. Book vi, p. 360.
54. Albu m J u diciu m .
55. “Ou r a n cest or s,” sa ys Cicer o, P r o Clu en t io, “wou ld n ot su ffer a n y m a n wh om
t h e pa r t ies h a d n ot a gr eed t o, t o be ju dge of t h e lea st pecu n ia r y a ffa ir , m u ch
less of a cit izen ’s r epu t a t ion .”
56. See in t h e fr a gm en t s of t h e Ser vilia n , Cor n elia n , a n d ot h er la ws, in wh a t
m a n n er t h ese la ws a ppoin t ed ju dges for t h e cr im es t h ey pr oposed t o pu n ish .

Th ey wer e oft en pit ch ed u pon by ch oice, som et im es by lot , or , in fin e, by lot
m ixed t oget h er wit h ch oice.
57. Sen eca , De Ben efic. iii. 7, in fin e.
58. See Qu in t ilia n , iv, p. 54, in fol. ed., P a r is, 1541.
59. Leg. 2 ff. de or ig. ju r . Ma gist r a t es wh o wer e ca lled decem vir s pr esided in
cou r t , t h e wh ole u n der a pr a et or ’s dir ect ion .
60. Qu on ia m de ca pit e civis Rom a n i, in ju ssu popu li Rom a n i, n on er a t
per m issu m con su libu s ju s dicer e. — See P om pon iu s,Leg. 2, §6, ff. de or ig.
ju r .
61. Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, v, p. 322.
62. Th e com it ia by cen t u r ies. Th u s Ma n liu s Ca pit olin u s wa s t r ied in t h ese
com it ia . — Livy, Dec. 1, vi. 20.
63. P om pon iu s, in Leg. 2, Dig., de or ig. ju r .
64. See a fr a gm en t of Ulpia n , wh o gives a n ot h er of t h e Cor n elia n La w: it is t o
be m et wit h in t h e Colla t ion of t h e Mosa ic a n d Rom a n La ws, t it . i, De
Sica r iis et h om icidiis.
65. Th is t ook pla ce, especia lly in r ega r d t o cr im es com m it t ed in It a ly, wh ich
wer e su bject ch iefly t o t h e in spect ion of t h e sen a t e. See Livy, Dec. 1, ix, 26,
con cer n in g t h e con spir a cies a t Ca pu a .
66. Th is wa s t h e ca se in t h e pr osecu t ion for t h e m u r der of P ost h u m iu s, in t h e
yea r 340 of Rom e. See Livy, iv. 50.
67. Th is ju dgm en t wa s pa ssed in t h e yea r of Rom e 567.
68. Book viii.
69. Cicer o, in Br u t u s.
70. Th is is pr oved fr om Livy, book xliii. 46, wh o sa ys t h a t H a n n iba l r en der ed
t h eir m a gist r a cy a n n u a l.
71. Th e sen a t u s-con su lt u m s wer e in for ce for t h e spa ce of a yea r , t h ou gh n ot
con fir m ed by t h e people. — Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s ix, p. 595; xi, p. 735.
72. In t h e yea r 630.

73. Ca pit e cen sos pler osqu e. — Sa llu st , De Bello J u gu r t h , 84.
74. F r a gm en t of t h is a u t h or , xxxvi, in t h e collect ion of Con st a n t in e
P or ph yr ogen it u s, Of Vir t u es a n d Vices [H ist or ica ].

75. F r a gm en t of h is h ist or y, t a ken fr om t h e ext r a ct Of Vir t u es a n d Vices
[H ist or ica ].
76. F r a gm en t of t h e book xxxiv in t h e ext r a ct Of Vir t u es a n d Vices [H ist or ica ].
77. P en es qu os Rom a e t u m ju dicia er a n t , a t qu e ex equ est r i or din e soler en t
sor t it o ju dices eligi in ca u sa P r a et or u m et P r ocon su lu m , qu ibu s post
a dm in ist r a t a m pr ovin cia m dies dict a er a t .
78. Th ey m a de t h eir edict s u pon en t er in g t h e pr ovin ces.
79. Book v. 19. See a lso ii, iii, iv, a n d v.
80. Aft er t h e con qu est of Ma cedon ia t h e Rom a n s pa id n o t a xes.
81. Speech t a ken fr om Tr ogu s P om peiu s, a n d r ela t ed by J u st in , xxxviii. 4.
82. See t h e or a t ion s a ga in st Ver r es.
83. It is well kn own wh a t sor t of a t r ibu n a l wa s t h a t of Va r u s, wh ich pr ovoked
t h e Ger m a n s t o r evolt .
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It is n ot su fficien t t o h a ve t r ea t ed of polit ica l liber t y in r ela t ion t o t h e
con st it u t ion ; we m u st exa m in e it likewise in t h e r ela t ion it bea r s t o t h e su bject .
We h a ve obser ved t h a t in t h e for m er ca se it a r ises fr om a cer t a in dist r ibu t ion
of t h e t h r ee power s; bu t in t h e la t t er , we m u st con sider it in a n ot h er ligh t . It
con sist s in secu r it y, or in t h e opin ion people h a ve of t h eir secu r it y.
Th e con st it u t ion m a y h a ppen t o be fr ee, a n d t h e su bject n ot . Th e su bject m a y
be fr ee, a n d n ot t h e con st it u t ion . In t h ose ca ses, t h e con st it u t ion will be fr ee by
r igh t , a n d n ot in fa ct ; t h e su bject will be fr ee in fa ct , a n d n ot by r igh t .
It is t h e disposit ion on ly of t h e la ws, a n d even of t h e fu n da m en t a l la ws, t h a t
con st it u t es liber t y in r ela t ion t o t h e con st it u t ion . Bu t a s it r ega r ds t h e su bject :
m a n n er s, cu st om s, or r eceived exa m ples m a y give r ise t o it , a n d pa r t icu la r civil
la ws m a y en cou r a ge it , a s we sh a ll pr esen t ly obser ve.
F u r t h er , a s in m ost st a t es liber t y is m or e ch ecked or depr essed t h a n t h eir
con st it u t ion r equ ir es, it is pr oper t o t r ea t of t h e pa r t icu la r la ws t h a t in ea ch
con st it u t ion a r e a pt t o a ssist or ch eck t h e pr in ciple of liber t y wh ich ea ch st a t e
is ca pa ble of r eceivin g.
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P h ilosoph ic liber t y con sist s in t h e fr ee exer cise of t h e will; or a t lea st , if we
m u st spea k a gr eea bly t o a ll syst em s, in a n opin ion t h a t we h a ve t h e fr ee
exer cise of ou r will. P olit ica l liber t y con sist s in secu r it y, or , a t lea st , in t h e
opin ion t h a t we en joy secu r it y.
Th is secu r it y is n ever m or e da n ger ou sly a t t a cked t h a n in pu blic or pr iva t e
a ccu sa t ion s. It is, t h er efor e, on t h e goodn ess of cr im in a l la ws t h a t t h e liber t y of
t h e su bject pr in cipa lly depen ds.

Cr im in a l la ws did n ot r eceive t h eir fu ll per fect ion a ll a t on ce. E ven in pla ces
wh er e liber t y h a s been m ost sou gh t a ft er , it h a s n ot been a lwa ys fou n d.
Ar ist ot le 1 in for m s u s t h a t a t Cu m a e t h e pa r en t s of t h e a ccu ser m igh t be
wit n esses. So im per fect wa s t h e la w u n der t h e kin gs of Rom e t h a t Ser viu s
Tu lliu s pr on ou n ced sen t en ce a ga in st t h e ch ildr en of An cu s Ma r t iu s, wh o wer e
ch a r ged wit h h a vin g a ssa ssin a t ed t h e kin g, h is fa t h er -in -la w. 2 Un der t h e fir st
kin gs of F r a n ce, Clot a r iu s m a de a la w 3 t h a t n obody sh ou ld be con dem n ed
wit h ou t bein g h ea r d; wh ich sh ows t h a t a con t r a r y cu st om h a d pr eva iled in som e
pa r t icu la r ca se or a m on g som e ba r ba r ou s people. It wa s Ch a r on da s t h a t fir st
est a blish ed pen a lt ies a ga in st fa lse wit n esses.4 Wh en t h e su bject h a s n o fen ce
t o secu r e h is in n ocen ce, h e h a s n on e for h is liber t y.
Th e kn owledge a lr ea dy a cqu ir ed in som e cou n t r ies, or t h a t m a y be h er ea ft er
a t t a in ed in ot h er s, con cer n in g t h e su r est r u les t o be obser ved in cr im in a l
ju dgm en t s, is m or e in t er est in g t o m a n kin d t h a n a n y ot h er t h in g in t h e wor ld.
Liber t y ca n be fou n ded on t h e pr a ct ice of t h is kn owledge on ly; a n d su pposin g
a st a t e t o h a ve t h e best la ws im a gin a ble in t h is r espect , a per son t r ied u n der
t h a t st a t e, a n d con dem n ed t o be h a n ged t h e n ext da y, wou ld h a ve m u ch m or e
liber t y t h a n a pa sh a en joys in Tu r key.
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Th ose la ws wh ich con dem n a m a n t o dea t h on t h e deposit ion of a sin gle
wit n ess a r e fa t a l t o liber t y. In r ea son t h er e sh ou ld be t wo, beca u se a wit n ess
wh o a ffir m s, a n d t h e a ccu sed wh o den ies, m a ke a n equ a l ba la n ce, a n d a t h ir d
m u st in clin e t h e sca le.
Th e Gr eeks 5 a n d Rom a n s 6 r equ ir ed on e voice m or e t o con dem n : bu t ou r
F r en ch la ws in sist u pon t wo. Th e Gr eeks pr et en d t h a t t h eir cu st om wa s
est a blish ed by t h e gods;7 bu t t h is m or e ju st ly m a y be sa id of ou r s.
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8F*5,-<%*+,1
Liber t y is in per fect ion wh en cr im in a l la ws der ive ea ch pu n ish m en t fr om t h e
pa r t icu la r n a t u r e of t h e cr im e. Th er e a r e t h en n o a r bit r a r y decision s; t h e

pu n ish m en t does n ot flow fr om t h e ca pr iciou sn ess of t h e legisla t or , bu t fr om t h e
ver y n a t u r e of t h e t h in g; a n d m a n u ses n o violen ce t o m a n .
Th er e a r e fou r sor t s of cr im es. Th ose of t h e fir st species a r e pr eju dicia l t o
r eligion , t h e secon d t o m or a ls, t h e t h ir d t o t h e pu blic t r a n qu illit y, a n d t h e fou r t h
t o t h e secu r it y of t h e su bject . Th e pu n ish m en t s in flict ed for t h ese cr im es ou gh t
t o pr oceed fr om t h e n a t u r e of ea ch of t h ese species.
In t h e cla ss of cr im es t h a t con cer n r eligion , I r a n k on ly t h ose wh ich a t t a ck it
dir ect ly, su ch a s a ll sim ple sa cr ileges. F or a s t o cr im es t h a t dist u r b t h e exer cise
of it , t h ey a r e of t h e n a t u r e of t h ose wh ich pr eju dice t h e t r a n qu illit y or secu r it y
of t h e su bject , a n d ou gh t t o be r efer r ed t o t h ose cla sses.
In or der t o der ive t h e pu n ish m en t of sim ple sa cr ileges fr om t h e n a t u r e of t h e
t h in g, 8 it sh ou ld con sist in depr ivin g people of t h e a dva n t a ges con fer r ed by
r eligion in expellin g t h em ou t of t h e t em ples, in a t em por a r y or per pet u a l
exclu sion fr om t h e societ y of t h e fa it h fu l, in sh u n n in g t h eir pr esen ce, in
execr a t ion s, com m in a t ion s, a n d con ju r a t ion s.
In t h in gs t h a t pr eju dice t h e t r a n qu illit y or secu r it y of t h e st a t e, secr et a ct ion s
a r e su bject t o h u m a n ju r isdict ion . Bu t in t h ose wh ich offen d t h e Deit y, wh er e
t h er e is n o pu blic a ct , t h er e ca n be n o cr im in a l m a t t er , t h e wh ole pa sses
bet ween m a n a n d God, wh o kn ows t h e m ea su r e a n d t im e of H is ven gea n ce. Now
if m a gist r a t es, con fou n din g t h in gs, sh ou ld in qu ir e a lso in t o h idden sa cr ileges,
t h is in qu isit ion wou ld be dir ect ed t o a kin d of a ct ion t h a t does n ot a t a ll r equ ir e
it : t h e liber t y of t h e su bject wou ld be su bver t ed by a r m in g t h e zea l of t im or ou s
a s well a s of pr esu m pt u ou s con scien ces a ga in st h im .
Th e m isch ief a r ises fr om a n ot ion wh ich som e people h a ve en t er t a in ed of
r even gin g t h e ca u se of t h e Deit y. Bu t we m u st h on ou r t h e Deit y a n d lea ve h im
t o a ven ge h is own ca u se. An d, in deed, wer e we t o be dir ect ed by su ch a n ot ion ,
wh er e wou ld be t h e en d of pu n ish m en t s? If h u m a n la ws a r e t o a ven ge t h e ca u se
of a n in fin it e Bein g, t h ey will be dir ect ed by h is in fin it y, a n d n ot by t h e
wea kn ess, ign or a n ce, a n d ca pr ice of m a n .
An h ist or ia n 9 of P r oven ce r ela t es a fa ct wh ich fu r n ish es u s wit h a n excellen t
descr ipt ion of t h e con sequ en ces t h a t m a y a r ise in wea k ca pa cit ies fr om t h e
n ot ion of a ven gin g t h e Deit y’s ca u se. A J ew wa s a ccu sed of h a vin g bla sph em ed
a ga in st t h e Vir gin Ma r y; a n d u pon con vict ion wa s con dem n ed t o be fla yed a live.
A st r a n ge spect a cle wa s t h en exh ibit ed: gen t lem en m a sked, wit h kn ives in t h eir
h a n ds, m ou n t ed t h e sca ffold, a n d dr ove a wa y t h e execu t ion er , in or der t o be t h e
a ven ger s t h em selves of t h e h on ou r of t h e blessed Vir gin . I do n ot h er e ch oose t o
a n t icipa t e t h e r eflect ion s of t h e r ea der .
Th e secon d cla ss con sist s of t h ose cr im es wh ich a r e pr eju dicia l t o m or a ls. Su ch
is t h e viola t ion of pu blic or pr iva t e con t in en ce, t h a t is, of t h e police dir ect in g t h e
m a n n er in wh ich t h e plea su r e a n n exed t o t h e con ju n ct ion of t h e sexes is t o be
en joyed. Th e pu n ish m en t of t h ose cr im es ou gh t t o be a lso der ived fr om t h e
n a t u r e of t h e t h in g; t h e pr iva t ion of su ch a dva n t a ges a s societ y h a s a t t a ch ed t o
t h e pu r it y of m or a ls, fin es, sh a m e, n ecessit y of con cea lm en t , pu blic in fa m y,
expu lsion fr om h om e a n d societ y, a n d, in fin e, a ll su ch pu n ish m en t s a s belon g
t o a cor r ect ive ju r isdict ion , a r e su fficien t t o r epr ess t h e t em er it y of t h e t wo
sexes. In effect t h ese t h in gs a r e less fou n ded on m a lice t h a n on ca r elessn ess a n d
self-n eglect .
We spea k h er e of n on e bu t cr im es wh ich r ela t e m er ely t o m or a ls, for a s t o
t h ose t h a t a r e a lso pr eju dicia l t o t h e pu blic secu r it y, su ch a s r a pes, t h ey belon g
t o t h e fou r t h species.
Th e cr im es of t h e t h ir d cla ss a r e t h ose wh ich dist u r b t h e pu blic t r a n qu illit y.
Th e pu n ish m en t s ou gh t t h er efor e t o be der ived fr om t h e n a t u r e of t h e t h in g,
a n d t o be in r ela t ion t o t h is t r a n qu illit y; su ch a s im pr ison m en t , exile, a n d ot h er
like ch a st isem en t s pr oper for r ecla im in g t u r bu len t spir it s, a n d obligin g t h em
t o con for m t o t h e est a blish ed or der .
I con fin e t h ose cr im es t h a t in ju r e t h e pu blic t r a n qu illit y t o t h in gs wh ich im ply
a ba r e offen ce a ga in st t h e police; for a s t o t h ose wh ich by dist u r bin g t h e pu blic
pea ce a t t a ck a t t h e sa m e t im e t h e secu r it y of t h e su bject , t h ey ou gh t t o be
r a n ked in t h e fou r t h cla ss.
Th e pu n ish m en t s in flict ed u pon t h e la t t er cr im es a r e su ch a s a r e pr oper ly
dist in gu ish ed by t h a t n a m e. Th ey a r e a kin d of r et a lia t ion , by wh ich t h e societ y
r efu ses secu r it y t o a m em ber wh o h a s a ct u a lly or in t en t ion a lly depr ived a n ot h er
of h is secu r it y. Th ese pu n ish m en t s a r e der ived fr om t h e n a t u r e of t h e t h in g,
fou n ded on r ea son , a n d dr a wn fr om t h e ver y sou r ce of good a n d evil. A m a n
deser ves dea t h wh en h e h a s viola t ed t h e secu r it y of t h e su bject so fa r a s t o
depr ive, or a t t em pt t o depr ive, a n ot h er m a n of h is life. Th is pu n ish m en t of

dea t h is t h e r em edy, a s it wer e, of a sick societ y. Wh en t h er e is a br ea ch of
secu r it y wit h r ega r d t o pr oper t y, t h er e m a y be som e r ea son s for in flict in g a
ca pit a l pu n ish m en t : bu t it wou ld be m u ch bet t er , a n d per h a ps m or e n a t u r a l,
t h a t cr im es com m it t ed a ga in st t h e secu r it y of pr oper t y sh ou ld be pu n ish ed wit h
t h e loss of pr oper t y; a n d t h is ou gh t , in deed, t o be t h e ca se if m en ’s for t u n es wer e
com m on or equ a l. Bu t a s t h ose wh o h a ve n o pr oper t y of t h eir own a r e gen er a lly
t h e r ea diest t o a t t a ck t h a t of ot h er s, it h a s been fou n d n ecessa r y, in st ea d of a
pecu n ia r y, t o su bst it u t e a cor por a l, pu n ish m en t .
All t h a t I h a ve h er e a dva n ced is fou n ded in n a t u r e, a n d ext r em ely fa vou r a ble
t o t h e liber t y of t h e su bject .
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8.F0%*9%1
It is a n im por t a n t m a xim , t h a t we ou gh t t o be ver y cir cu m spect in t h e
pr osecu t ion of wit ch cr a ft a n d h er esy. Th e a ccu sa t ion of t h ese t wo cr im es m a y
be va st ly in ju r iou s t o liber t y, a n d pr odu ct ive of in fin it e oppr ession , if t h e
legisla t or kn ows n ot h ow t o set bou n ds t o it . F or a s it does n ot dir ect ly poin t a t
a per son ’s a ct ion s, bu t a t h is ch a r a ct er , it gr ows da n ger ou s in pr opor t ion t o t h e
ign or a n ce of t h e people; a n d t h en a m a n is su r e t o be a lwa ys in da n ger , beca u se
t h e m ost except ion a l con du ct , t h e pu r est m or a ls, a n d t h e con st a n t pr a ct ice of
ever y du t y in life a r e n ot a su fficien t secu r it y a ga in st t h e su spicion of h is bein g
gu ilt y of t h e like cr im es.
Un der Ma n u el Com n en u s, t h e P r ot est a t or 10 wa s a ccu sed of h a vin g con spir ed
a ga in st t h e em per or , a n d of h a vin g em ployed for t h a t pu r pose som e secr et s t h a t
r en der m en in visible. It is m en t ion ed in t h e life of t h is em per or 11 t h a t Aa r on
wa s det ect ed, a s h e wa s por in g over a book of Solom on ’s, t h e r ea din g of wh ich
wa s su fficien t t o con ju r e u p wh ole legion s of devils. Now by su pposin g a power
in wit ch cr a ft t o r ou se t h e in fer n a l spir it s t o a r m s, people look u pon a m a n
wh om t h ey ca ll a sor cer er a s t h e per son in t h e wor ld m ost likely t o dist u r b a n d
su bver t societ y; a n d of cou r se t h ey a r e disposed t o pu n ish h im wit h t h e u t m ost
sever it y.
Bu t t h eir in dign a t ion in cr ea ses wh en wit ch cr a ft is su pposed t o h a ve t h e power
of su bver t in g r eligion . Th e h ist or y of Con st a n t in ople 12 in for m s u s t h a t in

con sequ en ce of a r evela t ion m a de t o a bish op of a m ir a cle h a vin g cea sed beca u se
of t h e m a gic pr a ct ices of a cer t a in per son , bot h t h a t per son a n d h is son wer e pu t
t o dea t h . On h ow m a n y su r pr isin g t h in gs did n ot t h is sin gle cr im e depen d? Th a t
r evela t ion s sh ou ld n ot be u n com m on , t h a t t h e bish op sh ou ld be fa vou r ed wit h
on e, t h a t it wa s r ea l, t h a t t h er e h a d been a m ir a cle in t h e ca se, t h a t t h is m ir a cle
h a d cea sed, t h a t t h er e wa s a m a gic a r t , t h a t m a gic cou ld su bver t r eligion , t h a t
t h is pa r t icu la r per son wa s a m a gicia n , a n d, in fin e, t h a t h e h a d com m it t ed t h a t
m a gic a ct .
Th e E m per or Th eodor u s La sca r is a t t r ibu t ed h is illn ess t o wit ch cr a ft . Th ose
wh o wer e a ccu sed of t h is cr im e h a d n o ot h er r esou r ce left t h a n t o h a n dle a
r ed-h ot ir on wit h ou t bein g h u r t . Th u s a m on g t h e Gr eeks a per son ou gh t t o h a ve
been a sor cer er t o be a ble t o clea r h im self of t h e im pu t a t ion of wit ch cr a ft . Su ch
wa s t h e excess of t h eir st u pidit y t h a t t o t h e m ost du biou s cr im e in t h e wor ld
t h ey join ed t h e m ost du biou s pr oofs of in n ocen ce.
Un der t h e r eign of P h ilip t h e Lon g, t h e J ews wer e expelled fr om F r a n ce, bein g
a ccu sed of h a vin g poison ed t h e spr in gs wit h t h eir leper s. So a bsu r d a n
a ccu sa t ion ou gh t t o m a ke u s dou bt a ll t h ose t h a t a r e fou n ded on pu blic h a t r ed.
I h a ve n ot h er e a sser t ed t h a t h er esy ou gh t n ot t o be pu n ish ed; I sa id on ly t h a t
we ou gh t t o be ext r em ely cir cu m spect in pu n ish in g it .
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God for bid t h a t I sh ou ld h a ve t h e lea st in clin a t ion t o dim in ish t h e pu blic
h or r or a ga in st a cr im e wh ich r eligion , m or a lit y, a n d civil gover n m en t equ a lly
con dem n . It ou gh t t o be pr oscr ibed, wer e it on ly for it s com m u n ica t in g t o on e
sex t h e wea kn esses of t h e ot h er , a n d for lea din g people by a sca n da lou s
pr ost it u t ion of t h eir you t h t o a n ign om in iou s old a ge. Wh a t I sh a ll sa y
con cer n in g it will in n o wa y dim in ish it s in fa m y, bein g levelled on ly a ga in st t h e
t yr a n n y t h a t m a y a bu se t h e ver y h or r or we ou gh t t o h a ve a ga in st t h e vice.
As a n a t u r a l cir cu m st a n ce of t h is cr im e is secr ecy, t h er e a r e fr equ en t
in st a n ces of it s h a vin g been pu n ish ed by legisla t or s u pon t h e deposit ion of a
ch ild. Th is wa s open in g a ver y wide door t o ca lu m n y. “J u st in ia n ,” sa ys
P r ocopiu s,13 “pu blish ed a la w a ga in st t h is cr im e; h e or der ed a n in qu ir y t o be
m a de n ot on ly a ga in st t h ose wh o wer e gu ilt y of it , a ft er t h e en a ct in g of t h a t la w,

bu t even befor e. Th e deposit ion of a sin gle wit n ess, som et im es of a ch ild,
som et im es of a sla ve, wa s su fficien t , especia lly a ga in st su ch a s wer e r ich , a n d
a ga in st t h ose of t h e gr een fa ct ion .”
It is ver y odd t h a t t h ese t h r ee cr im es, wit ch cr a ft , h er esy, a n d t h a t a ga in st
n a t u r e, of wh ich t h e fir st m igh t ea sily be pr oved n ot t o exist ; t h e secon d t o be
su scept ible of a n in fin it e n u m ber of dist in ct ion s, in t er pr et a t ion s, a n d
lim it a t ion s; t h e t h ir d t o be oft en obscu r e a n d u n cer t a in — it is ver y odd, I sa y,
t h a t t h ese t h r ee cr im es sh ou ld a m on gst u s be pu n ish ed wit h fir e.
I m a y ven t u r e t o a ffir m t h a t t h e cr im e a ga in st n a t u r e will n ever m a k e a n y
gr ea t pr ogr ess in societ y, u n less people a r e pr om pt ed t o it by som e pa r t icu la r
cu st om , a s a m on g t h e Gr eeks, wh er e t h e you t h s of t h a t cou n t r y per for m ed a ll
t h eir exer cises n a ked; a s a m on gst u s, wh er e dom est ic edu ca t ion is disu sed; a s
a m on gst t h e Asia t ics, wh er e pa r t icu la r per son s h a ve a gr ea t n u m ber of wom en
wh om t h ey despise, wh ile ot h er s ca n h a ve n on e a t a ll. Let t h er e be n o cu st om s
pr epa r a t or y t o t h is cr im e; let it , like ever y ot h er viola t ion of m or a ls, be sever ely
pr oscr ibed by t h e civil m a gist r a t e; a n d n a t u r e will soon defen d or r esu m e h er
r igh t s. Na t u r e, t h a t fon d, t h a t in du lgen t pa r en t , h a s st r ewn h er plea su r es wit h
a bou n t eou s h a n d, a n d wh ile sh e fills u s wit h deligh t s, sh e pr epa r es u s, by
m ea n s of ou r issu e, in wh om we see ou r selves, a s it wer e, r epr odu ced — sh e
pr epa r es u s, I sa y, for fu t u r e sa t isfa ct ion s of a m or e exqu isit e kin d t h a n t h ose
ver y deligh t s.
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It is det er m in ed by t h e la ws of Ch in a t h a t wh osoever sh ows a n y disr espect t o
t h e em per or is t o be pu n ish ed wit h dea t h . As t h ey do n ot m en t ion in wh a t t h is
disr espect con sist s, ever yt h in g m a y fu r n ish a pr et ext t o t a ke a wa y a m a n ’s life,
a n d t o ext er m in a t e a n y fa m ily wh a t soever .
Two per son s of t h a t cou n t r y wh o wer e em ployed t o wr it e t h e cou r t ga zet t e,
h a vin g in ser t ed som e cir cu m st a n ces r ela t in g t o a cer t a in fa ct t h a t wa s n ot t r u e,
it wa s pr et en ded t h a t t o t ell a lie in t h e cou r t ga zet t e wa s a disr espect sh own
t o t h e cou r t , in con sequ en ce of wh ich t h ey wer e pu t t o dea t h .14 A pr in ce of t h e
blood h a vin g in a dver t en t ly m a de som e m a r k on a m em or ia l sign ed wit h t h e r ed
pen cil by t h e em per or , it wa s det er m in ed t h a t h e h a d beh a ved disr espect fu lly

t o t h e sover eign ; wh ich occa sion ed on e of t h e m ost t er r ible per secu t ion s a ga in st
t h a t fa m ily t h a t ever wa s r ecor ded in h ist or y.15
If t h e cr im e of h igh t r ea son be in det er m in a t e, t h is a lon e is su fficien t t o m a ke
t h e gover n m en t degen er a t e in t o a r bit r a r y power . I sh a ll desca n t m or e la r gely
on t h is su bject wh en I com e t o t r ea t 16 of t h e com posit ion of la ws.
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It is likewise a sh ockin g a bu se t o give t h e a ppella t ion of h igh t r ea son t o a n
a ct ion t h a t does n ot deser ve it . By a n im per ia l la w 17 it wa s decr eed t h a t t h ose
wh o ca lled in qu est ion t h e pr in ce’s ju dgm en t , or dou bt ed t h e m er it of su ch a s h e
h a d ch osen for a pu blic office, sh ou ld be pr osecu t ed a s gu ilt y of sa cr ilege. 18
Su r ely it wa s t h e ca bin et cou n cil a n d t h e pr in ce’s fa vou r it es wh o in ven t ed t h a t
cr im e. By a n ot h er la w, it wa s det er m in ed t h a t wh osoever m a de a n y a t t em pt t o
in ju r e t h e m in ist er s a n d officer s belon gin g t o t h e sover eign sh ou ld be deem ed
gu ilt y of h igh t r ea son , a s if h e h a d a t t em pt ed t o in ju r e t h e sover eign h im self. 19
Th is la w is owin g t o t wo pr in ces 20 r em a r ka ble for t h eir wea kn ess — pr in ces wh o
wer e led by t h eir m in ist er s a s flocks by sh eph er ds; pr in ces wh o wer e sla ves in
t h e pa la ce, ch ildr en in t h e cou n cil, st r a n ger s t o t h e a r m y; pr in ces, in fin e, wh o
pr eser ved t h eir a u t h or it y on ly by givin g it a wa y ever y da y. Som e of t h ose
fa vou r it es con spir ed a ga in st t h eir sover eign s. Na y, t h ey did m or e, t h ey
con spir ed a ga in st t h e em pir e — t h ey ca lled in ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s; a n d wh en t h e
em per or s wa n t ed t o st op t h eir pr ogr ess t h e st a t e wa s so en feebled a s t o be
u n der a n ecessit y of in fr in gin g t h e la w, a n d of exposin g it self t o t h e cr im e of
h igh t r ea son in or der t o pu n ish t h ose fa vou r it es.
An d yet t h is is t h e ver y la w wh ich t h e ju dge of Mon sieu r de Cin q-Ma r s bu ilt
u pon 21 wh en en dea vou r in g t o pr ove t h a t t h e la t t er wa s gu ilt y of t h e cr im e of
h igh t r ea son for a t t em pt in g t o r em ove Ca r din a l Rich elieu fr om t h e m in ist r y. H e
sa ys: “Cr im es t h a t a im a t t h e per son s of m in ist er s a r e deem ed by t h e im per ia l
con st it u t ion s of equ a l con sequ en ce wit h t h ose wh ich a r e levelled a ga in st t h e
em per or ’s own per son . A m in ist er disch a r ges h is du t y t o h is pr in ce a n d t o h is
cou n t r y: t o a t t em pt , t h er efor e, t o r em ove h im , is en dea vou r in g t o depr ive t h e
for m er on e of h is a r m s, 22 a n d t h e la t t er of pa r t of it s power .” It is im possible for
t h e m ea n est t ools of power t o expr ess t h em selves in m or e ser vile la n gu a ge.

By a n ot h er la w of Va len t in ia n , Th eodosiu s, a n d Ar ca diu s, 23 fa lse coin er s a r e
decla r ed gu ilt y of h igh t r ea son . Bu t is n ot t h is con fou n din g t h e idea s of t h in gs?
Is n ot t h e ver y h or r or of h igh t r ea son dim in ish ed by givin g t h a t n a m e t o a n ot h er
cr im e?
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P a u lin u s h a vin g wr it t en t o t h e E m per or Alexa n der t h a t “h e wa s pr epa r in g t o
pr osecu t e for h igh t r ea son a ju dge wh o h a d decided con t r a r y t o h is edict ,” t h e
em per or a n swer ed, “t h a t u n der h is r eign t h er e wa s n o su ch t h in g a s in dir ect
h igh t r ea son .”24
F a u st in ia n wr ot e t o t h e sa m e em per or t h a t a s h e h a d swor n by t h e pr in ce’s
life n ever t o pa r don h is sla ve, h e fou n d h im self t h er eby obliged t o per pet u a t e h is
wr a t h , lest h e sh ou ld in cu r t h e gu ilt of laesa m ajestas. Upon wh ich t h e em per or
m a de a n swer , “You r fea r s a r e gr ou n dless,25 a n d you a r e a st r a n ger t o m y
pr in ciples.”
It wa s det er m in ed by a sen atu s-con su ltu m 26 t h a t wh osoever m elt ed down a n y
of t h e em per or ’s st a t u es wh ich h a ppen ed t o be r eject ed sh ou ld n ot be deem ed
gu ilt y of h igh t r ea son . Th e E m per or s Sever u s a n d An t on in u s wr ot e t o P on t iu s 27
t h a t t h ose wh o sold u n con secr a t ed st a t u es of t h e em per or sh ou ld n ot be ch a r ged
wit h h igh t r ea son . Th e sa m e pr in ces wr ot e t o J u liu s Ca ssia n u s t h a t if a per son
in flin gin g a st on e sh ou ld by ch a n ce st r ik e on e of t h e em per or ’s st a t u es h e
sh ou ld n ot be lia ble t o a pr osecu t ion for h igh t r ea son .28 Th e J u lia n la w r equ ir es
t h is sor t of lim it a t ion s; for in vir t u e of t h is la w t h e cr im e of h igh t r ea son wa s
ch a r ged n ot on ly u pon t h ose wh o m elt ed down t h e em per or ’s st a t u es, bu t
likewise on t h ose wh o com m it t ed a n y su ch like a ct ion , 29 wh ich m a de it a n
a r bit r a r y cr im e. Wh en a n u m ber of cr im es of laesa m ajestas h a d been
est a blish ed, t h ey wer e obliged t o dist in gu ish t h e sever a l sor t s. H en ce Ulpia n ,
t h e civilia n , a ft er sa yin g t h a t t h e a ccu sa t ion of laesa m ajestas did n ot die wit h
t h e cr im in a l, a dds t h a t t h is does n ot r ela t e t o a ll t h e t r ea son a ble a ct s
est a blish ed by t h e J u lia n la w,30 bu t on ly t o t h a t wh ich im plies a n a t t em pt
a ga in st t h e em pir e, or a ga in st t h e em per or ’s life.
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Th er e wa s a la w pa ssed in E n gla n d u n der H en r y VIII, by wh ich wh oever
pr edict ed t h e kin g’s dea t h wa s decla r ed gu ilt y of h igh t r ea son . Th is la w wa s
ext r em ely va gu e; t h e t er r or of despot ic power is so gr ea t t h a t it r ecoils u pon
t h ose wh o exer cise it . In t h is kin g’s la st illn ess, t h e ph ysicia n s wou ld n ot
ven t u r e t o sa y h e wa s in da n ger ; a n d su r ely t h ey a ct ed ver y r igh t .31
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Ma r sya s dr ea m ed t h a t h e h a d cu t Dion ysiu s’s t h r oa t . 32 Dion ysiu s pu t h im t o
dea t h , pr et en din g t h a t h e wou ld n ever h a ve dr ea m ed of su ch a t h in g by n igh t
if h e h a d n ot t h ou gh t of it by da y. Th is wa s a m ost t yr a n n ica l a ct ion : for t h ou gh
it h a d been t h e su bject of h is t h ou gh t s, yet h e h a d m a de n o a t t em pt 33 t owa r ds
it . Th e la ws do n ot t a ke u pon t h em t o pu n ish a n y ot h er t h a n over t a ct s.
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Not h in g r en der s t h e cr im e of h igh t r ea son m or e a r bit r a r y t h a n decla r in g
people gu ilt y of it for in discr eet speech es. Speech is so su bject t o in t er pr et a t ion ;
t h er e is so gr ea t a differ en ce bet ween in discr et ion a n d m a lice; a n d fr equ en t ly
so lit t le is t h er e of t h e la t t er in t h e fr eedom of expr ession , t h a t t h e la w ca n
h a r dly su bject people t o a ca pit a l pu n ish m en t for wor ds u n less it expr essly
decla r es wh a t wor ds t h ey a r e.34
Wor ds do n ot con st it u t e a n over t a ct ; t h ey r em a in on ly in idea . Wh en
con sider ed by t h em selves, t h ey h a ve gen er a lly n o det er m in a t e sign ifica t ion ; for
t h is depen ds on t h e t on e in wh ich t h ey a r e u t t er ed. It oft en h a ppen s t h a t in
r epea t in g t h e sa m e wor ds t h ey h a ve n ot t h e sa m e m ea n in g; t h is depen ds on
t h eir con n ect ion wit h ot h er t h in gs, a n d som et im es m or e is sign ified by silen ce
t h a n by a n y expr ession wh a t ever . Sin ce t h er e ca n be n ot h in g so equ ivoca l a n d
a m bigu ou s a s a ll t h is, h ow is it possible t o con ver t it in t o a cr im e of h igh
t r ea son ? Wh er ever t h is la w is est a blish ed, t h er e is a n en d n ot on ly of liber t y,
bu t even of it s ver y sh a dow.
In t h e m a n ifest o of t h e la t e Cza r in a a ga in st t h e fa m ily of t h e D’Olgor u ckys, 35
on e of t h ese pr in ces is con dem n ed t o dea t h for h a vin g u t t er ed som e in decen t
wor ds con cer n in g h er per son : a n ot h er , for h a vin g m a liciou sly in t er pr et ed h er

im per ia l la ws, a n d for h a vin g offen ded h er sa cr ed per son by disr espect fu l
expr ession s.
Not t h a t I pr et en d t o dim in ish t h e ju st in dign a t ion of t h e pu blic a ga in st t h ose
wh o pr esu m e t o st a in t h e glor y of t h eir sover eign ; wh a t I m ea n is t h a t , if
despot ic pr in ces a r e willin g t o m oder a t e t h eir power , a m ilder ch a st isem en t
wou ld be m or e pr oper on t h ose occa sion s t h a n t h e ch a r ge of h igh t r ea son — a
t h in g a lwa ys t er r ible even t o in n ocen ce it self. 36
Over t a ct s do n ot h a ppen ever y da y; t h ey a r e exposed t o t h e eye of t h e pu blic;
a n d a fa lse ch a r ge wit h r ega r d t o m a t t er s of fa ct m a y be ea sily det ect ed. Wor ds
ca r r ied in t o a ct ion a ssu m e t h e n a t u r e of t h a t a ct ion . Th u s a m a n wh o goes in t o
a pu blic m a r ket -pla ce t o in cit e t h e su bject t o r evolt in cu r s t h e gu ilt of h igh
t r ea son , beca u se t h e wor ds a r e join ed t o t h e a ct ion , a n d pa r t a ke of it s n a t u r e.
It is n ot t h e wor ds t h a t a r e pu n ish ed, bu t a n a ct ion in wh ich wor ds a r e
em ployed. Th ey do n ot becom e cr im in a l, bu t wh en t h ey a r e a n n exed t o a
cr im in a l a ct ion : ever yt h in g is con fou n ded if wor ds a r e con st r u ed in t o a ca pit a l
cr im e, in st ea d of con sider in g t h em on ly a s a m a r k of t h a t cr im e.
Th e E m per or s Th eodosiu s, Ar ca diu s, a n d H on or iu s wr ot e t h u s t o Ru fin u s,
wh o wa s pr a efect u s pr a et or io: “Th ou gh a m a n sh ou ld h a ppen t o spea k a m iss of
ou r per son or gover n m en t , we do n ot in t en d t o pu n ish h im :37 if h e h a s spoken
t h r ou gh levit y, we m u st despise h im ; if t h r ou gh folly, we m u st pit y h im ; a n d if
h e wr on gs u s, we m u st for give h im . Th er efor e, lea vin g t h in gs a s t h ey a r e, you
a r e t o in for m u s a ccor din gly, t h a t we m a y be a ble t o ju dge of wor ds by per son s,
a n d t h a t we m a y du ly con sider wh et h er we ou gh t t o pu n ish or over look t h em .”
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In wr it in gs t h er e is som et h in g m or e per m a n en t t h a n in wor ds, bu t wh en t h ey
a r e in n o wa y pr epa r a t ive t o h igh t r ea son t h ey ca n n ot a m ou n t t o t h a t ch a r ge.
An d yet Au gu st u s a n d Tiber iu s su bject ed sa t ir ica l wr it er s t o t h e sa m e
pu n ish m en t a s for h a vin g viola t ed t h e la w of m a iest a s. Au gu st u s, 38 beca u se of
som e libels t h a t h a d been wr it t en a ga in st per son s of t h e fir st qu a lit y; Tiber iu s,
beca u se of t h ose wh ich h e su spect ed t o h a ve been wr it t en a ga in st h im self.
Not h in g wa s m or e fa t a l t o Rom a n liber t y. Cr em u t iu s Cor du s wa s a ccu sed of
h a vin g ca lled Ca ssiu s in h is a n n a ls t h e la st of t h e Rom a n s.39

Sa t ir ica l wr it in gs a r e h a r dly kn own in despot ic gover n m en t s, wh er e deject ion
of m in d on t h e on e h a n d, a n d ign or a n ce on t h e ot h er , a ffor d n eit h er a bilit ies n or
will t o wr it e. In dem ocr a cies t h ey a r e n ot h in der ed, for t h e ver y sa m e r ea son
wh ich ca u ses t h em t o be pr oh ibit ed in m on a r ch ies; bein g gen er a lly levelled
a ga in st m en of power a n d a u t h or it y, t h ey fla t t er t h e m a lign a n cy of t h e people,
wh o a r e t h e gover n in g pa r t y. In m on a r ch ies t h ey a r e for bidden , bu t r a t h er a s
a su bject of civil a n im a dver sion t h a n a s a ca pit a l cr im e. Th ey m a y a m u se t h e
gen er a l m a levolen ce, plea se t h e m a lcon t en t s, dim in ish t h e en vy a ga in st pu blic
em ploym en t s, give t h e people pa t ien ce t o su ffer , a n d m a ke t h em la u gh a t t h eir
su ffer in gs.
Bu t n o gover n m en t is so a ver se t o sa t ir ica l wr it in gs a s t h e a r ist ocr a t ic. Th er e
t h e m a gist r a t es a r e pet t y sover eign s, bu t n ot gr ea t en ou gh t o despise a ffr on t s.
If in a m on a r ch y a sa t ir ica l st r oke is design ed a ga in st t h e pr in ce, h e is pla ced
on su ch a n em in en ce t h a t it does n ot r ea ch h im ; bu t a n a r ist ocr a t ic lor d is
pier ced t o t h e ver y h ea r t . H en ce t h e decem vir s, wh o for m ed a n a r ist ocr a cy,
pu n ish ed sa t ir ica l wr it in gs wit h dea t h .40
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Th er e a r e r u les of m odest y obser ved by a lm ost ever y n a t ion in t h e wor ld; n ow
it wou ld be ver y a bsu r d t o in fr in ge t h ese r u les in t h e pu n ish m en t of cr im es, t h e
pr in cipa l view of wh ich ou gh t a lwa ys t o be t h e est a blish m en t of or der .
Wa s it t h e in t en t of t h ose Or ien t a l n a t ion s wh o exposed wom en t o eleph a n t s
t r a in ed u p for a n a bom in a ble kin d of pu n ish m en t — wa s it , I sa y, t h eir in t en t
t o est a blish on e la w by t h e br ea ch of a n ot h er ?
By a n a n cien t cu st om of t h e Rom a n s it wa s n ot per m it t ed t o pu t gir ls t o dea t h
t ill t h ey wer e r ipe for m a r r ia ge. Tiber iu s fou n d a n expedien t of h a vin g t h em
deba u ch ed by t h e execu t ion er befor e t h ey wer e br ou gh t t o t h e pla ce of
pu n ish m en t :41 t h a t bloody a n d su bt le t yr a n t dest r oyed t h e m or a ls of t h e people
t o pr eser ve t h eir cu st om s.
Wh en t h e m a gist r a t es of J a pa n ca u sed wom en t o be exposed n a k ed in t h e
m a r ket -pla ces, a n d obliged t h em t o go u pon a ll fou r s like bea st s, m odest y wa s
sh ocked:42 bu t wh en t h ey wa n t ed t o com pel a m ot h er — wh en t h ey wa n t ed t o
for ce a son — I ca n n ot pr oceed; even Na t u r e h er self is st r u ck wit h h or r or .43
BL1&@(&+-%&U*(."*9-5,%<%*+&'(&3$";%,&5*&'.0%.&+'&"99F,%&+-%5.&K",+%.1
Au gu st u s m a de a la w t h a t t h e sla ves of t h ose wh o con spir ed a ga in st h is
per son sh ou ld be sold t o t h e pu blic, t h a t t h ey m igh t depose a ga in st t h eir
m a st er . 44 Not h in g ou gh t t o be n eglect ed wh ich m a y con t r ibu t e t o t h e discover y
of a h ein ou s cr im e; it is n a t u r a l, t h er efor e, t h a t in a gover n m en t wh er e t h er e
a r e sla ves t h ey sh ou ld be a llowed t o in for m ; bu t t h ey ou gh t n ot t o be a dm it t ed
a s wit n esses.
Vin dex discover ed t h e con spir a cy t h a t h a d been for m ed in fa vou r of Ta r qu in ;
bu t h e wa s n ot a dm it t ed a wit n ess a ga in st t h e ch ildr en of Br u t u s. It wa s r igh t
t o give liber t y t o a per son wh o h a d r en der ed so gr ea t a ser vice t o h is cou n t r y;
bu t it wa s n ot given h im wit h a view of en a blin g h im t o r en der t h is ser vice.
H en ce t h e E m per or Ta cit u s or da in ed t h a t sla ves sh ou ld n ot be a dm it t ed a s
wit n esses a ga in st t h eir m a st er s, even in t h e ca se of h igh t r ea son :45 a la w wh ich
wa s n ot in ser t ed in J u st in ia n ’s com pila t ion .
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To do ju st ice t o t h e Ca esa r s, t h ey wer e n ot t h e fir st deviser s of t h e h or r id la ws
wh ich t h ey en a ct ed. It wa s Su lla 46 t h a t t a u gh t t h em t h a t ca lu m n ia t or s ou gh t
n ot t o be pu n ish ed; bu t t h e a bu se wa s soon ca r r ied t o su ch excess a s t o r ewa r d
t h em . 47
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“If t h y br ot h er , t h e son of t h y m ot h er , or t h y son , or t h y da u gh t er , or t h e wife
of t h y bosom , or t h y fr ien d, wh ich is a s t h in e own sou l, en t ice t h ee secr et ly,
sa yin g, ‘Let u s go a n d ser ve ot h er gods,’ t h ou sh a lt su r ely kill h im , t h ou sh a lt
st on e h im .”48 Th is la w of Deu t er on om y ca n n ot be a civil la w a m on g m ost of t h e
n a t ion s kn own t o u s, beca u se it wou ld pa ve t h e wa y for a ll m a n n er of
wickedn ess.
No less sever e is t h e la w of sever a l cou n t r ies wh ich com m a n ds t h e su bject s,
on pa in of dea t h , t o disclose con spir a cies in wh ich t h ey a r e n ot even so m u ch a s
con cer n ed. Wh en su ch a la w is est a blish ed in a m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t , it is

ver y pr oper it sh ou ld be u n der som e r est r ict ion s.
It ou gh t n ot t o be a pplied in it s fu ll sever it y sa ve t o t h e st r on gest ca ses of h igh
t r ea son . In t h ose cou n t r ies it is of t h e u t m ost im por t a n ce n ot t o con fou n d t h e
differ en t degr ees of t h is cr im e. In J a pa n , wh er e t h e la ws su bver t ever y idea of
h u m a n r ea son , t h e cr im e of con cea lm en t is a pplied even t o t h e m ost or din a r y
ca ses.
A cer t a in r ela t ion 49 m a kes m en t ion of t wo you n g la dies wh o wer e sh u t u p for
life in a box t h ick set wit h poin t ed n a ils, on e for h a vin g h a d a love in t r igu e, a n d
t h e ot h er for n ot disclosin g it .
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As soon a s a r epu blic h a s com pa ssed t h e dest r u ct ion of t h ose wh o wa n t ed t o
su bver t it , t h er e sh ou ld be a n en d of t er r or s, pu n ish m en t s, a n d even of r ewa r ds.
Gr ea t pu n ish m en t s, a n d con sequ en t ly gr ea t ch a n ges, ca n n ot t a ke pla ce
wit h ou t in vest in g som e cit izen s wit h a n exor bit a n t power . It is, t h er efor e, m or e
a dvisa ble in t h is ca se t o exceed in len it y t h a n in sever it y; t o ba n ish bu t few,
r a t h er t h a n m a n y; a n d t o lea ve t h em t h eir est a t es, in st ea d of m a kin g a va st
n u m ber of con fisca t ion s. Un der pr et en ce of a ven gin g t h e r epu blic’s ca u se, t h e
a ven ger s wou ld est a blish t yr a n n y. Th e bu sin ess is n ot t o dest r oy t h e r ebel, bu t
t h e r ebellion . Th ey ou gh t t o r et u r n a s qu ickly a s possible in t o t h e u su a l t r a ck
of gover n m en t , in wh ich ever y on e is pr ot ect ed by t h e la ws, a n d n o on e in ju r ed.
Th e Gr eeks set n o bou n ds t o t h e ven gea n ce t h ey t ook u pon t yr a n t s, or of t h ose
t h ey su spect ed of t yr a n n y; t h ey pu t t h eir ch ildr en t o dea t h , 50 n a y, som et im es
five of t h eir n ea r est r ela t ives;51 a n d t h ey pr oscr ibed a n in fin it e n u m ber of
fa m ilies. By su ch m ea n s t h eir r epu blics su ffer ed t h e m ost violen t sh ocks: exiles,
or t h e r et u r n of t h e exiled, wer e a lwa ys epoch s t h a t in dica t ed a ch a n ge of t h e
con st it u t ion .
Th e Rom a n s h a d m or e sen se. Wh en Ca ssiu s wa s pu t t o dea t h for h a vin g
a im ed a t t yr a n n y, t h e qu est ion wa s pr oposed wh et h er h is ch ildr en sh ou ld
u n der go t h e sa m e fa t e: bu t t h ey wer e pr eser ved. “Th ey,” sa ys Dion ysiu s
H a lica r n a ssu s, 52 “wh o wa n t ed t o ch a n ge t h is la w a t t h e en d of t h e Ma r sia n a n d
civil wa r s, a n d t o exclu de fr om pu blic offices t h e ch ildr en of t h ose wh o h a d been

pr oscr ibed by Su lla , a r e ver y m u ch t o bla m e.”
We fin d in t h e wa r s of Ma r iu s a n d Su lla t o wh a t excess t h e Rom a n s h a d
gr a du a lly ca r r ied t h eir ba r ba r it y. Su ch scen es of cr u elt y it wa s h oped wou ld
n ever be r evived. Bu t u n der t h e t r iu m vir s t h ey com m it t ed gr ea t er a ct s of
oppr ession , t h ou gh wit h som e a ppea r a n ce of len it y; a n d it is pr ovokin g t o see
wh a t soph ism s t h ey m a de u se of t o cover t h eir in h u m a n it y. Appia n h a s given
u s 53 t h e for m u la of t h e pr oscr ipt ion s. On e wou ld im a gin e t h ey h a d n o ot h er a im
t h a n t h e good of t h e r epu blic, wit h su ch ca lm n ess do t h ey expr ess t h em selves;
su ch a dva n t a ges do t h ey poin t ou t t o t h e st a t e; su ch expedien cy do t h ey sh ow
in t h e m ea n s t h ey a dopt ; su ch secu r it y do t h ey pr om ise t o t h e opu len t ; su ch
t r a n qu illit y t o t h e poor ; so a ppr eh en sive do t h ey seem of en da n ger in g t h e lives
of t h e cit izen s; so desir ou s of a ppea sin g t h e soldier s; su ch felicit y, in fin e, do
t h ey pr esa ge t o t h e com m on wea lt h .
Rom e wa s dr en ch ed in blood wh en Lepidu s t r iu m ph ed over Spa in : yet , by a n
u n pa r a lleled a bsu r dit y, h e or der ed pu blic r ejoicin gs in t h a t cit y, u pon pa in of
pr oscr ipt ion .
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In cou n t r ies wh er e liber t y is m ost est eem ed, t h er e a r e la ws by wh ich a sin gle
per son is depr ived of it , in or der t o pr eser ve it for t h e wh ole com m u n it y. Su ch
a r e in E n gla n d wh a t t h ey ca ll Bills of At t a in der .54
Th ese a r e in r ela t ion t o t h ose At h en ia n la ws by wh ich a pr iva t e per son wa s
con dem n ed,55 pr ovided t h ey wer e m a de by t h e u n a n im ou s su ffr a ge of six
t h ou sa n d cit izen s. Th ey a r e in r ela t ion a lso t o t h ose la ws wh ich wer e m a de a t
Rom e a ga in st pr iva t e cit izen s, a n d wer e ca lled pr ivileges. 56 Th ese wer e n ever
pa ssed except in t h e gr ea t m eet in gs of t h e people. Bu t in wh a t m a n n er soever
t h ey wer e en a ct ed, Cicer o wa s for h a vin g t h em a bolish ed, beca u se t h e for ce of
a la w con sist s in it s bein g m a de for t h e wh ole com m u n it y. 57 I m u st own ,
n ot wit h st a n din g, t h a t t h e pr a ct ice of t h e fr eest n a t ion t h a t ever exist ed in du ces
m e t o t h in k t h a t t h er e a r e ca ses in wh ich a veil sh ou ld be dr a wn for a wh ile
over liber t y, a s it wa s cu st om a r y t o cover t h e st a t u es of t h e gods.
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In popu la r gover n m en t s it oft en h a ppen s t h a t a ccu sa t ion s a r e ca r r ied on in
pu blic, a n d ever y m a n is a llowed t o a ccu se wh om soever h e plea ses. Th is
r en der ed it n ecessa r y t o est a blish pr oper la ws, in or der t o pr ot ect t h e in n ocen ce
of t h e su bject . At At h en s, if a n a ccu ser h a d n ot t h e fift h pa r t of t h e vot es on h is
side, h e wa s obliged t o pa y a fin e of a t h ou sa n d dr a ch m s. Æ sch in es, wh o
a ccu sed Ct esiph on , wa s con dem n ed t o pa y t h is fin e. 58 At Rom e, a fa lse a ccu ser
wa s br a n ded wit h in fa m y 59 by m a r kin g t h e let t er K on h is for eh ea d. Gu a r ds
wer e a lso a ppoin t ed t o wa t ch t h e a ccu ser , in or der t o pr even t h is cor r u pt in g
eit h er t h e ju dges or t h e wit n esses.60
I h a ve a lr ea dy t a ken n ot ice of t h a t At h en ia n a n d Rom a n la w by wh ich t h e
pa r t y a ccu sed wa s a llowed t o wit h dr a w befor e ju dgm en t wa s pr on ou n ced.
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Gr ea t is t h e su per ior it y wh ich on e fellow-su bject h a s a lr ea dy over a n ot h er , by
len din g h im m on ey, wh ich t h e la t t er bor r ows in or der t o spen d, a n d, of cou r se,
h a s n o lon ger in h is possession . Wh a t m u st be t h e con sequ en ce if t h e la ws of a
r epu blic m a ke a fu r t h er a ddit ion t o t h is ser vit u de a n d su bject ion ?
At At h en s a n d Rom e 61 it wa s a t fir st per m it t ed t o sell su ch debt or s a s wer e
in solven t . Solon r edr essed t h is a bu se a t At h en s 62 by or da in in g t h a t n o m a n ’s
body sh ou ld a n swer for h is civil debt s. Bu t t h e decem vir s 63 did n ot r efor m t h e
sa m e cu st om a t Rom e; a n d t h ou gh t h ey h a d Solon ’s r egu la t ion befor e t h eir eyes,
yet t h ey did n ot ch oose t o follow it . Th is is n ot t h e on ly pa ssa ge of t h e la w of t h e
Twelve Ta bles in wh ich t h e decem vir s sh ow t h eir design of ch eckin g t h e spir it
of dem ocr a cy.
Oft en did t h ose cr u el la ws a ga in st debt or s t h r ow t h e Rom a n r epu blic in t o
da n ger . A m a n cover ed wit h wou n ds m a de h is esca pe fr om h is cr edit or ’s h ou se
a n d a ppea r ed in t h e for u m . 64 Th e people wer e m oved wit h t h is spect a cle, a n d
ot h er cit izen s wh om t h eir cr edit or s du r st n o lon ger con fin e br oke loose fr om
t h eir du n geon s. Th ey h a d pr om ises m a de t h em , wh ich wer e a ll br oken . Th e
people u pon t h is, h a vin g wit h dr a wn t o t h e Sa cr ed Mou n t , obt a in ed, n ot a n
a br oga t ion of t h ose la ws, bu t a m a gist r a t e t o defen d t h em . Th u s t h ey qu it t ed a
st a t e of a n a r ch y, bu t wer e soon in da n ger of fa llin g in t o t yr a n n y. Ma n liu s, t o
r en der h im self popu la r , wa s goin g t o set t h ose cit izen s a t liber t y wh o by t h eir
in h u m a n cr edit or s 65 h a d been r edu ced t o sla ver y. Ma n liu s’s design s wer e
pr even t ed, bu t wit h ou t r em edyin g t h e evil. P a r t icu la r la ws facilit a t ed t o debt or s
t h e m ea n s of pa yin g;66 a n d in t h e yea r of Rom e 428 t h e con su ls pr oposed a la w 67
wh ich depr ived cr edit or s of t h e power of con fin in g t h eir debt or s in t h eir own
h ou ses. 68 A u su r er , by n a m e P a pir iu s, a t t em pt ed t o cor r u pt t h e ch a st it y of a
you n g m a n n a m ed P u bliu s, wh om h e kept in ir on s. Sext u s’s cr im e ga ve t o Rom e
it s polit ica l liber t y; t h a t of P a pir iu s ga ve it a lso t h e civil.
Su ch wa s t h e fa t e of t h is cit y, t h a t n ew cr im es con fir m ed t h e liber t y wh ich
t h ose of a m or e a n cien t da t e h a d pr ocu r ed it . Appiu s’s a t t em pt u pon Vir gin ia
flu n g t h e people a ga in in t o t h a t h or r or a ga in st t yr a n t s wit h wh ich t h e
m isfor t u n e of Lu cr et ia h a d fir st in spir ed t h em . Th ir t y-seven yea r s a ft er 69 t h e
cr im e of t h e in fa m ou s P a pir iu s, a n a ct ion of t h e like cr im in a l n a t u r e 70 wa s t h e
ca u se of t h e people’s r et ir in g t o t h e J a n icu lu m ,71 a n d of givin g n ew vigou r t o t h e
la w m a de for t h e sa fet y of debt or s.
Sin ce t h a t t im e cr edit or s wer e oft en er pr osecu t ed by debt or s for h a vin g
viola t ed t h e la ws a ga in st u su r y t h a n t h e la t t er wer e su ed for r efu sin g t o pa y
t h em .
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Liber t y oft en h a s been wea ken ed in m on a r ch ies by a t h in g of t h e lea st u se in
t h e wor ld t o t h e pr in ce: t h is is t h e n a m in g of com m ission er s t o t r y a pr iva t e
per son .
Th e pr in ce h im self der ives so ver y lit t le a dva n t a ge fr om t h ose com m ission er s
t h a t it is n ot wor t h wh ile t o ch a n ge for t h eir sa ke t h e com m on cou r se of t h in gs.
H e is m or a lly su r e t h a t h e h a s m or e of t h e spir it of pr obit y a n d ju st ice t h a n h is
com m ission er s, wh o t h in k t h em selves su fficien t ly ju st ified by h is n om in a t ion
a n d or der s, by a va gu e in t er est of st a t e, a n d even by t h eir ver y a ppr eh en sion s.
Upon t h e a r r a ign in g of a peer u n der H en r y VIII it wa s cu st om a r y t o t r y h im
by a com m it t ee of t h e H ou se of Lor ds: by wh ich m ea n s h e pu t t o dea t h a s m a n y
peer s a s h e plea sed.
EG1&@(&345%,&5*&K'*".9-5%,1
Sh ou ld I be a sked wh et h er t h er e is a n y n ecessit y for spies in m on a r ch ies, m y
a n swer wou ld be t h a t t h e u su a l pr a ct ice of good pr in ces is n ot t o em ploy t h em .
Wh en a m a n obeys t h e la ws, h e h a s disch a r ged h is du t y t o h is pr in ce. H e ou gh t
a t lea st t o h a ve h is own h ou se for a n a sylu m , a n d t h e r est of h is con du ct sh ou ld
be exem pt fr om in qu ir y. Th e t r a de of a spy m igh t per h a ps be t oler a ble, wer e it
pr a ct ised by h on est m en ; bu t t h e n ecessa r y in fa m y of t h e per son is su fficien t t o
m a ke u s ju dge of t h e in fa m y of t h e t h in g. A pr in ce ou gh t t o a ct t owa r ds h is
su bject s wit h ca n dou r , fr a n kn ess, a n d con fiden ce.
H e t h a t h a s so m u ch disqu iet , su spicion , a n d fea r is a n a ct or em ba r r a ssed in
pla yin g h is pa r t . Wh en h e fin ds t h a t t h e la ws a r e gen er a lly obser ved a n d
r espect ed, h e m a y ju dge h im self sa fe. Th e beh a viou r of t h e pu blic a n swer s for
t h a t of ever y in dividu a l. Let h im n ot be a fr a id: h e ca n n ot im a gin e h ow n a t u r a l
it is for h is people t o love h im . An d h ow sh ou ld t h ey do ot h er wise t h a n love h im ,
sin ce h e is t h e sou r ce of a lm ost a ll bou n t ies a n d fa vou r s; pu n ish m en t s bein g
gen er a lly ch a r ged t o t h e a ccou n t of t h e la ws? H e n ever sh ows h im self t o h is
people bu t wit h a ser en e cou n t en a n ce; t h ey h a ve even a sh a r e of h is glor y, a n d
t h ey a r e pr ot ect ed by h is power . A pr oof of h is bein g beloved is t h a t h is su bject s
h a ve con fiden ce in h im : wh a t t h e m in ist er r efu ses, t h ey im a gin e t h e pr in ce
wou ld h a ve gr a n t ed. E ven u n der pu blic ca la m it ies t h ey do n ot a ccu se h is
per son ; t h ey a r e a pt t o com pla in of h is bein g m isin for m ed, or beset by cor r u pt
m en . “Did t h e pr in ce bu t kn ow,” sa y t h e people; t h ese wor ds a r e a kin d of
in voca t ion , a n d a pr oof of t h e con fiden ce t h ey h a ve in h is per son .
EJ1&@(&:*'*H<'F,&6%++%.,1
Th e Ta r t a r s a r e obliged t o pu t t h eir n a m es t o t h eir a r r ows, t h a t t h e a r m m a y
be kn own wh ich sh oot s t h em . Wh en P h ilip of Ma cedon wa s wou n ded a t t h e
siege of a cer t a in t own , t h ese wor ds wer e fou n d on t h e ja velin , “Ast er h a s given
t h is m or t a l wou n d t o P h ilip.”72 If t h ey wh o a ccu se a per son did it m er ely t o ser ve
t h e pu blic, t h ey wou ld n ot ca r r y t h eir com pla in t t o t h e pr in ce, wh o m a y be
ea sily pr eju diced, bu t t o t h e m a gist r a t es, wh o h a ve r u les t h a t a r e for m ida ble
on ly t o ca lu m n ia t or s. Bu t if t h ey a r e u n willin g t o lea ve t h e la ws open bet ween
t h em a n d t h e a ccu sed, it is a pr esu m pt ion t h ey h a ve r ea son t o be a fr a id of t h em ;
a n d t h e lea st pu n ish m en t t h ey ou gh t t o su ffer is n ot t o be cr edit ed. No n ot ice,

t h er efor e, sh ou ld ever be t a ken of t h ose let t er s, except in ca ses t h a t a dm it n ot
of t h e dela ys of t h e or din a r y cou r se of ju st ice, a n d in wh ich t h e pr in ce’s welfa r e
is con cer n ed. Th en it m a y be im a gin ed t h a t t h e a ccu ser h a s m a de a n effor t ,
wh ich h a s u n t ied h is t on gu e. Bu t in ot h er ca ses on e ou gh t t o sa y, wit h t h e
E m per or Con st a n t iu s: “We ca n n ot su spect a per son wh o h a s wa n t ed a n a ccu ser ,
wh ilst h e did n ot wa n t a n en em y.”73
EL1&@(&+-%&K"**%.&'(&D';%.*5*D&5*&K'*".9-5%,1&
Th e r oya l a u t h or it y is a spr in g t h a t ou gh t t o m ove wit h t h e gr ea t est fr eedom
a n d ea se. Th e Ch in ese boa st of on e of t h eir em per or s wh o gover n ed, t h ey sa y,
like t h e h ea ven s, t h a t is, by h is exa m ple.
Th er e a r e som e ca ses in wh ich a sover eign ou gh t t o exer t t h e fu ll ext en t of h is
power ; a n d ot h er s in wh ich h e sh ou ld r edu ce it wit h in n a r r ower lim it s. Th e
su blim it y of a dm in ist r a t ion con sist s in kn owin g t h e pr oper degr ee of power
wh ich sh ou ld be exer t ed on differ en t occa sion s.
Th e wh ole felicit y of m on a r ch ies con sist s in t h e opin ion wh ich t h e su bject s
en t er t a in of t h e len it y of t h e gover n m en t . A wea k m in ist er is ever r ea dy t o
r em in d u s of ou r sla ver y. Bu t gr a n t in g, even , t h a t we a r e sla ves, h e sh ou ld
en dea vou r t o con cea l ou r m iser y fr om u s. All h e ca n sa y or wr it e is t h a t t h e
pr in ce is u n ea sy, t h a t h e is su r pr ised, a n d t h a t h e will r edr ess a ll gr ieva n ces.
Th er e is a cer t a in ea se in com m a n din g; t h e pr in ce ou gh t on ly t o en cou r a ge, a n d
let t h e la ws m en a ce.74
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Th e u t ilit y of t h is m a xim will a ppea r fr om t h e in con ven ien ce a t t en din g t h e
con t r a r y pr a ct ice. “Th e Cza r P et er I,” sa ys t h e Sieu r P er r y,75 “h a s pu blish ed a
n ew edict , by wh ich h e for bids a n y of h is su bject s t o offer h im a pet it ion t ill
a ft er h a vin g pr esen t ed it t o t wo of h is officer s. In ca se of r efu sa l of ju st ice t h ey
m a y pr esen t h im a t h ir d, bu t u pon pa in of dea t h if t h ey a r e in t h e wr on g. Aft er
t h is n o on e ever pr esu m ed t o offer a pet it ion t o t h e Cza r .”
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Th e m a n n er s of a pr in ce con t r ibu t e a s m u ch a s t h e la ws t h em selves t o liber t y;
like t h ese h e m a y t r a n sfor m m en in t o br u t es, a n d br u t es in t o m en . If h e pr efer s
fr ee a n d gen er ou s spir it s, h e will h a ve su bject s; if h e likes ba se, da st a r dly sou ls,
h e will h a ve sla ves. Wou ld h e kn ow t h e gr ea t a r t of r u lin g, let h im ca ll h on ou r
a n d vir t u e t o a t t en d h is per son ; a n d let h im en cou r a ge per son a l m er it . H e m a y
even som et im es ca st a n eye on t a len t s a n d a bilit ies. Let h im n ot be a fr a id of
t h ose r iva ls wh o a r e ca lled m en of m er it ; h e is t h eir equ a l wh en on ce h e loves
t h em . Let h im ga in t h e h ea r t s of h is people, wit h ou t su bdu in g t h eir spir it s. Let
h im r en der h im self popu la r ; h e ou gh t t o be plea sed wit h t h e a ffect ion s of t h e
lowest of h is su bject s, for t h ey t oo a r e m en . Th e com m on people r equ ir e so ver y
lit t le con descen sion , t h a t it is fit t h ey sh ou ld be h u m ou r ed; t h e in fin it e dist a n ce
bet ween t h e sover eign a n d t h em will su r ely pr even t t h em fr om givin g h im a n y
u n ea sin ess. Let h im be exor a ble t o su pplica t ion , a n d r esolu t e a ga in st dem a n ds;
let h im be sen sible, in fin e, t h a t h is people h a ve h is r efu sa ls, wh ile h is cou r t ier s
en joy h is fa vou r s.
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P r in ces ou gh t t o be ext r em ely cir cu m spect wit h r ega r d t o r a iller y. It plea ses
wit h m oder a t ion , beca u se it is a n in t r odu ct ion t o fa m ilia r it y; bu t a sa t ir ica l
r a iller y is less excu sa ble in t h em t h a n in t h e m ea n est of t h eir su bject s, for it is
t h ey a lon e t h a t give a m or t a l wou n d.
Mu ch less sh ou ld t h ey offer a pu blic a ffr on t t o a n y of t h eir su bject s; kin gs
wer e in st it u t ed t o pa r don a n d t o pu n ish , bu t n ever t o in su lt .
Wh en t h ey a ffr on t t h eir su bject s, t h eir t r ea t m en t is m or e cr u el t h a n t h a t of
t h e Tu r k or t h e Mu scovit e. Th e in su lt s of t h ese a r e a h u m ilia t ion , n ot a
disgr a ce; bu t bot h m u st follow fr om t h e in solen t beh a viou r of m on a r ch s.
Su ch is t h e pr eju dice of t h e ea st er n n a t ion s t h a t t h ey look u pon a n a ffr on t
fr om t h e pr in ce a s t h e effect of pa t er n a l goodn ess; a n d su ch , on t h e con t r a r y, is
ou r wa y of t h in kin g t h a t besides t h e cr u el vexa t ion of bein g a ffr on t ed, we
despa ir of ever bein g a ble t o wipe off t h e disgr a ce.
P r in ces ou gh t t o be over joyed t o h a ve su bject s t o wh om h on ou r is dea r er t h a n
life, a n in cit em en t t o fidelit y a s well a s t o cou r a ge.
Th ey sh ou ld r em em ber t h e m isfor t u n es t h a t h a ve h a ppen ed t o sover eign s for

in su lt in g t h eir su bject s: t h e r even ge of Ch a er ea , of t h e eu n u ch Na r ses, of Cou n t
J u lia n , a n d, in fin e, of t h e Du ch ess of Mon t pen sier , wh o, bein g en r a ged a ga in st
H en r y III for h a vin g pu blish ed som e of h er pr iva t e fa ilin gs, t or m en t ed h im
du r in g h er wh ole life.
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0%,4'+59&A';%.*<%*+1&
Th ou gh despot ic gover n m en t s a r e of t h eir own n a t u r e ever ywh er e t h e sa m e,
yet fr om cir cu m st a n ces — fr om a r eligiou s opin ion , fr om pr eju dice, fr om
r eceived exa m ples, fr om a pa r t icu la r t u r n of m in d, fr om m a n n er s or m or a ls —
it is possible t h ey m a y a dm it of a con sider a ble differ en ce.
It is u sefu l t h a t som e pa r t icu la r n ot ion s sh ou ld be est a blish ed in t h ose
gover n m en t s. Th u s in Ch in a t h e pr in ce is con sider ed a s t h e fa t h er of h is people;
a n d a t t h e com m en cem en t of t h e em pir e of t h e Ar a bs, t h e pr in ce wa s t h eir
pr ea ch er .76
It is pr oper t h er e sh ou ld be som e sa cr ed book t o ser ve for a r u le, a s t h e Kor a n
a m on g t h e Ar a bs, t h e books of Zor oa st er a m on g t h e P er sia n s, t h e Veda a m on g
t h e In dia n s, a n d t h e cla ssic books a m on g t h e Ch in ese. Th e r eligiou s code
su pplies t h e civil a n d fixes t h e ext en t of a r bit r a r y swa y.
It is n ot a t a ll a m iss t h a t in du biou s ca ses t h e ju dges sh ou ld con su lt t h e
m in ist er s of r eligion . 77 Th u s, in Tu r k ey, t h e Ca dis con su lt t h e Molla h s. Bu t if
it is a ca pit a l cr im e, it m a y be pr oper for t h e pa r t icu la r ju dge, if su ch t h er e be,
t o t a ke t h e gover n or ’s a dvice, t o t h e en d t h a t t h e civil a n d ecclesia st ica l power
m a y be t em per ed a lso by t h e polit ica l a u t h or it y.
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Not h in g bu t t h e ver y excess a n d r a ge of despot ic power or da in ed t h a t t h e
fa t h er ’s disgr a ce sh ou ld dr a g a ft er it t h a t of h is wife a n d ch ildr en . Th ey a r e
wr et ch ed en ou gh a lr ea dy wit h ou t bein g cr im in a ls: besides, t h e pr in ce ou gh t t o
lea ve su pplia n t s or m edia t or s bet ween h im self a n d t h e a ccu sed, t o a ssu a ge h is
wr a t h or t o in for m h is ju st ice.
It is a n excellen t cu st om of t h e Ma ldivia n s 78 t h a t wh en a lor d is disgr a ced h e

goes ever y da y t o pa y h is cou r t t o t h e kin g t ill h e is t a ken a ga in in t o fa vou r : h is
pr esen ce disa r m s t h e pr in ce’s in dign a t ion .
In som e despot ic gover n m en t s 79 t h ey h a ve a n ot ion t h a t it is t r espa ssin g
a ga in st t h e r espect du e t o t h eir pr in ce t o spea k t o h im in fa vou r of a per son in
disgr a ce. Th ese pr in ces seem t o u se a ll t h eir en dea vou r s t o depr ive t h em selves
of t h e vir t u e of clem en cy.
Ar ca diu s a n d H on or iu s, by a la w 80 on wh ich we h a ve a lr ea dy desca n t ed, 81
posit ively decla r e t h a t t h ey will sh ow n o fa vou r t o t h ose wh o sh a ll pr esu m e t o
pet it ion t h em in beh a lf of t h e gu ilt y. 82 Th is wa s a ver y ba d la w in deed, sin ce it
is ba d even u n der a despot ic gover n m en t .
Th e cu st om of P er sia , wh ich per m it s ever y m a n t h a t plea ses t o lea ve t h e
kin gdom , is excellen t ; a n d t h ou gh t h e con t r a r y pr a ct ice der ives it s or igin fr om
despot ic power , wh ich h a s ever con sider ed t h e su bject s a s sla ves 83 a n d t h ose
wh o qu it t h e cou n t r y a s fu git ives, yet t h e P er sia n pr a ct ice is u sefu l even t o a
despot ic gover nm ent , because t h e a ppr eh en sion of people’s wit h dr a win g for debt
r est r a in s or m oder a t es t h e oppr ession s of pa sh a s a n d ext or t ion er s.
2'+%,1
1. Politics, ii. 8.
2. Ta r qu in iu s P r iscu s. See Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, iv.
3. As ea r ly a s t h e yea r 560.
4. Ar ist ot le, Politics, ii. 12. H e ga ve h is la ws a t Th u r iu m in t h e 84t h Olym pia d.
5. See Ar ist ides, Or a t . in Min er va m .
6. Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s on t h e ju dgm en t of Cor iola n u s, vii.
7. Min er va e ca lcu lu s.
8. St . Lou is m a de su ch sever e la ws a ga in st t h ose wh o swor e t h a t t h e pope
t h ou gh t h im self obliged t o a dm on ish h im for it . Th is pr in ce m oder a t ed h is
zea l, a n d soft en ed h is la ws. See h is Or din a n ces.
9. F a t h er Rou ger el.
10. Nicet a s, L ife of M an u el Com n en u s, iv.
11. Ibid.
12. Th eoph yla ct u s, H istory of th e E m peror M au rice, 11.
13. S ecret H istory.

15. F a t h er P a r en n in in t h e E difyin g Let t er s.
16. Book xxix.
17. Gr a t ia n , Va len t in ia n , a n d Th eodosiu s. Th is is t h e secon d in t h e Cod. de
cr im in . sa cr il.
18. Sa cr ilegii in st a r est du bit a r e a n is dign u s sit qu em eleger it im per a t or . —
Cod. de cr im in . sa cr il. Th is la w h a s ser ved a s a m odel t o t h a t of Roger in t h e
con st it u t ion of Na ples, t it . 4.
19. Leg. 5, a d leg. J u l. Ma jest .
20. Ar ca diu s a n d H on or iu s.
21. Mem oir s of Mon t r esor , i, p. 238, Cologn e, 1723.
22. Na m ipsi pa r s cor por is n ost r i su n t — Th e sa m e la w of t h e Cod., a d leg. J u l.
Ma jest .
23. It is t h e 9t h of t h e Cod. Th eod. de fa lsa m on et a .
24. E t ia m ex a liis ca u sis m a jest a t is cr im in a cessa n t m eo sa ecu lo — Leg. 1. Cod.,
ix, t it . 8, a d leg. J u l. Ma jest .
25. Alien a m sect a e m ea e solicit u din em con cepist i. — Leg. 2, Cod., iii, t it . 4, a d
leg. J u l. Ma jest .
26. Leg. 4, § 1, ff. a d leg., J u l. Ma jest ., xlviii, t it . 4.
27. See Leg. 5, § 2, ff. ibid.
28. Ibid., § 1.
29. Aliu dve qu id sim ile a dm iser in t — Leg. 6, ff. a d leg. J u l. Ma jest .
30. In t h e la st la w, ff. a d leg. J u l. de a du lt er iis.
31. See Bu r n et , H ist or y of t h e Refor m a t ion .
32. P lu t a r ch , Dion ysiu s.
33. Th e t h ou gh t m u st be join ed wit h som e sor t of a ct ion .
34. Si n on t a le sit delict u m in qu od vel scr ipt u r a legis descen dit vel a d
exem plu m legis vin dica n du m est , sa ys Modest in u s in Leg. 7, § 3, ff. a d leg.
J u l. Ma jest .
35. In 1740.
36. N ec lu br icu m lin gu a e a d poen a m fa cile t r a h en du m est . — Modest in u s, in
Leg. 7, § 3, ff. a d leg. J u l. Ma jest .
37. Si id ex levit a t e pr ocesser it , con t em n en du m est ; si ex in sa n ia , m iser a t ion e

dign issim u m ; si a b in ju r ia , r em it t en du m . — Leg. u n ica . Cod. si qu is
Im per a t . m a led.
38. Ta cit u s, An n a ls, i. 72. Th is con t in u ed u n der t h e followin g r eign s. See t h e
fir st la w in t h e Cod. de fa m osis libellis.
39. Ta cit u s, An n als, iv. 34.
40. Th e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles.
41. Su et on iu s, Life of Tiber iu s, 61.
In dia Com pa n y, v, pa r t II.
43. Ibid., p. 496.
44. Dio, in Xiph ilin ., lv. 5. Ta cit u s, An n a ls, ii. 30, iii. 67, a t t r ibu t es t h is la w, n ot
t o Au gu st u s, bu t t o Tiber iu s.
45. F la viu s Vopiscu s in h is Life, 9.
46. Su lla m a de a la w of m a jest y, wh ich is m en t ion ed in Cicer o’s Or a t ion s, P r o
Clu en t io, a r t . 3; In P ison em , a r t . 21; a n d a ga in st Ver r es, a r t . 5. F a m ilia r
E pist les, iii, 11. Ca esa r a n d Au gu st u s in ser t ed t h em in t h e J u lia n La ws;
ot h er s m a de a ddit ion s t o t h em .
47. E t qu o qu is dist in ct ior a ccu sa t or , eo m a gis h on or es a ssequ eba t u r , a c velu t i
sa cr osa n ct u s er a t . — Ta cit u s, An n als, iv. 36.
48. Deu t ., 13. 6–9.
In dia Com pa n y, v, pa r t II, p. 423.
50. Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, Rom a n An t iqu it ies, viii.
51. Tyr a n n o occiso qu in qu e eju s pr oxim os cogn a t ion e m a gist r a t u s n eca t o. —
Cicer o, De In ven t . ii. 29.
52. Cook viii, p. 547.
53. Of t h e Civil Wa r s, iv.
54. It is n ot su fficien t in t h e cou r t s of ju st ice of t h a t kin gdom t h a t t h e eviden ce
be of su ch a n a t u r e a s t o sa t isfy t h e ju dges; t h er e m u st be a lega l pr oof; a n d
t h e la w r equ ir es t h e deposit ion of t wo wit n esses a ga in st t h e a ccu sed. No
ot h er pr oof will do. Now, if a per son wh o is pr esu m ed gu ilt y of h igh t r ea son
sh ou ld con t r ive t o secr et e t h e wit n esses, so a s t o r en der it im possible for h im
t o be lega lly con dem n ed, t h e gover n m en t t h en m a y br in g a h ill of a t t a in der

a ga in st h im ; t h a t is, t h ey m a y en a ct a pa r t icu la r la w for t h a t sin gle fa ct .
Th ey pr oceed t h en in t h e sa m e m a n n er a s in a ll ot h er bills br ou gh t in t o
pa r lia m en t ; it m u st pa ss t h e t wo h ou ses, a n d h a ve t h e kin g’s con sen t ,
ot h er wise it is n ot a bill: t h a t is, a sen t en ce of t h e legisla t u r e. Th e per son
a ccu sed m a y plea d a ga in st t h e h ill by cou n sel, a n d t h e m em ber s of t h e h ou se
m a y spea k in defen ce of t h e bill.
55. Legem de sin gu la r i a liqu o r oga t o, n isi sex m illibu s it a visu m . — F r om
An docidis, De Myst er iis. Th is is wh a t t h ey ca ll Ost r a cism .
56. De pr ivis h om in ibu s la t a e. — Cicer o,De Leg., iii. 19.
57. Scit u m est ju ssu m in om n es. — Ibid.
58. See P h ilost r a t u s, i: Lives of t h e Soph ist s: Æ sch in es. See likewise P lu t a r ch
a n d P h ociu s.
59. By t h e Rem n ia n la w.
60. P lu t a r ch , in a t r ea t ise en t it led. H ow a P er son Ma y Rea p Adva n t a ge fr om h is
E n em ies.
61. “A gr ea t m a n y sold t h eir ch ildr en t o pa y t h eir debt s.” — P lu t a r ch , Solon .
62. Ibid.
63. It a ppea r s fr om h ist or y t h a t t h is cu st om wa s est a blish ed a m on g t h e Rom a n s
befor e t h e La w of t h e Twelve Ta bles. — Livy, dec. 1, ii. 23, 24.
64. Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s. Rom a n An t iqu it ies, vi.
65. P lu t a r ch , F u r iu s Ca m illa s.
66. See below, xxii. 22.
67. On e h u n dr ed a n d t wen t y yea r s a ft er t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles: E o a n n o
plebi Rom a n a e, velu t a liu d in it iu m liber t a t is fa ct u m est , qu od n ect i
desier u n t . — Livy, viii. 38.
68. Bon a debit or is, n on cor pu s obn oxiu m esset . — Ibid.
69. Th e yea r of Rom e 465.
70. Th a t of P la u t iu s wh o m a de a n a t t em pt u pon t h e body of Vet u r iu s. —
Va ler iu s Ma xim u s, vi, 1, a r t . 9. Th ese t wo even t s ou gh t n ot t o be
con fou n ded; t h ey a r e n eit h er t h e sa m e per son s n or t h e sa m e t im es.
71. See a fr a gm en t of Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s in t h e ext r a ct of Vir t u es a n d
Vices [H ist or ica ]; Livy’s E pit om e, ii., a n d F r ein sh em iu s, ii.
72. P lu t a r ch , Com pa r ison of som e Rom a n a n d Gr eek H ist or ies, ii, p. 487.
73. Leg. 6, Cod. Th eod. de fa m osis libellis.
74. “Ner va ,” sa ys Ta cit u s, “in cr ea sed t h e ea se of gover n m en t .”
75. St a t e of Ru ssia , p. 173, P a r is, 1717.
76. Th e Ca liph s.
77. H ist or y of t h e Ta r t a r s, pa r t III, p. 277, in t h e r em a r ks.
78. See F r a n cis P ir a r d.
79. As a t pr esen t in P er sia , a ccor din g t o Sir J oh n Ch a r din , t h is cu st om is ver y
a n cien t . “Th ey pu t Ca va des,” sa ys P r ocopiu s, “in t o t h e ca st le of oblivion ;
t h er e is a la w wh ich for bids a n y on e t o spea k of t h ose wh o a r e sh u t u p, or
even t o m en t ion t h eir n a m e.”
80. Th e fift h la w in t h e Cod. a d leg. J u l. Ma jest .
81. In t h e 8t h ch a pt er of t h is book.
82. F r eder ick copied t h is la w in t h e Con st it u t ion s of Na ples, i.
83. In m on a r ch ies t h er e is gen er a lly a la w wh ich for bids t h ose wh o a r e in vest ed
wit h pu blic em ploym en t s t o go ou t of t h e kin gdom wit h ou t t h e pr in ce’s
lea ve. Th is la w ou gh t t o be est a blish ed a lso in r epu blics. Bu t in t h ose t h a t
h a ve pa r t icu la r in st it u t ion s t h e pr oh ibit ion ou gh t t o be gen er a l, in or der t o
pr even t t h e in t r odu ct ion of for eign m a n n er s.
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Th e pu blic r even u es a r e a por t ion t h a t ea ch su bject gives of h is pr oper t y, in
or der t o secu r e or en joy t h e r em a in der .
To fix t h ese r even u es in a pr oper m a n n er , r ega r d sh ou ld be h a d bot h t o t h e
n ecessit ies of t h e st a t e a n d t o t h ose of t h e su bject . Th e r ea l wa n t s of t h e people
ou gh t n ever t o give wa y t o t h e im a gin a r y wa n t s of t h e st a t e.
Im a gin a r y wa n t s a r e t h ose wh ich flow fr om t h e pa ssion s a n d t h e wea kn ess of
t h e gover n or s, fr om t h e va in con ceit of som e ext r a or din a r y pr oject , fr om t h e
in or din a t e desir e of glor y, a n d fr om a cer t a in im pot en ce of m in d in ca pa ble of
wit h st andin g t h e im pu lse of fa n cy. Oft en h a ve m in ist er s of a r est less disposit ion
im a gin ed t h a t t h e wa n t s of t h eir own m ea n a n d ign oble sou ls wer e t h ose of t h e
st a t e.
Not h in g r equ ir es m or e wisdom a n d pr u den ce t h a n t h e r egu la t ion of t h a t
por t ion of wh ich t h e su bject is depr ived, a n d t h a t wh ich h e is su ffer ed t o r et a in .
Th e pu blic r even u es sh ou ld n ot be m ea su r ed by t h e people’s a bilit ies t o give,
bu t by wh a t t h ey ou gh t t o give; a n d if t h ey a r e m ea su r ed by t h eir a bilit ies t o
give, it sh ou ld be con sider ed wh a t t h ey a r e a ble t o give for a con st a n cy.
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Th er e h a ve been in st a n ces in pa r t icu la r m on a r ch ies of pet t y st a t es exem pt
fr om t a xes t h a t h a ve been a s m iser a ble a s t h e cir cu m ja cen t pla ces wh ich
gr oa n ed u n der t h e weigh t of exa ct ion s. Th e ch ief r ea son of t h is is, t h a t t h e pet t y
st a t e ca n h a r dly h a ve a n y su ch t h in g a s in du st r y, a r t s, or m a n u fa ct u r es,
beca u se of it s bein g su bject t o a t h ou sa n d r est r a in t s fr om t h e gr ea t st a t e by
wh ich it is en vir on ed. Th e gr ea t st a t e is blessed wit h in du st r y, m a n u fa ct u r es,

a n d a r t s, a n d est a blish es la ws by wh ich t h ose sever a l a dva n t a ges a r e pr ocu r ed.
Th e pet t y st a t e becom es, t h er efor e, n ecessa r ily poor , let it pa y n ever so few
t a xes.
An d yet som e h a ve con clu ded fr om t h e pover t y of t h ose pet t y st a t es t h a t in
or der t o r en der t h e people in du st r iou s t h ey sh ou ld be loa ded wit h t a xes. Bu t it
wou ld be a ju st er in fer en ce, t h a t t h ey ou gh t t o pa y n o t a xes a t a ll. Non e live
h er e bu t wr et ch es wh o r et ir e fr om t h e n eigh bou r in g pa r t s t o a void wor kin g —
wr et ch es wh o, dish ea r t en ed by la bou r , m a ke t h eir wh ole felicit y con sist in
idlen ess.
Th e effect of wea lt h in a cou n t r y is t o in spir e ever y h ea r t wit h a m bit ion : t h a t
of pover t y is t o give bir t h t o despa ir . Th e for m er is excit ed by la bou r , t h e la t t er
is soot h ed by in dolen ce.
Na t u r e is ju st t o a ll m a n kin d, a n d r epa ys t h em for t h eir in du st r y: sh e r en der s
t h em in du st r iou s by a n n exin g r ewa r ds in pr opor t ion t o t h eir la bou r . Bu t if a n
a r bit r a r y pr in ce sh ou ld a t t em pt t o depr ive t h e people of n a t u r e’s bou n t y, t h ey
wou ld fa ll in t o a disr elish of in du st r y; a n d t h en in dolen ce a n d in a ct ion m u st be
t h eir on ly h a ppin ess.
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Th e st a t e of villa in a ge is som et im es est a blish ed a ft er a con qu est . In t h a t ca se,
t h e bon dm a n or villa in t h a t t ills t h e la n d ou gh t t o h a ve a kin d of pa r t n er sh ip
wit h h is m a st er . Not h in g bu t a com m u n ica t ion of loss or pr ofit ca n r econ cile
t h ose wh o a r e doom ed t o la bou r t o su ch a s a r e blessed wit h a st a t e of a fflu en ce.
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Wh en a r epu blic h a s r edu ced a n a t ion t o t h e dr u dger y of cu lt iva t in g h er la n ds,
sh e ou gh t n ever t o su ffer t h e fr ee su bject t o h a ve t h e power of in cr ea sin g t h e
t r ibu t e of t h e bon dm a n . Th is wa s n ot per m it t ed a t Spa r t a . Th ose br a ve people
t h ou gh t t h e H elot es 1 wou ld be m or e in du st r iou s in cu lt iva t in g t h eir la n ds, a n d
kn owin g t h a t t h eir ser vit u de wa s n ot t o in cr ea se; t h ey im a gin ed, likewise, t h a t
t h e m a st er s wou ld be bet t er cit izen s, wh en t h ey desir ed n o m or e t h a n wh a t t h ey

wer e a ccu st om ed t o en joy.
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Wh en t h e n obles of a m on a r ch ica l st a t e ca u se t h e la n ds t o be cu lt iva t ed for
t h eir own u se by a con qu er ed people, t h ey ou gh t n ever t o h a ve t h e power of
in cr ea sin g t h e ser vice or t r ibu t e. 2 Besides, it is r igh t t h e pr in ce sh ou ld be
sa t isfied wit h h is own dem esn e a n d t h e m ilit a r y ser vice. Bu t if h e wa n t s t o r a ise
t a xes on t h e va ssa ls of h is n obilit y, t h e lor ds of t h e sever a l dist r ict s ou gh t t o be
a n swer a ble for t h e t a x, 3 a n d be obliged t o pa y it for t h e va ssa ls, by wh om t h ey
m a y be a ft er wa r ds r eim bu r sed. If t h is r u le be n ot followed, t h e lor d a n d t h e
collect or s of t h e pu blic t a xes will h a r a ss t h e poor va ssa l by t u r n s t ill h e per ish es
wit h m iser y or flies in t o t h e woods.
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Th e for egoin g r u le is st ill m or e in dispen sa bly n ecessa r y in a despot ic
gover n m en t . Th e lor d wh o is ever y m om en t lia ble t o be st r ipped of h is la n ds a n d
h is va ssa ls is n ot so ea ger t o pr eser ve t h em .
Wh en P et er I t h ou gh t pr oper t o follow t h e cu st om of Ger m a n y, a n d t o dem a n d
h is t a xes in m on ey, h e m a de a ver y pr u den t r egu la t ion , wh ich is st ill followed
in Ru ssia . Th e gen t lem a n levies t h e t a x on t h e pea sa n t , a n d pa ys it t o t h e Cza r .
If t h e n u m ber of pea sa n t s dim in ish es, h e pa ys a ll t h e sa m e; if it in cr ea ses, h e
pa ys n o m or e; so t h a t it is h is in t er est n ot t o wor r y or oppr ess h is va ssa ls.
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Wh en t h e in h a bit a n t s of a st a t e a r e a ll fr ee su bject s, a n d ea ch m a n en joys h is
pr oper t y wit h a s m u ch r igh t a s t h e pr in ce h is sover eign t y, t a xes m a y t h en be
la id eit h er on per son s, on la n ds, on m er ch a n dise, on t wo of t h ese, or on a ll t h r ee
t oget h er .
In t h e t a xin g of per son s, it wou ld be a n u n ju st pr opor t ion t o con for m exa ct ly
t o t h a t of pr oper t y. At At h en s t h e people wer e divided in t o fou r cla sses.4 Th ose
wh o dr ew five h u n dr ed m ea su r es of liqu id or dr ied fr u it fr om t h eir est a t es pa id
a t a len t 5 t o t h e pu blic; t h ose wh o dr ew t h r ee h u n dr ed m ea su r es pa id h a lf a

t a len t ; t h ose wh o h a d t wo h u n dr ed m ea su r es pa id t en m in a e; t h ose of t h e fou r t h
cla ss pa id n ot h in g a t a ll. Th e t a x wa s fa ir , t h ou gh it wa s n ot pr opor t ion a ble: if
it did n ot follow t h e m ea su r e of people’s pr oper t y, it followed t h a t of t h eir wa n t s.
It wa s ju dged t h a t ever y m a n h a d a n equ a l sh a r e of wh a t wa s n ecessa r y for
n a t u r e, t h a t wh a t soever wa s n ecessa r y for n a t u r e ou gh t n ot t o be t a xed; t h a t
t o t h is su cceeded t h e u sefu l, wh ich ou gh t t o be t a xed, bu t less t h a n t h e
su per flu ou s; a n d t h a t t h e la r gen ess of t h e t a xes on wh a t wa s su per flu ou s
pr even t ed su per flu it y.
In t h e t a xin g of la n ds it is cu st om a r y t o m a ke list s or r egist er s, in wh ich t h e
differ en t cla sses of est a t es a r e r a n ged. Bu t it is ver y difficu lt t o kn ow t h ese
differ en ces, a n d st ill m or e so t o fin d people t h a t a r e n ot in t er est ed in m ist a kin g
t h em . H er e, t h er efor e, a r e t wo sor t s of in ju st ice, t h a t of t h e m a n a n d t h a t of t h e
t h in g. Bu t if in gen er a l t h e t a x be n ot exor bit a n t , a n d t h e people con t in u e t o
h a ve plen t y of n ecessa r ies, t h ese pa r t icu la r a ct s of in ju st ice will do n o h a r m . On
t h e con t r a r y, if t h e people a r e per m it t ed t o en joy on ly ju st wh a t is n ecessa r y for
su bsist en ce, t h e lea st dispr opor t ion will be of t h e gr ea t est con sequ en ce.
If som e su bject s do n ot pa y en ou gh , t h e m isch ief is n ot so gr ea t ; t h eir
con ven ien ce a n d ea se t u r n a lwa ys t o t h e pu blic a dva n t a ge; if som e pr iva t e
people pa y t oo m u ch , t h eir r u in r edou n ds t o t h e pu blic det r im en t . If t h e
gover n m en t pr opor t ion s it s for t u n e t o t h a t of in dividu a ls, t h e ea se a n d
con ven ien ce of t h e la t t er will soon m a ke it s for t u n e r ise. Th e wh ole depen ds
u pon a cr it ica l m om en t : sh a ll t h e st a t e begin wit h im pover ish in g t h e su bject s
t o en r ich it self? Or h a d it bet t er wa it t o be en r ich ed by it s su bject s? Is it m or e
a dvisa ble for it t o h a ve t h e for m er or t h e la t t er a dva n t a ge? Wh ich sh a ll it ch oose
— t o begin or t o en d wit h opu len ce?
Th e du t ies felt lea st by t h e people a r e t h ose on m er ch a n dise, beca u se t h ey a r e
n ot dem a n ded of t h em in for m . Th ey m a y be so pr u den t ly m a n a ged t h a t t h e
people t h em selves sh a ll h a r dly kn ow t h ey pa y t h em . F or t h is pu r pose it is of t h e
u t m ost con sequ en ce t h a t t h e per son wh o sells t h e m er ch a n dise sh ou ld pa y t h e
du t y. H e is ver y sen sible t h a t h e does n ot pa y it for h im self; a n d t h e con su m er ,
wh o pa ys it in t h e m a in , con fou n ds it wit h t h e pr ice. Som e a u t h or s h a ve
obser ved t h a t Ner o h a d a bolish ed t h e du t y of t h e five-a n d-t wen t iet h pa r t a r ising
fr om t h e sa le of sla ves;6 a n d yet h e h a d on ly or da in ed t h a t it sh ou ld be pa id by

t h e seller in st ea d of t h e pu r ch a ser ; t h is r egu la t ion , wh ich left t h e im post en t ir e,
seem ed n ever t h eless t o su ppr ess it .
Th er e a r e t wo st a t es in E u r ope wh er e t h e im post s a r e ver y h ea vy u pon
liqu or s: in on e t h e br ewer a lon e pa ys t h e du t y, in t h e ot h er it is levied
in discr im in a t ely u pon a ll t h e con su m er s; in t h e fir st n obody feels t h e r igou r of
t h e im post , in t h e secon d it is looked u pon a s a gr ieva n ce; in t h e for m er t h e
su bject is sen sible on ly of t h e liber t y h e h a s of n ot pa yin g, in t h e la t t er h e feels
on ly t h e n ecessit y t h a t com pels h im t o pa y.
F u r t h er , t h e obligin g t h e con su m er s t o pa y r equ ir es a per pet u a l r u m m a gin g
a n d sea r ch in g in t o t h eir h ou ses. Now n ot h in g is m or e con t r a r y t h a n t h is t o
liber t y; a n d t h ose wh o est a blish t h ese sor t s of du t ies h a ve n ot su r ely been so
h a ppy a s t o h it u pon t h e best m et h od of collect in g t h e r even u e.
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In or der t o m a ke t h e pu r ch a ser con fou n d t h e pr ice of t h e com m odit y wit h t h e
im post , t h er e m u st be som e pr opor t ion bet ween t h e im post a n d t h e va lu e of t h e
com m odit y: for wh ich r ea son t h er e ou gh t n ot t o be a n excessive du t y u pon
m er ch a n dise of lit t le va lu e. Th er e a r e cou n t r ies in wh ich t h e du t y exceeds
seven t een or eigh t een t im es t h e va lu e of t h e com m odit y. In t h is ca se t h e pr in ce
r em oves t h e disgu ise: h is su bject s pla in ly see t h ey a r e dea lt wit h in a n
u n r ea son a ble m a n n er , wh ich r en der s t h em m ost exqu isit ely sen sible of t h eir
ser vile con dit ion .
Besides, t h e pr in ce, t o be a ble t o levy a du t y so dispr opor t ion ed t o t h e va lu e
of t h e com m odit y, m u st be h im self t h e ven dor , a n d t h e people m u st n ot h a ve it
in t h eir power t o pu r ch a se it elsewh er e: a pr a ct ice su bject t o a t h ou sa n d
in con ven ien ces.
Sm u gglin g bein g in t h is ca se ext r em ely lu cr a t ive, t h e n a t u r a l a n d m ost
r ea son a ble pen a lt y, n a m ely, t h e con fisca t ion of t h e m er ch a n dise, becom es
in ca pa ble of pu t t in g a st op t o it ; especia lly a s t h is ver y m er ch a n dise is
in t r in sica lly of in con sider a ble va lu e. Recou r se m u st t h er efor e be h a d t o
ext r a va ga n t pu n ish m en t s, su ch a s t h ose in flict ed for ca pit a l cr im es.
All pr opor t ion t h en of pen a lt ies is a t a n en d. P er son s t h a t ca n n ot r ea lly be
con sider ed a s viciou s a r e pu n ish ed like t h e m ost in fa m ou s cr im in a ls; wh ich of

a ll t h in gs in t h e wor ld is t h e m ost con t r a r y t o t h e spir it of a m oder a t e
gover n m en t .
Aga in , in pr opor t ion a s people a r e t em pt ed t o ch ea t t h e fa r m er of t h e
r even u es, t h e m or e t h e la t t er is en r ich ed, a n d t h e for m er im pover ish ed. To pu t
a st op t o sm u gglin g, t h e fa r m er m u st be in vest ed wit h ext r a or din a r y m ea n s of
oppr essin g, a n d t h en t h e cou n t r y is r u in ed.
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We sh a ll h er e, by t h e wa y, t a ke n ot ice of a n im post la id in pa r t icu la r cou n t r ies
on t h e differ en t a r t icles of civil con t r a ct s. As t h ese a r e t h in gs su bject t o ver y
n ice disqu isit ion s, a va st dea l of kn owledge is n ecessa r y t o m a ke a n y t oler a ble
defen ce a ga in st t h e fa r m er of t h e r even u es, wh o in t er pr et s, in t h a t ca se, t h e
r egu la t ion s of t h e pr in ce, a n d exer cises a n a r bit r a r y power over people’s
for t u n es. E xper ien ce h a s dem on st r a t ed t h a t a du t y on t h e pa per on wh ich t h e
deeds a r e dr a wn wou ld be of fa r gr ea t er ser vice.
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Ta xes ou gh t t o be ver y ligh t in despot ic gover n m en t s: ot h er wise wh o wou ld be
a t t h e t r ou ble of t illin g t h e la n d? Besides, h ow is it possible t o pa y h ea vy du t ies
in a gover n m en t t h a t m a kes n o m a n n er of r et u r n t o t h e differ en t con t r ibu t ion s
of t h e su bject ?
Th e exor bit a n t power of t h e pr in ce, a n d t h e ext r em e depr ession of t h e people,
r equ ir e t h a t t h er e sh ou ld n ot be even a possibilit y of t h e lea st m ist a ke bet ween
t h em . Th e t a xes ou gh t t o be so ea sy t o collect , a n d so clea r ly set t led, a s t o lea ve
n o oppor t u n it y for t h e collect or s t o in cr ea se or dim in ish t h em . A por t ion of t h e
fr u it s of t h e ea r t h , a ca pit a t ion , a du t y of so m u ch per cen t on m er ch a n dise, a r e
t h e on ly t a xes su it a ble t o t h a t gover n m en t .
Mer ch a n t s in despot ic cou n t r ies ou gh t t o h a ve a per son a l sa fegu a r d, t o wh ich
a ll du e r espect sh ou ld be pa id. Wit h ou t t h is t h ey wou ld be t oo wea k t o dispu t e
wit h t h e cu st om -h ou se officer s.
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Wit h r espect t o con fisca t ion s, t h er e is on e t h in g ver y pa r t icu la r t h a t , con t r a r y
t o t h e gen er a l cu st om , t h ey a r e m or e sever e in E u r ope t h a n in Asia . In E u r ope
n ot on ly t h e m er ch a n dise, bu t even som et im es t h e sh ips a n d ca r r ia ges, a r e
con fisca t ed; wh ich is n ever pr a ct ised in Asia . Th is is beca u se in E u r ope t h e
m er ch a n t ca n h a ve r ecou r se t o m a gist r a t es, wh o a r e a ble t o sh elt er h im fr om
oppr ession ; in Asia t h e m a gist r a t es t h em selves wou ld be t h e gr ea t est
oppr essor s. Wh a t r em edy cou ld a m er ch a n t h a ve a ga in st a pa sh a wh o wa s
det er m in ed t o con fisca t e h is goods?
Th e pr in ce, t h er efor e, ch ecks h is own power , fin din g h im self u n der t h e
n ecessit y of a ct in g wit h som e kin d of len it y. In Tu r key t h ey r a ise on ly a sin gle
du t y for t h e im por t a t ion of goods, a n d a ft er wa r ds t h e wh ole cou n t r y is open t o
t h e m er ch a n t . Sm u gglin g is n ot a t t en ded wit h con fisca t ion or in cr ea se of du t y.
In Ch in a 7 t h ey n ever look in t o t h e ba gga ge of t h ose wh o a r e n ot m er ch a n t s.
Defr a u din g t h e cu st om s in t h e t er r it or y of t h e Mogu l is n ot pu n ish ed wit h
con fisca t ion , bu t wit h dou blin g t h e du t y. Th e pr in ces of Ta r t a r y, wh o r eside in
t own s, im pose sca r cely a n y du t y a t a ll on t h e goods t h a t pa ss t h r ou gh t h eir
cou n t r y. 8 In J a pa n , it is t r u e, t o ch ea t t h e cu st om s is a ca pit a l cr im e; bu t t h is
is beca u se t h ey h a ve pa r t icu la r r ea son s for pr oh ibit in g a ll com m u n ica t ion wit h
for eign er s; h en ce t h e fr a u d 9 is r a t h er a con t r a ven t ion of t h e la ws m a de for t h e
secu r it y of t h e gover n m en t t h a n of t h ose of com m er ce.
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It is a gen er a l r u le t h a t t a xes m a y be h ea vier in pr opor t ion t o t h e liber t y of t h e
su bject , a n d t h a t t h er e is a n ecessit y for r edu cin g t h em in pr opor t ion t o t h e
in cr ea se of sla ver y. Th is h a s a lwa ys been a n d a lwa ys will be t h e ca se. It is a
r u le der ived fr om n a t u r e t h a t n ever va r ies. We fin d it in a ll pa r t s — in E n gla n d,
in H olla n d, a n d in ever y st a t e wh er e liber t y gr a du a lly declin es, t ill we com e t o
Tu r key. Swit zer la n d seem s t o be a n except ion t o t h is r u le, beca u se t h ey pa y n o
t a xes; bu t t h e pa r t icu la r r ea son for t h a t exem pt ion is well kn own , a n d even
con fir m s wh a t I h a ve a dva n ced. In t h ose ba r r en m ou n t a in s pr ovision s a r e so
dea r , a n d t h e cou n t r y is so popu lou s, t h a t a Swiss pa ys fou r t im es m or e t o
n a t u r e t h a n a Tu r k does t o t h e su lt a n .
A con qu er in g people, su ch a s wer e for m er ly t h e At h en ia n s a n d t h e Rom a n s,

m a y r id t h em selves of a ll t a xes a s t h ey r eign over va n qu ish ed n a t ion s. Th en
in deed t h ey do n ot pa y in pr opor t ion t o t h eir liber t y, beca u se in t h is r espect
t h ey a r e n o lon ger a people, bu t a m on a r ch .
Bu t t h e gen er a l r u le st ill h olds good. In m oder a t e gover n m en t s t h er e is a n
in dem n it y for t h e weigh t of t h e t a xes, wh ich is liber t y. In despot ic cou n t r ies 10
t h er e is a n equ iva len t for liber t y, wh ich is t h e ligh t n ess of t h e t a xes.
In som e m on a r ch ies in E u r ope t h er e a r e pa r t icu la r pr ovin ces 11 wh ich fr om t h e
ver y n a t u r e of t h eir civil gover n m en t a r e in a m or e flou r ish in g con dit ion t h a n
t h e r est . It is pr et en ded t h a t t h ese pr ovin ces a r e n ot su fficien t ly t a xed, beca u se
t h r ou gh t h e goodn ess of t h eir gover n m en t t h ey a r e a ble t o be t a xed h igh er ;
h en ce t h e m in ist er s seem con st a n t ly t o a im a t depr ivin g t h em of t h is ver y
gover n m en t , wh en ce a diffu sive blessin g is der ived, wh ich r edou n ds even t o t h e
pr in ce’s a dva n t a ge.
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Ta xes m a y be in cr ea sed in m ost r epu blics, beca u se t h e cit izen , wh o t h in ks h e
is pa yin g h im self, ch eer fu lly su bm it s t o t h em , a n d m or eover is gen er a lly a ble
t o bea r t h eir weigh t , fr om t h e n a t u r e of t h e gover n m en t .
In a m on a r ch y t a xes m a y be in cr ea sed, beca u se t h e m oder a t ion of t h e
gover n m en t is ca pa ble of pr ocu r in g opu len ce: it is a r ecom pen se, a s it wer e,
gr a n t ed t o t h e pr in ce for t h e r espect h e sh ows t o t h e la ws. In despot ic
gover n m en t s t h ey ca n n ot be in cr ea sed, beca u se t h er e ca n be n o in cr ea se of t h e
ext r em it y of sla ver y.
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A ca pit a t ion is m or e n a t u r a l t o sla ver y; a du t y on m er ch a n dise is m or e n a t u r a l
t o liber t y, by r ea son it h a s n ot so dir ect a r ela t ion t o t h e per son .
It is n a t u r a l in a despot ic gover n m en t for t h e pr in ce n ot t o give m on ey t o h is
soldier s, or t o t h ose belon gin g t o h is cou r t ; bu t t o dist r ibu t e la n ds a m on gst
t h em , a n d of cou r se t h a t t h er e sh ou ld be ver y few t a xes. Bu t if t h e pr in ce gives
m on ey, t h e m ost n a t u r a l t a x h e ca n r a ise is a ca pit a t ion , wh ich ca n n ever be
con sider a ble. F or a s it is im possible t o m a ke differ en t cla sses of t h e
con t r ibu t or s, beca u se of t h e a bu ses t h a t m igh t a r ise t h en ce, con sider in g t h e

in ju st ice a n d violen ce of t h e gover n m en t , t h ey a r e u n der a n a bsolu t e n ecessit y
of r egu la t in g t h em selves by t h e r a t e of wh a t even t h e poor est a n d m ost
wr et ch ed a r e a ble t o con t r ibu t e.
Th e n a t u r a l t a x of m oder a t e gover n m en t s is t h e du t y la id on m er ch a n dise. As
t h is is r ea lly pa id by t h e con su m er , t h ou gh a dva n ced by t h e m er ch a n t , it is a
loa n wh ich t h e la t t er h a s a lr ea dy m a de t o t h e for m er . H en ce t h e m er ch a n t m u st
be con sider ed on t h e on e side a s t h e gen er a l debt or of t h e st a t e, a n d on t h e ot h er
a s t h e cr edit or of ever y in dividu a l. H e a dva n ces t o t h e st a t e t h e du t y wh ich t h e
con su m er will som et im e or ot h er r efu n d: a n d h e h a s pa id for t h e con su m er t h e
du t y wh ich h e h a s a dva n ced for t h e m er ch a n dise. It is t h er efor e obviou s t h a t in
pr opor t ion t o t h e m oder a t ion of t h e gover n m en t , t o t h e pr eva len ce of t h e spir it
of liber t y, a n d t o t h e secu r it y of pr iva t e for t u n es, a m er ch a n t h a s it in h is power
t o a dva n ce m on ey t o t h e st a t e, a n d t o pa y con sider a ble du t ies for in dividu a ls.
In E n gla n d a m er ch a n t len ds r ea lly t o t h e gover n m en t fift y or sixt y pou n ds
st er lin g for ever y t u n of win e h e im por t s. Wh er e is t h e m er ch a n t t h a t wou ld
da r e do a n y su ch t h in g in a cou n t r y like Tu r key? An d wer e h e so pr esu m pt u ou s,
h ow cou ld h e do it wit h a cr a zy or sh a t t er ed for t u n e?
BL1&:#F,%&'(&65#%.+H1&
To t h ese gr ea t a dva n t a ges of liber t y it is owin g t h a t liber t y it self h a s been
a bu sed. Beca u se a m oder a t e gover n m en t h a s been pr odu ct ive of a dm ir a ble
effect s, t h is m oder a t ion h a s been la id a side; beca u se gr ea t t a xes h a ve been
r a ised, t h ey wa n t ed t o ca r r y t h em t o excess; a n d u n gr a t efu l t o t h e h a n d of
liber t y, of wh om t h ey r eceived t h is pr esen t , t h ey a ddr essed t h em selves t o
sla ver y, wh o n ever gr a n t s t h e lea st fa vou r .
Liber t y pr odu ces excessive t a xes; t h e effect of excessive t a xes is sla ver y; a n d
sla ver y pr odu ces a dim in u t ion of t r ibu t e.
Most of t h e edict s of t h e ea st er n m on a r ch s a r e t o exem pt ever y yea r som e
pr ovin ce of t h eir em pir e fr om pa yin g t r ibu t e. 12 Th e m a n ifest a t ion s of t h eir wills
a r e fa vou r s. Bu t in E u r ope t h e edict s of pr in ces a r e disa gr eea ble even befor e
t h ey a r e seen , beca u se t h ey a lwa ys m a ke m en t ion of t h eir own wa n t s, bu t n ot
a wor d of ou r s.
F r om a n u n pa r don a ble in dolen ce in t h e m in ist er s of t h ose cou n t r ies, owin g t o

t h e n a t u r e of t h e gover n m en t , a n d fr equ en t ly t o t h e clim a t e, t h e people der ive
t h is a dva n t a ge, t h a t t h ey a r e n ot in cessa n t ly pla gu ed wit h n ew dem a n ds. Th e
pu blic expen se does n ot in cr ea se, beca u se t h e m in ist er s do n ot for m n ew
pr oject s: a n d if som e by ch a n ce a r e for m ed, t h ey a r e su ch a s a r e soon execu t ed.
Th e gover n or s of t h e st a t e do n ot per pet u a lly t or m en t t h e people, for t h ey do n ot
per pet u a lly. t or m en t t h em selves. Bu t it is im possible t h er e sh ou ld be a n y fixed
r u le in ou r fin a n ces, sin ce we a lwa ys kn ow t h a t we sh a ll h a ve som et h in g or
ot h er t o execu t e, wit h ou t ever kn owin g wh a t it is.
It is n o lon ger cu st om a r y wit h u s t o give t h e a ppella t ion of a gr ea t m in ist er
t o a wise dispen ser of t h e pu blic r even u es, bu t t o a per son of dext er it y a n d
cu n n in g, wh o is clever a t fin din g ou t wh a t we ca ll t h e wa ys a n d m ea n s.
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It wa s t h is excess of t a xes 13 t h a t occa sion ed t h e pr odigiou s fa cilit y wit h wh ich
t h e Ma h om et a n s ca r r ied on t h eir con qu est s. In st ea d of a con t in u a l ser ies of
ext or t ion s devised by t h e su bt le a va r ice of t h e Gr eek em per or s, t h e people wer e
su bject ed t o a sim ple t r ibu t e wh ich wa s pa id a n d collect ed wit h ea se. Th u s t h ey
wer e fa r h a ppier in obeyin g a ba r ba r ou s n a t ion t h a n a cor r u pt gover n m en t , in
wh ich t h ey su ffer ed ever y in con ven ien ce of lost liber t y, wit h a ll t h e h or r or of
pr esen t sla ver y.
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A n ew dist em per h a s spr ea d it self over E u r ope, in fect in g ou r pr in ces, a n d
in du cin g t h em t o keep u p a n exor bit a n t n u m ber of t r oops. It h a s it s r edou blin gs,
a n d of n ecessit y becom es con t a giou s. F or a s soon a s on e pr in ce a u gm en t s h is
for ces, t h e r est of cou r se do t h e sa m e; so t h a t n ot h in g is ga in ed t h er eby bu t t h e
pu blic r u in . E a ch m on a r ch keeps a s m a n y a r m ies on foot a s if h is people wer e
in da n ger of bein g ext er m in a t ed: a n d t h ey give t h e n a m e of pea ce 14 t o t h is
gen er a l effor t of a ll a ga in st a ll. Th u s is E u r ope r u in ed t o su ch a degr ee t h a t
wer e pr iva t e people t o be in t h e sa m e sit u a t ion a s t h e t h r ee m ost opu len t
power s of t h is pa r t of t h e globe, t h ey wou ld n ot h a ve n ecessa r y su bsist en ce. We
a r e poor wit h t h e r ich es a n d com m er ce of t h e wh ole wor ld; a n d soon , by t h u s
a u gm en t in g ou r t r oops, we sh a ll be a ll soldier s, a n d be r edu ced t o t h e ver y sa m e

sit u a t ion a s t h e Ta r t a r s.15
Gr ea t pr in ces, n ot sa t isfied wit h h ir in g or bu yin g t r oops of pet t y st a t es, m a ke
it t h eir bu sin ess on a ll sides t o pa y su bsidies for a llia n ces, t h a t is, gen er a lly t o
t h r ow a wa y t h eir m on ey.
Th e con sequ en ce of su ch a sit u a t ion is t h e per pet u a l a u gm en t a t ion of t a xes;
a n d t h e m isch ief wh ich pr even t s a ll fu t u r e r em edy is t h a t t h ey r eckon n o m or e
u pon t h eir r even u es, bu t in wa gin g wa r a ga in st t h eir wh ole ca pit a l. It is n o
u n u su a l t h in g t o see gover n m en t s m or t ga ge t h eir fu n ds even in t im e of pea ce,
a n d t o em ploy wh a t t h ey ca ll ext r a or din a r y m ea n s t o r u in t h em selves — m ea n s
so ext r a or din a r y in deed, t h a t su ch a r e h a r dly t h ou gh t of by t h e m ost
ext r a va ga n t you n g spen dt h r ift .
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Th e m a xim of t h e gr ea t ea st er n em pir es, of exem pt in g su ch pr ovin ces a s h a ve
ver y m u ch su ffer ed fr om t a xes, ou gh t t o be ext en ded t o m on a r ch ica l st a t es.
Th er e a r e som e, in deed, wh er e t h is pr a ct ice is est a blish ed; yet t h e cou n t r y is
m or e oppr essed t h a n if n o su ch r u le t ook pla ce; beca u se a s t h e pr in ce levies st ill
n eit h er m or e n or less, t h e st a t e becom es bou n d for t h e wh ole. In or der t o ea se
a villa ge t h a t pa ys ba dly, t h ey loa d a n ot h er t h a t pa ys bet t er ; t h e for m er is n ot
r elieved, a n d t h e la t t er is r u in ed. Th e people gr ow desper a t e, bet ween t h e
n ecessit y of pa yin g for fea r of exa ct ion s, a n d t h e da n ger of pa yin g for fea r of n ew
bu r den s.
A well-r egu la t ed gover n m en t ou gh t t o set a side, for t h e fir st a r t icle of it s
expen se, a det er m in a t e su m t o a n swer con t in gen t ca ses. It is wit h t h e pu blic a s
wit h in dividu a ls, wh o a r e r u in ed wh en t h ey live u p exa ct ly t o t h eir in com e.
Wit h r ega r d t o a n obliga t ion for t h e wh ole a m on gst t h e in h a bit a n t s of t h e
sa m e villa ge, som e pr et en d 16 t h a t it is bu t r ea son a ble, beca u se t h er e is a
possibilit y of a fr a u du len t com bin a t ion on t h eir side: bu t wa s it ever h ea r d t h a t ,
u pon m er e su pposit ion , we a r e t o est a blish a t h in g in it self u n ju st a n d r u in ou s
t o t h e st a t e?
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(".<5*D&+-%&/%;%*F%,I&'.&<"*"D5*D&+-%<&#H&)'<<5,,5'*1
Th e m a n a gin g of t h e r even u es by com m ission is lik e t h e con du ct of a good
fa t h er of a fa m ily, wh o collect s h is own r en t s h im self wit h econ om y a n d or der .
By t h is m a n a gem en t of t h e r even u es t h e pr in ce is a t liber t y t o pr ess or t o
r et a r d t h e levy of t h e t a xes, eit h er a ccor din g t o h is own wa n t s or t o t h ose of h is
people. By t h is h e sa ves t o t h e st a t e t h e im m en se pr ofit s of t h e fa r m er s, wh o
im pover ish it in a t h ou sa n d wa ys. By t h is h e pr even t s t h e people fr om bein g
m or t ified wit h t h e sigh t of su dden for t u n es. By t h is t h e pu blic m on ey pa sses
t h r ou gh few h a n ds, goes dir ect ly t o t h e t r ea su r y, a n d con sequ en t ly m a kes a
qu icker r et u r n t o t h e people. By t h is t h e pr in ce a voids a n in fin it e n u m ber of ba d
la ws ext or t ed fr om h im by t h e im por t u n a t e a va r ice of t h e fa r m er s, wh o pr et en d
t o offer a pr esen t a dva n t a ge for r egu la t ion s per n iciou s t o post er it y.
As t h e m on eyed m a n is a lwa ys t h e m ost power fu l, t h e fa r m er r en der s h im self
a r bit r a r y even over t h e pr in ce h im self; h e is n ot t h e legisla t or , bu t h e obliges
t h e legisla t or t o give la ws.
I a ckn owledge t h a t it is som et im es of u se t o fa r m ou t a n ew du t y, for t h er e is
a n a r t in pr even t in g fr a u ds, wh ich m ot ives of in t er est su ggest t o t h e fa r m er s,
bu t com m ission er s n ever t h in k of. Now t h e m a n n er of levyin g it bein g on ce
est a blish ed by t h e fa r m er , it m a y a ft er wa r ds be sa fely en t r u st ed t o a
com m ission . In E n gla n d t h e m a n a gem en t of t h e E xcise a n d of t h e P ost -office
wa s bor r owed fr om t h a t of t h e fa r m er s of t h e r even u e.
In r epu blics t h e r even u es of t h e st a t e a r e gen er a lly m a n a ged by com m ission .
Th e con t r a r y pr a ct ice wa s a gr ea t defect in t h e Rom a n gover n m en t . 17 In despot ic
gover n m en t s t h e people a r e in fin it ely h a ppier wh er e t h is m a n a gem en t is
est a blish ed — wit n ess P er sia a n d Ch in a . 18 Th e u n h a ppiest of a ll a r e t h ose
wh er e t h e pr in ce fa r m s ou t h is sea -por t s a n d t r a din g cit ies. Th e h ist or y of
m on a r ch ies a bou n ds wit h m isch iefs don e by t h e fa r m er s of t h e r even u e.
In cen sed a t t h e oppr essive ext or t ion s of t h e pu blica n s, Ner o for m ed a
m a gn a n im ou s bu t im pr a ct ica ble sch em e of a bolish in g a ll kin ds of im post s. H e
did n ot t h in k of m a n a gin g t h e r even u es by com m ission er s, bu t h e m a de fou r
edict s:19 t h a t t h e la ws en a ct ed a ga in st pu blica n s, wh ich h a d h it h er t o been kept
secr et , sh ou ld be pr om u lga t ed; t h a t t h ey sh ou ld exa ct n o cla im s for a bove a yea r
ba ckwa r d; t h a t t h er e sh ou ld be a pr a et or est a blish ed t o det er m in e t h eir

pr et en sion s wit h ou t a n y for m a lit y; a n d t h a t t h e m er ch a n t s sh ou ld pa y n o du t y
for t h eir vessels. Th ese wer e t h e h a lcyon da ys of t h a t em per or .
ET1&@(&+-%&Y".<%.,&'(&+-%&/%;%*F%,1
Wh en t h e lu cr a t ive pr ofession of a fa r m er of t h e r even u e becom es likewise a
post of h on ou r , t h e st a t e is r u in ed. It m a y do well en ou gh in despot ic
gover n m en t s, wh er e t h is em ploym en t is oft en
t im es exer cised by t h e gover n or s t h em selves. Bu t it is by n o m ea n s pr oper in
a r epu blic, sin ce a cu st om of t h e like n a t u r e dest r oyed t h a t of Rom e. Nor is it
bet t er in m on a r ch ies, n ot h in g bein g m or e opposit e t o t h e spir it of t h is
gover n m en t . All t h e ot h er or der s of t h e st a t e a r e dissa t isfied; h on ou r loses it s
wh ole va lu e; t h e gr a du a l a n d n a t u r a l m ea n s of dist in ct ion a r e n o lon ger
r espect ed; a n d t h e ver y pr in ciple of t h e gover n m en t is su bver t ed.
It is t r u e in deed t h a t sca n da lou s for t u n es wer e r a ised in for m er t im es; bu t
t h is wa s on e of t h e ca la m it ies of t h e F ift y Yea r s’ Wa r . Th ese r ich es wer e t h en
con sider ed a s r idicu lou s; n ow we a dm ir e t h em .
E ver y pr ofession h a s it s pa r t icu la r lot . Th a t of t h e t a x-ga t h er er s is wea lt h ;
a n d wea lt h is it s own r ewa r d. Glor y a n d h on ou r fa ll t o t h e sh a r e of t h a t n obilit y
wh o a r e sen sible of n o ot h er h a ppin ess. Respect a n d est eem a r e for t h ose
m in ist er s a n d m a gist r a t es wh ose wh ole life is a con t in u ed ser ies of la bou r , a n d
wh o wa t ch da y a n d n igh t over t h e welfa r e of t h e em pir e.
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1. P lu t a r ch , Not a ble Sa yin gs of t h e La ceda em on ia n s.
2. Th is is wh a t in du ced Ch a r lem a gn e t o m a ke h is excellen t in st it u t ion u pon t h is
h ea d. See t h e fift h book of t h e Ca pit u la r ies, a r t . 303.
3. Th is is t h e pr a ct ice in Ger m a n y.
4. P ollu x, viii. 10, a r t . 130.
5. Or 60 m in a e.
6. Ta cit u s, An n als, xiii. 31.
7. F a t h er Du H a lde, ii, p. 37.
8. H ist or y of t h e Ta r t a r s, pa r t III, p. 290.
9. Bein g willin g t o t r a de wit h for eign er s wit h ou t h a vin g a n y com m u n ica t ion
wit h t h em , t h ey h a ve pit ch ed u pon t wo n a t ion s for t h a t pu r pose — t h e
Du t ch for t h e com m er ce of E u r ope, a n d t h e Ch in ese for t h a t of Asia ; t h ey
con fin e t h e fa ct or s a n d sa ilor s in a kin d of pr ison , a n d la y su ch a r est r a in t
u pon t h em a s t ir es t h eir pa t ien ce.
10. In Ru ssia t h e t a xes a r e bu t sm a ll; t h ey h a ve been in cr ea sed sin ce t h e
despot ic power of t h e pr in ce is exer cised wit h m or e m oder a t ion . See t h e
H istory of th e T artars, pa r t II.
11. Th e P a ys d’et a t s, wh er e t h e st a t es of t h e pr ovin ce a ssem ble t o deliber a t e on
pu blic a ffa ir s.
12. Th is is t h e pr a ct ice of t h e em per or s of Ch in a .
13. See in h ist or y t h e gr ea t n ess, t h e oddit y, a n d even t h e folly of t h ose t a xes.
An a st a siu s in ven t ed a t a x for br ea t h in g, u t qu isqu e pr o h a u st u a er is
pen der et .
14. Tr u e it is t h a t t h is st a t e of effor t is t h e ch ief su ppor t of t h e ba la n ce, beca u se
it ch ecks t h e gr ea t power s.
15. All t h a t is wa n t in g for t h is is t o im pr ove t h e n ew in ven t ion of t h e m ilit ia
est a blish ed in m ost pa r t s of E u r ope, a n d ca r r y it t o t h e sa m e excess a s t h ey
do t h e r egu la r t r oops.
16. See A T reatise on th e R om an Fin an ces, 2, P a r is, 1740.
17. Ca esa r wa s obliged t o r em ove t h e pu blica n s fr om t h e pr ovin ce of Asia , a n d
t o est a blish t h er e a n ot h er kin d of r egu la t ion , a s we lea r n fr om Dio, xlii. 6;
a n d Ta cit u s, An n als, i. 76, in for m s u s t h a t Ma cedon ia a n d Ach a ia , pr ovin ces
left by Au gu st u s t o t h e people of Rom e, a n d con sequ en t ly gover n ed pu r su a n t
t o t h e a n cien t pla n , obt a in ed t o be of t h e n u m ber of t h ose wh ich t h e em per or
gover n ed by h is officer s.
18. See Sir J oh n Ch a r din ’s T ravels th rou gh Persia, vi.
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If it be t r u e t h a t t h e t em per of t h e m in d a n d t h e pa ssion s of t h e h ea r t a r e
ext r em ely differ en t in differ en t clim a t es, t h e la ws ou gh t t o be in r ela t ion bot h
t o t h e va r iet y of t h ose pa ssion s a n d t o t h e va r iet y of t h ose t em per s.
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Cold a ir con st r in ges t h e ext r em it ies of t h e ext er n a l fibr es of t h e body;1 t h is
in cr ea ses t h eir ela st icit y, a n d fa vou r s t h e r et u r n of t h e blood fr om t h e ext r em e
pa r t s t o t h e h ea r t . It con t r a ct s 2 t h ose ver y fibr es; con sequ en t ly it in cr ea ses a lso
t h eir for ce. On t h e con t r a r y, wa r m a ir r ela xes a n d len gt h en s t h e ext r em es of t h e
fibr es; of cou r se it dim in ish es t h eir for ce a n d ela st icit y.
P eople a r e t h er efor e m or e vigor ou s in cold clim a t es. H er e t h e a ct ion of t h e
h ea r t a n d t h e r ea ct ion of t h e ext r em it ies of t h e fibr es a r e bet t er per for m ed, t h e
t em per a t u r e of t h e h u m ou r s is gr ea t er , t h e blood m oves m or e fr eely t owa r ds t h e
h ea r t , a n d r ecipr oca lly t h e h ea r t h a s m or e power . Th is su per ior it y of st r en gt h
m u st pr odu ce va r iou s effect s; for in st a n ce, a gr ea t er boldn ess, t h a t is, m or e
cou r a ge; a gr ea t er sen se of su per ior it y, t h a t is, less desir e of r even ge; a gr ea t er
opin ion of secu r it y, t h a t is, m or e fr a n kn ess, less su spicion , policy, a n d cu n n in g.
In sh or t , t h is m u st be pr odu ct ive of ver y differ en t t em per s. P u t a m a n in t o a
close, wa r m pla ce, a n d for t h e r ea son s a bove given h e will feel a gr ea t fa in t n ess.
If u n der t h is cir cu m st a n ce you pr opose a bold en t er pr ise t o h im , I believe you
will fin d h im ver y lit t le disposed t owa r ds it ; h is pr esen t wea kn ess will t h r ow
h im in t o despon den cy; h e will be a fr a id of ever yt h in g, bein g in a st a t e of t ot a l
in ca pa cit y. Th e in h a bit a n t s of wa r m cou n t r ies a r e, like old m en , t im or ou s; t h e
people in cold cou n t r ies a r e, like you n g m en , br a ve. If we r eflect on t h e la t e
wa r s, 3 wh ich a r e m or e r ecen t in ou r m em or y, a n d in wh ich we ca n bet t er
dist in gu ish som e pa r t icu la r effect s t h a t esca pe u s a t a gr ea t er dist a n ce of t im e,

we sh a ll fin d t h a t t h e n or t h er n people, t r a n spla n t ed in t o sou t h er n r egion s,4 did
n ot per for m su ch exploit s a s t h eir cou n t r ym en wh o, figh t in g in t h eir own
clim a t e, possessed t h eir fu ll vigou r a n d cou r a ge.
Th is st r en gt h of t h e fibr es in n or t h er n n a t ion s is t h e ca u se t h a t t h e coa r ser
ju ices a r e ext r a ct ed fr om t h eir a lim en t s. H en ce t wo t h in gs r esu lt : on e, t h a t t h e
pa r t s of t h e ch yle or lym ph a r e m or e pr oper , by r ea son of t h eir la r ge su r fa ce, t o
be a pplied t o a n d t o n ou r ish t h e fibr es; t h e ot h er , t h a t t h ey a r e less pr oper , fr om
t h eir coa r sen ess, t o give a cer t a in su bt ilt y t o t h e n er vou s ju ice. Th ose people
h a ve t h er efor e la r ge bodies a n d bu t lit t le viva cit y.
Th e n er ves t h a t t er m in a t e fr om a ll pa r t s in t h e cu t is for m ea ch a n er vou s
bu n dle; gen er a lly spea kin g, t h e wh ole n er ve is n ot m oved, bu t a ver y m in u t e
pa r t . In wa r m clim a t es, wh er e t h e cu t is is r ela xed, t h e en ds of t h e n er ves a r e
expa n ded a n d la id open t o t h e wea kest a ct ion of t h e sm a llest object s. In cold
cou n t r ies t h e cu t is is con st in ged a n d t h e pa pilla e com pr essed: t h e m ilia r y
gla n ds a r e in som e m ea su r e pa r a lyt ic; a n d t h e sen sa t ion does n ot r ea ch t h e
br a in , except wh en it is ver y st r on g a n d pr oceeds fr om t h e wh ole n er ve a t on ce.
Now, im a gin a t ion , t a st e, sen sibilit y, a n d viva cit y depen d on a n in fin it e n u m ber
of sm a ll sen sa t ion s.
I h a ve obser ved t h e ou t er m ost pa r t of a sh eep’s t on gu e, wh er e, t o t h e n a ked
eye, it seem s cover ed wit h pa pilla e. On t h ese pa pilla e I h a ve discer n ed t h r ou gh
a m icr oscope sm a ll h a ir s, or a kin d of down ; bet ween t h e pa pilla e wer e
pyr a m ids sh a ped t owa r ds t h e en ds like pin cer s. Ver y likely t h ese pyr a m ids a r e
t h e pr in cipa l or ga n of t a st e.
I ca u sed t h e h a lf of t h is t on gu e t o be fr ozen , a n d, obser vin g it wit h t h e n a ked
eye, I fou n d t h e pa pilla e con sider a bly dim in ish ed: even som e r ows of t h em wer e
su n k in t o t h eir sh ea t h . Th e ou t er m ost pa r t I exa m in ed wit h t h e m icr oscope, a n d
per ceived n o pyr a m ids. In pr opor t ion a s t h e fr ost wen t off, t h e pa pilla e seem ed
t o t h e n a ked eye t o r ise, a n d wit h t h e m icr oscope t h e m ilia r y gla n ds bega n t o
a ppea r .
Th is obser va t ion con fir m s wh a t I h a ve been sa yin g, t h a t in cold cou n t r ies t h e
n er vou s gla n ds a r e less expa n ded: t h ey sin k deeper in t o t h eir sh ea t h s, or t h ey
a r e sh elt er ed fr om t h e a ct ion of ext er n a l object s; con sequ en t ly t h ey h a ve n ot
su ch lively sen sa t ion s.

In cold cou n t r ies t h ey h a ve ver y lit t le sen sibilit y t or plea su r e; in t em per a t e
cou n t r ies, t h ey h a ve m or e; in wa r m cou n t r ies, t h eir sen sibilit y is exqu isit e. As
clim a t es a r e dist in gu ish ed by degr ees of la t it u de, we m igh t dist in gu ish t h em
a lso in som e m ea su r e by t h ose of sen sibilit y. I h a ve been a t t h e oper a in
E n gla n d a n d in It a ly, wh er e I h a ve seen t h e sa m e pieces a n d t h e sa m e
per for m er s: a n d yet t h e sa m e m u sic pr odu ces su ch differ en t effect s on t h e t wo
n a t ion s: on e is so cold a n d ph legm a t ic, a n d t h e ot h er so lively a n d en r a pt u r ed,
t h a t it seem s a lm ost in con ceiva ble.
It is t h e sa m e wit h r ega r d t o pa in , wh ich is excit ed by t h e la cer a t ion of som e
fibr e of t h e body. Th e Au t h or of n a t u r e h a s m a de it a n est a blish ed r u le t h a t t h is
pa in sh ou ld be m or e a cu t e in pr opor t ion a s t h e la cer a t ion is gr ea t er : n ow it is
eviden t t h a t t h e la r ge bodies a n d coa r se fibr es of t h e people of t h e n or t h a r e less
ca pa ble of la cer a t ion t h a n t h e delica t e fibr es of t h e in h a bit a n t s of wa r m
cou n t r ies; con sequ en t ly t h e sou l is t h er e less sen sible of pa in . You m u st fla y a
Mu scovit e a live t o m a ke h im feel.
F r om t h is delica cy of or ga n s pecu lia r t o wa r m clim a t es it follows t h a t t h e sou l
is m ost sen sibly m oved by wh a t ever r ela t es t o t h e u n ion of t h e t wo sexes: h er e
ever yt h in g lea ds t o t h is object .
In n or t h er n clim a t es sca r cely h a s t h e a n im a l pa r t of love a power of m a kin g
it self felt . In t em per a t e clim a t es, love, a t t en ded by a t h ou sa n d a ppen da ges,
en dea vou r s t o plea se by t h in gs t h a t h a ve a t fir st t h e a ppea r a n ce, t h ou gh n ot t h e
r ea lit y, of t h is pa ssion . In wa r m er clim a t es it is liked for it s own sa ke, it is t h e
on ly ca u se of h a ppin ess, it is life it self.
In sou t h er n cou n t r ies a m a ch in e of a delica t e fr a m e bu t st r on g sen sibilit y
r esign s it self eit h er t o a love wh ich r ises a n d is in cessa n t ly la id in a ser a glio, or
t o a pa ssion wh ich lea ves wom en in a gr ea t er in depen den ce, a n d is con sequ en t ly
exposed t o a t h ou sa n d in qu iet u des. In n or t h er n r egion s a m a ch in e r obu st a n d
h ea vy fin ds plea su r e in wh a t ever is a pt t o t h r ow t h e spir it s in t o m ot ion , su ch
a s h u n t in g, t r a vellin g, wa r , a n d win e. If we t r a vel t owa r ds t h e n or t h , we m eet
wit h people wh o h a ve few vices, m a n y vir t u es, a n d a gr ea t sh a r e of fr a n kn ess
a n d sin cer it y. If we dr a w n ea r t h e sou t h , we fa n cy ou r selves en t ir ely r em oved
fr om t h e ver ge of m or a lit y; h er e t h e st r on gest pa ssion s a r e pr odu ct ive of a ll
m a n n er of cr im es, ea ch m a n en dea vou r in g, let t h e m ea n s be wh a t t h ey will, t o

in du lge h is in or din a t e desir es. In t em per a t e clim a t es we fin d t h e in h a bit a n t s
in con st a n t in t h eir m a n n er s, a s well a s in t h eir vices a n d vir t u es: t h e clim a t e
h a s n ot a qu a lit y det er m in a t e en ou gh t o fix t h em .
Th e h ea t of t h e clim a t e m a y be so excessive a s t o depr ive t h e body of a ll vigou r
a n d st r en gt h . Th en t h e fa in t n ess is com m u n ica t ed t o t h e m in d; t h er e is n o
cu r iosit y, n o en t er pr ise, n o gen er osit y of sen t im en t ; t h e in clin a t ion s a r e a ll
pa ssive; in dolen ce con st it u t es t h e u t m ost h a ppin ess; sca r cely a n y pu n ish m en t
is so sever e a s m en t a l em ploym en t ; a n d sla ver y is m or e su ppor t a ble t h a n t h e
for ce a n d vigou r of m in d n ecessa r y for h u m a n con du ct .
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Th e In dia n s 5 a r e n a t u r a lly a pu silla n im ou s people; even t h e ch ildr en 6 of
E u r opea n s bor n in In dia lose t h e cou r a ge pecu lia r t o t h eir own clim a t e. Bu t h ow
sh a ll we r econ cile t h is wit h t h eir cu st om s a n d pen a n ces so fu ll of ba r ba r it y? Th e
m en volu n t a r ily u n der go t h e gr ea t est h a r dsh ips, a n d t h e wom en bu r n
t h em selves; h er e we fin d a ver y odd com pou n d of for t it u de a n d wea kn ess.
Na t u r e, h a vin g fr a m ed t h ose people of a t ext u r e so wea k a s t o fill t h em wit h
t im idit y, h a s for m ed t h em a t t h e sa m e t im e of a n im a gin a t ion so lively t h a t
ever y object m a kes t h e st r on gest im pr ession u pon t h em . Th a t delica cy of or ga n s
wh ich r en der s t h em a ppr eh en sive of dea t h con t r ibu t es likewise t o m a ke t h em
dr ea d a t h ou sa n d t h in gs m or e t h a n dea t h : t h e ver y sa m e sen sibilit y in du ces
t h em t o fly a n d da r e a ll da n ger s.
As a good edu ca t ion is m or e n ecessa r y t o ch ildr en t h a n t o su ch a s h a ve a r r ived
a t m a t u r it y of u n der st a n din g, so t h e in h a bit a n t s of t h ose cou n t r ies h a ve m u ch
gr ea t er n eed t h a n t h e E u r opea n n a t ion s of a wiser legisla t or . Th e gr ea t er t h eir
sen sibilit y, t h e m or e it beh oves t h em t o r eceive pr oper im pr ession s, t o im bibe
n o pr eju dices, a n d t o let t h em selves be dir ect ed by r ea son .
At t h e t im e of t h e Rom a n s t h e in h a bit a n t s of t h e n or t h of E u r ope wer e
dest it u t e of a r t s, edu ca t ion , a n d a lm ost of la ws; a n d yet t h e good sen se a n n exed
t o t h e gr oss fibr es of t h ose clim a t es en a bled t h em t o m a ke a n a dm ir a ble st a n d
a ga in st t h e power of Rom e, t ill t h e m em or a ble per iod in wh ich t h ey qu it t ed
t h eir woods t o su bver t t h a t gr ea t em pir e.
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If t o t h a t delica cy of or ga n s wh ich r en der s t h e ea st er n n a t ion s so su scept ible
of ever y im pr ession you a dd likewise a sor t of in dolen ce of m in d, n a t u r a lly
con n ect ed wit h t h a t of t h e body, by m ea n s of wh ich t h ey gr ow in ca pa ble of a n y
exer t ion or effor t , it is ea sy t o com pr eh en d t h a t wh en on ce t h e sou l h a s r eceived
a n im pr ession it ca n n ot ch a n ge it . Th is is t h e r ea son t h a t t h e la ws, m a n n er s,
a n d cu st om s,7 even t h ose wh ich seem qu it e in differ en t , su ch a s t h eir m ode of
dr ess, a r e t h e sa m e t o t h is ver y da y in ea st er n cou n t r ies a s t h ey wer e a
t h ou sa n d yea r s a go.
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Th e In dia n s believe t h a t r epose a n d n on -exist en ce a r e t h e fou n da t ion of a ll
t h in gs, a n d t h e en d in wh ich t h ey t er m in a t e. H en ce t h ey con sider en t ir e
in a ct ion a s t h e m ost per fect of a ll st a t es, a n d t h e object of t h eir desir es. To t h e
Su pr em e Bein g t h ey give t h e t it le of im m ova ble. 8 Th e in h a bit a n t s of Sia m
believe t h a t t h eir u t m ost h a ppin ess 9 con sist s in n ot bein g obliged t o a n im a t e a
m a ch in e, or t o give m ot ion t o a body.
In t h ose cou n t r ies wh er e t h e excess of h ea t en er va t es a n d exh a u st s t h e body,
r est is so deliciou s, a n d m ot ion so pa in fu l, t h a t t h is syst em of m et a ph ysics
seem s n a t u r a l; a n d F oe,10 t h e legisla t or of t h e In dies, wa s dir ect ed by h is own
sen sa t ion s wh en h e pla ced m a n kin d in a st a t e ext r em ely pa ssive; bu t h is
doct r in e a r isin g fr om t h e la zin ess of t h e clim a t e fa vou r ed it a lso in it s t u r n ;
wh ich h a s been t h e sou r ce of a n in fin it e dea l of m isch ief.
Th e legisla t or s of Ch in a wer e m or e r a t ion a l wh en , con sider in g m en n ot in t h e
pea cefu l st a t e wh ich t h ey a r e t o en joy h er ea ft er , bu t in t h e sit u a t ion pr oper for
disch a r gin g t h e sever a l du t ies of life, t h ey m a de t h eir r eligion , ph ilosoph y, a n d
la ws a ll pr a ct ica l. Th e m or e t h e ph ysica l ca u ses in clin e m a n kin d t o in a ct ion , t h e
m or e t h e m or a l ca u ses sh ou ld est r a n ge t h em fr om it .
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Agr icu lt u r e is t h e pr in cipa l la bou r of m a n . Th e m or e t h e clim a t e in clin es h im
t o sh u n t h is la bou r , t h e m or e t h e r eligion a n d la ws of t h e cou n t r y ou gh t t o in cit e
h im t o it . Th u s t h e In dia n la ws, wh ich give t h e la n ds t o t h e pr in ce, a n d dest r oy
t h e spir it of pr oper t y a m on g t h e su bject s, in cr ea se t h e ba d effect s of t h e clim a t e,
t h a t is, t h eir n a t u r a l in dolen ce.
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Th e ver y sa m e m isch iefs r esu lt fr om m on ker y: it h a d it s r ise in t h e wa r m
cou n t r ies of t h e E a st , wh er e t h ey a r e less in clin ed t o a ct ion t h a n t o specu la t ion .
In Asia t h e n u m ber of der vish es or m on ks seem s t o in cr ea se t oget h er wit h t h e
wa r m t h of t h e clim a t e. Th e In dies, wh er e t h e h ea t is excessive, a r e fu ll of t h em ;
a n d t h e sa m e differ en ce is fou n d in E u r ope.
In or der t o su r m ou n t t h e la zin ess of t h e clim a t e, t h e la ws ou gh t t o en dea vou r
t o r em ove a ll m ea n s of su bsist in g wit h ou t la bou r : bu t in t h e sou t h er n pa r t s of
E u r ope t h ey a ct qu it e t h e r ever se. To t h ose wh o wa n t t o live in a st a t e of
in dolen ce, t h ey a ffor d r et r ea t s t h e m ost pr oper for a specu la t ive life, a n d en dow
t h em wit h im m en se r even u es. Th ese m en , wh o live in t h e m idst of plen t y wh ich
t h ey kn ow n ot h ow t o en joy, a r e in t h e r igh t t o give t h eir su per flu it ies a wa y t o
t h e com m on people. Th e poor a r e ber eft of pr oper t y; a n d t h ese m en in dem n ify
t h em by su ppor t in g t h em in idlen ess, so a s t o m a ke t h em even gr ow fon d of
t h eir m iser y.
Q1&:*&%V9%$$%*+&)F,+'<&'(&)-5*"1
Th e h ist or ica l r ela t ion s 11 of Ch in a m en t ion a cer em on y 12 of open in g t h e gr ou n d
wh ich t h e em per or per for m s ever y yea r . Th e design of t h is pu blic a n d solem n
a ct is t o excit e t h e people t o t illa ge.13
F u r t h er , t h e em per or is ever y yea r in for m ed of t h e h u sba n dm a n wh o h a s
dist in gu ish ed h im self m ost in h is pr ofession ; a n d h e m a kes h im a m a n da r in of
t h e eigh t h or der .
Am on g t h e a n cien t P er sia n s 14 t h e kin gs qu it t ed t h eir gr a n deu r a n d pom p on
t h e eigh t h da y of t h e m on t h , ca lled Ch or r em r u z, t o ea t wit h t h e h u sba n dm en .
Th ese in st it u t ion s wer e a dm ir a bly ca lcu la t ed for t h e en cou r a gem en t of

a gr icu lt u r e.
S1&K%"*,&'(&%*9'F."D5*D&?*0F,+.H1
We sh a ll sh ow, in t h e n in et een t h book, t h a t la zy n a t ion s a r e gen er a lly pr ou d.
N ow t h e effect m igh t well be t u r n ed a ga in st t h e ca u se, a n d la zin ess be
dest r oyed by pr ide. In t h e sou t h of E u r ope, wh er e people h a ve su ch a h igh
n ot ion of t h e poin t of h on ou r , it wou ld be r igh t t o give pr izes t o h u sba n dm en
wh o h a d excelled in a gr icu lt u r e; or t o a r t ist s wh o h a d m a de t h e gr ea t est
im pr ovem en t s in t h eir sever a l pr ofession s. Th is pr a ct ice h a s su cceeded in ou r
da ys in Ir ela n d, wh er e it h a s est a blish ed on e of t h e m ost con sider a ble lin en
m a n u fa ct u r es in E u r ope.
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In wa r m cou n t r ies t h e a qu eou s pa r t of t h e blood loses it self gr ea t ly by
per spir a t ion ;15 it m u st t h er efor e be su pplied by a like liqu id. Wa t er is t h er e of
a dm ir a ble u se; st r on g liqu or s wou ld con gea l t h e globu les 16 of blood t h a t r em a in
a ft er t h e t r a n su din g of t h e a qu eou s h u m ou r .
In cold cou n t r ies t h e a qu eou s pa r t of t h e blood is ver y lit t le eva cu a t ed by
per spir a t ion . Th ey m a y t h er efor e m a ke u se of spir it u ou s liqu or s, wit h ou t wh ich
t h e blood wou ld con gea l. Th ey a r e fu ll of h u m ou r s; con sequ en t ly st r on g liqu or s,
wh ich give a m ot ion t o t h e blood, a r e pr oper for t h ose cou n t r ies.
Th e la w of Ma h om et , wh ich pr oh ibit s t h e dr in kin g of win e, is t h er efor e fit t ed
t o t h e clim a t e of Ar a bia : a n d in deed, befor e Ma h om et ’s t im e, wa t er wa s t h e
com m on dr in k of t h e Ar a bs. Th e la w 17 wh ich for ba de t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s t o dr in k
win e wa s a la w of t h e clim a t e; a n d, in deed, t h e clim a t e of t h ose t wo cou n t r ies
is pr et t y n ea r ly t h e sa m e.
Su ch a la w wou ld be im pr oper for cold cou n t r ies, wh er e t h e clim a t e seem s t o
for ce t h em t o a kin d of n a t ion a l in t em per a n ce, ver y differ en t fr om per son a l
ebr iet y. Dr u n ken n ess pr edom in a t es t h r ou gh ou t t h e wor ld, in pr opor t ion t o t h e
coldn ess a n d h u m idit y of t h e clim a t e. Go fr om t h e equ a t or t o t h e n or t h pole, a n d
you will fin d t h is vice in cr ea sin g t oget h er wit h t h e degr ee of la t it u de. Go fr om
t h e equ a t or a ga in t o t h e sou t h pole, a n d you will fin d t h e sa m e vice t r a vellin g
sou t h , 18 exa ct ly in t h e sa m e pr opor t ion .

It is ver y n a t u r a l t h a t wh er e win e is con t r a r y t o t h e clim a t e, a n d con sequ en t ly
t o h ea lt h , t h e excess of it sh ou ld be m or e sever ely pu n ish ed t h a n in cou n t r ies
wh er e in t oxica t ion pr odu ces ver y few ba d effect s t o t h e per son , fewer t o t h e
societ y, a n d wh er e it does n ot m a ke people fr a n t ic a n d wild, bu t on ly st u pid a n d
h ea vy. H en ce t h ose la ws 19 wh ich in flict ed a dou ble pu n ish m en t for cr im es
com m it t ed in dr u n ken n ess wer e a pplica ble on ly t o a per son a l, a n d n ot t o a
n a t ion a l, ebr iet y. A Ger m a n dr in ks t h r ou gh cu st om , a n d a Spa n ia r d by ch oice.
In wa r m cou n t r ies t h e r ela xin g of t h e fibr es pr odu ces a gr ea t eva cu a t ion of t h e
liqu ids, bu t t h e solid pa r t s a r e less t r a n spir ed. Th e fibr es, wh ich a ct bu t fa in t ly,
a n d h a ve ver y lit t le ela st icit y, a r e n ot m u ch im pa ir ed; a n d a sm a ll qu a n t it y of
n u t r it iou s ju ice is su fficien t t o r epa ir t h em ; for wh ich r ea son t h ey ea t ver y lit t le.
It is t h e va r iet y of wa n t s in differ en t clim a t es t h a t fir st occa sion ed a differ en ce
in t h e m a n n er of livin g, a n d t h is ga ve r ise t o a va r iet y of la ws. Wh er e people a r e
ver y com m u n ica t ive t h er e m u st be pa r t icu la r la ws, a n d ot h er s wh er e t h er e is
bu t lit t le com m u n ica t ion .
BB1&@(&+-%&6"7,&5*&.%$"+5'*&+'&+-%&C5,+%<4%.,&'(&+-%&)$5<"+%1
H er odot u s 20 in for m s u s t h a t t h e J ewish la ws con cer n in g t h e lepr osy wer e
bor r owed fr om t h e pr a ct ice of t h e E gypt ia n s. An d, in deed, t h e sa m e dist em per
r equ ir ed t h e sa m e r em edies. Th e Gr eek s a n d t h e pr im it ive Rom a n s wer e
st r a n ger s t o t h ese la ws, a s well a s t o t h e disea se. Th e clim a t e of E gypt a n d
P a lest in e r en der ed t h em n ecessa r y; a n d t h e fa cilit y wit h wh ich t h is disea se is
spr ea d is su fficien t t o m a ke u s sen sible of t h e wisdom a n d sa ga cit y of t h ose
la ws.
E ven we ou r selves h a ve felt t h e effect s of t h em . Th e Cr u sa des br ou gh t t h e
lepr osy a m on gst u s; bu t t h e wise r egu la t ion s m a de a t t h a t t im e h in der ed it fr om
in fect in g t h e m a ss of t h e people.
We fin d by t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds 21 t h a t t h is disea se wa s spr ea d in It a ly
befor e t h e Cr u sa des, a n d m er it ed t h e a t t en t ion of t h e legisla t u r e. Rot h a r is
or da in ed t h a t a leper sh ou ld be expelled fr om h is h ou se, ba n ish ed t o a
pa r t icu la r pla ce, a n d r en der ed in ca pa ble of disposin g of h is pr oper t y; beca u se
fr om t h e ver y m om en t h e h a d been t u r n ed ou t of h is h ou se h e wa s r eckon ed
dea d in t h e eye of t h e la w. In or der t o pr even t a ll com m u n ica t ion wit h leper s,

t h ey wer e r en der ed in ca pa ble of civil a ct s.
I a m a pt t o t h in k t h a t t h is disea se wa s br ou gh t in t o It a ly by t h e con qu est s of
t h e Gr eek em per or s, in wh ose a r m ies t h er e m igh t be som e soldier s fr om
P a lest in e or E gypt . Be t h a t a s it m a y, t h e pr ogr ess of it wa s st opped t ill t h e
t im e of t h e Cr u sa des.
It is r ela t ed t h a t P om pey’s soldier s r et u r n in g fr om Syr ia br ou gh t a dist em per
h om e wit h t h em n ot u n like t h e lepr osy. We h a ve n o a ccou n t of a n y r egu la t ion
m a de a t t h a t t im e; bu t it is h igh ly pr oba ble t h a t som e su ch st ep wa s t a k en ,
sin ce t h e dist em per wa s ch ecked t ill t h e t im e of t h e Lom ba r ds.
It is n ow t wo cen t u r ies sin ce a disea se u n kn own t o ou r a n cest or s wa s fir st
t r a n spla n t ed fr om t h e n ew wor ld t o ou r s, a n d ca m e t o a t t a ck h u m a n n a t u r e
even in t h e ver y sou r ce of life a n d plea su r e. Most of t h e pr in cipa l fa m ilies in t h e
sou t h of E u r ope wer e seen t o per ish by a dist em per t h a t h a d gr own t oo com m on
t o be ign om in iou s, a n d wa s con sider ed in n o ot h er ligh t t h a n in t h a t of it s bein g
fa t a l. It wa s t h e t h ir st of gold t h a t pr opa ga t ed t h is disea se; t h e E u r opea n s wen t
con t in u a lly t o Am er ica , a n d a lwa ys br ou gh t ba ck a n ew lea ven of it .
Rea son s dr a wn fr om r eligion seem ed t o r equ ir e t h a t t h is pu n ish m en t of gu ilt
sh ou ld be per m it t ed t o con t in u e; bu t t h e in fect ion h a d r ea ch ed t h e bosom of
m a t r im on y, a n d given t h e viciou s t a in t even t o gu ilt less in fa n t s.
As it is t h e bu sin ess of legisla t or s t o wa t ch over t h e h ea lt h of t h e cit izen s, it
wou ld h a ve been a wise pa r t in t h em t o h a ve st opped t h is com m u n ica t ion by
la ws m a de on t h e pla n of t h ose of Moses.
Th e pla gu e is a disea se wh ose in fect iou s pr ogr ess is m u ch m or e r a pid. E gypt
is it s pr in cipa l sea t , wh en ce it spr ea ds over t h e wh ole globe. Most cou n t r ies in
E u r ope h a ve m a de exceedin gly good r egu la t ion s t o pr even t t h is in fect ion , a n d
in ou r t im es a n a dm ir a ble m et h od h a s been con t r ived t o st op it ; t h is is by
for m in g a lin e of t r oops r ou n d t h e in fect ed cou n t r y, wh ich cu t s off a ll m a n n er
of com m u n ica t ion .
Th e Tu r ks, 22 wh o h a ve n o su ch r egu la t ion s, see t h e Ch r ist ia n s esca pe t h is
in fect ion in t h e sa m e t own , a n d n on e bu t t h em selves per ish ; t h ey bu y t h e
clot h es of t h e in fect ed, wea r t h em , a n d pr oceed in t h eir old wa y, a s if n ot h in g
h a d h a ppen ed. Th e doct r in e of a r igid fa t e, wh ich dir ect s t h eir wh ole con du ct ,
r en der s t h e m a gist r a t e a qu iet spect a t or ; h e t h in ks t h a t ever yt h in g com es fr om

t h e h a n d of God, a n d t h a t m a n h a s n ot h in g m or e t o do t h a n t o su bm it .
BE1&@(&+-%&6"7,&"D"5*,+&3F5950%,1
We do n ot fin d in h ist or y t h a t t h e Rom a n s ever killed t h em selves wit h ou t a
ca u se; bu t t h e E n glish a r e a pt t o com m it su icide m ost u n a ccou n t a bly; t h ey
dest r oy t h em selves even in t h e bosom of h a ppin ess. Th is a ct ion a m on g t h e
Rom a n s wa s t h e effect of edu ca t ion , bein g con n ect ed wit h t h eir pr in ciples a n d
cu st om s; a m on g t h e E n glish it is t h e con sequ en ce of a dist em per ,23 bein g
con n ect ed wit h t h e ph ysica l st a t e of t h e m a ch in e, a n d in depen den t of ever y
ot h er ca u se.
In a ll pr oba bilit y it is a defect of t h e filt r a t ion of t h e n er vou s ju ice: t h e
m a ch in e, wh ose m ot ive fa cu lt ies a r e oft en u n exer t ed, is wea r y of it self; t h e sou l
feels n o pa in , bu t a cer t a in u n ea sin ess in exist in g. P a in is a loca l sen sa t ion ,
wh ich lea ds u s t o t h e desir e of seein g a n en d of it ; t h e bu r den of life, wh ich
pr om pt s u s t o t h e desir e of cea sin g t o exist , is a n evil con fin ed t o n o pa r t icu la r
pa r t .
It is eviden t t h a t t h e civil la ws of som e cou n t r ies m a y h a ve r ea son s for
br a n din g su icide wit h in fa m y: bu t in E n gla n d it ca n n ot be pu n ish ed wit h ou t
pu n ish in g t h e effect s of m a dn ess.
BG1&U((%9+,&".5,5*D&(.'<&+-%&)$5<"+%&'(&U*D$"*01
In a n a t ion so dist em per ed by t h e clim a t e a s t o h a ve a disr elish of ever yt h in g,
n a y, even of life, it is pla in t h a t t h e gover n m en t m ost su it a ble t o t h e in h a bit a n t s
is t h a t in wh ich t h ey ca n n ot la y t h eir u n ea sin ess t o a n y sin gle per son ’s ch a r ge,
a n d in wh ich , bein g u n der t h e dir ect ion r a t h er of t h e la ws t h a n of t h e pr in ce, it
is im possible for t h em t o ch a n ge t h e gover n m en t wit h ou t su bver t in g t h e la ws
t h em selves.
An d if t h is n a t ion h a s likewise der ived fr om t h e clim a t e a cer t a in im pa t ien ce
of t em per , wh ich r en der s t h em in ca pa ble of bea r in g t h e sa m e t r a in of t h in gs for
a n y lon g con t in u a n ce, it is obviou s t h a t t h e gover n m en t a bove m en t ion ed is t h e
fit t est for t h em .
Th is im pa t ien ce of t em per is n ot ver y con sider a ble of it self; bu t it m a y becom e
so wh en join ed wit h cou r a ge.

It is qu it e a differ en t t h in g fr om levit y, wh ich m a kes people u n der t a ke or dr op
a pr oject wit h ou t ca u se; it bor der s m or e u pon obst in a cy, beca u se it pr oceeds
fr om so lively a sen se of m iser y t h a t it is n ot wea ken ed even by t h e h a bit of
su ffer in g.
Th is t em per in a fr ee n a t ion is ext r em ely pr oper for discon cer t in g t h e pr oject s
of t yr a n n y,24 wh ich is a lwa ys slow a n d feeble in it s com m en cem en t , a s in t h e
en d it is a ct ive a n d lively; wh ich a t fir st on ly st r et ch es ou t a h a n d t o a ssist , a n d
exer t s a ft er wa r ds a m u lt it u de of a r m s t o oppr ess.
Sla ver y is ever pr eceded by sleep. Bu t a people wh o fin d n o r est in a n y
sit u a t ion , wh o con t in u a lly explor e ever y pa r t , a n d feel n ot h in g bu t pa in , ca n
h a r dly be lu lled t o sleep.
P olit ics is a sm oot h file, wh ich cu t s gr a du a lly, a n d a t t a in s it s en d by a slow
pr ogr ession . Now t h e people of wh om we h a ve been spea kin g a r e in ca pa ble of
bea r in g t h e dela ys, t h e det a ils, a n d t h e cooln ess of n egot ia t ion s: in t h ese t h ey
a r e m or e u n likely t o su cceed t h a n a n y ot h er n a t ion ; h en ce t h ey a r e a pt t o lose
by t r ea t ies wh a t t h ey obt a in by t h eir a r m s.
BJ1&@+-%.&U((%9+,&'(&+-%&)$5<"+%1
Ou r a n cest or s, t h e a n cien t Ger m a n s, lived in a clim a t e wh er e t h e pa ssion s
wer e ext r em ely ca lm . Th eir la ws decided on ly in su ch ca ses wh er e t h e in ju r y
wa s visible t o t h e eye, a n d wen t n o fu r t h er . An d a s t h ey ju dged of t h e ou t r a ges
don e t o m en fr om t h e gr ea t n ess of t h e wou n d, t h ey a ct ed wit h n o ot h er delica cy
in r espect t o t h e in ju r ies don e t o wom en . Th e la w of t h e Alem a n s 25 on t h is
su bject is ver y ext r a or din a r y. If a per son u n cover s a wom a n ’s h ea d, h e pa ys a
fin e of fift y sou s; if h e u n cover s h er leg u p t o t h e kn ee, h e pa ys t h e sa m e; a n d
dou ble fr om t h e kn ee u pwa r ds. On e wou ld t h in k t h a t t h e la w m ea su r ed t h e
in su lt s offer ed t o wom en a s we m ea su r e a figu r e in geom et r y; it did n ot pu n ish
t h e cr im e of t h e im a gin a t ion , bu t t h a t of t h e eye. Bu t u pon t h e m igr a t ion of a
Ger m a n n a t ion in t o Spa in , t h e clim a t e soon fou n d a n ecessit y for differ en t la ws.
Th e la w of t h e Visigot h s in h ibit ed t h e su r geon s t o bleed a fr ee wom a n , except
eit h er h er fa t h er , m ot h er , br ot h er , son , or u n cle wa s pr esen t . As t h e
im a gin a t ion of t h e people gr ew wa r m , so did t h a t of t h e legisla t or s; t h e la w
su spect ed ever yt h in g wh en t h e people h a d becom e su spiciou s.

Th ese la ws h a d, t h er efor e, a pa r t icu la r r ega r d for t h e t wo sexes. Bu t in t h eir
pu n ish m en t s t h ey seem r a t h er t o h u m ou r t h e r even gefu l t em per of pr iva t e
per son s t h a n t o a dm in ist er pu blic ju st ice. Th u s, in m ost ca ses, t h ey r edu ced
bot h t h e cr im in a ls t o be sla ves t o t h e offen ded r ela t ives or t o t h e in ju r ed
h u sba n d; a fr ee-bor n wom a n 26 wh o h a d yielded t o t h e em br a ces of a m a r r ied
m a n wa s deliver ed u p t o h is wife t o dispose of h er a s sh e plea sed. Th ey obliged
t h e sla ves, 27 if t h ey fou n d t h eir m a st er ’s wife in a du lt er y, t o bin d h er a n d ca r r y
h er t o h er h u sba n d; t h ey even per m it t ed h er ch ildr en 28 t o be h er a ccu ser s, a n d
h er sla ves t o be t or t u r ed in or der t o con vict h er . Th u s t h eir la ws wer e fa r bet t er
a da pt ed t o r efin e, even t o excess, a cer t a in poin t of h on ou r t h a n t o for m a good
civil a dm in ist r a t ion . We m u st n ot , t h er efor e, be su r pr ised if Cou n t J u lia n wa s
of opin ion t h a t a n a ffr on t of t h a t kin d ou gh t t o be expia t ed by t h e r u in of h is
kin g a n d cou n t r y: we m u st n ot be su r pr ised if t h e Moor s, wit h su ch a con for m it y
of m a n n er s, fou n d it so ea sy t o set t le a n d t o m a in t a in t h em selves in Spa in , a n d
t o r et a r d t h e fa ll of t h eir em pir e.
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"99'.05*D&+'&+-%&C5((%.%*9%&'(&)$5<"+%,1
Th e people of J a pa n a r e of so st u bbor n a n d per ver se a t em per t h a t n eit h er
t h eir legisla t or s n or m a gist r a t es ca n pu t a n y con fiden ce in t h em : t h ey set
n ot h in g befor e t h eir eyes bu t ju dgm en t s, m en a ces, a n d ch a st isem en t s; ever y
st ep t h ey t a ke is su bject t o t h e in qu isit ion of t h e civil m a gist r a t e. Th ose la ws
wh ich ou t of five h ea ds of fa m ilies est a blish on e a s a m a gist r a t e over t h e ot h er
fou r ; t h ose la ws wh ich pu n ish a fa m ily or a wh ole wa r d for a sin gle cr im e; t h ose
la ws, in fin e, wh ich fin d n obody in n ocen t wh er e on e m a y h a ppen t o be gu ilt y,
a r e m a de wit h a design t o im pla n t in t h e people a m u t u a l dist r u st , a n d t o m a ke
ever y m a n t h e in spect or , wit n ess, a n d ju dge of h is n eigh bou r ’s con du ct .
On t h e con t r a r y, t h e people of In dia a r e m ild, 29 t en der , a n d com pa ssion a t e.
H en ce t h eir legisla t or s r epose gr ea t con fiden ce in t h em . Th ey h a ve est a blish ed 30
ver y few pu n ish m en t s; t h ese a r e n ot sever e, n or a r e t h ey r igor ou sly execu t ed.
Th ey h a ve su bject ed n eph ews t o t h eir u n cles, a n d or ph a n s t o t h eir gu a r dia n s,
a s in ot h er cou n t r ies t h ey a r e su bject ed t o t h eir fa t h er s; t h ey h a ve r egu la t ed t h e
su ccession by t h e a ckn owledged m er it of t h e su ccessor . Th ey seem t o t h in k t h a t

ever y in dividu a l ou gh t t o pla ce en t ir e con fiden ce in t h e good n a t u r e of h is
fellow-su bject s. 31
Th ey en fr a n ch ise t h eir sla ves wit h ou t difficu lt y, t h ey m a r r y t h em , t h ey t r ea t
t h em a s t h eir ch ildr en . 32 H a ppy clim a t e wh ich gives bir t h t o in n ocen ce, a n d
pr odu ces a len it y in t h e la ws!
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1. Th is a ppea r s even in t h e cou n t en a n ce: in cold wea t h er people look t h in n er .
2. We kn ow t h a t it sh or t en s ir on .
3. Th ose for t h e su ccession t o t h e Spa n ish m on a r ch y.
4. F or in st a n ce, in Spa in .
5. “On e h u n dr ed E u r opea n soldier s,” sa ys Ta ver n ier , “wou ld wit h ou t a n y gr ea t
difficu lt y bea t a t h ou sa n d In dia n soldier s.”
6. E ven t h e P er sia n s wh o set t le in t h e In dies con t r a ct in t h e t h ir d gen er a t ion
t h e in dolen ce a n d cowa r dice of t h e In dia n s. See Ber n ier on t h e Mogu l, i, p.
182.
7. We fin d by a fr a gm en t of Nicola u s Da m a scen u s, collect ed by Con st a n t in e
P or ph yr ogen it u s, t h a t it wa s a n a n cien t cu st om in t h e E a st t o sen d t o
st r a n gle a gover n or wh o h a d given a n y displea su r e; it wa s in t h e t im e of t h e
Medes.
8. P a n a m a n a ck: See Kir ch er .
9. La Lou ber e, Accou n t of th e Kin gd om of S iam , p. 446.
10. F oe en dea vou r ed t o r edu ce t h e h ea r t t o a m er e va cu u m : “We h a ve eyes a n d
ea r s, bu t per fect ion con sist s in n eit h er seein g n or h ea r in g; a m ou t h , h a n ds,
&c., bu t per fect ion r equ ir es t h a t t h ese m em ber s sh ou ld be in a ct ive.” Th is is
t a ken fr om t h e dia logu e of a Ch in ese ph ilosoph er , qu ot ed by F a t h er Du
H a lde, iii.
11. F a t h er Du H a lde, H istory of Ch in a, i, p. 72.
12. Sever a l of t h e kin gs of In dia do t h e sa m e. La Lou ber e, Accou n t of th e
Kin gd om of S iam , p. 69.
13. Ven t y, t h e t h ir d em per or of t h e t h ir d dyn a st y, t illed t h e la n ds h im self, a n d
m a de t h e em pr ess a n d h is wives em ploy t h eir t im e in t h e silkwor ks in h is
pa la ce. H istory of Ch in a.
14. H yde, R eligion of th e Persian s.
15. Mon sieu r Ber n ier , t r a vellin g fr om La h or e t o Ca sh m er e, wr ot e t h u s: “My
body is a sieve; sca r cely h a ve I swa llowed a pin t of wa t er , bu t I see it
t r a n su de like dew ou t of a ll m y lim bs, even t o m y fin ger s’ en ds. I dr in k t en
pin t s a da y, a n d it does m e n o m a n n er of h a r m .” — Ber n ier , T ravels, ii, p.
261.
16. In t h e blood t h er e a r e r ed globu les, fibr ou s pa r t s, wh it e globu les, a n d wa t er ,
in wh ich t h e wh ole swim s.
17. P la t o, L aw s, ii; Ar ist ot le, Of th e Care of Dom estic Affairs; E u sebiu s,
E van gelical Preparation , xii. 17.
18. Th is is seen in t h e H ot t en t ot s, a n d t h e in h a bit a n t s of t h e m ost sou t h er n
pa r t of Ch ili.
19. As P it t a cu s did, a ccor din g t o Ar ist ot le, P olit ics, ii. 12. H e lived in a clim a t e
wh er e dr u n ken n ess is n ot a n a t ion a l vice.
20. Book ii.
21. Book ii. t it . 1, § 3; t it . 18, § 1.
22. Rica u t , St a t e of t h e Ot t om a n E m pir e, p. 284.
23. It m a y be com plica t ed wit h t h e scu r vy, wh ich , in som e cou n t r ies especia lly,
r en der s a m a n wh im sica l a n d u n su ppor t a ble t o h im self. See P ir a r d,
Voya ges, pa r t II, 21.
24. H er e I t a ke t h is wor d for t h e design of su bver t in g t h e est a blish ed power ,
a n d especia lly t h a t of dem ocr a cy; t h is is t h e sign ifica t ion in wh ich it wa s
u n der st ood by t h e Gr eeks a n d Rom a n s.
25. Ch a pt er 58, §§ 1, 2.
26. La w of t h e Visigot h s, iii, t it . 4, § 9.
27. Ibid., § 6.
28. Ibid., § 13.
29. See Ber n ier , ii, p. 140.
30. See in t h e E d ifyin g L etters, coll. xiv, p. 403, t h e pr in cipa l la ws or cu st om s
of t h e in h a bit a n t s of t h e pen in su la on t h is side t h e Ga n ges.
31. See E d ifyin g L etters, coll, ix, p. 378.
32. I h a d on ce t h ou gh t t h a t t h e len it y of sla ver y in In dia h a d m a de Diodor u s sa y
t h a t t h er e wa s n eit h er m a st er n or sla ve in t h a t cou n t r y; bu t Diodor u s h a s

a t t r ibu t ed t o t h e wh ole con t in en t of In dia wh a t , a ccor din g t o St r a bo, xv,
belon ged on ly t o a pa r t icu la r n a t ion .
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Sla ver y, pr oper ly so ca lled, is t h e est a blish m en t of a r igh t wh ich gives t o on e
m a n su ch a power over a n ot h er a s r en der s h im a bsolu t e m a st er of h is life a n d
for t u n e. Th e st a t e of sla ver y is in it s own n a t u r e ba d. It is n eit h er u sefu l t o t h e
m a st er n or t o t h e sla ve; n ot t o t h e sla ve, beca u se h e ca n do n ot h in g t h r ou gh a
m ot ive of vir t u e; n or t o t h e m a st er , beca u se by h a vin g a n u n lim it ed a u t h or it y
over h is sla ves h e in sen sibly a ccu st om s h im self t o t h e wa n t of a ll m or a l vir t u es,
a n d t h en ce becom es fier ce, h a st y, sever e, ch oler ic, volu pt u ou s, a n d cr u el.
In despot ic cou n t r ies, wh er e t h ey a r e a lr ea dy in a st a t e of polit ica l ser vit u de,
civil sla ver y is m or e t oler a ble t h a n in ot h er gover n m en t s. E ver y on e ou gh t t o be
sa t isfied in t h ose cou n t r ies wit h n ecessa r ies a n d life. H en ce t h e con dit ion of a
sla ve is h a r dly m or e bu r den som e t h a n t h a t of a su bject .
Bu t in a m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t , wh er e it is of t h e u t m ost im por t a n ce t h a t
h u m a n n a t u r e sh ou ld n ot be deba sed or dispir it ed, t h er e ou gh t t o be n o sla ver y.
In dem ocr a cies, wh er e t h ey a r e a ll u pon equ a lit y; a n d in a r ist ocr a cies, wh er e
t h e la ws ou gh t t o u se t h eir u t m ost en dea vou r s t o pr ocu r e a s gr ea t a n equ a lit y
a s t h e n a t u r e of t h e gover n m en t will per m it , sla ver y is con t r a r y t o t h e spir it of
t h e con st it u t ion : it on ly con t r ibu t es t o give a power a n d lu xu r y t o t h e cit izen s
wh ich t h ey ou gh t n ot t o h a ve.
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On e wou ld n ever h a ve im a gin ed t h a t sla ver y sh ou ld owe it s bir t h t o pit y, a n d
t h a t t h is sh ou ld h a ve been excit ed in t h r ee differ en t wa ys.1
Th e la w of n a t ion s t o pr even t pr ison er s fr om bein g pu t t o dea t h h a s a llowed
t h em t o be m a de sla ves. Th e civil la w of t h e Rom a n s em power ed debt or s, wh o
wer e su bject t o be ill-u sed by t h eir cr edit or s, t o sell t h em selves. An d t h e la w of

n a t u r e r equ ir es t h a t ch ildr en wh om a fa t h er in a st a t e of ser vit u de is n o lon ger
a ble t o m a in t a in sh ou ld be r edu ced t o t h e sa m e st a t e a s t h e fa t h er .
Th ese r ea son s of t h e civilia n s a r e a ll fa lse. It is fa lse t h a t killin g in wa r is
la wfu l, u n less in a ca se of a bsolu t e n ecessit y: bu t wh en a m a n h a s m a de a n ot h er
h is sla ve, h e ca n n ot be sa id t o h a ve been u n der a n ecessit y of t a kin g a wa y h is
life, sin ce h e a ct u a lly did n ot t a ke it a wa y. Wa r gives n o ot h er r igh t over
pr ison er s t h a n t o disa ble t h em fr om doin g a n y fu r t h er h a r m by secu r in g t h eir
per son s. All n a t ion s 2 con cu r in det est in g t h e m u r der in g of pr ison er s in cold
blood.
Neit h er is it t r u e t h a t a fr eem a n ca n sell h im self. Sa le im plies a pr ice; n ow
wh en a per son sells h im self, h is wh ole su bst a n ce im m edia t ely devolves t o h is
m a st er ; t h e m a st er , t h er efor e, in t h a t ca se, gives n ot h in g, a n d t h e sla ve r eceives
n ot h in g. You will sa y h e h a s a pecu liu m . Bu t t h is pecu liu m goes a lon g wit h h is
per son . If it is n ot la wfu l for a m a n t o kill h im self beca u se h e r obs h is cou n t r y
of h is per son , for t h e sa m e r ea son h e is n ot a llowed t o ba r t er h is fr eedom . Th e
fr eedom of ever y cit izen con st it u t es a pa r t of t h e pu blic liber t y, a n d in a
dem ocr a t ic st a t e is even a pa r t of t h e sover eign t y. To sell on e’s fr eedom 3 is so
r epu gn a n t t o a ll r ea son a s ca n sca r cely be su pposed in a n y m a n . If liber t y m a y
be r a t ed wit h r espect t o t h e bu yer , it is beyon d a ll pr ice t o t h e seller . Th e civil
la w, wh ich a u t h or ises a division of goods a m on g m en , ca n n ot be t h ou gh t t o r a n k
a m on g su ch goods a pa r t of t h e m en wh o wer e t o m a ke t h is division . Th e sa m e
la w a n n u ls a ll in iqu it ou s con t r a ct s; su r ely t h en it a ffor ds r edr ess in a con t r a ct
wh er e t h e gr ieva n ce is m ost en or m ou s.
Th e t h ir d wa y is bir t h , wh ich fa lls wit h t h e t wo for m er ; for if a m a n cou ld n ot
sell h im self, m u ch less cou ld h e sell a n u n bor n in fa n t . If a pr ison er of wa r is n ot
t o be r edu ced t o sla ver y, m u ch less a r e h is ch ildr en .
Th e la wfu ln ess of pu t t in g a m a lefa ct or t o dea t h a r ises fr om t h is cir cu m st a n ce:
t h e la w by wh ich h e is pu n ish ed wa s m a de for h is secu r it y. A m u r der er , for
in st a n ce, h a s en joyed t h e ben efit of t h e ver y la w wh ich con dem n s h im ; it h a s
been a con t in u a l pr ot ect ion t o h im ; h e ca n n ot , t h er efor e, object t o it . Bu t it is n ot
so wit h t h e sla ve. Th e la w of sla ver y ca n n ever be ben eficia l t o h im ; it is in a ll
ca ses a ga in st h im , wit h ou t ever bein g for h is a dva n t a ge; a n d t h er efor e t h is la w
is con t r a r y t o t h e fu n da m en t a l pr in ciple of a ll societ ies.

If it be pr et en ded t h a t it h a s been ben eficia l t o h im , a s h is m a st er h a s
pr ovided for h is su bsist en ce, sla ver y, a t t h is r a t e, sh ou ld be lim it ed t o t h ose wh o
a r e in ca pa ble of ea r n in g t h eir livelih ood. Bu t wh o will t a ke u p wit h su ch sla ves?
As t o in fa n t s, n a t u r e, wh o h a s su pplied t h eir m ot h er s wit h m ilk, h a d pr ovided
for t h eir su st en a n ce; a n d t h e r em a in der of t h eir ch ildh ood a ppr oa ch es so n ea r
t h e a ge in wh ich t h ey a r e m ost ca pa ble of bein g of ser vice t h a t h e wh o su ppor t s
t h em ca n n ot be sa id t o give t h em a n equ iva len t wh ich ca n en t it le h im t o be
t h eir m a st er .
Nor is sla ver y less opposed t o t h e civil la w t h a n t o t h a t of n a t u r e. Wh a t civil
la w ca n r est r a in a sla ve fr om r u n n in g a wa y, sin ce h e is n ot a m em ber of societ y,
a n d con sequ en t ly h a s n o in t er est in a n y civil in st it u t ion s? H e ca n be r et a in ed
on ly by a fa m ily la w, t h a t is, by t h e m a st er ’s a u t h or it y.
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I wou ld a s soon sa y t h a t t h e r igh t of sla ver y pr oceeds fr om t h e con t em pt of on e
n a t ion for a n ot h er , fou n ded on a differ en ce in cu st om s.
Lopez de Ga m a 4 r ela t es t h a t t h e Spa n ia r ds fou n d n ea r St . Ma r t h a sever a l
ba sket sfu l of cr a bs, sn a ils, gr a ssh opper s, a n d locu st s, wh ich pr oved t o be t h e
or din a r y pr ovision of t h e n a t ives. Th is t h e con qu er or s t u r n ed t o a h ea vy ch a r ge
a ga in st t h e con qu er ed. Th e a u t h or own s t h a t t h is, wit h t h eir sm okin g a n d
t r im m in g t h eir bea r ds in a differ en t m a n n er , ga ve r ise t o t h e la w by wh ich t h e
Am er ica n s beca m e sla ves t o t h e Spa n ia r ds.
Kn owledge h u m a n ises m a n kin d, a n d r ea son in clin es t o m ildn ess; bu t
pr eju dices er a dica t e ever y t en der disposit ion .
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I wou ld a s soon sa y t h a t r eligion gives it s pr ofessor s a r igh t t o en sla ve t h ose
wh o dissen t fr om it , in or der t o r en der it s pr opa ga t ion m or e ea sy.
Th is wa s t h e n ot ion t h a t en cou r a ged t h e r a va ger s of Am er ica in t h eir
in iqu it y. 5 Un der t h e in flu en ce of t h is idea t h ey fou n ded t h eir r igh t of en sla vin g
so m a n y n a t ion s; for t h ese r obber s, wh o wou ld a bsolu t ely be bot h r obber s a n d
Ch r ist ia n s, wer e su per la t ively devou t .
Lou is XII 6 wa s ext r em ely u n ea sy a t a la w by wh ich a ll t h e n egr oes of h is

colon ies wer e t o be m a de sla ves; bu t it bein g st r on gly u r ged t o h im a s t h e
r ea diest m ea n s for t h eir con ver sion , h e a cqu iesced wit h ou t fu r t h er scr u ple.
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Wer e I t o vin dica t e ou r r igh t t o m a ke sla ves of t h e n egr oes, t h ese sh ou ld be
m y a r gu m en t s:
Th e E u r opea n s, h a vin g ext ir pa t ed t h e Am er ica n s, wer e obliged t o m a ke sla ves
of t h e Afr ica n s, for clea r in g su ch va st t r a ct s of la n d.
Su ga r wou ld be t oo dea r if t h e pla n t s wh ich pr odu ce it wer e cu lt iva t ed by a n y
ot h er t h a n sla ves.
Th ese cr ea t u r es a r e a ll over bla ck, a n d wit h su ch a fla t n ose t h a t t h ey ca n
sca r cely be pit ied.
It is h a r dly t o be believed t h a t God, wh o is a wise Bein g, sh ou ld pla ce a sou l,
especia lly a good sou l, in su ch a bla ck u gly body.
It is so n a t u r a l t o look u pon colou r a s t h e cr it er ion of h u m a n n a t u r e, t h a t t h e
Asia t ics, a m on g wh om eu n u ch s a r e em ployed, a lwa ys depr ive t h e bla cks of t h eir
r esem bla n ce t o u s by a m or e oppr obr iou s dist in ct ion .
Th e colou r of t h e skin m a y be det er m in ed by t h a t of t h e h a ir , wh ich , a m on g
t h e E gypt ia n s, t h e best ph ilosoph er s in t h e wor ld, wa s of su ch im por t a n ce t h a t
t h ey pu t t o dea t h a ll t h e r ed-h a ir ed m en wh o fell in t o t h eir h a n ds.
Th e n egr oes pr efer a gla ss n eckla ce t o t h a t gold wh ich polit e n a t ion s so h igh ly
va lu e. Ca n t h er e be a gr ea t er pr oof of t h eir wa n t in g com m on sen se?
It is im possible for u s t o su ppose t h ese cr ea t u r es t o be m en , beca u se, a llowin g
t h em t o be m en , a su spicion wou ld follow t h a t we ou r selves a r e n ot Ch r ist ia n s.
Wea k m in ds exa gger a t e t oo m u ch t h e wr on g don e t o t h e Afr ica n s. F or wer e
t h e ca se a s t h ey st a t e it , wou ld t h e E u r opea n power s, wh o m a k e so m a n y
n eedless con ven t ion s a m on g t h em selves, h a ve fa iled t o en t er in t o a gen er a l on e,
in beh a lf of h u m a n it y a n d com pa ssion ?
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It is t im e t o in qu ir e in t o t h e t r u e or igin of t h e r igh t of sla ver y. It ou gh t t o be
fou n ded on t h e n a t u r e of t h in gs; let u s see if t h er e be a n y ca ses wh er e it ca n be
der ived t h en ce.
In a ll despot ic gover n m en t s people m a ke n o difficu lt y in sellin g t h em selves;
t h e polit ica l sla ver y in som e m ea su r e a n n ih ila t es t h e civil liber t y.
Accor din g t o Mr . P er r y,7 t h e Mu scovit es sell t h em selves ver y r ea dily: t h eir
r ea son for it is eviden t ; t h eir liber t y is n ot wor t h keepin g.
At Ach im ever y on e is for sellin g h im self. Som e of t h e ch ief lor ds 8 h a ve n ot less
t h a n a t h ou sa n d sla ves, a ll pr in cipa l m er ch a n t s, wh o h a ve a gr ea t n u m ber of
sla ves t h em selves, a n d t h ese a lso a r e n ot wit h ou t t h eir sla ves. Th eir m a st er s
a r e t h eir h eir s, a n d pu t t h em in t o t r a de. In t h ose st a t es, t h e fr eem en bein g
over power ed by t h e gover n m en t , h a ve n o bet t er r esou r ce t h a n t h a t of m a kin g
t h em selves sla ves t o t h e t yr a n t s in office.
Th is is t h e t r u e a n d r a t ion a l or igin of t h a t m ild la w of sla ver y wh ich obt a in s
in som e cou n t r ies: a n d m ild it ou gh t t o be, a s fou n ded on t h e fr ee ch oice a m a n
m a k es of a m a st er , for h is own ben efit ; wh ich for m s a m u t u a l con ven t ion
bet ween t h e t wo pa r t ies.
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Th er e is a n ot h er or igin of t h e r igh t of sla ver y, a n d even of t h e m ost cr u el
sla ver y wh ich is t o be seen a m on g m en .
Th er e a r e cou n t r ies wh er e t h e excess of h ea t en er va t es t h e body, a n d r en der s
m en so slot h fu l a n d dispir it ed t h a t n ot h in g bu t t h e fea r of ch a st isem en t ca n
oblige t h em t o per for m a n y la bor iou s du t y: sla ver y is t h er e m or e r econ cila ble t o
r ea son ; a n d t h e m a st er bein g a s la zy wit h r espect t o h is sover eign a s h is sla ve
is wit h r ega r d t o h im , t h is a dds a polit ica l t o a civil sla ver y.
Ar ist ot le 9 en dea vou r s t o pr ove t h a t t h er e a r e n a t u r a l sla ves; bu t wh a t h e sa ys
is fa r fr om pr ovin g it . If t h er e be a n y su ch , I believe t h ey a r e t h ose of wh om I
h a ve been spea kin g.
Bu t a s a ll m en a r e bor n equ a l, sla ver y m u st be a ccou n t ed u n n a t u r a l, t h ou gh
in som e cou n t r ies it be fou n ded on n a t u r a l r ea son ; a n d a wide differ en ce ou gh t
t o be m a de bet ween su ch cou n t r ies, a n d t h ose in wh ich even n a t u r a l r ea son
r eject s it , a s in E u r ope, wh er e it h a s been so h a ppily a bolish ed.

P lu t a r ch , in t h e Life of Nu m a , sa ys t h a t in Sa t u r n ’s t im e t h er e wa s n eit h er
sla ve n or m a st er . Ch r ist ia n it y h a s r est or ed t h a t a ge in ou r clim a t es.
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Na t u r a l sla ver y, t h en , is t o be lim it ed t o som e pa r t icu la r pa r t s of t h e wor ld.
In a ll ot h er cou n t r ies, even t h e m ost ser vile dr u dger ies m a y be per for m ed by
fr eem en . E xper ien ce ver ifies m y a sser t ion . Befor e Ch r ist ia n it y h a d a bolish ed
civil sla ver y in E u r ope, wor k in g in t h e m in es wa s ju dged t oo t oilsom e for a n y
bu t sla ves or m a lefa ct or s: a t pr esen t t h er e a r e m en em ployed in t h em wh o a r e
kn own t o live com for t a bly. 10 Th e m a gist r a t es h a ve, by som e sm a ll pr ivileges,
en cou r a ged t h is pr ofession : t o a n in cr ea se of la bou r t h ey h a ve join ed a n in cr ea se
of ga in ; a n d h a ve gon e so fa r a s t o m a ke t h ose people bet t er plea sed wit h t h eir
con dit ion t h a n wit h a n y ot h er wh ich t h ey cou ld h a ve em br a ced.
No la bou r is so h ea vy bu t it m a y be br ou gh t t o a level wit h t h e wor km a n ’s
st r en gt h , wh en r egu la t ed by equ it y, a n d n ot by a va r ice. Th e violen t fa t igu es
wh ich sla ves a r e m a de t o u n der go in ot h er pa r t s m a y be su pplied by a sk ilfu l
u se of in gen iou s m a ch in es. Th e Tu r kish m in es in t h e Ba n n a t of Tem eswa er ,
t h ou gh r ich er t h a n t h ose of H u n ga r y, did n ot yield so m u ch ; beca u se t h e
wor kin g of t h em depen ded en t ir ely on t h e st r en gt h of t h eir sla ves.
I kn ow n ot wh et h er t h is a r t icle be dict a t ed by m y u n der st a n din g or by m y
h ea r t . P ossibly t h er e is n ot t h a t clim a t e u pon ea r t h wh er e t h e m ost la bor iou s
ser vices m igh t n ot wit h pr oper en cou r a gem en t be per for m ed by fr eem en . Ba d
la ws h a vin g m a de la zy m en , t h ey h a ve been r edu ced t o sla ver y beca u se of t h eir
la zin ess.
S1&3%;%."$&M5*0,&'(&3$";%.H1
Sla ver y is of t wo kin ds, r ea l a n d per son a l. Th e r ea l a n n exes t h e sla ve t o t h e
la n d, wh ich Ta cit u s m a kes 11 t h e con dit ion of sla ves a m on g t h e Ger m a n s. Th ey
wer e n ot em ployed in t h e fa m ily: a st a t ed t r ibu t e of cor n , ca t t le, or ot h er
m ova bles, pa id t o t h eir m a st er , wa s t h e wh ole of t h eir ser vit u de. An d su ch a
ser vit u de st ill con t in u es in H u n ga r y, Boh em ia , a n d sever a l pa r t s of Lower
Ger m a n y.
P er son a l sla ver y con sist s in dom est ic ser vices, a n d r ela t es m or e t o t h e
m a st er ’s per son .
Th e wor st degr ee of sla ver y is wh en it is a t on ce bot h r ea l a n d per son a l, a s
t h a t of t h e H elot es a m on g t h e La ceda em on ia n s. Th ey u n der wen t t h e fa t igu es
of t h e field, a n d su ffer ed a ll m a n n er of in su lt s a t h om e. Th is h elot ism is
con t r a r y t o t h e n a t u r e of t h in gs. Rea l sla ver y is t o be fou n d on ly a m on g n a t ion s
r em a r ka ble for t h eir sim plicit y of life:12 a ll fa m ily bu sin ess bein g don e by t h e
wives a n d ch ildr en . P er son a l sla ver y is pecu lia r t o volu pt u ou s n a t ion s; lu xu r y
r equ ir in g t h e ser vice of sla ves in t h e h ou se. Bu t h elot ism join s in t h e sa m e
per son t h e sla ver y est a blish ed by volu pt u ou s n a t ion s a n d t h a t of t h e m ost
sim ple.
BT1&/%DF$"+5'*,&*%9%,,".H&5*&.%,4%9+&+'&3$";%.H1
Bu t of wh a t soever kin d t h e sla ver y be, t h e civil la ws sh ou ld en dea vou r on t h e
on e h a n d t o a bolish t h e a bu ses of it , a n d on t h e ot h er t o gu a r d a ga in st it s
da n ger s.
BB1&:#F,%,&'(&3$";%.H1
In Ma h om et a n st a t es, 13 n ot on ly t h e life a n d goods of fem a le sla ves, bu t a lso
wh a t is ca lled t h eir vir t u e or h on ou r , a r e a t t h eir m a st er ’s disposa l. On e of t h e
m isfor t u n es of t h ose cou n t r ies is t h a t t h e gr ea t est pa r t of t h e n a t ion a r e bor n
on ly t o be su bser vien t t o t h e plea su r es of t h e ot h er . Th is ser vit u de is a llevia t ed
by t h e la zin ess in wh ich su ch sla ves spen d t h eir da ys; wh ich is a n a ddit ion a l
disa dva n t a ge t o t h e st a t e.
It is t h is in dolen ce wh ich r en der s t h e ea st er n ser a glios so deligh t fu l t o t h ose
ver y per son s wh om t h ey wer e m a de t o con fin e. 14 P eople wh o dr ea d n ot h in g bu t
la bou r m a y im a gin e t h em selves h a ppy in t h ose pla ces of in dolen ce a n d ea se.
Bu t t h is sh ows h ow con t r a r y t h ey a r e t o t h e ver y in t en t of t h e in st it u t ion of
sla ver y.
Rea son r equ ir es t h a t t h e m a st er ’s power sh ou ld n ot ext en d t o wh a t does n ot
a pper t a in t o h is ser vice: sla ver y sh ou ld be ca lcu la t ed for u t ilit y, a n d n ot for
plea su r e. Th e la ws of ch a st it y a r ise fr om t h ose of n a t u r e, a n d ou gh t in a ll
n a t ion s t o be r espect ed.
If a la w wh ich pr eser ves t h e ch a st it y of sla ves be good in t h ose st a t es wh er e

a n a r bit r a r y power bea r s down a ll befor e it , h ow m u ch m or e will it be so in
m on a r ch ies, a n d h ow m u ch m or e st ill in r epu blics?
Th e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds 15 h a s a r egu la t ion wh ich ou gh t t o be a dopt ed by a ll
gover n m en t s. “If a m a st er deba u ch es h is sla ve’s wife, t h e sla ve a n d h is wife
sh a ll be r est or ed t o t h eir fr eedom .” An a dm ir a ble expedien t , wh ich , wit h ou t
sever it y, la ys a power fu l r est r a in t on t h e in con t in en ce of m a st er s!
Th e Rom a n s seem t o h a ve er r ed on t h is h ea d. Th ey a llowed a n u n lim it ed
scope t o t h e m a st er ’s lu st s, a n d, in som e m ea su r e, den ied t h eir sla ves t h e
pr ivilege of m a r r yin g. It is t r u e, t h ey wer e t h e lowest pa r t of t h e n a t ion ; yet
t h er e sh ou ld h a ve been som e ca r e t a ken of t h eir m or a ls, especia lly a s in
pr oh ibit in g t h eir m a r r ia ge t h ey cor r u pt ed t h e m or a ls of t h e cit izen s.
BE1&C"*D%.&(.'<&+-%&KF$+5+F0%&'(&3$";%,1
Th e m u lt it u de of sla ves h a s differ en t effect s in differ en t gover n m en t s. It is n o
gr ieva n ce in a despot ic st a t e, wh er e t h e polit ica l ser vit u de of t h e wh ole body
t a kes a wa y t h e sen se of civil sla ver y. Th ose wh o a r e ca lled fr eedm en in r ea lit y
a r e lit t le m or e so t h a n t h ey wh o do n ot com e wit h in t h a t cla ss; a n d a s t h e la t t er ,
in qu a lit y of eu n u ch s, fr eedm en , or sla ves, h a ve gen er a lly t h e m a n a gem en t of
a ll a ffa ir s, t h e con dit ion of a fr eedm a n a n d t h a t of a sla ve a r e ver y n ea r ly a llied.
Th is m a kes it t h er efor e a lm ost a m a t t er of in differ en ce wh et h er in su ch st a t es
t h e sla ves be few or n u m er ou s.
Bu t in m oder a t e gover n m en t s it is a poin t of t h e h igh est im por t a n ce t h a t
t h er e sh ou ld n ot be a gr ea t n u m ber of sla ves. Th e polit ica l liber t y of t h ose st a t es
a dds t o t h e va lu e of civil liber t y; a n d h e wh o is depr ived of t h e la t t er is a lso
ber eft of t h e for m er . H e sees t h e h a ppin ess of a societ y, of wh ich h e is n ot so
m u ch a s a m em ber ; h e sees t h e secu r it y of ot h er s fen ced by la ws, h im self
wit h ou t a n y pr ot ect ion . H e per ceives t h a t h is m a st er h a s a sou l, ca pa ble of
en la r gin g it self: wh ile h is own la bou r s u n der a con t in u a l depr ession . Not h in g
m or e a ssim ila t es a m a n t o a bea st t h a n livin g a m on g fr eedm en , h im self a sla ve.
Su ch people a s t h ese a r e n a t u r a l en em ies of societ y; a n d t h eir n u m ber m u st be
da n ger ou s.
It is n ot t h er efor e t o be won der ed a t t h a t m oder a t e gover n m en t s h a ve been so
fr equ en t ly dist u r bed by t h e r evolt s of sla ves, a n d t h a t t h is so seldom h a ppen s

in despot ic st a t es.16
BG1&@(&".<%0&3$";%,1
Th e da n ger of a r m in g sla ves is n ot so gr ea t in m on a r ch ies a s in r epu blics. In
t h e for m er , a wa r like people a n d a body of n obilit y a r e a su fficien t ch eck u pon
t h ese a r m ed sla ves; wh er ea s t h e pa cific m em ber s of a r epu blic wou ld h a ve a
h a r d t a sk t o qu ell a set of m en wh o, h a vin g offen sive wea pon s in t h eir h a n ds,
wou ld fin d t h em selves a m a t ch for t h e cit izen s.
Th e Got h s, wh o con qu er ed Spa in , spr ea d t h em selves over t h e cou n t r y, a n d
soon beca m e ver y wea k. Th ey m a de t h r ee im por t a n t r egu la t ion s: t h ey a bolish ed
a n a n cien t cu st om wh ich pr oh ibit ed in t er m a r r ia ges wit h t h e Rom a n s;17 t h ey
en a ct ed t h a t a ll t h e fr eedm en 18 belon gin g t o t h e F iscu s sh ou ld ser ve in wa r ,
u n der pen a lt y of bein g r edu ced t o sla ver y; a n d t h ey or da in ed t h a t ea ch Got h
sh ou ld a r m a n d br in g in t o t h e field t h e t en t h pa r t of h is sla ves. 19 Th is wa s bu t
a sm a ll pr opor t ion : besides, t h ese sla ves t h u s ca r r ied t o t h e field did n ot for m
a sepa r a t e body; t h ey wer e in t h e a r m y, a n d m igh t be sa id t o con t in u e in t h e
fa m ily.
BJ1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Wh en a wh ole n a t ion is of a m a r t ia l t em per , t h e sla ves in a r m s a r e less t o be
fea r ed.
By a la w of t h e Alem a n s, a sla ve wh o h a d com m it t ed a cla n dest in e t h eft 20 wa s
lia ble t o t h e sa m e pu n ish m en t a s a fr eedm a n in t h e like ca se; bu t if h e wa s
fou n d gu ilt y of a n open r obber y, 21 h e wa s on ly bou n d t o r est or e t h e t h in gs so
t a ken . Am on g t h e Alem a n s, cou r a ge a n d in t r epidit y ext en u a t ed t h e gu ilt of a n
a ct ion . Th ey em ployed t h eir sla ves in t h eir wa r s. Most r epu blics h a ve been
a t t en t ive t o dispir it t h eir sla ves; bu t t h e Alem a n s, r elyin g on t h em selves a n d
bein g a lwa ys a r m ed, wer e so fa r fr om fea r in g t h eir s t h a t t h ey wer e r a t h er for
a u gm en t in g t h eir cou r a ge; t h ey wer e t h e in st r u m en t s eit h er of t h eir
depr eda t ion s or of t h eir glor y.
BL1&8.%9"F+5'*,&+'&#%&F,%0&5*&K'0%."+%&A';%.*<%*+,1
Len it y a n d h u m a n e t r ea t m en t m a y pr even t t h e da n ger s t o be a ppr eh en ded
fr om t h e m u lt it u de of sla ves in a m oder a t e gover n m en t . Men gr ow r econ ciled
t o ever yt h in g, a n d even t o ser vit u de, if n ot a ggr a va t ed by t h e sever it y of t h e
m a st er . Th e At h en ia n s t r ea t ed t h eir sla ves wit h gr ea t len it y; a n d t h is secu r ed
t h a t st a t e fr om t h e com m ot ion s r a ised by t h e sla ves a m on g t h e a u st er e
La ceda em on ia n s.
It does n ot a ppea r t h a t t h e pr im it ive Rom a n s m et wit h a n y t r ou ble fr om t h eir
sla ves. Th ose civil br oils wh ich h a ve been com pa r ed t o t h e P u n ic wa r s wer e t h e
con sequ en ce of t h eir h a vin g divest ed t h em selves of a ll h u m a n it y t owa r ds t h eir
sla ves. 22
A fr u ga l a n d la bor iou s people gen er a lly t r ea t t h eir sla ves m or e k in dly t h a n
t h ose wh o a r e a bove la bou r . Th e pr im it ive Rom a n s u sed t o live, wor k, a n d ea t
wit h t h eir sla ves; in sh or t , t h ey beh a ved t owa r ds t h em wit h ju st ice a n d
h u m a n it y. Th e gr ea t est pu n ish m en t t h ey m a de t h em su ffer wa s t o m a ke t h em
pa ss befor e t h eir n eigh bou r s wit h a for ked piece of wood on t h eir ba cks. Th eir
m a n n er s wer e su fficien t t o secu r e t h e fidelit y of t h eir sla ves; so t h a t t h er e wa s
n o n ecessit y for la ws.
Bu t wh en t h e Rom a n s a ggr a n dised t h em selves; wh en t h eir sla ves wer e n o
lon ger t h e com pa n ion s of t h eir la bou r , bu t t h e in st r u m en t s of t h eir lu xu r y a n d
pr ide; a s t h ey t h en wa n t ed m or a ls, t h ey h a d n eed of la ws. It wa s even n ecessa r y
for t h ese la ws t o be of t h e m ost t er r ible kin d, in or der t o est a blish t h e sa fet y of
t h ose cr u el m a st er s wh o lived wit h t h eir sla ves a s in t h e m idst of en em ies.
Th ey m a de t h e Silla n ia n Sen a t u s-Con su lt u m , a n d ot h er la ws, 23 wh ich decr eed
t h a t wh en a m a st er wa s m u r der ed a ll t h e sla ves u n der t h e sa m e r oof, or in a n y
pla ce so n ea r t h e h ou se a s t o be wit h in t h e h ea r in g of a m a n ’s voice, sh ou ld,
wit h ou t dist in ct ion , be con dem n ed t o die. Th ose wh o in t h is ca se sh elt er ed a
sla ve, in or der t o sa ve h im , wer e pu n ish ed a s m u r der er s;24 h e wh om h is
m a st er 25 or der ed t o kill h im , a n d wh o obeyed, wa s r epu t ed gu ilt y; even h e wh o
did n ot h in der h im fr om killin g h im self wa s lia ble t o be pu n ish ed. 26 If a m a st er
wa s m u r der ed on a jou r n ey, t h ey pu t t o dea t h t h ose wh o wer e wit h h im a n d
t h ose wh o fled. 27 All t h ese la ws oper a t ed even a ga in st per son s wh ose in n ocen ce
wa s pr oved; t h e in t en t of t h em wa s t o in spir e t h eir sla ves wit h a pr odigiou s
r espect for t h eir m a st er . Th ey wer e n ot depen den t on t h e civil gover n m en t , bu t

on a fa u lt or im per fect ion of t h e civil gover n m en t . Th ey wer e n ot der ived fr om
t h e equ it y of civil la ws, sin ce t h ey wer e con t r a r y t o t h e pr in ciple of t h ose la ws.
Th ey wer e pr oper ly fou n ded on t h e pr in ciples of wa r , wit h t h is differ en ce, t h a t
t h e en em ies wer e in t h e bosom of t h e st a t e. Th e Silla n ia n Sen a t u s-Con su lt u m
wa s der ived fr om t h e la w of n a t ion s, wh ich r equ ir es t h a t a societ y, h owever
im per fect , sh ou ld be pr eser ved.
It is a m isfor t u n e in gover n m en t wh en t h e m a gist r a t es t h u s fin d t h em selves
u n der t h e n ecessit y of m a kin g cr u el la ws; beca u se t h ey h a ve r en der ed obedien ce
difficu lt , t h ey a r e obliged t o in cr ea se t h e pen a lt y of disobedien ce, or t o su spect
t h e sla ve’s fidelit y. A pr u den t legisla t or for esees t h e ill con sequ en ces of
r en der in g t h e legisla t u r e t er r ible. Th e sla ves a m on gst t h e Rom a n s cou ld h a ve
n o con fiden ce in t h e la ws; a n d t h er efor e t h e la ws cou ld h a ve n on e in t h em .
BO1&/%DF$"+5'*,&#%+7%%*&K",+%.,&"*0&3$";%,1
Th e m a gist r a t es ou gh t t o t a ke ca r e t h a t t h e sla ve h a s h is food a n d r a im en t ;
a n d t h is sh ou ld be r egu la t ed by la w.
Th e la ws ou gh t t o pr ovide t h a t ca r e be t a ken of t h em in sickn ess a n d old a ge.
Cla u diu s 28 decr eed t h a t t h e sla ves wh o in sickn ess h a d been a ba n don ed by t h eir
m a st er s sh ou ld, in ca se t h ey r ecover ed, be em a n cipa t ed. Th is la w in su r ed t h eir
liber t y; bu t sh ou ld n ot t h er e h a ve been som e ca r e a lso t a ken t o pr eser ve t h eir
lives?
Wh en t h e la w per m it t ed a m a st er t o t a ke a wa y t h e life of h is sla ve, h e wa s
in vest ed wit h a power wh ich h e ou gh t t o exer cise a s ju dge, a n d n ot a s m a st er ;
it wa s n ecessa r y, t h er efor e, t h a t t h e la w sh ou ld or da in t h ose for m a lit ies wh ich
r em ove t h e su spicion of a n a ct of violen ce.
Wh en fa t h er s, a t Rom e, wer e n o lon ger per m it t ed t o pu t t h eir ch ildr en t o
dea t h , t h e m a gist r a t es or da in ed t h e pu n ish m en t wh ich t h e fa t h er wou ld h a ve
in flict ed. 29 A like cu st om bet ween t h e m a st er a n d h is sla ves wou ld be h igh ly
r ea son a ble in a cou n t r y wh er e m a st er s h a ve t h e power of life a n d dea t h .
Th e la w of Moses wa s ext r em ely sever e. If a m a n st r u ck h is ser va n t so t h a t
h e died u n der h is h a n d, h e wa s t o be pu n ish ed; bu t , if h e su r vived a da y or t wo,
n o pu n ish m en t en su ed, beca u se h e wa s h is m on ey. 30 St r a n ge t h a t a civil
in st it u t ion sh ou ld t h u s r ela x t h e la w of n a t u r e!
By a la w of t h e Gr eeks, 31 a sla ve t oo sever ely t r ea t ed by h is m a st er m igh t
in sist u pon bein g sold t o a n ot h er . In la t er t im es t h er e wa s a la w of t h e sa m e
n a t u r e a t Rom e. 32 A m a st er displea sed wit h h is sla ve, a n d a sla ve wit h h is
m a st er , ou gh t t o be sepa r a t ed.
Wh en a cit izen u ses t h e sla ve of a n ot h er ill, t h e la t t er ou gh t t o h a ve t h e
liber t y of com pla in in g befor e t h e ju dge. Th e la ws of P la t o, 33 a n d of m ost n a t ion s,
t ook a wa y fr om sla ves t h e r igh t of n a t u r a l defen ce. It wa s n ecessa r y t h en t h a t
t h ey sh ou ld give t h em a civil defen ce.
At Spa r t a sla ves cou ld h a ve n o ju st ice a ga in st eit h er in su lt s or in ju r ies. So
excessive wa s t h eir m iser y, t h a t t h ey wer e n ot on ly t h e sla ves of a cit izen , bu t
a lso of t h e pu blic; t h ey belon ged t o a ll, a s well a s t o on e. At Rom e, wh en t h ey
con sider ed t h e in ju r y don e t o a sla ve, t h ey h a d r ega r d on ly t o t h e in t er est of t h e
m a st er . 34 In t h e br ea ch of t h e Aqu ilia n la w t h ey con fou n ded a wou n d given t o
a bea st a n d t h a t given t o a sla ve; t h ey r ega r ded on ly t h e dim in u t ion of t h eir
va lu e. At At h en s, 35 h e wh o h a d a bu sed t h e sla ve of a n ot h er wa s pu n ish ed
sever ely, a n d som et im es even wit h dea t h . Th e la w of At h en s wa s ver y
r ea son a ble in n ot a ddin g t h e loss of secu r it y t o t h a t of liber t y.
BP1&@(&U*(."*9-5,%<%*+,1
It is ea sy t o per ceive t h a t m a n y sla ves in a r epu blica n gover n m en t cr ea t e a
n ecessit y of m a kin g m a n y fr ee. Th e evil is, if t h ey h a ve t oo gr ea t a n u m ber of
sla ves t h ey ca n n ot keep t h em in du e bou n ds; if t h ey h a ve t oo m a n y fr eedm en ,
t h ey ca n n ot live, a n d m u st becom e a bu r den t o t h e r epu blic: besides, it m a y be
a s m u ch in da n ger fr om t h e m u lt it u de of fr eedm en a s fr om t h a t of sla ves. It is
n ecessa r y, t h er efor e, t h a t t h e la w sh ou ld h a ve a n eye t o t h ese t wo
in con ven ien ces.
Th e sever a l la ws a n d decr ees of t h e sen a t e m a de a t Rom e, bot h for a n d
a ga in st sla ves, som et im es t o lim it , a n d a t ot h er t im es t o fa cilit a t e, t h eir
en fr a n ch isem en t , pla in ly sh ow t h e em ba r r a ssm en t in wh ich t h ey fou n d
t h em selves in t h is r espect . Th er e wer e even t im es in wh ich t h ey du r st n ot m a ke
la ws. Wh en , u n der Ner o, 36 t h ey dem a n ded of t h e sen a t e per m ission for t h e
m a st er s t o r edu ce a ga in t o sla ver y t h e u n gr a t efu l fr eedm en , t h e em per or
decla r ed t h a t it wa s t h eir du t y t o decide t h e a ffa ir s of in dividu a ls, a n d t o m a ke

n o gen er a l decr ee.
Mu ch less ca n I det er m in e wh a t ou gh t t o be t h e r egu la t ion s of a good r epu blic
in su ch a n a ffa ir ; t h is depen ds on t oo m a n y cir cu m st a n ces. Let u s, h owever ,
m a ke som e r eflect ion s.
A con sider a ble n u m ber of fr eedm en ou gh t n ot su dden ly t o be m a de by a
gen er a l la w. We kn own t h a t a m on g t h e Volsin ien ses 37 t h e fr eedm en , becom in g
m a st er s of t h e su ffr a ges, en a ct ed a n a bom in a ble la w, wh ich ga ve t h em t h e r igh t
of lyin g t h e fir st n igh t wit h t h e you n g wom en m a r r ied t o t h e fr ee-bor n .
Th er e a r e sever a l wa ys of in sen sibly in t r odu cin g n ew cit izen s in t o a r epu blic.
Th e la ws m a y fa vou r t h e a cqu ir in g a pecu liu m , a n d pu t sla ves in t o a con dit ion
of bu yin g t h eir liber t y: t h ey m a y pr escr ibe a t er m t o ser vit u de, like t h ose of
Moses, wh ich lim it ed t h a t of t h e H ebr ew sla ves t o six yea r s.38 It is ea sy t o
en fr a n ch ise ever y yea r a cer t a in n u m ber of t h ose sla ves wh o, by t h eir a ge,
h ea lt h , or in du st r y, a r e ca pa ble of get t in g a su bsist en ce. Th e evil m a y be even
cu r ed in it s r oot , a s a gr ea t n u m ber of sla ves a r e con n ect ed wit h t h e sever a l
em ploym en t s wh ich a r e given t h em ; t o divide a m on g t h e fr ee-bor n a pa r t of
t h ese em ploym en t s, for exa m ple, com m er ce or n a viga t ion , is dim in ish in g t h e
n u m ber of sla ves.
Wh en t h er e a r e m a n y fr eedm en , it is n ecessa r y t h a t t h e civil la ws sh ou ld
det er m in e wh a t t h ey owe t o t h eir pa t r on , or t h a t t h ese du t ies sh ou ld be fixed
by t h e con t r a ct of en fr a n ch isem en t .
It is cer t a in t h a t t h eir con dit ion sh ou ld be m or e fa vou r ed in t h e civil t h a n in
t h e polit ica l st a t e; beca u se, even in a popu la r gover n m en t , t h e power ou gh t n ot
t o fa ll in t o t h e h a n ds of t h e vu lga r .
At Rom e, wh er e t h ey h a d so m a n y fr eedm en , t h e polit ica l la ws wit h r ega r d t o
t h em wer e a dm ir a ble. Th ey ga ve t h em ver y lit t le, a n d exclu ded t h em a lm ost
fr om n ot h in g: t h ey h a d even a sh a r e in t h e legisla t u r e, bu t t h e r esolu t ion s t h ey
wer e ca pa ble of t a kin g wer e a lm ost of n o weigh t . Th ey m igh t bea r a pa r t in t h e
pu blic offices, a n d even in t h e dign it y of t h e pr iest h ood;39 bu t t h is pr ivilege wa s
in som e sor t r en der ed u seless by t h e disa dva n t a ges t h ey h a d t o en cou n t er in t h e
elect ion s. Th ey h a d a r igh t t o en t er in t o t h e a r m y; bu t t h ey wer e t o be r egist er ed
in a cer t a in cla ss of t h e cen su s befor e t h ey cou ld be soldier s. Not h in g h in der ed
t h e 40 fr eedm en fr om bein g u n it ed by m a r r ia ge wit h t h e fa m ilies of t h e fr ee-bor n ;

bu t t h ey wer e n ot per m it t ed t o m ix wit h t h ose of t h e sen a t or . In sh or t , t h eir
ch ildr en wer e fr ee-bor n , t h ou gh t h ey wer e n ot so t h em selves.
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Th u s in a r epu blica n gover n m en t it is fr equ en t ly of a dva n t a ge t h a t t h e
sit u a t ion of t h e fr eedm en be bu t lit t le below t h a t of t h e fr ee-bor n , a n d t h a t t h e
la ws be ca lcu la t ed t o r em ove a dislike of t h eir con dit ion . Bu t in a despot ic
gover n m en t , wh er e lu xu r y a n d a r bit r a r y power pr eva il, t h ey h a ve n ot h in g t o do
in t h is r espect ; t h e fr eedm en gen er a lly fin din g t h em selves a bove t h e fr ee-bor n .
Th ey r u le in t h e cou r t of t h e pr in ce, a n d in t h e pa la ces of t h e gr ea t ; a n d a s t h ey
st u dy t h e foibles a n d n ot t h e vir t u es of t h eir m a st er , t h ey lea d h im en t ir ely by
t h e for m er , n ot by t h e la t t er . Su ch wer e t h e fr eedm en of Rom e in t h e t im es of
t h e em per or s.
Wh en t h e pr in cipa l sla ves a r e eu n u ch s, let n ever so m a n y pr ivileges be
gr a n t ed t h em , t h ey ca n h a r dly be r ega r ded a s fr eedm en . F or a s t h ey a r e
in ca pa ble of h a vin g a fa m ily of t h eir own , t h ey a r e n a t u r a lly a t t a ch ed t o t h a t of
a n ot h er : a n d it is on ly by a kin d of fict ion t h a t t h ey a r e con sider ed a s cit izen s.
An d yet t h er e a r e cou n t r ies wh er e t h e m a gist r a cy is en t ir ely in t h eir h a n ds.
“In Ton qu in ,”41 sa ys Da m pier , 42 “a ll t h e m a n da r in s, civil a n d m ilit a r y, a r e
eu n u ch s.” Th ey h a ve n o fa m ilies, a n d t h ou gh t h ey a r e n a t u r a lly a va r iciou s, t h e
m a st er or t h e pr in ce ben efit s in t h e en d by t h is ver y pa ssion .
Da m pier t ells u s, t oo,43 t h a t in t h is cou n t r y t h e eu n u ch s ca n n ot live wit h ou t
wom en , a n d t h er efor e m a r r y. Th e la w wh ich per m it s t h eir m a r r ia ge m a y be
fou n ded pa r t ly on t h eir r espect for t h ese eu n u ch s, a n d pa r t ly on t h eir con t em pt
of t h e fa ir sex.
Th u s t h ey a r e t r u st ed wit h t h e m a gist r a cy, beca u se t h ey h a ve n o fa m ily; a n d
per m it t ed t o m a r r y, beca u se t h ey a r e m a gist r a t es.
Th en it is t h a t t h e sen se wh ich r em a in s wou ld fa in su pply t h a t wh ich t h ey
h a ve lost ; a n d t h e en t er pr ises of despa ir becom e a kin d of en joym en t . So, in
Milt on , t h a t spir it wh o h a s n ot h in g left bu t desir es, en r a ged a t h is degr a da t ion ,
wou ld m a ke u se of h is im pot en cy it self.
We see in t h e h ist or y of Ch in a a gr ea t n u m ber of la ws t o depr ive eu n u ch s of
a ll civil a n d m ilit a r y em ploym en t s; bu t t h ey a lwa ys r et u r n ed t o t h em a ga in . It

seem s a s if t h e eu n u ch s of t h e ea st wer e a n ecessa r y evil.
2'+%,1
1. J u st in ia n , In stitu tes, i.
2. E xcept in g a few ca n n iba ls.
3. I m ea n sla ver y in a st r ict sen se, a s for m er ly a m on g t h e Rom a n s, a n d a t
pr esen t in ou r colon ies.
4. Bibliot h . An g., xiii, pa r t II, a r t . 3.
5. See Solis, H istory of th e Con qu est of M exico, a n d Ga r cila sso de la Vega ,
H istory of th e Con qu est of Peru.
6. La ba t , N ew Voyage to th e Isles of Am erica, iv, p. 114, 1728, 12m o.
7. Presen t S tate of R u ssia.
8. Da m pier , Voyages, iii.
9. Politics, i. 5.
10. As m a y be seen in t h e m in es of H a r t z, in Lower Sa xon y, a n d in t h ose of
H u n ga r y.
11. De Mor ibu s Ger m a n or u m , 25.
12. Ta cit u s, De Mor ibu s Ger m a n or u m , 20, sa ys t h e m a st er is n ot t o be
dist in gu ish ed fr om t h e sla ve by a n y delica cy of livin g.
13. Sir J oh n Ch a r din , T ravels to Persia.
14. Sir J oh n Ch a r din , ii, in h is descr ipt ion of t h e m a r ket of Iza gou r .
15. Book i, t it . 32, § 5.
16. Th e r evolt of t h e Ma m elu kes wa s a differ en t ca se; t h is wa s a body of t h e
m ilit ia wh o u su r ped t h e em pir e.
17. L aw of th e Visigoth s, iii, t it . 1, § 1.
18. Ibid., v, t it . 7, § 20.
19. Ibid., v, t it . 2, § 9.
20. La w of t h e Alem a n s, 5, § 3.
21. Ibid., § 5, per vir t u t em .
22. “Sicily,” sa ys F lor u s, “su ffer ed m or e in t h e Ser vile t h a n in t h e P u n ic wa r .”
— iii. 19.
23. See t h e wh ole t it le of t h e sen a t . con s. Silla n ., ff.
24. Leg. Si qu is, § 12, ff. de sen a t . con s. Silla n .

25. Wh en An t on y com m a n ded E r os t o kill h im , it wa s t h e sa m e a s com m a n din g
h im t o kill h im self; beca u se, if h e h a d obeyed, h e wou ld h a ve been pu n ish ed
a s t h e m u r der er of h is m a st er .
26. Leg. i, § 22, ff. de sen a t . con s. Silla n .
27. Leg. i, § 31, ff. ibid., xxix, t it . 5.
28. Xiph ilin , In Cla u dio.
29. See Leg. 3, in Cod., De P a t r ia pot est a t e, by t h e E m per or Alexa n der .
30. E xod., 21. 20, 21.
31. P lu t a r ch , On Su per st it ion .
32. See t h e con st it u t ion of An t on in u s P iu s, In stitu tes, i, t it . 7.
33. L aw s, Book ix.
34. Th is wa s fr equ en t ly t h e spir it of t h e la ws of t h ose n a t ion s wh o ca m e ou t of
Ger m a n y, a s m a y be seen by t h eir codes.
35. Dem ost h en es, Or a t . con t r a Midia n , p. 610, F r a n kfor t , 1604.
37. F r ein sh em iu s, Su pplem en t , dec. 2, v.
38. E xod., 21.
40. Au gu st u s’s speech in Dio, lvi.
41. It wa s for m er ly t h e sa m e in Ch in a . Th e t wo Ma h om et a n Ar a bs wh o
t r a velled t h it h er in t h e n in t h cen t u r y u se t h e wor d eu n u ch wh en ever t h ey
spea k of a gover n or of t h e cit y.
42. Volu m e iii, p. 91.
43. Ibid., p. 94.
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+-%&2"+F.%&'(&+-%&)$5<"+%1
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Sla ves a r e est a blish ed for t h e fa m ily; bu t t h ey a r e n ot a pa r t of it . Th u s I
dist in gu ish t h eir ser vit u de fr om t h a t wh ich t h e wom en in som e cou n t r ies su ffer ,
a n d wh ich I sh a ll pr oper ly ca ll dom est ic ser vit u de.
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Wom en , in h ot clim a t es, a r e m a r r ia gea ble a t eigh t , n in e, or t en yea r s of a ge;1
t h u s, in t h ose cou n t r ies, in fa n cy a n d m a r r ia ge gen er a lly go t oget h er . Th ey a r e
old a t t wen t y: t h eir r ea son t h er efor e n ever a ccom pa n ies t h eir bea u t y. Wh en
bea u t y dem a n ds t h e em pir e, t h e wa n t of r ea son for bids t h e cla im ; wh en r ea son
is obt a in ed, bea u t y is n o m or e. Th ese wom en ou gh t t h en t o be in a st a t e of
depen den ce; for r ea son ca n n ot pr ocu r e in old a ge t h a t em pir e wh ich even you t h
a n d bea u t y cou ld n ot give. It is t h er efor e ext r em ely n a t u r a l t h a t in t h ese pla ces
a m a n , wh en n o la w opposes it , sh ou ld lea ve on e wife t o t a ke a n ot h er , a n d t h a t
polyga m y sh ou ld be in t r odu ced.
In t em per a t e clim a t es, wh er e t h e ch a r m s of wom en a r e best pr eser ved, wh er e
t h ey a r r ive la t er a t m a t u r it y, a n d h a ve ch ildr en a t a m or e a dva n ced sea son of
life, t h e old a ge of t h eir h u sba n ds in som e degr ee follows t h eir s; a n d a s t h ey
h a ve m or e r ea son a n d kn owledge a t t h e t im e of m a r r ia ge, if it be on ly on
a ccou n t of t h eir h a vin g con t in u ed lon ger in life, it m u st n a t u r a lly in t r odu ce a
kin d of equ a lit y bet ween t h e t wo sexes; a n d, in con sequ en ce of t h is, t h e la w of
h a vin g on ly on e wife.
In cold cou n t r ies t h e a lm ost n ecessa r y cu st om of dr in kin g st r on g liqu or s
est a blish es in t em per a n ce a m on gst m en . Wom en , wh o in t h is r espect h a ve a
n a t u r a l r est r a in t , beca u se t h ey a r e a lwa ys on t h e defen sive, h a ve t h er efor e t h e

a dva n t a ge of r ea son over t h em .
Na t u r e, wh ich h a s dist in gu ish ed m en by t h eir r ea son a n d bodily st r en gt h , h a s
set n o ot h er bou n ds t o t h eir power t h a n t h ose of t h is st r en gt h a n d r ea son . It h a s
given ch a r m s t o wom en , a n d or da in ed t h a t t h eir a scen da n cy over m a n sh a ll en d
wit h t h ese ch a r m s: bu t in h ot cou n t r ies, t h ese a r e fou n d on ly a t t h e begin n in g,
a n d n ever in t h e pr ogr ess of life.
Th u s t h e la w wh ich per m it s on ly on e wife is ph ysica lly con for m a ble t o t h e
clim a t e of E u r ope, a n d n ot t o t h a t of Asia . Th is is t h e r ea son wh y
Ma h om et a n ism wa s so ea sily est a blish ed in Asia , a n d wit h su ch difficu lt y
ext en ded in E u r ope; wh y Ch r ist ia n it y is m a in t a in ed in E u r ope, a n d h a s been
dest r oyed in Asia ; a n d, in fin e, wh y t h e Ma h om et a n s h a ve m a de su ch pr ogr ess
in Ch in a , a n d t h e Ch r ist ians so lit t le. H u m a n r ea son s, h owever , a r e su bor din a t e
t o t h a t Su pr em e Ca u se wh o does wh a t ever H e plea ses, a n d r en der s ever yt h in g
su bser vien t t o H is will.
Som e pa r t icu la r r ea son s in du ced Va len t in ia n 2 t o per m it polyga m y in t h e
em pir e. Th a t la w, so im pr oper for ou r clim a t es, wa s a br oga t ed by Th eodosiu s,
Ar ca diu s, a n d H on or iu s. 3
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,F44'.+5*D&+-%<1
Th ou gh in cou n t r ies wh er e polyga m y is on ce est a blish ed t h e n u m ber of wives
is pr in cipa lly det er m in ed by t h e opu len ce of t h e h u sba n d, yet it ca n n ot be sa id
t h a t opu len ce est a blish ed polyga m y in t h ose st a t es, sin ce pover t y m a y pr odu ce
t h e sa m e effect , a s I sh a ll pr ove wh en I com e t o spea k of t h e sa va ges.
P olyga m y, in power fu l n a t ion s, is less a lu xu r y in it self t h a n t h e occa sion of
gr ea t lu xu r y. In h ot clim a t es t h ey h a ve few wa n t s, a n d it cost s lit t le t o m a in t a in
a wife a n d ch ildr en ;4 t h ey m a y t h er efor e h a ve a gr ea t n u m ber of wives.
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Accor din g t o t h e ca lcu la t ion s m a de in sever a l pa r t s of E u r ope, t h er e a r e h er e
bor n m or e boys t h a n gir ls;5 on t h e con t r a r y, by t h e a ccou n t s we h a ve of Asia ,
t h er e a r e t h er e bor n m or e gir ls t h a n boys. 6 Th e la w wh ich in E u r ope a llows on ly

on e wife, a n d t h a t in Asia wh ich per m it s m a n y, h a ve t h er efor e a cer t a in r ela t ion
t o t h e clim a t e.
In t h e cold clim a t es of Asia t h er e a r e bor n , a s in E u r ope, m or e m a les t h a n
fem a les; a n d h en ce, sa y t h e La m a s, 7 is der ived t h e r ea son of t h a t la w wh ich
a m on gst t h em per m it s a wom a n t o h a ve m a n y h u sba n ds. 8
Bu t it is difficu lt for m e t o believe t h a t t h er e a r e m a n y cou n t r ies wh er e t h e
dispr opor t ion ca n be gr ea t en ou gh for a n y exigen cy t o ju st ify t h e in t r odu cin g
eit h er t h e la w in fa vou r of m a n y wives or t h a t of m a n y h u sba n ds. Th is wou ld
on ly im ply t h a t a m a jor it y of wom en , or even a m a jor it y of m en , is m or e
con for m a ble t o n a t u r e in cer t a in cou n t r ies t h a n in ot h er s.
I con fess t h a t if wh a t h ist or y t ells u s be t r u e, t h a t a t Ba n t a m t h er e a r e t en
wom en t o on e m a n , 9 t h is m u st be a ca se pa r t icu la r ly fa vou r a ble t o polyga m y.
In a ll t h is I on ly give t h eir r ea son s, bu t do n ot ju st ify t h eir cu st om s.
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In t h e t r ibe of t h e Na ir es, on t h e coa st of Ma la ba r , t h e m en ca n h a ve on ly on e
wife, wh ile a wom a n , on t h e con t r a r y, m a y h a ve m a n y h u sba n ds. 10 Th e or igin
of t h is cu st om is n ot I believe difficu lt t o discover . Th e Na ir es a r e t h e t r ibe of
n obles, wh o a r e t h e soldier s of a ll t h ose n a t ion s. In E u r ope soldier s a r e
for bidden t o m a r r y; in Ma la ba r , wh er e t h e clim a t e r equ ir es gr ea t er in du lgen ce,
t h ey a r e sa t isfied wit h r en der in g m a r r ia ge a s lit t le bu r den som e t o t h em a s
possible: t h ey give on e wife a m on gst m a n y m en , wh ich con sequ en t ly dim in ish es
t h e a t t a ch m en t t o a fa m ily, a n d t h e ca r es of h ou sekeepin g, a n d lea ves t h em in
t h e fr ee possession of a m ilit a r y spir it .
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Wit h r ega r d t o polyga m y in gen er a l, in depen den t ly of t h e cir cu m st a n ces
wh ich m a y r en der it t oler a ble, it is n ot of t h e lea st ser vice t o m a n kin d, n or t o
eit h er of t h e t wo sexes, wh et h er it be t h a t wh ich a bu ses or t h a t wh ich is a bu sed.
Neit h er is it of ser vice t o t h e ch ildr en ; for on e of it s gr ea t est in con ven ien ces is,
t h a t t h e fa t h er a n d m ot h er ca n n ot h a ve t h e sa m e a ffect ion for t h eir offspr in g;
a fa t h er ca n n ot love t wen t y ch ildr en wit h t h e sa m e t en der n ess a s a m ot h er ca n
love t wo. It is m u ch wor se wh en a wife h a s m a n y h u sba n ds; for t h en pa t er n a l

love on ly is h eld by t h is opin ion , t h a t a fa t h er m a y believe, if h e will, or t h a t
ot h er s m a y believe, t h a t cer t a in ch ildr en belon g t o h im .
Th ey sa y t h a t t h e E m per or of Mor occo h a s wom en of a ll colou r s, wh it e, bla ck,
a n d t a wn y, in h is ser a glio. Bu t t h e wr et ch h a s sca r cely n eed of a sin gle colou r .
Besides, t h e possession of so m a n y wives does n ot a lwa ys pr even t t h eir
en t er t a in in g desir es for t h ose of ot h er s. 11 It is wit h lu st a s wit h a va r ice, wh ose
t h ir st in cr ea ses by t h e a cqu isit ion of t r ea su r e.
In t h e r eign of J u st in ia n , m a n y ph ilosoph er s, displea sed wit h t h e con st r a in t
of Ch r ist ia n it y, r et ir ed in t o P er sia . Wh a t st r u ck t h em t h e m ost , sa ys Aga t h ia s, 12
wa s t h a t polyga m y wa s per m it t ed a m on gst m en wh o did n ot even a bst a in fr om
a du lt er y.
Ma y I n ot sa y t h a t a plu r a lit y of wives lea ds t o t h a t pa ssion wh ich n a t u r e
disa llows? for on e depr a va t ion a lwa ys dr a ws on a n ot h er . I r em em ber t h a t in t h e
r evolu t ion wh ich h a ppen ed a t Con st a n t in ople, wh en Su lt a n Ach m et wa s
deposed, h ist or y sa ys t h a t t h e people, h a vin g plu n der ed t h e Kia ya ’s h ou se,
fou n d n ot a sin gle wom a n ; t h ey t ell u s t h a t a t Algier s, 13 in t h e gr ea t est pa r t of
t h eir ser a glios, t h ey h a ve n on e a t a ll.
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F r om t h e la w wh ich per m it t ed a plu r a lit y of wives followed t h a t of a n equ a l
beh a viou r t o ea ch . Ma h om et , wh o a llowed of fou r , wou ld h a ve ever yt h in g, a s
pr ovision s, dr ess, a n d con ju ga l du t y, equ a lly divided bet ween t h em . Th is la w is
a lso in for ce in t h e Ma ldivia n isles, 14 wh er e t h ey a r e a t liber t y t o m a r r y t h r ee
wives.
Th e la w of Moses 15 even decla r es t h a t if a n y on e h a s m a r r ied h is son t o a
sla ve, a n d t h is son sh ou ld a ft er wa r ds espou se a fr ee wom a n , h er food, h er
r a im en t , a n d h er du t y of m a r r ia ge sh a ll h e n ot dim in ish . Th ey m igh t give m or e
t o t h e n ew wife, bu t t h e fir st wa s n ot t o h a ve less t h a n sh e h a d befor e.
Q1&@(&+-%&3%4"."+5'*&'(&W'<%*&(.'<&K%*1
Th e pr odigiou s n u m ber of wives possessed by t h ose wh o live in r ich a n d
volu pt u ou s cou n t r ies is a con sequ en ce of t h e la w of polyga m y. Th eir sepa r a t ion
fr om m en , a n d t h eir close con fin em en t , n a t u r a lly follow fr om t h e gr ea t n ess of
t h is n u m ber . Dom est ic or der r en der s t h is n ecessa r y; t h u s a n in solven t debt or
seeks t o con cea l h im self fr om t h e pu r su it of h is cr edit or s. Th er e a r e clim a t es
wh er e t h e im pu lses of n a t u r e h a ve su ch for ce t h a t m or a lit y h a s a lm ost n on e. If
a m a n be left wit h a wom a n , t h e t em pt a t ion a n d t h e fa ll will be t h e sa m e t h in g;
t h e a t t a ck cer t a in , t h e r esist a n ce n on e. In t h ese cou n t r ies, in st ea d of pr ecept s,
t h ey h a ve r ecou r se t o bolt s a n d ba r s.
On e of t h e Ch in ese cla ssic a u t h or s con sider s t h e m a n a s a pr odigy of vir t u e
wh o, fin din g a wom a n a lon e in a dist a n t a pa r t m en t , ca n for bea r m a kin g u se of
for ce.16
S1&@(&+-%&)'**%9+5'*&#%+7%%*&0'<%,+59&"*0&4'$5+59"$&A';%.*<%*+1
In a r epu blic t h e con dit ion of cit izen s is m oder a t e, equ a l, m ild, a n d a gr eea ble;
ever yt h in g pa r t a kes of t h e ben efit of pu blic liber t y. An em pir e over t h e wom en
ca n n ot , a m on g t h em , be so well exer t ed; a n d wh er e t h e clim a t e dem a n ds t h is
em pir e, it is m ost a gr eea ble t o a m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t . Th is is on e of t h e
r ea son s wh y it h a s ever been difficu lt t o est a blish a popu la r gover n m en t in t h e
E a st .
On t h e con t r a r y, t h e sla ver y of wom en is per fect ly con for m a ble t o t h e gen iu s
of a despot ic gover n m en t , wh ich deligh t s in t r ea t in g a ll wit h sever it y. Th u s a t
a ll t im es h a ve we seen in Asia dom est ic sla ver y a n d despot ic gover n m en t wa lk
h a n d in h a n d wit h a n equ a l pa ce.
In a gover n m en t wh ich r equ ir es, a bove a ll t h in gs, t h a t a pa r t icu la r r ega r d be
pa id t o it s t r a n qu illit y, a n d wh er e t h e ext r em e su bor din a t ion ca lls for pea ce, it
is a bsolu t ely n ecessa r y t o sh u t u p t h e wom en ; for t h eir in t r igu es wou ld pr ove
fa t a l t o t h eir h u sba n ds. A gover n m en t wh ich h a s n ot t im e t o exa m in e in t o t h e
con du ct of it s su bject s views t h em wit h a su spiciou s eye, on ly beca u se t h ey
a ppea r a n d su ffer t h em selves t o be kn own .
Let u s on ly su ppose t h a t t h e levit y of m in d, t h e in discr et ion s, t h e t a st es a n d
ca pr ices of ou r wom en , a t t en ded by t h eir pa ssion s of a h igh er a n d a lower kin d,
wit h a ll t h eir a ct ive fir e, a n d in t h a t fu ll liber t y wit h wh ich t h ey a ppea r

a m on gst u s, wer e con veyed in t o a n ea st er n gover n m en t , wh er e wou ld be t h e
fa t h er of a fa m ily wh o cou ld en joy a m om en t ’s r epose? Th e m en wou ld be
ever ywh er e su spect ed, ever ywh er e en em ies; t h e st a t e wou ld be over t u r n ed, a n d
t h e kin gdom over flowed wit h r iver s of blood.
BT1&!-%&8.5*954$%&'*&7-59-&+-%&K'."$,&'(&+-%&U",+&".%&('F*0%01
In t h e ca se of a m u lt iplicit y of wives, t h e m or e a fa m ily cea ses t o be u n it ed,
t h e m or e ou gh t t h e la ws t o r eu n it e it s det a ch ed pa r t s in a com m on cen t r e; a n d
t h e gr ea t er t h e diver sit y of in t er est s, t h e m or e n ecessa r y is it for t h e la ws t o
br in g t h em ba ck t o a com m on in t er est .
Th is is m or e pa r t icu la r ly don e by con fin em en t . Th e wom en sh ou ld n ot on ly be
sepa r a t ed fr om t h e m en by t h e wa lls of t h e h ou se, bu t t h ey ou gh t a lso t o be
sepa r a t ed in t h e sa m e en closu r e, in su ch a m a n n er t h a t ea ch m a y h a ve a
dist in ct h ou seh old in t h e sa m e fa m ily. H en ce ea ch der ives a ll t h a t r ela t es t o t h e
pr a ct ice of m or a lit y, m odest y, ch a st it y, r eser ve, silen ce, pea ce, depen den ce,
r espect , a n d love; a n d, in sh or t , a gen er a l dir ect ion of h er t h ou gh t s t o t h a t
wh ich , in it s own n a t u r e, is a t h in g of t h e gr ea t est im por t a n ce, a sin gle a n d
en t ir e a t t a ch m en t t o h er fa m ily.
Wom en h a ve n a t u r a lly so m a n y du t ies t o fu lfil — du t ies wh ich a r e pecu lia r ly
t h eir s — t h a t t h ey ca n n ot be su fficien t ly exclu ded fr om ever yt h in g ca pa ble of
in spir in g ot h er idea s; fr om ever yt h in g t h a t goes by t h e n a m e of a m u sem en t s;
a n d fr om ever yt h in g wh ich we ca ll bu sin ess.
We fin d t h e m a n n er s m or e pu r e in t h e sever a l pa r t s of t h e E a st , in pr opor t ion
a s t h e con fin em en t of wom en is m or e st r ict ly obser ved. In gr ea t kin gdom s t h er e
a r e n ecessa r ily gr ea t lor ds. Th e gr ea t er t h eir wea lt h , t h e m or e en la r ged is t h eir
a bilit y of keepin g t h eir wives in a n exa ct con fin em en t , a n d of pr even t in g t h em
fr om en t er in g a ga in in t o societ y. H en ce it pr oceeds t h a t in t h e em pir es of
Tu r key, P er sia , of t h e Mogu l, Ch in a , a n d J a pa n , t h e m a n n er s of t h eir wives a r e
a dm ir a ble.
Bu t t h e ca se is n ot t h e sa m e in In dia , wh er e a m u lt it u de of isla n ds a n d t h e
sit u a t ion of t h e la n d h a ve divided t h e cou n t r y in t o a n in fin it e n u m ber of pet t y
st a t es, wh ich fr om ca u ses t h a t we h a ve n ot h er e r oom t o m en t ion a r e r en der ed
despot ic.
Th er e a r e n on e t h er e bu t wr et ch es, som e pilla gin g a n d ot h er s pilla ged. Th eir
gr a n dees h a ve ver y m oder a t e for t u n es, a n d t h ose wh om t h ey ca ll r ich h a ve on ly
a ba r e su bsist en ce. Th e con fin em en t of t h eir wom en ca n n ot t h er efor e be ver y
st r ict ; n or ca n t h ey m a ke u se of a n y gr ea t pr eca u t ion s t o keep t h em wit h in du e
bou n ds; h en ce it pr oceeds t h a t t h e cor r u pt ion of t h eir m a n n er s is sca r cely t o be
con ceived.
We m a y t h er e see t o wh a t a n ext r em e t h e vices of a clim a t e in du lged in fu ll
liber t y will ca r r y licen t iou sn ess. It is t h er e t h a t n a t u r e h a s a for ce a n d m odest y
a wea kn ess, wh ich exceeds a ll com pr eh en sion . At P a t a n 17 t h e wa n t on desir es
of t h e wom en a r e so ou t r a geou s, t h a t t h e m en a r e obliged t o m a ke u se of a
cer t a in a ppa r el t o sh elt er t h em fr om t h eir design s. 18 Accor din g t o Mr . Sm it h , 19
t h in gs a r e n ot bet t er con du ct ed in t h e pet t y kin gdom s of Gu in ea . In t h ese
cou n t r ies t h e t wo sexes lose even t h ose la ws wh ich pr oper ly belon g t o ea ch .
BB1&@(&0'<%,+59&3$";%.H&5*0%4%*0%*+$H&'(&8'$HD"<H1
It is n ot on ly a plu r a lit y of wives wh ich in cer t a in pla ces of t h e E a st r equ ir es
t h eir con fin em en t , bu t a lso t h e clim a t e it self. Th ose wh o con sider t h e h or r ible
cr im es, t h e t r ea ch er y, t h e da r k villa in ies, t h e poison in gs, t h e a ssa ssin a t ion s,
wh ich t h e liber t y of wom en h a s occa sion ed a t Goa a n d in t h e P or t u gu ese
set t lem en t s in t h e In dies, wh er e r eligion per m it s on ly on e wife; a n d wh o
com pa r e t h em wit h t h e in n ocen ce a n d pu r it y of m a n n er s of t h e wom en of
Tu r key, P er sia , H in dost a n , Ch in a , a n d J a pa n , will clea r ly see t h a t it is
fr equ en t ly a s n ecessa r y t o sepa r a t e t h em fr om t h e m en , wh en t h ey h a ve bu t
on e, a s wh en t h ey h a ve m a n y.
Th ese a r e t h in gs wh ich ou gh t t o be decided by t h e clim a t e. Wh a t pu r pose
wou ld it a n swer t o sh u t u p wom en in ou r n or t h er n cou n t r ies, wh er e t h eir
m a n n er s a r e n a t u r a lly good; wh er e a ll t h eir pa ssion s a r e ca lm ; a n d wh er e love
r u les over t h e h ea r t wit h so r egu la r a n d gen t le a n em pir e t h a t t h e lea st degr ee
of pr u den ce is su fficien t t o con du ct it ?
It is a h a ppin ess t o live in t h ose clim a t es wh ich per m it su ch fr eedom of
con ver se, wh er e t h a t sex wh ich h a s m ost ch a r m s seem s t o em bellish societ y,
a n d wh er e wives, r eser vin g t h em selves for t h e plea su r es of on e, con t r ibu t e t o
t h e a m u sem en t of a ll.
BE1&@(&*"+F."$&K'0%,+H1
All n a t ion s a r e equ a lly a gr eed in fixin g con t em pt a n d ign om in y on t h e
in con t in en ce of wom en . Na t u r e h a s dict a t ed t h is t o a ll. Sh e h a s est a blish ed t h e
a t t a ck, a n d sh e h a s est a blish ed t oo t h e r esist a n ce; a n d h a vin g im pla n t ed
desir es in bot h , sh e h a s given t o t h e on e boldn ess, a n d t o t h e ot h er sh a m e. To
in dividu a ls sh e h a s gr a n t ed a lon g su ccession of yea r s t o a t t en d t o t h eir
pr eser va t ion : bu t t o con t in u e t h e species, sh e h a s gr a n t ed on ly a m om en t .
It is t h en fa r fr om bein g t r u e t h a t t o be in con t in en t is t o follow t h e la ws of
n a t u r e; on t h e con t r a r y, it is a viola t ion of t h ese la ws, wh ich ca n be obser ved
on ly by beh a vin g wit h m odest y a n d discr et ion .
Besides, it is n a t u r a l for in t elligen t bein gs t o feel t h eir im per fect ion s. Na t u r e
h a s, t h er efor e, fixed sh a m e in ou r m in ds — a sh a m e of ou r im per fect ion s.
Wh en , t h er efor e, t h e ph ysica l power of cer t a in clim a t es viola t es t h e n a t u r a l
la w of t h e t wo sexes, a n d t h a t of in t elligen t bein gs, it belon gs t o t h e legisla t u r e
t o m a ke civil la ws, wit h a view t o opposin g t h e n a t u r e of t h e clim a t e a n d
r e-est a blish in g t h e pr im it ive la ws.
BG1&@(&[%"$'F,H1
Wit h r espect t o n a t ion s, we ou gh t t o dist in gu ish bet ween t h e pa ssion of
jea lou sy a n d a jea lou sy a r isin g fr om cu st om s, m a n n er s, a n d la ws. Th e on e is a
h ot r a gin g fever ; t h e ot h er , cold, bu t som et im es t er r ible, m a y be join ed wit h
in differ en ce a n d con t em pt .
Th e on e, a n a bu se of love, der ives it s sou r ce fr om love it self. Th e ot h er
depen ds on ly on m a n n er s, on t h e cu st om s of a n a t ion , on t h e la ws of t h e
cou n t r y, a n d som et im es even on r eligion .20
It is gen er a lly t h e effect of t h e ph ysica l power of t h e clim a t e; a n d, a t t h e sa m e
t im e, t h e r em edy of t h is ph ysica l power .
BJ1&@(&+-%&U",+%.*&K"**%.&'(&0'<%,+59&A';%.*<%*+1
Wives a r e ch a n ged so oft en in t h e E a st t h a t t h ey ca n n ot h a ve t h e power of
dom est ic gover n m en t . Th is ca r e is, t h er efor e, com m it t ed t o t h e eu n u ch s, wh om
t h ey en t r u st wit h t h eir keys a n d t h e m a n a gem en t of t h eir fa m ilies. “In P er sia ,”
sa ys Sir J oh n Ch a r din , “m a r r ied wom en a r e fu r n ish ed wit h clot h es a s t h ey
wa n t t h em , a ft er t h e m a n n er of ch ildr en .” Th u s t h a t ca r e wh ich seem s so well
t o becom e t h em , t h a t ca r e wh ich ever ywh er e else is t h e fir st of t h eir con cer n ,
does n ot a t a ll r ega r d t h em .
BL1&@(&C5;'.9%&"*0&/%4F05"+5'*1
Th er e is t h is differ en ce bet ween a divor ce a n d a r epu dia t ion , t h a t t h e for m er
is m a de by m u t u a l con sen t , a r isin g fr om a m u t u a l a n t ipa t h y; wh ile t h e la t t er
is for m ed by t h e will, a n d for t h e a dva n t a ge of on e of t h e t wo pa r t ies,
in depen den t ly of t h e will a n d a dva n t a ge of t h e ot h er .
Th e n ecessit y t h er e is som et im es for wom en t o r epu dia t e, a n d t h e difficu lt y
t h er e a lwa ys is in doin g it , r en der t h a t la w ver y t yr a n n ica l wh ich gives t h is
r igh t t o m en wit h ou t gr a n t in g it t o wom en . A h u sba n d is t h e m a st er of t h e
h ou se; h e h a s a t h ou sa n d wa ys of con fin in g h is wife t o h er du t y, or of br in gin g
h er ba ck t o it ; so t h a t in h is h a n ds it seem s a s if r epu dia t ion cou ld be on ly a
fr esh a bu se of power . Bu t a wife wh o r epu dia t es on ly m a kes u se of a dr ea dfu l
kin d of r em edy. It is a lwa ys a gr ea t m isfor t u n e for h er t o go in sea r ch of a
secon d h u sba n d, wh en sh e h a s lost t h e m ost pa r t of h er a t t r a ct ion s wit h
a n ot h er . On e of t h e a dva n t a ges a t t en din g t h e ch a r m s of you t h in t h e fem a le sex
is t h a t in a n a dva n ced a ge t h e h u sba n d is led t o com pla cen cy a n d love by t h e
r em em br a n ce of pa st plea su r es.
It is t h en a gen er a l r u le t h a t in a ll cou n t r ies wh er e t h e la ws h a ve given t o
m en t h e power of r epu dia t in g, t h ey ou gh t a lso t o gr a n t it t o wom en . Na y, in
clim a t es wh er e wom en live in dom est ic sla ver y, on e wou ld t h in k t h a t t h e la w
ou gh t t o fa vou r wom en wit h t h e r igh t of r epu dia t ion , a n d h u sba n ds on ly wit h
t h a t of divor ce.
Wh en wives a r e con fin ed in a ser a glio, t h e h u sba n d ou gh t n ot t o r epu dia t e on
a ccou n t of a n opposit ion of m a n n er s; it is t h e h u sba n d’s fa u lt if t h eir m a n n er s
a r e in com pa t ible.
Repu dia t ion on a ccou n t of t h e ba r r en n ess of t h e wom a n ou gh t n ever t o t a ke

pla ce except wh er e t h er e is on ly on e wife:21 wh en t h er e a r e m a n y, t h is is of n o
im por t a n ce t o t h e h u sba n d.
A la w of t h e Ma ldivia n s per m it t ed t h em t o t a ke a ga in a wife wh om t h ey h a d
r epu dia t ed.22 A la w of Mexico23 for ba de t h eir bein g r eu n it ed u n der pa in of dea t h .
Th e la w of Mexico wa s m or e r a t ion a l t h a n t h a t of t h e Ma ldivia n s: a t t h e t im e
even of t h e dissolu t ion , it a t t en ded t o t h e per pet u it y of m a r r ia ge; in st ea d of t h is,
t h e la w of t h e Ma ldivia n s seem ed equ a lly t o spor t wit h m a r r ia ge a n d
r epu dia t ion .
Th e la w of Mexico a dm it t ed on ly of divor ce. Th is wa s a pa r t icu la r r ea son for
t h eir n ot per m it t in g t h ose wh o wer e volu n t a r ily sepa r a t ed t o be ever r eu n it ed.
Repu dia t ion seem s ch iefly t o pr oceed fr om a h a st in ess of t em per , a n d fr om t h e
dict a t es of pa ssion ; wh ile divor ce a ppea r s t o be a n a ffa ir of deliber a t ion .
Divor ces a r e fr equ en t ly of gr ea t polit ica l u se: bu t a s t o t h e civil u t ilit y, t h ey
a r e est a blish ed on ly for t h e a dva n t a ge of t h e h u sba n d a n d wife, a n d a r e n ot
a lwa ys fa vou r a ble t o t h eir ch ildr en .
BO1&@(&/%4F05"+5'*&"*0&C5;'.9%&"<'*D,+&+-%&/'<"*,1
Rom u lu s per m it t ed a h u sba n d t o r epu dia t e h is wife, if sh e h a d com m it t ed
a du lt er y, pr epa r ed poison , or pr ocu r ed fa lse keys. H e did n ot gr a n t t o wom en
t h e r igh t of r epu dia t in g t h eir h u sba n ds. P lu t a r ch 24 ca lls t h is a la w ext r em ely
sever e.
As t h e At h en ia n la w 25 ga ve t h e power of r epu dia t ion t o t h e wife a s well a s t o
t h e h u sba n d, a n d a s t h is r igh t wa s obt a in ed by t h e wom en a m on g t h e pr im it ive
Rom a n s, n ot wit h st a n din g t h e la w of Rom u lu s, it is eviden t t h a t t h is in st it u t ion
wa s on e of t h ose wh ich t h e depu t ies of Rom e br ou gh t fr om At h en s, a n d wh ich
wer e in ser t ed in t h e la ws of t h e Twelve Ta bles.
Cicer o sa ys t h a t t h e r ea son s of r epu dia t ion spr a n g fr om t h e la w of t h e Twelve
Ta bles. 26 We ca n n ot t h en dou bt bu t t h a t t h is la w in cr ea sed t h e n u m ber of t h e
r ea son s for r epu dia t ion est a blish ed by Rom u lu s.
Th e power of divor ce wa s a lso a n a ppoin t m en t , or a t lea st a con sequ en ce, of
t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles. F or fr om t h e m om en t t h a t t h e wife or t h e h u sba n d
h a d sepa r a t ely t h e r igh t of r epu dia t ion , t h er e wa s a m u ch st r on ger r ea son for
t h eir h a vin g t h e power of qu it t in g ea ch ot h er by m u t u a l con sen t .

Th e la w did n ot r equ ir e t h a t t h ey sh ou ld la y open t h e ca u ses of divor ce.27 In
t h e n a t u r e of t h e t h in g, t h e r ea son s for r epu dia t ion sh ou ld be given , wh ile t h ose
for a divor ce a r e u n n ecessa r y; beca u se, wh a t ever ca u ses t h e la w m a y a dm it a s
su fficien t t o br ea k a m a r r ia ge, a m u t u a l a n t ipa t h y m u st be st r on ger t h a n t h em
a ll.
Th e followin g fa ct , m en t ion ed by Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, 28 Va ler iu s
Ma xim u s, 29 a n d Au lu s Gelliu s, 30 does n ot a ppea r t o m e t o h a ve t h e lea st degr ee
of pr oba bilit y: t h ou gh t h ey h a d a t Rom e, sa y t h ey, t h e power of r epu dia t in g a
wife, yet t h ey h a d so m u ch r espect for t h e a u spices t h a t n obody for t h e spa ce of
five h u n dr ed a n d t wen t y yea r s ever m a de 31 u se of t h is r igh t , t ill Ca r viliu s Ru ga
r epu dia t ed h is, beca u se of h er st er ilit y. We n eed on ly be sen sible of t h e n a t u r e
of t h e h u m a n m in d t o per ceive h ow ver y ext r a or din a r y it m u st be for a la w t o
gr a n t su ch r igh t t o a wh ole n a t ion , a n d yet for n obody t o m a ke u se of it .
Cor iola n u s, set t in g ou t on h is exile, a dvised h is 32 wife t o m a r r y a m a n m or e
h a ppy t h a n h im self. We h a ve ju st been seein g t h a t t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles
a n d t h e m a n n er s of t h e Rom a n s gr ea t ly ext en ded t h e la w of Rom u lu s. Bu t t o
wh a t pu r pose wer e t h ese ext en sion s if t h ey n ever m a de u se of a power t o
r epu dia t e? Besides, if t h e cit izen s h a d su ch a r espect for t h e a u spices t h a t t h ey
wou ld n ever r epu dia t e, h ow ca m e t h e legisla t or s of Rom e t o h a ve less t h a n
t h ey? An d h ow ca m e t h e la ws in cessa n t ly t o cor r u pt t h eir m a n n er s?
All t h a t is su r pr isin g in t h e fa ct in qu est ion will soon disa ppea r , on ly by
com pa r in g t wo pa ssa ges in P lu t a r ch . Th e r ega l la w 33 per m it t ed a h u sba n d t o
r epu dia t e in t h e t h r ee ca ses a lr ea dy m en t ion ed, a n d “it en join ed,” sa ys
P lu t a r ch , 34 “t h a t h e wh o r epu dia t ed in a n y ot h er ca se sh ou ld be obliged t o give
t h e h a lf of h is su bst a n ce t o h is wife, a n d t h a t t h e ot h er h a lf sh ou ld be
con secr a t ed t o Cer es.” Th ey m igh t t h en r epu dia t e in a ll ca ses, if t h ey wer e bu t
willin g t o su bm it t o t h e pen a lt y. Nobody h a d don e t h is befor e Ca r viliu s Ru ga , 35
wh o, a s P lu t a r ch sa ys in a n ot h er pla ce, 36 “pu t a wa y h is wife for h er st er ilit y t wo
h u n dr ed a n d t h ir t y yea r s a ft er Rom u lu s.” Th a t is, sh e wa s r epu dia t ed
seven t y-on e yea r s befor e t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles, wh ich ext en ded bot h t h e
power a n d ca u ses of r epu dia t ion .
Th e a u t h or s I h a ve cit ed sa y t h a t Ca r viliu s Ru ga loved h is wife, bu t t h a t t h e
cen sor s m a de h im t a ke a n oa t h t o pu t h er a wa y, beca u se of h er ba r r en n ess, t o

t h e en d t h a t h e m igh t give ch ildr en t o t h e r epu blic; a n d t h a t t h is r en der ed h im
odiou s t o t h e people. We m u st kn ow t h e gen iu s a n d t em per of t h e Rom a n s
befor e we ca n discover t h e t r u e ca u se of t h e h a t r ed t h ey h a d con ceived a ga in st
Ca r viliu s. H e did n ot fa ll in t o disgr a ce wit h t h e people for r epu dia t in g h is wife;
t h is wa s a n a ffa ir t h a t did n ot a t a ll con cer n t h em . Bu t Ca r viliu s h a d t a ken a n
oa t h t o t h e cen sor s, t h a t by r ea son of t h e st er ilit y of h is wife h e wou ld r epu dia t e
h er t o give ch ildr en t o t h e r epu blic. Th is wa s a yoke wh ich t h e people sa w t h e
cen sor s wer e goin g t o pu t u pon t h em . I sh a ll discover , in t h e pr osecu t ion of t h is
wor k, 37 t h e r epu gn a n ce wh ich t h ey a lwa ys felt t o r egu la t ion s of t h e like kin d.
Bu t wh en ce ca n su ch a con t r a dict ion bet ween t h ose a u t h or s a r ise? It is beca u se
P lu t a r ch exa m in ed in t o a fa ct , a n d t h e ot h er s h a ve r ecou n t ed a pr odigy.
2'+%,1
1. “Ma h om et m a r r ied Ca dh isja a t five, a n d t ook h er t o h is bed a t eigh t yea r s
old. In t h e h ot cou n t r ies of Ar a bia a n d t h e In dies, gir ls a r e m a r r ia gea ble a t
eigh t yea r s of a ge, a n d a r e br ou gh t t o bed t h e yea r a ft er .” — P r idea u x, L ife
of M ah om et. We see wom en in t h e kin gdom of Algier s pr egn a n t a t n in e, t en ,
a n d eleven yea r s of a ge. — La u gier de Ta ssis, H istory of th e Kin gd om of
Algiers, p. 61.
2. See J or n a n des, De Regn o et t em por . su ccess., a n d t h e ecclesia st ic h ist or ia n s.
3. See Leg. 7. Cod., De J u da eis et Ca elicolis, a n d Nov. 18, ca p. v.
4. In Ceylon a m a n m a y live on t en sols a m on t h ; t h ey ea t n ot h in g t h er e bu t r ice
a n d fish . Collection of Voyages th at Con tribu ted to th e E stablish m en t of th e
E ast In d ia Com pan y, ii, pa r t 1.
5. Dr . Ar bu t h n ot fin ds t h a t in E n gla n d t h e n u m ber of boys exceeds t h a t of gir ls;
bu t people h a ve been t o bla m e t o con clu de t h a t t h e ca se is t h e sa m e in a ll
clim a t es.
6. See Kem pfer , wh o r ela t es t h a t u pon n u m ber in g t h e people of Mea co t h er e
wer e fou n d 182,072 m a les, a n d 223,573 fem a les.
7. F a t h er Du H a lde, H istory of Ch in a, iv, p. 4.
8. Albu zeir -el-h a ssen , on e of t h e Ma h om et a n Ar a bs wh o, in t h e n in t h cen t u r y,
wen t in t o In dia a n d Ch in a , t h ou gh t t h is cu st om a pr ost it u t ion . An d in deed
n ot h in g cou ld be m or e con t r a r y t o t h e idea s of a Ma h om et a n .

9. Collection of Voyages th at Con tribu ted to th e E stablish m en t of th e E ast In d ia
Com pan y, i.
10. See F r a n cis P ir a r d, 27. E d ifyin g L etters, coll. iii, x, on t h e Ma llea m i on t h e
coa st of Ma la ba r . Th is is con sider ed a s a n a bu se of t h e m ilit a r y pr ofession ,
a s a wom a n , sa ys P ir a r d, of t h e t r ibe of t h e Br a m in s n ever wou ld m a r r y
m a n y h u sba n ds.
11. Th is is t h e r ea son wh y wom en in t h e E a st a r e so ca r efu lly con cea led.
12. Life a n d Act ion s of J u st in ia n , p. 403.
13. La u gier de Ta ssis, H istory of th e Kin gd om of Algiers.
14. See P ir a r d, Voya ges, 12.
15. E xod., 21. 10, 11.
16. “It is a n a dm ir a ble t ou ch -st on e, t o fin d by on eself a t r ea su r e, a n d t o kn ow
t h e r igh t own er ; or t o see a bea u t ifu l wom a n in a lon ely a pa r t m en t ; or t o
h ea r t h e cr ies of a n en em y, wh o m u st per ish wit h ou t ou r a ssist a n ce.” —
Tr a n sla t ion of a Ch in ese piece of m or a lit y, wh ich m a y be seen in Du H a lde,
iii, p. 151.
In dia Com pa n y, ii, pa r t II, p. 196.
18. In t h e Ma ldivia n isles t h e fa t h er s m a r r y t h eir da u gh t er s a t t en a n d eleven
yea r s of a ge, beca u se it is a gr ea t sin , sa y t h ey, t o su ffer t h em t o en du r e t h e
wa n t of a h u sba n d. See P ir a r d, 12. At Ba n t a m , a s soon a s a gir l is t welve or
t h ir t een yea r s old, sh e m u st be m a r r ied, if t h ey wou ld n ot h a ve h er lea d a
deba u ch ed life. Collect ion of Voya ges t h a t Con t r ibu t ed t o t h e E st a blish m en t
of t h e E a st In dia Com pa n y, p. 348.
19. Voyage to Gu in ea, pa r t II, p. 192. “Wh en t h e wom en h a ppen t o m eet wit h a
m a n , t h ey la y h old of h im , a n d t h r ea t en t o m a ke a com pla in t t o t h eir
h u sba n ds if h e sligh t t h eir a ddr esses. Th ey st ea l in t o a m a n ’s bed, a n d wa ke
h im ; a n d if h e r efu ses t o com ply wit h t h eir desir es, t h ey t h r ea t en t o su ffer
t h em selves t o be ca u gh t in fla gr a n t i.”
20. Ma h om et desir ed h is follower s t o wa t ch t h eir wives; a cer t a in Im a n , wh en
h e wa s dyin g, sa id t h e sa m e t h in g; a n d Con fu ciu s pr ea ch ed t h e sa m e
doct r in e.
21. It does n ot follow h en ce t h a t r epu dia t ion on a ccou n t of st er ilit y sh ou ld be

per m it t ed a m on gst Ch r ist ia n s.
22. Th ey t ook t h em a ga in pr efer a bly t o a n y ot h er , beca u se in t h is ca se t h er e
wa s less expen se. — P ir a r d, Tr a vels.
23. Solis, H ist or y of t h e Con qu est of Mexico, p. 499.
24. Rom u lu s.
25. Th is wa s a la w of Solon .
26. Mim a m r es su a s sibi h a ber e ju ssit , ex du odecim t a bu lis ca u sa m a ddidit . —
P h ilipp, ii. 69.
27. J u st in ia n a lt er ed t h is, Nov. 117, ca p. x.
28. Book ii.
29. Book ii. 4.
30. Book iv. 3.
31. Accor din g t o Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s a n d Va ler iu s Ma xim u s; a n d five
h u n dr ed a n d t wen t y-t h r ee, a ccor din g t o Au lu s Gelliu s. Neit h er did t h ey
a gr ee in pla cin g t h is u n der t h e sa m e con su ls.
32. See t h e Speech of Vet u r ia in Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, viii.
33. P lu t a r ch , Rom u lu s.
34. Ibid.
35. In deed st er ilit y is n ot a ca u se m en t ion ed by t h e la w of Rom u lu s: bu t t o a ll
a ppea r a n ce h e wa s n ot su bject t o a con fisca t ion of h is effect s, sin ce h e
followed t h e or der s of t h e cen sor s.
36. In h is com pa r ison bet ween Th eseu s a n d Rom u lu s.
37. Book xxiii, 21.
=''>&\N??1&R'7&+-%&6"7,&'(&8'$5+59"$&3%.;5+F0%&=%".&"&/%$"+5'*
+'&+-%&2"+F.%&'(&+-%&)$5<"+%
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P olit ica l ser vit u de does n ot less depen d on t h e n a t u r e of t h e clim a t e t h a n t h a t
wh ich is civil a n d dom est ic; a n d t h is we sh a ll n ow dem on st r a t e.
E1&!-%&C5((%.%*9%&#%+7%%*&2"+5'*,&5*&4'5*+&'(&)'F."D%1&
We h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved t h a t gr ea t h ea t en er va t es t h e st r en gt h a n d cou r a ge
of m en , a n d t h a t in cold clim a t es t h ey h a ve a cer t a in vigou r of body a n d m in d,
wh ich r en der s t h em pa t ien t a n d in t r epid, a n d qu a lifies t h em for a r du ou s
en t er pr ises. Th is r em a r k h olds good, n ot on ly bet ween differ en t n a t ion s, bu t
even in t h e differ en t pa r t s of t h e sa m e cou n t r y. In t h e n or t h of Ch in a 1 people
a r e m or e cou r a geou s t h a n t h ose in t h e sou t h ; a n d t h ose in t h e sou t h of Kor ea 2
h a ve less br a ver y t h a n t h ose in t h e n or t h .
We ou gh t n ot , t h en , t o be a st on ish ed t h a t t h e effem in a cy of t h e people in h ot
clim a t es h a s a lm ost a lwa ys r en der ed t h em sla ves; a n d t h a t t h e br a ver y of t h ose
in cold clim a t es h a s en a bled t h em t o m a in t a in t h eir liber t ies. Th is is a n effect
wh ich spr in gs fr om a n a t u r a l ca u se.
Th is h a s a lso been fou n d t r u e in Am er ica ; t h e despot ic em pir es of Mexico a n d
P er u wer e n ea r t h e Lin e, a n d a lm ost a ll t h e lit t le fr ee n a t ion s wer e, a n d a r e
st ill, n ea r t h e P oles.
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Th e r ela t ion s of t r a veller s 3 in for m u s “t h a t t h e va st con t in en t of t h e n or t h of
Asia , wh ich ext en ds fr om for t y degr ees or t h er ea bou t s t o t h e P ole, a n d fr om t h e
fr on t ier s of Mu scovy even t o t h e ea st er n ocea n , is in a n ext r em ely cold clim a t e;
t h a t t h is im m en se t r a ct of la n d is divided by a ch a in of m ou n t a in s wh ich r u n
fr om west t o ea st , lea vin g Siber ia on t h e n or t h , a n d Gr ea t Ta r t a r y on t h e sou t h ;

t h a t t h e clim a t e of Siber ia is so cold t h a t , except in g a few pla ces, it is
u n su scept ible of cu lt iva t ion ; a n d t h a t , t h ou gh t h e Ru ssia n s h a ve set t lem en t s a ll
a lon g t h e Ir t is, t h ey cu lt iva t e n ot h in g; t h a t t h is cou n t r y pr odu ces on ly som e
lit t le fir s a n d sh r u bs; t h a t t h e n a t ives of t h e cou n t r y a r e divided in t o wr et ch ed
h or des or t r ibes, like t h ose of Ca n a da ; t h a t t h e r ea son of t h is cold pr oceeds, on
t h e on e h a n d, fr om t h e h eigh t of t h e la n d, a n d on t h e ot h er fr om t h e m ou n t a in s,
wh ich , in pr opor t ion a s t h ey r u n fr om sou t h t o n or t h , a r e levelled in su ch a
m a n n er t h a t t h e n or t h win d ever ywh er e blows wit h ou t opposit ion ; t h a t t h is
win d, wh ich r en der s Nova Zem bia u n in h a bit a ble, blowin g in Siber ia m a kes it
a ba r r en wa st e; t h a t in E u r ope, on t h e con t r a r y, t h e m ou n t a in s of Nor wa y a n d
La pla n d a r e a dm ir a ble bu lwa r ks, wh ich cover t h e n or t h er n cou n t r ies fr om t h e
win d; so t h a t a t St ockh olm , wh ich is a bou t fift y-n in e degr ees la t it u de, t h e ea r t h
pr odu ces pla n t s, fr u it s, a n d cor n ; a n d t h a t a bou t Abo, wh ich is sixt y-on e
degr ees, a n d even t o sixt y-t h r ee a n d sixt y-fou r , t h er e a r e m in es of silver , a n d
t h e la n d is fr u it fu l en ou gh .”
We see a lso in t h ese r ela t ion s “t h a t Gr ea t Ta r t a r y, sit u a t ed t o t h e sou t h of
Siber ia , is a lso exceedin gly cold; t h a t t h e cou n t r y will n ot a dm it of cu lt iva t ion ;
t h a t n ot h in g ca n be fou n d bu t pa st u r a ge for flocks a n d h er ds; t h a t t r ees will n ot
gr ow t h er e, bu t on ly br a m bles, a s in Icela n d; t h a t t h er e a r e, n ea r Ch in a a n d
In dia , som e cou n t r ies wh er e t h er e gr ows a kin d of m illet , bu t t h a t n eit h er cor n
n or r ice will r ipen ; t h a t t h er e is sca r cely a pla ce in Ch in ese Ta r t a r y a t
for t y-t h r ee, for t y-fou r , a n d for t y-five degr ees wh er e it does n ot fr eeze seven or
eigh t m on t h s in t h e yea r , so t h a t it is a s cold a s Icela n d, t h ou gh it m igh t be
im a gin ed, fr om it s sit u a t ion , t o be a s h ot a s t h e sou t h of F r a n ce; t h a t t h er e a r e
n o cit ies, except fou r or five t owa r ds t h e ea st er n ocea n , a n d som e wh ich t h e
Ch in ese, for polit ica l r ea son s, h a ve bu ilt n ea r Ch in a ; t h a t in t h e r est of Gr ea t
Ta r t a r y t h er e a r e on ly a few sit u a t ed in Bu ch a r , Tu r kest a n , a n d Ca t h a y; t h a t
t h e r ea son of t h is ext r em e cold pr oceeds fr om t h e n a t u r e of t h e n it r ou s ea r t h ,
fu ll of sa lt pet r e a n d sa n d, a n d m or e pa r t icu la r ly fr om t h e h eigh t of t h e la n d.
F a t h er Ver biest fou n d t h a t a cer t a in pla ce, eigh t y lea gu es n or t h of t h e gr ea t
wa ll, t owa r ds t h e sou r ce of Ka va m h u r a n , exceeded t h e h eigh t of t h e sea n ea r
P ekin t h r ee t h ou sa n d geom et r ica l pa ces; t h a t t h is h eigh t 4 is t h e ca u se t h a t
t h ou gh a lm ost a ll t h e gr ea t r iver s of Asia h a ve t h eir sou r ce in t h is cou n t r y,

t h er e is, h owever , so gr ea t a wa n t of wa t er t h a t it ca n be in h a bit ed on ly n ea r
t h e r iver s a n d la kes.”
Th ese fa ct s bein g la id down , I r ea son t h u s: Asia h a s pr oper ly n o t em per a t e
zon e, a s t h e pla ces sit u a t ed in a ver y cold clim a t e im m edia t ely t ou ch u pon t h ose
wh ich a r e exceedin gly h ot , t h a t is, Tu r key, P er sia , In dia , Ch in a , Kor ea , a n d
J a pa n .
In E u r ope, on t h e con t r a r y, t h e t em per a t e zon e is ver y ext en sive, t h ou gh
sit u a t ed in clim a t es widely differ en t fr om ea ch ot h er ; t h er e bein g n o a ffin it y
bet ween t h e clim a t es of Spa in a n d It a ly a n d t h ose of Nor wa y a n d Sweden . Bu t
a s t h e clim a t e gr ows in sen sibly cold u pon ou r a dva n cin g fr om sou t h t o n or t h ,
n ea r ly in pr opor t ion t o t h e la t it u de of ea ch cou n t r y, it t h en ce follows t h a t ea ch
r esem bles t h e cou n t r y join in g it ; t h a t t h er e is n o ver y ext r a or din a r y differ en ce
bet ween t h em , a n d t h a t , a s I h a ve ju st sa id, t h e t em per a t e zon e is ver y
ext en sive.
H en ce it com es t h a t in Asia , t h e st r on g n a t ion s a r e opposed t o t h e wea k; t h e
wa r like, br a ve, a n d a ct ive people t ou ch im m edia t ely u pon t h ose wh o a r e
in dolen t , effem in a t e, a n d t im or ou s; t h e on e m u st , t h er efor e, con qu er , a n d t h e
ot h er be con qu er ed. In E u r ope, on t h e con t r a r y, st r on g n a t ion s a r e opposed t o
t h e st r on g; a n d t h ose wh o join ea ch ot h er h a ve n ea r ly t h e sa m e cou r a ge. Th is
is t h e gr a n d r ea son of t h e wea kn ess of Asia , a n d of t h e st r en gt h of E u r ope; of
t h e liber t y of E u r ope, a n d of t h e sla ver y of Asia : a ca u se t h a t I do n ot r ecollect
ever t o h a ve seen r em a r ked. H en ce it pr oceeds t h a t liber t y in Asia n ever
in cr ea ses; wh ilst in E u r ope it is en la r ged or dim in ish ed, a ccor din g t o pa r t icu la r
cir cu m st a n ces.
Th e Ru ssia n n obilit y h a ve in deed been r edu ced t o sla ver y by t h e a m bit ion of
on e of t h eir pr in ces; bu t t h ey h a ve a lwa ys discover ed t h ose m a r ks of im pa t ien ce
a n d discon t en t wh ich a r e n ever t o be seen in t h e sou t h er n clim a t es. H a ve t h ey
n ot been a ble for a sh or t t im e t o est a blish a n a r ist ocr a t ic gover n m en t ? An ot h er
of t h e n or t h er n kin gdom s h a s lost it s la ws; bu t we m a y t r u st t o t h e clim a t e t h a t
t h ey a r e n ot lost in su ch a m a n n er a s n ever t o be r ecover ed.
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Wh a t we h a ve n ow sa id is per fect ly con for m a ble t o h ist or y. Asia h a s been
su bdu ed t h ir t een t im es; eleven by t h e n or t h er n n a t ion s, a n d t wice by t h ose of
t h e sou t h . In t h e ea r ly a ges it wa s con qu er ed t h r ee t im es by t h e Scyt h ia n s;
a ft er wa r ds it wa s su bdu ed on ce by t h e Medes, a n d on ce by t h e P er sia n s; a ga in
by t h e Gr eeks, t h e Ar a bs, t h e Mogu ls, t h e Tu r ks, t h e Ta r t a r s, t h e P er sia n s, a n d
t h e Afgh a n s. I m en t ion on ly t h e Upper Asia , a n d sa y n ot h in g of t h e in va sion s
m a de in t h e r est of t h e sou t h of t h a t pa r t of t h e wor ld wh ich h a s m ost
fr equ en t ly su ffer ed pr odigiou s r evolu t ion s.
In E u r ope, on t h e con t r a r y, sin ce t h e est a blish m en t of t h e Gr eek a n d
P h oen icia n colon ies, we kn ow bu t of fou r gr ea t ch a n ges; t h e fir st ca u sed by t h e
con qu est of t h e Rom a n s; t h e secon d by t h e in u n da t ion of ba r ba r ia n s, wh o
dest r oyed t h ose ver y Rom a n s; t h e t h ir d by t h e vict or ies of Ch a r lem a gn e; a n d
t h e la st by t h e in va sion s of t h e Nor m a n s. An d if t h is be r igh t ly exa m in ed, we
sh a ll fin d, even in t h ese ch a n ges, a gen er a l st r en gt h diffu sed t h r ou gh a ll t h e
pa r t s of E u r ope. We kn ow t h e difficu lt y wh ich t h e Rom a n s m et wit h in
con qu er in g E u r ope, a n d t h e ea se a n d fa cilit y wit h wh ich t h ey in va ded Asia . We
a r e sen sible of t h e difficu lt ies t h e n or t h er n n a t ion s h a d t o en cou n t er in
over t u r n in g t h e Rom a n em pir e; of t h e wa r s a n d la bou r s of Ch a r lem a gn e; a n d
of t h e sever a l en t er pr ises of t h e Nor m a n s. Th e dest r oyer s wer e in cessa n t ly
dest r oyed.
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,"<%1
Th e n a t ion s in t h e n or t h of E u r ope con qu er ed a s fr eem en ; t h e people in t h e
n or t h of Asia con qu er ed a s sla ves, a n d su bdu ed a s ot h er s on ly t o gr a t ify t h e
a m bit ion of a m a st er .
Th e r ea son is t h a t t h e people of Ta r t a r y, t h e n a t u r a l con qu er or s of Asia , a r e
t h em selves en sla ved. Th ey a r e in cessa n t ly m a kin g con qu est s in t h e sou t h of
Asia , wh er e t h ey for m em pir es: bu t t h a t pa r t of t h e n a t ion wh ich con t in u es in
t h e cou n t r y fin ds t h a t it is su bject t o a gr ea t m a st er , wh o, bein g despot ic in t h e
sou t h , will likewise be so in t h e n or t h , a n d exer cisin g a n a r bit r a r y power over

t h e va n qu ish ed su bject s, pr et en ds t o t h e sa m e over t h e con qu er or s. Th is is a t
pr esen t m ost con spicu ou s in t h a t va st cou n t r y ca lled Ch in ese Ta r t a r y, wh ich is
gover n ed by t h e em per or , wit h a power a lm ost a s despot ic a s t h a t of Ch in a
it self, a n d wh ich h e ever y da y ext en ds by h is con qu est s.
We m a y likewise see in t h e h ist or y of Ch in a t h a t t h e em per or s 5 sen t Ch in ese
colon ies in t o Ta r t a r y. Th ese Ch in ese h a ve becom e Ta r t a r s, a n d t h e m or t a l
en em ies of Ch in a ; bu t t h is does n ot pr even t t h eir ca r r yin g in t o Ta r t a r y t h e
spir it of t h e Ch in ese gover n m en t .
A pa r t of t h e Ta r t a r s wh o wer e con qu er or s h a ve ver y oft en been t h em selves
expelled; wh en t h ey h a ve ca r r ied in t o t h eir deser t s t h a t ser vile spir it wh ich t h ey
h a d a cqu ir ed in t h e clim a t e of sla ver y. Th e h ist or y of Ch in a fu r n ish es u s wit h
st r on g pr oofs of t h is a sser t ion , a s does a lso ou r a n cien t h ist or y.6
H en ce it follows t h a t t h e gen iu s of t h e Get ic or Ta r t a r ia n n a t ion h a s a lwa ys
r esem bled t h a t of t h e em pir es of Asia . Th e people in t h ese a r e gover n ed by t h e
cu dgel; t h e in h a bit a n t s of Ta r t a r y by wh ips. Th e spir it of E u r ope h a s ever been
con t r a r y t o t h ese m a n n er s; a n d in a ll a ges, wh a t t h e people of Asia h a ve ca lled
pu n ish m en t t h ose of E u r ope h a ve deem ed t h e m ost ou t r a geou s a bu se.7
Th e Ta r t a r s wh o dest r oyed t h e Gr ecia n em pir e est a blish ed in t h e con qu er ed
cou n t r ies sla ver y a n d despot ic power : t h e Got h s, a ft er su bdu in g t h e Rom a n
em pir e, fou n ded m on a r ch y a n d liber t y.
I do n ot k n ow wh et h er t h e fa m ou s Ru dbeck, wh o in h is At la n t ica h a s
best owed su ch pr a ises on Sca n din a via , h a s m a de m en t ion of t h a t gr ea t
pr er oga t ive wh ich ou gh t t o set t h is people a bove a ll t h e n a t ion s u pon ea r t h ;
n a m ely, t h is cou n t r y’s h a vin g been t h e sou r ce of t h e liber t ies of E u r ope — t h a t
is, of a lm ost a ll t h e fr eedom wh ich a t pr esen t su bsist s a m on gst m a n kin d.
J or n a n des t h e Got h ca lled t h e n or t h of E u r ope t h e for ge of t h e h u m a n r a ce.
I sh ou ld r a t h er ca ll it t h e for ge wh er e t h ose wea pon s wer e fr a m ed wh ich br oke
t h e ch a in s of sou t h er n n a t ion s. In t h e n or t h wer e for m ed t h ose va lia n t people
wh o sa llied for t h a n d deser t ed t h eir cou n t r ies t o dest r oy t yr a n t s a n d sla ves, a n d
t o t ea ch m en t h a t , n a t u r e h a vin g m a de t h em equ a l, r ea son cou ld n ot r en der
t h em depen den t , except wh er e it wa s n ecessa r y t o t h eir h a ppin ess.
O1&:&*%7&4-H,59"$&)"F,%&'(&+-%&3$";%.H&'(&:,5"I&"*0&'(&+-%&65#%.+H&'(
UF.'4%1
In Asia t h ey h a ve a lwa ys h a d gr ea t em pir es; in E u r ope t h ese cou ld n ever
su bsist . Asia h a s la r ger pla in s; it is cu t ou t in t o m u ch m or e ext en sive division s
by m ou n t a in s a n d sea s; a n d a s it lies m or e t o t h e sou t h , it s spr in gs a r e m or e
ea sily dr ied u p; t h e m ou n t a in s a r e less cover ed wit h sn ow; a n d t h e r iver s, bein g
n ot so la r ge, for m m or e con t r a ct ed ba r r ier s.8
P ower in Asia ou gh t , t h en , t o be a lwa ys despot ic; for if t h eir sla ver y wa s n ot
sever e t h ey wou ld soon m a ke a division in con sist en t wit h t h e n a t u r e of t h e
cou n t r y.
In E u r ope t h e n a t u r a l division for m s m a n y n a t ion s of a m oder a t e ext en t , in
wh ich t h e r u lin g by la ws is n ot in com pa t ible wit h t h e m a in t en a n ce of t h e st a t e:
on t h e con t r a r y, it is so fa vou r a ble t o it , t h a t wit h ou t t h is t h e st a t e wou ld fa ll
in t o deca y, a n d becom e a pr ey t o it s n eigh bou r s.
It is t h is wh ich h a s for m ed a gen iu s for liber t y t h a t r en der s ever y pa r t
ext r em ely difficu lt t o be su bdu ed a n d su bject ed t o a for eign power , ot h er wise
t h a n by t h e la ws a n d t h e a dva n t a ge of com m er ce.
On t h e con t r a r y, t h er e r eign s in Asia a ser vile spir it , wh ich t h ey h a ve n ever
been a ble t o sh a ke off, a n d it is im possible t o fin d in a ll t h e h ist or ies of t h a t
cou n t r y a sin gle pa ssa ge wh ich discover s a fr eedom of spir it ; we sh a ll n ever see
a n yt h in g t h er e bu t t h e excess of sla ver y.
P1&@(&:(.59"&"*0&:<%.59"1&
Th is is wh a t I h a d t o sa y of Asia a n d E u r ope. Afr ica is in a clim a t e like t h a t
of t h e sou t h of Asia , a n d is in t h e sa m e ser vit u de. Am er ica , 9 bein g la t ely
dest r oyed a n d r epeopled by t h e n a t ion s of E u r ope a n d Afr ica , ca n n ow sca r cely
displa y it s gen u in e spir it ; bu t wh a t we kn ow of it s a n cien t h ist or y is ver y
con for m a ble t o ou r pr in ciples.
Q1&@(&+-%&)"45+"$&'(&+-%&U<45.%1
On e of t h e con sequ en ces of wh a t we h a ve been m en t ion in g is, t h a t it is of t h e
u t m ost im por t a n ce t o a gr ea t pr in ce t o m a ke a pr oper ch oice of t h e sea t of h is
em pir e. H e wh o pla ces it t o t h e sou t h wa r d will be in da n ger of losin g t h e n or t h ;

bu t h e wh o fixes it on t h e n or t h m a y ea sily pr eser ve t h e sou t h . I do n ot spea k
of pa r t icu la r ca ses. In m ech a n ics t h er e a r e fr ict ion s by wh ich t h e effect s of t h e
t h eor y a r e fr equ en t ly ch a n ged or r et a r ded; a n d policy h a s a lso it s fr ict ion s.
2'+%,1
2. Th e Ch in ese books m a ke m en t ion of t h is. Ibid., iv, p. 448.
3. See T ravels to th e N orth , viii; t h e H istory of th e T artars; a n d F a t h er Du
H a lde, iv.
4. Ta r t a r y is, t h en , a kin d of fla t m ou n t a in .
5. As Vou t y V, em per or of t h e fift h dyn a st y.
6. Th e Scyt h ia n s t h r ice con qu er ed Asia , a n d t h r ice wer e dr iven t h en ce. J u st in ,
ii. 3.
7. Th is is in n o wa y con t r a r y t o wh a t I sh a ll sa y in book xxviii. 20 con cer n in g
t h e m a n n er of t h in kin g a m on g t h e Ger m a n n a t ion s in r espect t o t h e cu dgel;
let t h e in st r u m en t be wh a t it will, t h e power or a ct ion of bea t in g wa s a lwa ys
con sider ed by t h em a s a n a ffr on t .
8. Th e wa t er s lose t h em selves or eva por a t e befor e or a ft er t h eir st r ea m s a r e
u n it ed.
9. Th e pet t y ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s of Am er ica a r e ca lled by t h e Spa n ia r ds In dios
Br a vos a n d a r e m u ch m or e difficu lt t o su bdu e t h a n t h e gr ea t em pir es of
Mexico a n d P er u .
=''>&\N???1&@(&6"7,&5*&+-%&/%$"+5'*&!-%H&=%".&+'&+-%&2"+F.%&'(
+-%&3'5$1
B1&R'7&+-%&2"+F.%&'(&+-%&3'5$&-",&"*&?*($F%*9%&'*&+-%&6"7,1
Th e goodn ess of t h e la n d, in a n y cou n t r y, n a t u r a lly est a blish es su bject ion a n d
depen den ce. Th e h u sba n dm en , wh o com pose t h e pr in cipa l pa r t of t h e people,
a r e n ot ver y jea lou s of t h eir liber t y; t h ey a r e t oo bu sy a n d t oo in t en t on t h eir
own pr iva t e a ffa ir s. A cou n t r y wh ich over flows wit h wea lt h is a fr a id of pilla ge,
a fr a id of a n a r m y. “Wh o is t h er e t h a t for m s t h is goodly pa r t y?” sa id Cicer o t o
At t icu s;1 “a r e t h ey t h e m en of com m er ce a n d h u sba n dr y? Let u s n ot im a gin e
t h a t t h ese a r e a ver se t o m on a r ch y — t h ese t o wh om a ll gover n m en t s a r e equ a l,
a s soon a s t h ey best ow t r a n qu illit y.”
Th u s m on a r ch y is m or e fr equ en t ly fou n d in fr u it fu l cou n t r ies, a n d a
r epu blica n gover n m en t in t h ose wh ich a r e n ot so; a n d t h is is som et im es a
su fficien t com pen sa t ion for t h e in con ven ien ces t h ey su ffer by t h e st er ilit y of t h e
la n d.
Th e ba r r en n ess of t h e At t ic soil est a blish ed t h er e a dem ocr a cy; a n d t h e
fer t ilit y of t h a t of La ceda em on ia a n a r ist ocr a t ic con st it u t ion . F or in t h ose t im es
Gr eece wa s a ver se t o t h e gover n m en t of a sin gle per son , a n d a r ist ocr a cy bor e
t h e n ea r est r esem bla n ce t o t h a t gover n m en t .
P lu t a r ch sa ys 2 t h a t t h e Cilon ia n sedit ion h a vin g been a ppea sed a t At h en s, t h e
cit y fell in t o it s a n cien t dissen sion s, a n d wa s divided in t o a s m a n y pa r t ies a s
t h er e wer e kin ds of la n d in At t ica . Th e m en wh o in h a bit ed t h e em in en ces
wou ld, by a ll m ea n s, h a ve a popu la r gover n m en t ; t h ose of t h e fla t , open cou n t r y
dem a n ded a gover n m en t com posed of t h e ch iefs; a n d t h ey wh o wer e n ea r t h e
sea desir ed a m ixt u r e of bot h .
E1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Th ese fer t ile pr ovin ces a r e a lwa ys of a level su r fa ce, wh er e t h e in h a bit a n t s a r e
u n a ble t o dispu t e a ga in st a st r on ger power ; t h ey a r e t h en obliged t o su bm it ; a n d
wh en t h ey h a ve on ce su bm it t ed, t h e spir it of liber t y ca n n ot r et u r n ; t h e wea lt h
of t h e cou n t r y is a pledge of t h eir fidelit y. Bu t in m ou n t a in ou s dist r ict s, a s t h ey
h a ve bu t lit t le, t h ey m a y pr eser ve wh a t t h ey h a ve. Th e liber t y t h ey en joy, or , in
ot h er wor ds, t h e gover n m en t t h ey a r e u n der , is t h e on ly blessin g wor t h y of t h eir
defen ce. It r eign s, t h er efor e, m or e in m ou n t a in ou s a n d r u gged cou n t r ies t h a n
in t h ose wh ich n a t u r e seem s t o h a ve m ost fa vou r ed.
Th e m ou n t a in eer s pr eser ve a m or e m oder a t e gover n m en t , beca u se t h ey a r e
n ot so lia ble t o be con qu er ed. Th ey defen d t h em selves ea sily, a n d a r e a t t a cked
wit h difficu lt y; a m m u n it ion a n d pr ovision s a r e collect ed a n d ca r r ied a ga in st
t h em wit h gr ea t expen se, for t h e cou n t r y fu r n ish es n on e. It is, t h en , a m or e
a r du ou s, a m or e da n ger ou s, en t er pr ise t o m a ke wa r a ga in st t h em ; a n d a ll t h e
la ws t h a t ca n be en a ct ed for t h e sa fet y of t h e people a r e t h er e of lea st u se.
G1&W-"+&)'F*+.5%,&".%&#%,+&9F$+5;"+%01
Cou n t r ies a r e n ot cu lt iva t ed in pr opor t ion t o t h eir fer t ilit y, bu t t o t h eir liber t y;
a n d if we m a ke a n im a gin a r y division of t h e ea r t h , we sh a ll be a st on ish ed t o see
in m ost a ges deser t s in t h e m ost fr u it fu l pa r t s, a n d gr ea t n a t ion s in t h ose wh er e
n a t u r e seem s t o r efu se ever yt h in g.
It is n a t u r a l for a people t o lea ve a ba d soil t o seek a bet t er , a n d n ot t o lea ve
a good soil t o go in sea r ch of wor se. Most in va sion s h a ve, t h er efor e, been m a de
in cou n t r ies wh ich n a t u r e seem s t o h a ve for m ed for h a ppin ess; a n d a s n ot h in g
is m or e n ea r ly a llied t h a n desola t ion a n d in va sion , t h e best pr ovin ces a r e m ost
fr equ en t ly depopu la t ed, wh ile t h e fr igh t fu l cou n t r ies of t h e n or t h con t in u e
a lwa ys in h a bit ed, fr om t h eir bein g a lm ost u n in h a bit a ble.
We fin d by wh a t h ist or ia n s t ell u s of t h e pa ssa ge of t h e people of Sca n din a via
a lon g t h e ba n ks of t h e Da n u be t h a t t h is wa s n ot a con qu est , bu t on ly a
m igr a t ion in t o deser t cou n t r ies.
Th ese h a ppy clim a t es m u st t h er efor e h a ve been depopu la t ed by ot h er
m igr a t ion s, t h ou gh we kn ow n ot t h e t r a gic scen es t h a t h a ppen ed. “It a ppea r s
by m a n y m on u m en t s of a n t iqu it y,” sa ys Ar ist ot le, 3 “t h a t t h e Sa r din ia n s wer e a
Gr ecia n colon y. Th ey wer e for m er ly ver y r ich ; a n d Ar ist eu s, so fa m ed for h is

love of a gr icu lt u r e, wa s t h eir la w-giver . Bu t t h ey h a ve sin ce fa llen t o deca y; for
t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s, becom in g t h eir m a st er s, dest r oyed ever yt h in g pr oper t or t h e
n ou r ish m en t of m a n , a n d for ba de t h e cu lt iva t ion of t h e la n ds on pa in of dea t h .”
Sa r din ia wa s n ot r ecover ed in t h e t im e of Ar ist ot le, n or is it t o t h is da y.
Th e m ost t em per a t e pa r t s of P er sia , Tu r key, Mu scovy, a n d P ola n d h a ve n ot
been a ble t o r ecover per fect ly fr om t h e deva st a t ion s of t h e Ta r t a r s.
J1&2%7&U((%9+,&'(&+-%&Y%.+5$5+H&"*0&="..%**%,,&'(&)'F*+.5%,1
Th e ba r r en n ess of t h e ea r t h r en der s m en in du st r iou s, sober , in u r ed t o
h a r dsh ip, cou r a geou s, a n d fit for wa r ; t h ey a r e obliged t o pr ocu r e by la bou r
wh a t t h e ea r t h r efu ses t o best ow spon t a n eou sly. Th e fer t ilit y of a cou n t r y gives
ea se, effem in a cy, a n d a cer t a in fon dn ess for t h e pr eser va t ion of life. It h a s been
r em a r ked t h a t t h e Ger m a n t r oops r a ised in t h ose pla ces wh er e t h e pea sa n t s a r e
r ich , a s, for in st a n ce, in Sa xon y, a r e n ot so good a s t h e ot h er s. Milit a r y la ws
m a y pr ovide a ga in st t h is in con ven ien ce by a m or e sever e disciplin e.
L1&@(&+-%&?*-"#5+"*+,&'(&?,$"*0,1
Th e in h a bit a n t s of isla n ds h a ve a h igh er r elish for liber t y t h a n t h ose of t h e
con t in en t . Isla n ds a r e com m on ly of sm a ll ext en t ;4 on e pa r t of t h e people ca n n ot
be so ea sily em ployed t o oppr ess t h e ot h er ; t h e sea sepa r a t es t h em fr om gr ea t
em pir es; t yr a n n y ca n n ot so well su ppor t it self wit h in a sm a ll com pa ss:
con qu er or s a r e st opped by t h e sea ; a n d t h e isla n der s, bein g wit h ou t t h e r ea ch
of t h eir a r m s, m or e ea sily pr eser ve t h eir own la ws.
O1&@(&)'F*+.5%,&."5,%0&#H&+-%&?*0F,+.H&'(&K"*1
Th ose cou n t r ies wh ich t h e in du st r y of m a n h a s r en der ed h a bit a ble, a n d wh ich
st a n d in n eed of t h e sa m e in du st r y t o pr ovide for t h eir su bsist en ce, r equ ir e a
m ild a n d m oder a t e gover n m en t . Th er e a r e pr in cipa lly t h r ee of t h is species: t h e
t wo fin e pr ovin ces of Kia n g-n a n a n d Tsekia n g in Ch in a ; E gypt , a n d H olla n d.
Th e a n cien t em per or s of Ch in a wer e n ot con qu er or s. Th e fir st t h in g t h ey did
t o a ggr a n dise t h em selves wa s wh a t ga ve t h e h igh est pr oof of t h eir wisdom .
Th ey r a ised fr om ben ea t h t h e wa t er s t wo of t h e fin est pr ovin ces of t h e em pir e;

t h ese owe t h eir exist en ce t o t h e la bou r of m a n . An d it is t h e in expr essible
fer t ilit y of t h ese t wo pr ovin ces wh ich h a s given E u r ope su ch idea s of t h e felicit y
of t h a t va st cou n t r y. Bu t a con t in u a l a n d n ecessa r y ca r e t o pr eser ve fr om
dest r u ct ion so con sider a ble a pa r t of t h e em pir e dem a n ded r a t h er t h e m a n n er s
of a wise t h a n of a volu pt u ou s n a t ion , r a t h er t h e la wfu l a u t h or it y of a m on a r ch
t h a n t h e t yr a n n ic swa y of a despot ic pr in ce. P ower wa s, t h er efor e, n ecessa r ily
m oder a t ed in t h a t cou n t r y, a s it wa s for m er ly in E gypt , a n d a s it is n ow in
H olla n d, wh ich n a t u r e h a s m a de t o a t t en d t o h er self, a n d n ot t o be a ba n don ed
t o n egligen ce or ca pr ice.
Th u s, in spit e of t h e clim a t e of Ch in a , wh er e t h ey a r e n a t u r a lly led t o a ser vile
obedien ce; in spit e of t h e a ppr eh en sion s wh ich follow t oo gr ea t a n ext en t of
em pir e, t h e fir st legisla t or s of t h is cou n t r y wer e obliged t o m a ke excellen t la ws,
a n d t h e gover n m en t wa s fr equ en t ly obliged t o follow t h em .
P1&@(&-F<"*&?*0F,+.H1
Ma n kin d by t h eir in du st r y, a n d by t h e in flu en ce of good la ws, h a ve r en der ed
t h e ea r t h m or e pr oper for t h eir a bode. We see r iver s flow wh er e t h er e h a ve been
la kes a n d m a r sh es: t h is is a ben efit wh ich n a t u r e h a s n ot best owed; bu t it is a
ben efit m a in t a in ed a n d su pplied by n a t u r e. Wh en t h e P er sia n s 5 wer e m a st er s
of Asia , t h ey per m it t ed t h ose wh o con veyed a spr in g t o a n y pla ce wh ich h a d n ot
been wa t er ed befor e t o en joy t h e ben efit for five gen er a t ion s; a n d a s a n u m ber
of r ivu let s flowed fr om Mou n t Ta u r u s, t h ey spa r ed n o expen se in dir ect in g t h e
cou r se of t h eir st r ea m s. At t h is da y, wit h ou t kn owin g h ow t h ey ca m e t h it h er ,
t h ey a r e fou n d in t h e fields a n d ga r den s.
Th u s, a s dest r u ct ive n a t ion s pr odu ce evils m or e du r a ble t h a n t h em selves, t h e
a ct ion s of a n in du st r iou s people a r e t h e sou r ce of blessin gs wh ich la st wh en
t h ey a r e n o m or e.
Q1&!-%&D%*%."$&/%$"+5'*&'(&6"7,1
Th e la ws h a ve a ver y gr ea t r ela t ion t o t h e m a n n er in wh ich t h e sever a l
n a t ion s pr ocu r e t h eir su bsist en ce. Th er e sh ou ld be a code of la ws of a m u ch
la r ger ext en t for a n a t ion a t t a ch ed t o t r a de a n d n a viga t ion t h a n for people wh o
a r e con t en t wit h cu lt iva t in g t h e ea r t h . Th er e sh ou ld be a m u ch gr ea t er for t h e

la t t er t h a n for t h ose wh o su bsist by t h eir flocks a n d h er ds. Th er e m u st be a st ill
gr ea t er for t h ese t h a n for su ch a s live by h u n t in g.
S1&@(&+-%&3'5$&'(&:<%.59"1
Th e ca u se of t h er e bein g su ch a n u m ber of sa va ge n a t ion s in Am er ica is t h e
fer t ilit y of t h e ea r t h , wh ich spon t a n eou sly pr odu ces m a n y fr u it s ca pa ble of
a ffor din g t h em n ou r ish m en t . If t h e wom en cu lt iva t e a spot of la n d a r ou n d t h eir
cot t a ges, t h e m a ize gr ows u p pr esen t ly; a n d h u n t in g a n d fish in g pu t t h e m en
in a st a t e of com plet e a bu n da n ce. Besides, bla ck ca t t le, a s cows, bu ffa loes, &c.,
t h r ive t h er e bet t er t h a n ca r n ivor ou s bea st s. Th e la t t er h a ve a lwa ys r eign ed in
Afr ica .
We sh ou ld n ot , I believe, h a ve a ll t h ese a dva n t a ges in E u r ope if t h e la n d wa s
left u n cu lt iva t ed; it wou ld sca r cely pr odu ce a n yt h in g besides for est s of oa ks a n d
ot h er ba r r en t r ees.
BT1&@(&8'4F$"+5'*&5*&+-%&/%$"+5'*&5+&#%".,&+'&+-%&K"**%.&'(&4.'9F.5*D
3F#,5,+%*9%1
Let u s see in wh a t pr opor t ion cou n t r ies a r e peopled wh er e t h e in h a bit a n t s do
n ot cu lt iva t e t h e ea r t h . As t h e pr odu ce of u n cu lt iva t ed la n d is t o t h a t of la n d
im pr oved by cu lt u r e, so t h e n u m ber of sa va ges in on e cou n t r y is t o t h a t of
h u sba n dm en in a n ot h er : a n d wh en t h e people wh o cu lt iva t e t h e la n d cu lt iva t e
a lso t h e a r t s, t h is is a lso in su ch pr opor t ion s a s wou ld r equ ir e a m in u t e det a il.
Th ey ca n sca r cely for m a gr ea t n a t ion . If t h ey a r e h er dsm en a n d sh eph er ds,
t h ey h a ve n eed of a n ext en sive cou n t r y t o fu r n ish su bsist en ce for a sm a ll
n u m ber ; if t h ey live by h u n t in g, t h eir n u m ber m u st be st ill less, a n d in or der t o
fin d t h e m ea n s of life t h ey m u st con st it u t e a ver y sm a ll n a t ion .
Th eir cou n t r y com m on ly a bou n ds wit h for est s, wh ich , a s t h e in h a bit a n t s h a ve
n ot t h e a r t of dr a in in g off t h e wa t er s, a r e filled wit h bogs; h er e ea ch t r oop
ca n t on t h em selves, a n d for m a pet t y n a t ion .
BB1&@(&,";"D%&"*0&#".#".'F,&2"+5'*,1
Th er e is t h is differ en ce bet ween sa va ge a n d ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s: t h e for m er a r e
disper sed cla n s, wh ich for som e pa r t icu la r r ea son ca n n ot be join ed in a body;
a n d t h e la t t er a r e com m on ly sm a ll n a t ion s, ca pa ble of bein g u n it ed. Th e sa va ges
a r e gen er a lly h u n t er s; t h e ba r ba r ia n s a r e h er dsm en a n d sh eph er ds.
Th is a ppea r s pla in in t h e n or t h of Asia . Th e people of Siber ia ca n n ot live in
bodies, beca u se t h ey a r e u n a ble t o fin d su bsist en ce; t h e Ta r t a r s m a y live in
bodies for som e t im e, beca u se t h eir h er ds a n d flocks m a y for a t im e be
r ea ssem bled. All t h e cla n s m a y t h en be r eu n it ed, a n d t h is is effect ed wh en on e
ch ief h a s su bdu ed m a n y ot h er s; a ft er wh ich t h ey m a y do t wo t h in gs — eit h er
sepa r a t e, or set ou t wit h a design t o m a k e a gr ea t con qu est in som e sou t h er n
em pir e.
BE1&@(&+-%&6"7&'(&2"+5'*,&"<'*D&8%'4$%&7-'&0'&*'+&9F$+5;"+%&+-%
U".+-1
As t h ese people do n ot live in cir cu m scr ibed t er r it or ies, m a n y ca u ses of st r ife
a r ise bet ween t h em ; t h ey qu a r r el a bou t wa st e la n d a s we a bou t in h er it a n ces.
Th u s t h ey fin d fr equ en t occa sion s for wa r , in dispu t es in r ela t ion eit h er t o t h eir
h u n t in g, t h eir fish in g, t h e pa st u r e for t h eir ca t t le, or t h e violen t seizin g of t h eir
sla ves; a n d a s t h ey a r e n ot possessed of la n ded pr oper t y, t h ey h a ve m a n y t h in gs
t o r egu la t e by t h e la w of n a t ion s, a n d bu t few t o decide by t h e civil la w.
BG1&@(&+-%&)5;5$&6"7,&'(&+-',%&2"+5'*,&7-'&0'&*'+&9F$+5;"+%&+-%
U".+-1
Th e division of la n ds is wh a t pr in cipa lly in cr ea ses t h e civil code. Am on g
n a t ion s wh er e t h ey h a ve n ot m a de t h is division t h er e a r e ver y few civil la ws.
Th e in st it u t ion s of t h ese people m a y be ca lled m a n n er s r a t h er t h a n la ws.
Am on g su ch n a t ion s a s t h ese t h e old m en , wh o r em em ber t h in gs pa st , h a ve
gr ea t a u t h or it y; t h ey ca n n ot t h er e be dist in gu ish ed by wea lt h , bu t by wisdom
a n d va lou r .
Th ese people wa n der a n d disper se t h em selves in pa st u r e gr ou n ds or in
for est s. Ma r r ia ge ca n n ot t h er e h a ve t h e secu r it y wh ich it h a s a m on g u s, wh er e
it is fixed by t h e h a bit a t ion , a n d wh er e t h e wife con t in u es in on e h ou se; t h ey

m a y t h en m or e ea sily ch a n ge t h eir wives, possess m a n y, a n d som et im es m ix
in differ en t ly like br u t es.
Na t ion s of h er dsm en a n d sh eph er ds ca n n ot lea ve t h eir ca t t le, wh ich a r e t h eir
su bsist en ce; n eit h er ca n t h ey sepa r a t e t h em selves fr om t h eir wives, wh o look
a ft er t h em . All t h is ou gh t , t h en , t o go t oget h er , especia lly a s livin g gen er a lly in
a fla t open cou n t r y, wh er e t h er e a r e few pla ces of con sider a ble st r en gt h , t h eir
wives, t h eir ch ildr en , t h eir flocks, m a y becom e t h e pr ey of t h eir en em ies.
Th e la ws r egu la t e t h e division of plu n der , a n d give, like ou r Sa lic la ws, a
pa r t icu la r a t t en t ion t o t h eft .
BJ1&@(&+-%&4'$5+59"$&3+"+%&'(&+-%&8%'4$%&7-'&0'&*'+&9F$+5;"+%&+-%&6"*01
Th ese people en joy gr ea t liber t y; for a s t h ey do n ot cu lt iva t e t h e ea r t h , t h ey
a r e n ot fixed: t h ey a r e wa n der er s a n d va ga bon ds; a n d if a ch ief sh ou ld depr ive
t h em of t h eir liber t y, t h ey wou ld im m edia t ely go a n d seek it u n der a n ot h er , or
r et ir e in t o t h e woods, a n d t h er e live wit h t h eir fa m ilies. Th e liber t y of t h e m a n
is so gr ea t a m on g t h ese people t h a t it n ecessa r ily dr a ws a ft er it t h a t of t h e
cit izen .
BL1&@(&8%'4$%&7-'&>*'7&+-%&^,%&'(&K'*%H1
Ar ist ippu s, bein g ca st a wa y, swa m a n d got sa fely t o t h e n ext sh or e, wh er e,
beh oldin g geom et r ica l figu r es t r a ced in t h e sa n d, h e wa s seized wit h a t r a n spor t
of joy, ju dgin g t h a t h e wa s a m on g Gr eeks, a n d n ot in a n a t ion of ba r ba r ia n s.
Sh ou ld you ever h a ppen t o be ca st by som e a dven t u r e a m on g a n u n kn own
people; u pon seein g a piece of m on ey you m a y be a ssu r ed t h a t you h a ve a r r ived
in a civilised cou n t r y.
Th e cu lt u r e of la n ds r equ ir es t h e u se of m on ey. Th is cu lt u r e su pposes m a n y
in ven t ion s a n d m a n y degr ees of kn owledge; a n d we a lwa ys see in gen u it y, t h e
a r t s, a n d a sen se of wa n t m a kin g t h eir pr ogr ess wit h a n equ a l pa ce. All t h is
con du ces t o t h e est a blish m en t of a sign of va lu e.
Tor r en t s a n d er u pt ion s h a ve m a de t h e discover y t h a t m et a ls a r e con t a in ed in
t h e bowels of t h e ea r t h . 6 Wh en on ce t h ey h a ve been sepa r a t ed, t h ey h a ve ea sily
been a pplied t o t h eir pr oper u se.
BO1&@(&)5;5$&6"7,&"<'*D&8%'4$%&7-'&>*'7&*'+&+-%&^,%&'(&K'*%H1
Wh en a people h a ve n ot t h e u se of m on ey, t h ey a r e seldom a cqu a in t ed wit h
a n y ot h er in ju st ice t h a n t h a t wh ich a r ises fr om violen ce; a n d t h e wea k, by
u n it in g, defen d t h em selves fr om it s effect s. Th ey h a ve n ot h in g t h er e bu t
polit ica l r egu la t ion s. Bu t wh er e m on ey is est a blish ed, t h ey a r e su bject t o t h a t
in ju st ice wh ich pr oceeds fr om cr a ft — a n in ju st ice t h a t m a y be exer cised in a
t h ou sa n d wa ys. H en ce t h ey a r e for ced t o h a ve good civil la ws, wh ich spr in g u p
wit h t h e n ew pr a ct ices of in iqu it y.
In cou n t r ies wh er e t h ey h a ve n o specie, t h e r obber t a kes on ly ba r e m ova bles,
wh ich h a ve n o m u t u a l r esem bla n ce. Bu t wh er e t h ey m a ke u se of m on ey, t h e
r obber t a kes t h e sign s, a n d t h ese a lwa ys r esem ble ea ch ot h er . In t h e for m er
n ot h in g ca n be con cea led, beca u se t h e r obber t a kes a lon g wit h h im t h e pr oofs
of h is con vict ion ; bu t in t h e la t t er it is qu it e t h e con t r a r y.
BP1&@(&4'$5+59"$&6"7,&"<'*D&2"+5'*,&7-'&-";%&*'+&+-%&^,%&'(
K'*%H1
Th e gr ea t est secu r it y of t h e liber t ies of a people wh o do n ot cu lt iva t e t h e ea r t h
is t h eir n ot kn owin g t h e u se of m on ey. Wh a t is ga in ed by h u n t in g, fish in g, or
keepin g h er ds of ca t t le ca n n ot be a ssem bled in su ch gr ea t qu a n t it y, n or be
su fficien t ly pr eser ved, for on e m a n t o fin d h im self in a con dit ion t o cor r u pt
m a n y ot h er s: bu t wh en , in st ea d of t h is, a m a n h a s a sign of r ich es, h e m a y
obt a in a la r ge qu a n t it y of t h ese sign s, a n d dist r ibu t e t h em a s h e plea ses.
Th e people wh o h a ve n o m on ey h a ve bu t few wa n t s; a n d t h ese a r e su pplied
wit h ea se, a n d in a n equ a l m a n n er . E qu a lit y is t h en u n a voida ble; a n d h en ce it
pr oceeds t h a t t h eir ch iefs a r e n ot despot ic.
If wh a t t r a veller s t ell u s be t r u e, t h e con st it u t ion of a n a t ion of Lou isia n a ,
ca lled t h e Na t ch es, is a n except ion t o t h is. Th eir ch ief disposes of t h e goods of
a ll h is su bject s, a n d obliges t h em t o wor k a n d t oil, a ccor din g t o h is plea su r e.7
H e h a s a power like t h a t of t h e gr a n d sign ior , a n d t h ey ca n n ot even r efu se h im
t h eir h ea ds. Wh en t h e pr esu m pt ive h eir en t er s t h e wor ld, t h ey devot e a ll t h e
su ckin g ch ildr en t o h is ser vice du r in g h is life. On e wou ld im a gin e t h a t t h is is
t h e gr ea t Sesost r is. H e is t r ea t ed in h is cot t a ge wit h a s m u ch cer em on y a s a n
em per or of J a pa n or Ch in a .
BQ1&@(&+-%&8'7%.&'(&3F4%.,+5+5'*1
Th e pr eju dices of su per st it ion a r e su per ior t o a ll ot h er s, a n d h a ve t h e
st r on gest in flu en ce on t h e h u m a n m in d. Th u s, t h ou gh t h e sa va ge n a t ion s h a ve
n a t u r a lly n o kn owledge of despot ic t yr a n n y, st ill t h ey feel t h e weigh t of it . Th ey
a dor e t h e su n ; a n d if t h eir ch ief h a d n ot im a gin ed t h a t h e wa s t h e br ot h er of
t h is glor iou s lu m in a r y, t h ey wou ld h a ve t h ou gh t h im a wr et ch like t h em selves.
BS1&@(&+-%&65#%.+H&'(&+-%&:."#,&"*0&+-%&3%.;5+F0%&'(&+-%&!".+".,1
Th e Ar a bs a n d Ta r t a r s a r e n a t ion s of h er dsm en a n d sh eph er ds. Th e Ar a bs
fin d t h em selves in t h a t sit u a t ion of wh ich we h a ve been spea kin g, a n d a r e
t h er efor e fr ee; wh ilst t h e Ta r t a r s (t h e m ost sin gu la r people on ea r t h ) a r e
in volved in a polit ica l sla ver y. 8 I h a ve a lr ea dy given r ea son s for t h is 9 a n d sh a ll
n ow a ssign som e ot h er s.
Th ey h a ve n o t own s, n o for est s, a n d bu t few m a r sh es; t h eir r iver s a r e
gen er a lly fr ozen , a n d t h ey dwell in a level cou n t r y of a n im m en se ext en t . Th ey
h a ve pa st u r e for t h eir h er ds a n d flocks, a n d con sequ en t ly pr oper t y; bu t t h ey
h a ve n o kin d of r et r ea t , or pla ce of sa fet y. A kh a n is n o soon er over com e t h a n
t h ey cu t off h is h ea d; h is ch ildr en a r e t r ea t ed in t h e sa m e m a n n er , 10 a n d a ll h is
su bject s belon g t o t h e con qu er or . Th ese a r e n ot con dem n ed t o a civil sla ver y, for
in t h a t ca se t h ey wou ld be a bu r den t o a sim ple people, wh o h a ve n o la n ds t o
cu lt iva t e, a n d n o n eed of a n y dom est ic ser vice. Th ey t h er efor e a dd t o t h e bu lk
of t h e n a t ion ; bu t in st ea d of civil ser vit u de, a polit ica l sla ver y m u st n a t u r a lly
be in t r odu ced a m on g t h em .
It is a ppa r en t t h a t in a cou n t r y wh er e t h e sever a l cla n s m a ke con t in u a l wa r ,
a n d a r e per pet u a lly con qu er in g ea ch ot h er ; in a cou n t r y wh er e, by t h e dea t h of
t h e ch ief, t h e body polit ic of t h e va n qu ish ed cla n is a lwa ys dest r oyed, t h e n a t ion
in gen er a l ca n en joy bu t lit t le fr eedom ; for t h er e is n ot a sin gle pa r t y t h a t m u st
n ot h a ve been oft en su bdu ed.
A con qu er ed people m a y pr eser ve som e degr ee of liber t y wh en , by t h e st r en gt h
of t h eir sit u a t ion , t h ey a r e in a st a t e t h a t will a dm it of ca pit u la t in g a ft er t h eir
defea t . Bu t t h e Ta r t a r s, a lwa ys defen celess, bein g on ce over com e, ca n n ever be
a ble t o obt a in con dit ion s.

I h a ve sa id, in ch a pt er 2, t h a t t h e in h a bit a n t s of cu lt iva t ed pla in s a r e seldom
fr ee. Cir cu m st a n ces h a ve occu r r ed t o pu t t h e Ta r t a r s, wh o dwell in u n cu lt iva t ed
pla in s, in t h e sa m e sit u a t ion .
ET1&@(&+-%&6"7&'(&2"+5'*,&",&4."9+5,%0&#H&+-%&!".+".,1
Th e Ta r t a r s a ppea r t o be m ild a n d h u m a n e a m on g t h em selves; a n d yet t h ey
a r e m ost cr u el con qu er or s: wh en t h ey t a ke cit ies t h ey pu t t h e in h a bit a n t s t o t h e
swor d, a n d im a gin e t h a t t h ey a ct h u m a n ely if t h ey on ly sell t h e people, or
dist r ibu t e t h em a m on g t h eir soldier s.
Th ey h a ve dest r oyed Asia , fr om In dia even t o t h e Medit er r a n ea n ; a n d a ll t h e
cou n t r y wh ich for m s t h e ea st of P er sia t h ey h a ve r en der ed a deser t .
Th e la w of n a t ion s is owin g, I t h in k, t o t h e followin g ca u se. Th ese people
h a vin g n o t own s, a ll t h eir wa r s a r e ca r r ied on wit h ea ger n ess a n d im pet u osit y.
Th ey figh t wh en ever t h ey h ope t o con qu er ; a n d wh en t h ey h a ve n o su ch h ope,
t h ey join t h e st r on ger a r m y. Wit h su ch cu st om s, it is con t r a r y t o t h e la w of
n a t ion s t h a t a cit y in ca pa ble of r epellin g t h eir a t t a ck sh ou ld st op t h eir pr ogr ess.
Th ey r ega r d n ot cit ies a s a n a ssocia t ion of in h a bit a n t s, bu t a s pla ces m a de t o
bid defia n ce t o t h eir power . Th ey besiege t h em wit h ou t m ilit a r y skill, a n d
expose t h em selves gr ea t ly in t h e a t t a ck; a n d t h er efor e r even ge t h em selves on
a ll t h ose wh o h a ve spilled t h eir blood.
EB1&!-%&)5;5$&6"7&'(&+-%&!".+".,1
F a t h er Du H a lde sa ys t h a t a m on gst t h e Ta r t a r s t h e you n gest of t h e m a les is
a lwa ys t h e h eir , by r ea son t h a t a s soon a s t h e elder br ot h er s a r e ca pa ble of
lea din g a pa st or a l life t h ey lea ve t h e h ou se wit h a cer t a in n u m ber of ca t t le,
given t h em by t h eir fa t h er , a n d bu ild a n ew h a bit a t ion . Th e la st of t h e m a les,
wh o con t in u es a t h om e wit h t h e fa t h er , is t h en h is n a t u r a l h eir .
I h a ve h ea r d t h a t a like cu st om wa s a lso obser ved in som e sm a ll dist r ict s of
E n gla n d; a n d we fin d it st ill in Br it t a n y, in t h e du ch y of Roh a n , wh er e it obt a in s
wit h r ega r d t o ign oble t en u r es. Th is is dou bt less a pa st or a l la w con veyed t h it h er
by som e of t h e people of Br it a in , or est a blish ed by som e Ger m a n n a t ion . By
Ca esa r a n d Ta cit u s we a r e in for m ed t h a t t h e la t t er cu lt iva t ed bu t lit t le la n d.
EE1&@(&"&)5;5$&6"7&'(&+-%&A%.<"*&2"+5'*,1
I sh a ll h er e expla in h ow t h a t pa r t icu la r pa ssa ge of t h e Sa lic la w wh ich is
com m on ly dist in gu ish ed by t h e t er m “t h e Sa lic la w” r ela t es t o t h e in st it u t ion s
of a people wh o do n ot cu lt iva t e t h e ea r t h , or a t lea st wh o cu lt iva t e it bu t ver y
lit t le.
Th e Sa lic la w or da in s 11 t h a t , wh en a m a n h a s left ch ildr en beh in d h im , t h e
m a les sh a ll su cceed t o t h e Sa lic la n d in pr efer en ce t o t h e fem a les.
To u n der st a n d t h e n a t u r e of t h ose Sa lic la n ds, t h er e n eeds n o m or e t h a n t o
sea r ch in t o t h e u sa ges or cu st om s of t h e F r a n ks wit h r ega r d t o la n ds befor e t h ey
left Ger m a n y.
Mr . E ch a r d h a s ver y pla in ly pr oved t h a t t h e wor d Sa lic is der ived fr om Sa la ,
wh ich sign ifies a h ou se; a n d t h er efor e t h a t t h e Sa lic la n d wa s t h e la n d
belon gin g t o t h e h ou se. I sh a ll pr oceed fu r t h er , a n d exa m in e in t o t h e n a t u r e of
t h e h ou se, a n d of t h e la n d belon gin g t o t h e h ou se, a m on g t h e Ger m a n s.
“Th ey dwell n ot in t own s,” sa ys Ta cit u s, “n or ca n t h ey bea r t o h a ve t h eir
h a bit a t ion s con t igu ou s t o t h ose of ot h er s; ever y on e lea ves a spa ce or sm a ll piece
of gr ou n d a bou t h is h ou se, wh ich is en closed.”12 Ta cit u s is ver y exa ct in t h is
a ccou n t , for m a n y la ws of t h e Ba r ba r ia n codes h a ve differ en t decr ees a ga in st
t h ose wh o t h r ew down t h is en closu r e, a s well a s a ga in st su ch a s br oke in t o t h e
h ou se. 13
We lea r n fr om Ta cit u s a n d Ca esa r t h a t t h e la n ds cu lt iva t ed by t h e Ger m a n s
wer e given t h em on ly for t h e spa ce of a yea r , a ft er wh ich t h ey a ga in beca m e
pu blic. Th ey h a d n o ot h er pa t r im on y bu t t h e h ou se a n d a piece of la n d wit h in
t h e en closu r e t h a t su r r ou n ded it . 14 It wa s t h is pa r t icu la r pa t r im on y wh ich
belon ged t o t h e m a les. An d, in deed, h ow cou ld it belon g t o t h e da u gh t er s? Th ey
wer e t o pa ss in t o a n ot h er h a bit a t ion .
Th e Sa lic la n d wa s t h en wit h in t h a t en closu r e wh ich belon ged t o a Ger m a n
h ou se; t h is wa s t h e on ly pr oper t y t h ey h a d. Th e F r a n ks, a ft er t h eir con qu est s,
a cqu ir ed n ew possession s, a n d con t in u ed t o ca ll t h em Sa lic la n ds.
Wh en t h e F r a n ks lived in Ger m a n y t h eir wea lt h con sist ed of sla ves, flocks,
h or ses, a r m s, &c. Th e h a bit a t ion a n d t h e sm a ll por t ion of la n d a djoin in g it wer e
n a t u r a lly given t o t h e m a le ch ildr en wh o wer e t o dwell t h er e. Bu t a ft er wa r ds,
wh en t h e F r a n ks h a d by con qu est a cqu ir ed la r ge t r a ct s of la n d, t h ey t h ou gh t it
h a r d t h a t t h e da u gh t er s a n d t h eir ch ildr en sh ou ld be in ca pa ble of en joyin g a n y

pa r t of t h em . H en ce it wa s t h a t t h ey in t r odu ced a cu st om of per m it t in g t h e
fa t h er t o set t le t h e est a t e a ft er h is dea t h u pon h is da u gh t er , a n d h er ch ildr en .
Th ey silen ced t h e la w; a n d it a ppea r s t h a t t h ese set t lem en t s wer e fr equ en t ,
sin ce t h ey wer e en t er ed in t h e for m u la r ies.15
Am on g t h ese for m u la r ies I fin d on e of a sin gu la r n a t u r e. 16 A gr a n dfa t h er
or da in ed by will t h a t h is gr a n dch ildr en sh ou ld sh a r e h is in h er it a n ce wit h h is
son s a n d da u gh t er s. Wh a t t h en beca m e of t h e Sa lic la w? In t h ose t im es eit h er
it wou ld n ot be obser ved, or t h e con t in u a l u se of n om in a t in g t h e da u gh t er s t o
a n in h er it a n ce h a d m a de t h em con sider t h eir a bilit y t o su cceed a s a ca se
a u t h or ised by cu st om .
Th e Sa lic la w h a d n ot in view a pr efer en ce of on e sex t o t h e ot h er , m u ch less
h a d it a r ega r d t o t h e per pet u it y of a fa m ily, a n a m e, or t h e t r a n sm ission of
la n d. Th ese t h in gs did n ot en t er in t o t h e h ea ds of t h e Ger m a n s; it wa s pu r ely
a n econ om ica l la w, wh ich m a de t h e h ou se a n d t h e la n d depen den t t h er eon t o
t h e m a les wh o sh ou ld dwell in it , a n d t o wh om it con sequ en t ly wa s of m ost
ser vice.
We n eed h er e on ly t r a n scr ibe t h e t it le of t h e Allodia l La n ds of t h e Sa lic la w;
t h a t fa m ou s t ext of wh ich so m a n y h a ve t a lked, a n d wh ich so few h a ve r ea d.
“1. If a m a n dies wit h ou t issu e, h is fa t h er or m ot h er sh a ll su cceed h im . 2. If
h e h a s n eit h er fa t h er n or m ot h er , h is br ot h er or sist er sh a ll su cceed h im . 3. If
h e h a s n eit h er br ot h er n or sist er , t h e sist er of h is m ot h er sh a ll su cceed h im . 4.
If h is m ot h er h a s n o sist er , t h e sist er of h is fa t h er sh a ll su cceed h im . 5. If h is
fa t h er h a s n o sist er , t h e n ea r est r ela t ive by t h e m a le side sh a ll su cceed. 6. Not
a n y pa r t of t h e Sa lic la n d sh a ll pa ss t o t h e fem a les; bu t it sh a ll belon g t o t h e
m a les; t h a t is, t h e m a le ch ildr en sh a ll su cceed t h eir fa t h er .”17
It is pla in t h a t t h e fir st five a r t icles r ela t e t o t h e in h er it a n ce of a m a n wh o
dies wit h ou t issu e; a n d t h e sixt h t o t h e su ccession of h im wh o h a s ch ildr en .
Wh en a m a n dies wit h ou t ch ildr en , t h e la w or da in s t h a t n eit h er of t h e t wo
sexes sh a ll h a ve t h e pr efer en ce t o t h e ot h er , except in cer t a in ca ses. In t h e fir st
t wo degr ees of su ccession , t h e a dva n t a ges of t h e m a les a n d fem a les wer e t h e
sa m e; in t h e t h ir d a n d fou r t h , t h e fem a les h a d t h e pr efer en ce; a n d t h e m a les in
t h e fift h .
Ta cit u s poin t s ou t t h e sou r ce of t h ese ext r a va ga n ces. “Th e sist er ’s ch ildr en ,”

sa ys h e, “a r e a s dea r t o t h eir u n cle a s t o t h eir own fa t h er . Th er e a r e m en wh o
r ega r d t h is degr ee of k in dr ed a s m or e st r ict , a n d even m or e h oly. Th ey pr efer
it wh en t h ey r eceive h ost a ges.”18 H en ce it pr oceeds t h a t ou r ea r liest h ist or ia n s
spea k in su ch st r on g t er m s of t h e love of t h e kin gs of t h e F r a n ks for t h eir sist er s
a n d t h eir sist er s’ ch ildr en . 19 An d, in deed, if t h e ch ildr en of t h e sist er wer e
con sider ed in h er br ot h er ’s h ou se a s h is own ch ildr en , it wa s n a t u r a l for t h ese
t o r ega r d t h eir a u n t a s t h eir m ot h er .
Th e sist er of t h e m ot h er wa s pr efer r ed t o t h e fa t h er ’s sist er ; t h is is expla in ed
by ot h er t ext s of t h e Sa lic la w. Wh en a wom a n beca m e a widow,20 sh e fell u n der
t h e gu a r dia n sh ip of h er h u sba n d’s r ela t ives; t h e la w pr efer r ed t o t h is
gu a r dia n sh ip t h e r ela t ives by t h e fem a les befor e t h ose by t h e m a les. In deed, a
wom a n wh o en t er ed in t o a fa m ily join in g h er self wit h t h ose of h er own sex,
beca m e m or e u n it ed t o h er r ela t ives by t h e fem a le t h a n by t h e m a le. Mor eover ,
wh en a m a n killed a n ot h er , a n d h a d n ot wh er ewit h a l t o pa y t h e pecu n ia r y
pen a lt y, t h e la w per m it t ed h im t o deliver u p h is su bst a n ce, a n d h is r ela t ives
wer e t o su pply t h e deficien cy. 21 Aft er t h e fa t h er , m ot h er , a n d br ot h er , t h e sist er
of t h e m ot h er wa s t o pa y, a s if t h is t ie h a d som et h in g in it m ost t en der : n ow t h e
degr ee of kin dr ed wh ich im poses t h e bu r den s ou gh t a lso t o con fer t h e
a dva n t a ges.
Th e Sa lic la w en join s t h a t a ft er t h e fa t h er ’s sist er , t h e su ccession sh ou ld be
h eld by t h e n ea r est r ela t ive m a le; bu t if t h is r ela t ive wa s beyon d t h e fift h
degr ee, h e sh ou ld n ot in h er it . Th u s a fem a le of t h e fift h degr ee m igh t in h er it t o
t h e pr eju dice of a m a le of t h e sixt h ; a n d t h is m a y be seen in t h e la w of t h e
Ripu a r ia n F r a n ks (a fa it h fu l in t er pr et er of t h e Sa lic la w), u n der t h e t it le of
Allodia l La n ds, wh er e it closely a dh er es t o t h e Sa lic la w on t h e sa m e su bject . 22
If t h e fa t h er left issu e, t h e Sa lic la w wou ld h a ve t h e da u gh t er s exclu ded fr om
t h e in h er it a n ce of t h e Sa lic la n d, a n d det er m in ed t h a t it sh ou ld belon g t o t h e
m a le ch ildr en .
It wou ld be ea sy for m e t o pr ove t h a t t h e Sa lic la w did n ot a bsolu t ely exclu de
t h e da u gh t er s fr om t h e possession of t h e Sa lic la n d, bu t on ly in t h e ca se wh er e
t h ey wer e deba r r ed by t h eir br ot h er s. Th is a ppea r s fr om t h e let t er of t h e Sa lic
la w; wh ich , a ft er h a vin g sa id t h a t t h e wom en sh a ll possess n on e of t h e Sa lic
la n d, bu t on ly t h e m a les, in t er pr et s a n d r est r a in s it self by a ddin g, “t h a t is, t h e

son sh a ll su cceed t o t h e in h er it a n ce of t h e fa t h er .”
2. Th e t ext of t h e Sa lic la w is clea r ed u p by t h e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n F r a n ks,
wh ich h a s a lso a t it le on a llodia l la n ds ver y con for m a ble t o t h a t of t h e Sa lic
la w.23
3. Th e la ws of t h ese ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s wh o a ll spr a n g fr om Ger m a n y
in t er pr et ea ch ot h er , m or e pa r t icu la r ly a s t h ey a ll h a ve n ea r ly t h e sa m e spir it .
Th e Sa xon la w en join ed t h e fa t h er a n d m ot h er t o lea ve t h eir in h er it a n ce t o t h eir
son , a n d n ot t o t h eir da u gh t er ; bu t if t h er e wer e n on e bu t da u gh t er s, t h ey wer e
t o h a ve t h e wh ole in h er it a n ce.24
4. We h a ve t wo a n cien t for m u la r ies 25 t h a t st a t e t h e ca se in wh ich , a ccor din g
t o t h e Sa lic la w, t h e da u gh t er s wer e exclu ded by t h e m a les; t h a t is, wh en t h ey
st ood in com pet it ion wit h t h eir br ot h er .
5. An ot h er for m u la r y 26 pr oves t h a t t h e da u gh t er su cceeded t o t h e pr eju dice of
t h e gr a n dson ; sh e wa s t h er efor e exclu ded on ly by t h e son .
6. If da u gh t er s h a d been gen er a lly deba r r ed by t h e Sa lic la w fr om t h e
in h er it a n ce of la n d, it wou ld be im possible t o expla in t h e h ist or ies, for m u la r ies,
a n d ch a r t er s wh ich a r e con t in u a lly m en t ion in g t h e la n ds a n d possession s of t h e
fem a les u n der t h e fir st r a ce.
P eople h a ve been wr on g in a sser t in g t h a t t h e Sa lic la n ds wer e fiefs. 27 1. Th is
h ea d is dist in gu ish ed by t h e t it le of a llodia l la n ds. 2. F iefs a t fir st wer e n ot
h er edit a r y, 3. If t h e Sa lic la n ds h a d been fiefs, h ow cou ld Ma r cu lfu s t r ea t t h a t
cu st om a s im piou s wh ich exclu ded t h e wom en fr om in h er it in g, wh en t h e m a les
t h em selves did n ot su cceed t o fiefs? 4. Th e ch a r t er s wh ich h a ve been cit ed t o
pr ove t h a t t h e Sa lic la n ds wer e fiefs on ly sh ow t h a t t h ey wer e fr eeh olds. 5. F iefs
wer e n ot est a blish ed t ill a ft er t h e con qu est , a n d t h e Sa lic cu st om s exist ed lon g
befor e t h e F r a n ks left Ger m a n y. 6. It wa s n ot t h e Sa lic la w t h a t for m ed t h e
est a blish m en t of fiefs, by set t in g bou n ds t o t h e su ccession of fem a les; bu t it wa s
t h e est a blish m en t of fiefs t h a t pr escr ibed lim it s t o t h e su ccession of fem a les,
a n d t o t h e r egu la t ion s of t h e Sa lic la w.
Aft er wh a t h a s been sa id, on e wou ld n ot im a gin e t h a t t h e per pet u a l
su ccession of m a les t o t h e cr own of F r a n ce sh ou ld h a ve t a ken it s r ise fr om t h e
Sa lic la w. An d yet t h is is a poin t in du bit a bly cer t a in . I pr ove it fr om t h e sever a l
codes of t h e ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s. Th e Sa lic la w, 28 a n d t h e la w of t h e

Bu r gu n dia n s, 29 deba r r ed t h e da u gh t er s fr om t h e r igh t of su cceedin g t o t h e la n d
in con ju n ct ion wit h t h eir br ot h er s; n eit h er did t h ey su cceed t o t h e cr own . Th e
la w of t h e Visigot h s,30 on t h e con t r a r y, per m it t ed t h e da u gh t er s t o in h er it t h e
la n d wit h t h e br ot h er s:31 a n d t h e wom en wer e ca pa ble of in h er it in g t h e cr own . 32
Am on g t h ese people t h e r egu la t ion s of t h e civil la w h a d a n effect on t h e
polit ica l.
Th is wa s n ot t h e on ly ca se in wh ich t h e polit ica l la w of t h e F r a n ks ga ve wa y
t o t h e civil. By t h e Sa lic la w, a ll t h e br ot h er s su cceeded equ a lly t o t h e la n d, a n d
t h is wa s a lso decr eed by a la w of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s. Th u s, in t h e kin gdom of t h e
F r a n ks, a n d in t h a t of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, a ll t h e br ot h er s su cceeded t o t h e cr own ,
if we except a few m u r der s a n d u su r pa t ion s wh ich t ook pla ce a m on gst t h e
Bu r gu n dia n s.
EG1&@(&+-%&.%D"$&@.*"<%*+,&"<'*D&+-%&Y."*>,1
A people wh o do n ot cu lt iva t e t h e la n d h a ve n o idea of lu xu r y. We m a y see, in
Ta cit u s, t h e a dm ir a ble sim plicit y of t h e Ger m a n n a t ion s: t h ey h a d n o a r t ificia l
elega n ces of dr ess; t h eir or n a m en t s wer e der ived fr om n a t u r e. If t h e fa m ily of
t h eir ch ief wa s t o be dist in gu ish ed by a n y sign , it wa s n o ot h er t h a n t h a t wh ich
n a t u r e best owed. Th e kin gs of t h e F r a n k s, of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, a n d t h e
Visigot h s wor e t h eir lon g h a ir for a dia dem .
EJ1&@(&+-%&K"..5"D%,&'(&+-%&M5*D,&'(&+-%&Y."*>,1
I h a ve a lr ea dy m en t ion ed t h a t wit h people wh o do n ot cu lt iva t e t h e ea r t h ,
m a r r ia ges a r e less fixed t h a n wit h ot h er s, a n d t h a t t h ey gen er a lly t a ke m a n y
wives. “Of a ll t h e ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s t h e Ger m a n s wer e a lm ost t h e on ly people
wh o wer e sa t isfied wit h on e wife,33 if we except ,” sa ys Ta cit u s, “som e per son s
wh o, n ot fr om a dissolu t en ess of m a n n er s, bu t beca u se of t h eir n obilit y, h a d
m a n y.”34
Th is expla in s t h e r ea son wh y t h e kin gs of t h e fir st r a ce h a d so gr ea t a n u m ber
of wives. Th ese m a r r ia ges wer e less a pr oof of in con t in en ce t h a n a con sequ en ce
of dign it y: a n d it wou ld h a ve wou n ded t h em in a t en der poin t t o h a ve depr ived
t h em of su ch a pr er oga t ive. 35 Th is a lso expla in s t h e r ea son wh y t h e exa m ple of
t h e kin gs wa s n ot followed by t h e su bject s.
EL1&)-5$0%.591
“Th e la ws of m a t r im on y a m on gst t h e Ger m a n s,” sa ys Ta cit u s, “a r e st r ict ly
obser ved. Vice is n ot t h er e a su bject of r idicu le. To cor r u pt or be cor r u pt ed is n ot
ca lled fa sh ion , or t h e cu st om of t h e a ge:36 t h er e a r e few exa m ples in t h is
popu lou s n a t ion of t h e viola t ion of con ju ga l fa it h .”37
Th is wa s t h e r ea son of t h e expu lsion of Ch ilder ic: h e sh ocked t h eir r igid
vir t u e, wh ich con qu est h a d n ot h a d t im e t o cor r u pt .
EO1&@(&+-%&!5<%&7-%*&+-%&M5*D,&'(&+-%&Y."*>,&#%9"<%&'(&"D%1
Ba r ba r ia n s wh o do n ot cu lt iva t e t h e ea r t h h a ve, st r ict ly spea kin g, n o
ju r isdict ion , a n d a r e, a s we h a ve a lr ea dy r em em ber ed, r a t h er gover n ed by t h e
la w of n a t ion s t h a n by civil in st it u t ion s. Th ey a r e, t h er efor e, a lwa ys a r m ed.
Th u s Ta cit u s t ells u s “t h a t t h e Ger m a n s u n der t ook n o a ffa ir s eit h er of a pu blic
or pr iva t e n a t u r e u n a r m ed.”38 Th ey ga ve t h eir vot e by t h e sou n d of t h eir a r m s. 39
As soon a s t h ey cou ld ca r r y t h em , t h ey wer e pr esen t ed t o t h e a ssem bly;40 t h ey
pu t a ja velin in t o t h eir h a n ds;41 a n d fr om t h a t m om en t t h ey wer e ou t of t h eir
m in or it y: t h ey h a d been a pa r t of t h e fa m ily, n ow t h ey beca m e a pa r t of t h e
r epu blic. 42
“Th e ea gles,” sa id t h e kin g of t h e Ost r ogot h s, 43 “cea se t o feed t h eir you n g on es
a s soon a s t h eir win gs a n d t a lon s a r e for m ed; t h e la t t er h a ve n o n eed of
a ssist a n ce wh en t h ey a r e a ble t h em selves t o seize t h eir pr ey: it wou ld be a
disgr a ce if t h e you n g people in ou r a r m ies wer e t h ou gh t t o be of a n a ge u n fit for
m a n a gin g t h eir est a t es or r egu la t in g t h e con du ct of t h eir lives. It is vir t u e t h a t
con st it u t es fu ll a ge a m on g t h e Got h s.”
Ch ildeber t II wa s fift een yea r s old wh en Gon t r a m , h is u n cle, decla r ed t h a t h e
wa s of a ge, a n d ca pa ble of gover n in g by h im self. 44 We fin d in t h e Ripu a r ia n la ws
t h a t t h e a ge of fift een , t h e a bilit y of bea r in g a r m s, a n d m a jor it y, wen t t oget h er .
It is t h er e sa id 45 “t h a t if a Ripu a r ia n dies, or is killed, a n d lea ves a son beh in d
h im , t h a t son ca n n eit h er pr osecu t e, n or be pr osecu t ed, t ill h e h a s com plet ely
a t t a in ed t h e a ge of fift een ; a n d t h en h e m a y eit h er a n swer for h im self or ch oose
a ch a m pion .” It wa s n ecessa r y t h a t h is m in d sh ou ld be su fficien t ly for m ed t o be
a ble t o defen d h im self in cou r t ; a n d t h a t h is body sh ou ld h a ve a ll t h e st r en gt h

t h a t wa s pr oper for h is defen ce in sin gle com ba t . Am on g t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, 46 wh o
a lso m a de u se of t h is com ba t in t h eir ju dicia r y pr oceedin gs, t h ey wer e of a ge a t
fift een .
Aga t h ia s t ells u s t h a t t h e a r m s of t h e F r a n ks wer e ligh t : t h ey m igh t ,
t h er efor e, be of a ge a t fift een . In su cceedin g t im es t h e a r m s t h ey m a de u se of
wer e h ea vy, a n d t h ey wer e a lr ea dy gr ea t ly so in t h e t im e of Ch a r lem a gn e, a s
a ppea r s by ou r ca pit u la r ies a n d r om a n ces. Th ose wh o h a d fiefs,47 a n d wer e
con sequ en t ly obliged t o do m ilit a r y ser vice, wer e n ot t h en of a ge t ill t h ey wer e
t wen t y-on e yea r s old.48
EP1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
We h a ve seen t h a t t h e Ger m a n s did n ot a ppea r in t h eir a ssem blies befor e t h ey
wer e of a ge; t h ey wer e a pa r t of t h e fa m ily, bu t n ot of t h e r epu blic. Th is wa s t h e
r ea son t h a t t h e ch ildr en of Clodom ir , kin g of Or lea n s, a n d con qu er or of
Bu r gu n dy, wer e n ot pr ocla im ed kin gs, beca u se t h ey wer e of t oo t en der a n a ge
t o be pr esen t a t t h e a ssem bly. Th ey wer e n ot yet kin gs, bu t t h ey h a d a r igh t t o
t h e r ega l dign it y a s soon a s t h ey wer e a ble t o bea r a r m s; a n d in t h e m ea n t im e,
Clot ildis, t h eir gr a n dm ot h er , gover n ed t h e st a t e. 49 Bu t t h eir u n cles Clot a r iu s
a n d Ch ildeber t a ssa ssin a t ed t h em , a n d divided t h eir kin gdom . Th is wa s t h e
ca u se t h a t in t h e followin g a ges pr in ces in t h eir m in or it y wer e pr ocla im ed kin gs
im m edia t ely a ft er t h e dea t h of t h eir fa t h er s. Th u s Du ke Gon dova ld sa ved
Ch ildeber t II fr om t h e cr u elt y of Ch ilper ic, a n d ca u sed h im t o be pr ocla im ed
kin g wh en h e wa s on ly five yea r s old.50
Bu t even in t h is ch a n ge t h ey followed t h e or igin a l spir it of t h e n a t ion ; for t h e
pu blic a ct s did n ot pa ss in t h e n a m e of t h e you n g m on a r ch . So t h a t t h e F r a n ks
h a d a dou ble a dm in ist r a t ion : t h e on e wh ich con cer n ed t h e per son of t h e in fa n t
kin g, a n d t h e ot h er wh ich r ega r ded t h e kin gdom ; a n d in t h e fiefs t h er e wa s a
differ en ce bet ween t h e gu a r dia n sh ip a n d t h e civil a dm in ist r a t ion .
EQ1&@(&:0'4+5'*&"<'*D&+-%&A%.<"*,1
As t h e Ger m a n s beca m e of a ge by t h e wieldin g of a r m s, so t h ey wer e a dopt ed
by t h e sa m e sign . Th u s Gon t r a m , willin g t o decla r e h is n eph ew Ch ildeber t of
a ge a n d t o a dopt h im for h is son , m a de u se of t h ese wor ds: “I h a ve pu t t h is
ja velin in t o t h y h a n ds a s a t ok en t h a t I h a ve given t h ee a ll m y kin gdom .”51
Th en , t u r n in g t owa r ds t h e a ssem bly, h e a dded, “You see t h a t m y son Ch ildeber t
is gr own a m a n ; obey h im .” Th eodor ic, k in g of t h e Ost r ogot h s, in t en din g t o
a dopt t h e kin g of t h e H er u li, wr ot e t o h im t h u s:52 “It is a n oble cu st om of ou r s
t o be a dopt ed by a r m s; for m en of cou r a ge a lon e deser ve t o be ou r ch ildr en . Su ch
is t h e effica cy of t h is a ct , t h a t wh oever is t h e object of it h a d r a t h er die t h a n
su bm it t o a n yt h in g ign om in iou s. Th er efor e, in com plia n ce wit h t h e n a t ion a l
u sa ge, a n d beca u se you a r e a m a n of cou r a ge, we a dopt you for ou r son by t h ese
bu ckler s, t h ese swor ds, t h ese h or ses, wh ich we sen d you a s a pr esen t .”
ES1&@(&+-%&,"*DF5*".H&!%<4%.&'(&+-%&M5*D,&'(&+-%&Y."*>,1
Clovis wa s n ot t h e on ly pr in ce a m on gst t h e F r a n ks wh o h a d in va ded Ga u l.
Ma n y of h is r ela t ives h a d pen et r a t ed in t o t h is cou n t r y wit h pa r t icu la r t r ibes;
bu t a s h e h a d m et wit h m u ch gr ea t er su ccess, a n d cou ld gr a n t con sider a ble
set t lem en t s t o su ch a s followed h im , t h e F r a n ks flocked t o h im fr om a ll pa r t s,
so t h a t t h e ot h er ch iefs fou n d t h em selves t oo wea k t o r esist h im . H e for m ed a
design of ext er m in a t in g h is wh ole r a ce, a n d h e su cceeded. 53 H e fea r ed, sa ys
Gr egor y of Tou r s, 54 lest t h e F r a n ks sh ou ld ch oose a n ot h er ch ief. H is ch ildr en
a n d su ccessor s followed t h is pr a ct ice t o t h e u t m ost of t h eir power . Th u s t h e
br ot h er , t h e u n cle, t h e n eph ew, a n d, wh a t is st ill wor se, t h e fa t h er or t h e son ,
wer e per pet u a lly con spir in g a ga in st t h eir wh ole fa m ily. Th e la w con t in u a lly
divided t h e m on a r ch y; wh ile fea r , a m bit ion , a n d cr u elt y wa n t ed t o r eu n it e it .
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It h a s been r em a r ked a bove t h a t n a t ion s wh o do n ot cu lt iva t e t h e la n d en joy
gr ea t liber t y.
Th is wa s t h e ca se of t h e Ger m a n s. Ta cit u s sa ys t h a t t h ey ga ve t h eir kin gs, or
ch iefs, a ver y m oder a t e degr ee of power ;55 a n d Ca esa r a dds fu r t h er t h a t in t im es
of pea ce t h ey h a d n o com m on m a gist r a t es; bu t t h eir pr in ces a dm in ist er ed

ju st ice in ea ch villa ge.56 Th u s, a s Gr egor y of Tou r s 57 su fficien t ly pr oves, t h e
F r a n ks in Ger m a n y h a d n o kin g.
“Th e pr in ces,” sa ys Ta cit u s, “deliber a t e on m a t t er s of n o gr ea t con cer n ; wh ile
a ffa ir s of im por t a n ce a r e su bm it t ed t o t h e wh ole n a t ion , bu t in su ch a m a n n er
t h a t t h ese ver y a ffa ir s wh ich a r e u n der t h e cogn iza n ce of t h e people a r e a t t h e
sa m e t im e la id befor e t h e pr in ces.”58 Th is cu st om wa s obser ved by t h em a ft er
t h eir con qu est s, a s m a y be seen in a ll t h eir r ecor ds.59
Ta cit u s sa ys t h a t ca pit a l cr im es m igh t be ca r r ied befor e t h e a ssem bly. 60 It wa s
t h e sa m e a ft er t h e con qu est , wh en t h e gr ea t va ssa ls wer e t r ied befor e t h a t body.
GB1&@(&+-%&:F+-'.5+H&'(&+-%&)$%.DH&F*0%.&+-%&(5.,+&/"9%1
Th e pr iest s of ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s a r e com m on ly in vest ed wit h power , beca u se
t h ey h a ve bot h t h a t a u t h or it y wh ich is du e t o t h em fr om t h eir r eligiou s
ch a r a ct er , a n d t h a t in flu en ce wh ich a m on g su ch a people is t h e offspr in g of
su per st it ion . Th u s we see in Ta cit u s t h a t pr iest s wer e h eld in gr ea t ven er a t ion
by t h e Ger m a n s, a n d t h a t t h ey pr esided in t h e a ssem blies of t h e people. 61 Th ey
a lon e wer e per m it t ed 62 t o ch a st ise, t o bin d, t o sm it e; wh ich t h ey did, n ot by
or der of t h e pr in ce, or a s h is m in ist er s of ju st ice, bu t a s by a n in spir a t ion of t h a t
Deit y ever su pposed t o be pr esen t wit h t h ose wh o m a de wa r .
We ou gh t n ot , t h er efor e, t o be a st on ish ed wh en , fr om t h e ver y begin n in g of t h e
fir st r a ce, we m eet wit h bish ops t h e dispen ser s of ju st ice, 63 wh en we see t h em
a ppea r in t h e a ssem blies of t h e n a t ion ; wh en t h ey h a ve su ch a pr odigiou s
in flu en ce on t h e m in ds of sover eign s; a n d wh en t h ey a cqu ir e so la r ge a sh a r e of
pr oper t y.
2'+%,1
1. Book vii. 7.
2. Solon .
3. Or h e wh o wr ot e t h e book De M irabilibu s.
4. J a pa n is a n except ion t o t h is, by it s gr ea t ext en t a s well a s by it s sla ver y.
5. P olybiu s, x. 25.
6. It is t h u s t h a t Diodor u s, v. 35, t ells u s t h e sh eph er ds fou n d gold in t h e
P yr en ea n m ou n t a in s.
7. E d ifyin g L etters, coll. xx.
8. Wh en a kh a n is pr ocla im ed, a ll t h e people cr y t h a t h is wor d sh a ll be a s a
swor d.
9. Book xvii. 5.
10. We ou gh t n ot t h er efor e t o be a st on ish ed a t Ma h om et , t h e son of Mir iveis,
wh o, u pon t a kin g Ispa h a n , pu t a ll t h e pr in ces of t h e blood t o t h e swor d.
11. Tit . 62.
12. Nu lla s Ger m a n or u m popu lis u r bes h a bit a r i sa t is n ot u m est , n e pa t i qu idem
in t er se ju n ct a s sedes; colu n t discr et i, u t n em u s pla cu it . Vicos loca n t , n on in
n ost r u m m or em con n exis et coh a r en t ibu s a edifidis: su a m qu isqu e dom u m
spa t io cir cu m da t . — De Mor ibu s Ger m a n or u m , 16.
13. Th e La w of t h e Alem a n s, 10, a n d t h e La w of t h e Ba va r ia n s, t it . 10, §§ 1, 2.
14. Th is in closu r e is ca lled cu r t is in t h e ch a r t er s.
15. See Ma r cu lfu s, ii, for m . 10, 12. Appen dix t o Ma r cu lfu s, for m . 49, a n d t h e
a n cien t for m u la r ies of Sir m on du s, for m . 22.
16. F or m . 55, in Lin dem br och ’s collect ion .
17. De t er r a ver o Sa lica in m u lier em n u lla por t io h er edit a t is t r a n sit , sed h oc
vir ilis sexu s a cqu ir it , h oc est filii in ipsa h er edit a t e su ccedu n t . — Tit . 68, §
6.
18. Sor or u m filiis idem a pu d a vu n cu lu m qu a m a pu d pa t r em h on or . Qu ida m
sa n ct ior em a r ct i-or em qu e h u n c n exu m sa n gu in is a r bit r a n t u r , et in
a ccipien dis obsidibu s m a gis exigu n t , t a n qu a m ii et a n im u m fir m iu s et
dom u m la t iu s t en ea n t — De Mor ibu s Ger m a n or u m , 20.
19. See, in Gr egor y of Tou r s, viii. 18, 20 a n d ix, 16, 20, t h e r a ge of Gon t r a m a t
Leovigild’s ill-t r ea t m en t of In gu n da , h is n iece, wh ich Ch ildeber t h er br ot h er
t ook u p a r m s t o r even ge.
20. Sa lic La w, t it . 47.
21. Ibid., t it . 61, § 1.
22. E t dein ceps u squ e a d qu in t u m gen u cu lu m qu i pr oxim u s fu er it in
h er edit a t em su cceda t . — Tit . 56, § 6.
23. Tit . 56.
24. Tit . 7, § 1: P a t er a u t m a t er defu n ct i, filio n on filia e h er edit a t em r elin qu a n t ;
§ 4, qu i defu n ct u s, n on filios, sed filia s r eliqu er it , a d ea s om n is h er edit a s

per t in ea t .
25. In Ma r cu lfu s, ii, for m . 12, a n d in t h e Appen dix t o Ma r cu lfu s, for m . 49.
26. Lin dem br och ’s collect ion , for m . 55.
27. Du Ca n ge, P it h ou , &c.
28. Tit . 62.
29. Tit . 1, § 3; t it . 16, § 1; t it . 51.
30. Book iv, t it . 2, § 1.
31. Th e Ger m a n n a t ion s, sa ys Ta cit u s, De Mor ibu s Ger m a n or u m , 22, h a d
com m on cu st om s, a s well a s t h ose wh ich wer e pecu lia r t o ea ch .
32. Am on g t h e Ost r ogot h s, t h e cr own t wice devolved t o t h e m a les by m ea n s of
fem a les; t h e fir st t im e t o At h a la r icu s, t h r ou gh Am a la su n t h a , a n d t h e secon d
t o Th eoda t , t h r ou gh Am a la fr eda . Not bu t t h a t t h e fem a les of t h a t n a t ion
m igh t h a ve h eld t h e cr own in t h eir own r igh t ; for Am a la su n t h a r eign ed a ft er
t h e dea t h of At h a la r icu s; n a y, even a ft er t h e elect ion of Th eoda t , a n d in
con ju n ct ion wit h t h a t pr in ce. See Am a la su n t h a ’s a n d Th eoda t ’s let t er s, in
Ca ssiodor u s, x.
33. P r ope soli Ba r ba r or u m sin gu lis u xor ibu s con t en t i st in t . — De Mor ibu s
Ger m a n or u m , 18.
34. E xcept is a dm odu m pa u cis qu i n on libidin e, sed ob n obilit a t em , plu r im is
n u pt iis a m biu n t u r . — Ibid.
35. See F r edega r iu s, Ch r on icle of t h e yea r 628.
36. Sever a m a t r im on ia . . . n em o illic vit ia r idet , n ec cor r u m per e et cor r u m pi
sa ecu lu m voca t u r . — De Mor ibu s Ger m a n or u m , 19.
37. P a u cissim a in t a m n u m er osa gen t e a du lt er ia . — Ibid.
38. Nih il n equ e pu blica e n equ e pr iva t a e r ei n isi a r m a t i a gu n t . — Ibid., 13.
39. Si displicuit sent ent ia, fr em it u asper n a n t u r ; sin pla cu it , fr a m ea s con cu t iu n t .
— Ibid., 11.
40. Sed a r m a su m er e n on a n t e cu iqu a m m or is, qu a m civit a s su ffect u r u m
pr oba ver it . — Ibid., 13.
41. Tu m in ipso con cilia vel pr in cipu m a liqu is, vel pa t er , vel pr opin qu u s, scu t o,
fr a m ea qu e ju ven em or n a n t .
42. H a ec a pu d illos t oga , h ic pr im u s ju ven t a e h on os; a n t e h oc dom n i pa r s
viden t u r , m ox r eipu blica e.

43. Th eodor ic in Ca ssiodor u s, i. 38.
44. H e wa s sca r cely five yea r s old, sa ys Gr egor y of Tou r s, v. 1, wh en h e
su cceeded t o h is fa t h er , in t h e yea r 575. Gon t r a m decla r ed h im of a ge in t h e
yea r 585; h e wa s, t h er efor e, a t t h a t t im e n o m or e t h a n fift een .
45. Tit . 81.
46. Tit . 87.
47. Th er e wa s n o ch a n ge in t h e t im e wit h r ega r d t o t h e com m on people.
48. St . Lou is wa s n ot of a ge t ill t wen t y-on e; t h is wa s a lt er ed by a n edict of
Ch a r les V in t h e yea r 1374.
49. It a ppea r s fr om Gr egor y of Tou r s, iii, t h a t sh e ch ose t wo n a t ives of
Bu r gu n dy, wh ich h a d been con qu er ed by Clodom ir , t o r a ise t h em t o t h e see
of Tou r s, wh ich a lso belon ged t o Clodom ir .
50. Ibid., v. 1: Vix lu st r o a et a t is u n o ja m per a ct o qu i die Dom in ica e Na t a lis
r egn a r e coepit .
51. See Ibid., vii. 23.
52. In Ca ssiodor u s, iv. 2.
53. Gr egor y of Tou r s, ii.
54. Ibid.
55. Nec Regibu s liber a a u t in fin it a pot est a s. Ca et er u m n equ e a n im a dver t er e,
n equ e vin cir e, n equ e ver ber a r e, &c. — De Mor ibu s Ger m a n or u m , 7.
56. In pa ce n u llu s est com m u n is m a gist r a t u s, sed pr in cipes r egion u m a t qu e
pa gor u m in t er su os ju s dicu n t . — De Bello Ga ll., vi. 22.
57. Book ii.
58. De m in or ibu s pr in cipes con su lt a n t , de m a jor ibu s om n es; it a t a m en u t ea
qu or u m pen es plebem a r bit r iu m est , a pu d pr in cipes per t r a ct en t u r . — De
Mor ibu s Ger m a n or u m , 11.
59. Lex con sen su P opu li fit et con st it u t ion e Regis. — Ca pit u la r ies of Ch a r les t h e
Ba ld, yea r 864, a r t . 6.
60. Licet a pu d Con ciliu m a ccu sa r e et discr im en ca pit is in t en der e. — De
Mor ibu s Ger m a n or u m , 12.
61. Silen t iu m per sa cer dot es, qu ibu s et coer cen di ju s est , im per a t u r . — Ibid., 11.
62. Nec Regibu s liber a a u t in fin it a pot est a s. Ca et er u m n equ e a n im a dver t er e,
n equ e vin cir e, n equ e ver ber a r e, n isi sa cer dot ibu s est per m issu m , n on qu a si
in poen a m , n ec Du cis ju ssu , sed velu t Deo im per a n t e, qu em a desse,
bella t or ibu s cr edu n t . — Ibid., 7.
63. See t h e Con st it u t ion s of Clot a r iu s, yea r 560, a r t . 6.
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Th is su bject is ver y ext en sive. In t h a t cr owd of idea s wh ich pr esen t s it self t o
m y m in d, I sh a ll be m or e a t t en t ive t o t h e or der of t h in gs t h a n t o t h e t h in gs
t h em selves. I sh a ll be obliged t o wa n der t o t h e r igh t a n d t o t h e left , t h a t I m a y
in vest iga t e a n d discover t h e t r u t h .
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Not h in g cou ld a ppea r m or e in su ppor t a ble t o t h e Ger m a n s t h a n t h e t r ibu n a l
of Va r u s. 1 Th a t wh ich J u st in ia n 2 er ect ed a m on gst t h e La zi, t o pr oceed a ga in st
t h e m u r der er s of t h eir kin g, a ppea r ed t o t h em a s a n a ffa ir m ost h or r id a n d
ba r ba r ou s. Mit h r ida t es, 3 h a r a n gu in g a ga in st t h e Rom a n s, r epr oa ch ed t h em
m or e pa r t icu la r ly for t h eir la w pr oceedin gs.4 Th e P a r t h ia n s cou ld n ot bea r wit h
on e of t h eir kin gs wh o, h a vin g been edu ca t ed a t Rom e, r en der ed h im self a ffa ble
a n d ea sy of a ccess t o a ll. 5 Liber t y it self h a s a ppea r ed in t oler a ble t o t h ose
n a t ion s wh o h a ve n ot been a ccu st om ed t o en joy it . Th u s pu r e a ir is som et im es
disa gr eea ble t o su ch a s h a ve lived in a fen n y cou n t r y.
Ba ibi, a Ven et ia n , bein g a t P egu , wa s in t r odu ced t o t h e kin g.6 Wh en t h e
m on a r ch wa s in for m ed t h a t t h ey h a d n o kin g a t Ven ice, h e bu r st in t o su ch a fit
of la u gh t er t h a t h e wa s seized wit h a cou gh , a n d wit h difficu lt y cou ld spea k t o
h is cou r t ier s. Wh a t legisla t or cou ld pr opose a popu la r gover n m en t t o a people
like t h is?
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Th er e a r e t wo sor t s of t yr a n n y: on e r ea l, wh ich a r ises fr om oppr ession ; t h e
ot h er is sea t ed in opin ion , a n d is su r e t o be felt wh en ever t h ose wh o gover n
est a blish t h in gs sh ockin g t o t h e exist in g idea s of a n a t ion .
Dio7 t ells u s t h a t Au gu st u s wa s desir ou s of bein g ca lled Rom u lu s; bu t h a vin g
been in for m ed t h a t t h e people fea r ed t h a t h e wou ld ca u se h im self t o be cr own ed
kin g, h e ch a n ged h is design . Th e old Rom a n s wer e a ver se t o a kin g, beca u se
t h ey cou ld n ot su ffer a n y m a n t o en joy su ch power ; t h ese wou ld n ot h a ve a kin g,
beca u se t h ey cou ld n ot bea r h is m a n n er s. F or t h ou gh Ca esa r , t h e Tr iu m vir s,
a n d Au gu st u s wer e r ea lly in vest ed wit h r ega l power , t h ey h a d pr eser ved a ll t h e
ou t wa r d a ppea r a n ce of equ a lit y, wh ile t h eir pr iva t e lives wer e a kin d of con t r a st
t o t h e pom p a n d lu xu r y of for eign m on a r ch s; so t h a t wh en t h e Rom a n s wer e
r esolved t o h a ve n o kin g, t h is on ly sign ified t h a t t h ey wou ld pr eser ve t h eir
cu st om s, a n d n ot im it a t e t h ose of t h e Afr ica n a n d ea st er n n a t ion s.
Th e sa m e wr it er in for m s u s t h a t t h e Rom a n s wer e exa sper a t ed a ga in st
Au gu st u s for m a kin g cer t a in la ws wh ich wer e t oo sever e; bu t a s soon a s h e h a d
r eca lled P yla des t h e com edia n , wh om t h e ja r r in g of differ en t fa ct ion s h a d dr iven
ou t of t h e cit y, t h e discon t en t cea sed. A people of t h is st a m p h a ve a m or e lively
sen se of t yr a n n y wh en a pla yer is ba n ish ed t h a n wh en t h ey a r e depr ived of
t h eir la ws.
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Ma n kin d a r e in flu en ced by va r iou s ca u ses: by t h e clim a t e, by t h e r eligion , by
t h e la ws, by t h e m a xim s of gover n m en t , by pr eceden t s, m or a ls, a n d cu st om s;
wh en ce is for m ed a gen er a l spir it of n a t ion s.
In pr opor t ion a s, in ever y cou n t r y, a n y on e of t h ese ca u ses a ct s wit h m or e
for ce, t h e ot h er s in t h e sa m e degr ee a r e wea ken ed. Na t u r e a n d t h e clim a t e r u le
a lm ost a lon e over t h e sa va ges; cu st om s gover n t h e Ch in ese; t h e la ws t yr a n n ise
in J a pa n ; m or a ls h a d for m er ly a ll t h eir in flu en ce a t Spa r t a ; m a xim s of
gover n m en t , a n d t h e a n cien t sim plicit y of m a n n er s, on ce pr eva iled a t Rom e.
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Sh ou ld t h er e h a ppen t o be a cou n t r y wh ose in h a bit a n t s wer e of a socia l
t em per , open -h ea r t ed, ch eer fu l, en dowed wit h t a st e a n d a fa cilit y in
com m u n ica t in g t h eir t h ou gh t s; wh o wer e spr igh t ly a n d a gr eea ble; som et im es
im pr u den t , oft en in discr eet ; a n d besides h a d cou r a ge, gen er osit y, fr a n kn ess,
a n d a cer t a in n ot ion of h on ou r , n o on e ou gh t t o en dea vou r t o r est r a in t h eir
m a n n er s by la ws, u n less h e wou ld la y a con st r a in t on t h eir vir t u es. If in gen er a l
t h e ch a r a ct er be good, t h e lit t le foibles t h a t m a y be fou n d in it a r e of sm a ll
im por t a n ce.
Th ey m igh t la y a r est r a in t u pon wom en , en a ct la ws t o r efor m t h eir m a n n er s
a n d t o r edu ce t h eir lu xu r y, bu t wh o kn ows bu t t h a t by t h ese m ea n s t h ey m igh t
lose t h a t pecu lia r t a st e wh ich wou ld be t h e sou r ce of t h e wea lt h of t h e n a t ion ,
a n d t h a t polit en ess wh ich wou ld r en der t h e cou n t r y fr equ en t ed by st r a n ger s?
It is t h e bu sin ess of t h e legisla t u r e t o follow t h e spir it of t h e n a t ion , wh en it
is n ot con t r a r y t o t h e pr in ciples of gover n m en t ; for we do n ot h in g so well a s
wh en we a ct wit h fr eedom , a n d follow t h e ben t of ou r n a t u r a l gen iu s.
If a n a ir of peda n t r y be given t o a n a t ion t h a t is n a t u r a lly ga y, t h e st a t e will
ga in n o a dva n t a ge fr om it , eit h er a t h om e or a br oa d. Lea ve it t o do fr ivolou s
t h in gs in t h e m ost ser iou s m a n n er , a n d wit h ga iet y t h e t h in gs m ost ser iou s.
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Let t h em bu t lea ve u s a s we a r e, sa id a gen t lem a n of a n a t ion wh ich h a d a
ver y gr ea t r esem bla n ce t o t h a t we h a ve been descr ibin g, a n d n a t u r e will r epa ir
wh a t ever is a m iss. Sh e h a s given u s a viva cit y ca pa ble of offen din g, a n d
h u r r yin g u s beyon d t h e bou n ds of r espect : t h is sa m e viva cit y is cor r ect ed by t h e
polit en ess it pr ocu r es, in spir in g u s wit h a t a st e of t h e wor ld, a n d, a bove a ll, for
t h e con ver sa t ion of t h e fa ir sex.
Let t h em lea ve u s a s we a r e; ou r in discr et ion s join ed t o ou r good n a t u r e wou ld
m a ke t h e la ws wh ich sh ou ld con st r a in ou r socia bilit y n ot a t a ll pr oper for u s.
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Th e At h en ia n s, t h is gen t lem a n a dds, wer e a n a t ion t h a t h a d som e r ela t ion t o
ou r s. Th ey m in gled ga iet y wit h bu sin ess; a st r oke of r a iller y wa s a s a gr eea ble
in t h e sen a t e a s in t h e t h ea t r e. Th is viva cit y, wh ich discover ed it self in t h eir
cou n cils, wen t a lon g wit h t h em in t h e execu t ion of t h eir r esolves. Th e
ch a r a ct er ist ic of t h e Spa r t a n s wa s gr a vit y, ser iou sn ess, sever it y, a n d silen ce.
It wou ld h a ve been a s difficu lt t o br in g over a n At h en ia n by t ea sin g a s it wou ld
a Spa r t a n by diver t in g h im .
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Th e m or e com m u n ica t ive a people a r e, t h e m or e ea sily t h ey ch a n ge t h eir
h a bit s, beca u se ea ch is in a gr ea t er degr ee a spect a cle t o t h e ot h er a n d t h e
sin gu la r it ies of in dividu a ls a r e bet t er obser ved. Th e clim a t e wh ich in flu en ces
on e n a t ion t o t a ke plea su r e in bein g com m u n ica t ive, m a kes it a lso deligh t in
ch a n ge, a n d t h a t wh ich m a kes it deligh t in ch a n ge for m s it s t a st e.
Th e societ y of t h e fa ir sex spoils t h e m a n n er s a n d for m s t h e t a st e; t h e desir e
of givin g gr ea t er plea su r e t h a n ot h er s est a blish es t h e em bellish m en t s of dr ess;
a n d t h e desir e of plea sin g ot h er s m or e t h a n ou r selves gives r ise t o fa sh ion s.
Th u s fa sh ion is a su bject of im por t a n ce; by en cou r a gin g a t r iflin g t u r n of m in d,
it con t in u a lly in cr ea ses t h e br a n ch es of it s com m er ce.8
S1&@(&+-%&N"*5+H&"*0&8.50%&'(&2"+5'*,1
Va n it y is a s a dva n t a geou s t o a gover n m en t a s pr ide is da n ger ou s. To be
con vin ced of t h is we n eed on ly r epr esen t , on t h e on e h a n d, t h e n u m ber less
ben efit s wh ich r esu lt fr om va n it y, a s in du st r y, t h e a r t s, fa sh ion s, polit en ess,
a n d t a st e; on t h e ot h er , t h e in fin it e evils wh ich spr in g fr om t h e pr ide of cer t a in
n a t ion s, a s la zin ess, pover t y, a t ot a l n eglect of ever yt h in g — in fin e, t h e
dest r u ct ion of t h e n a t ion s wh ich h a ve h a ppen ed t o fa ll u n der t h eir gover n m en t ,
a s well a s of t h eir own . La zin ess is t h e effect of pr ide;9 la bou r , a con sequ en ce of
va n it y. Th e pr ide of a Spa n ia r d lea ds h im t o declin e la bou r ; t h e va n it y of a
F r en ch m a n t o wor k bet t er t h a n ot h er s.
All la zy n a t ion s a r e gr a ve; for t h ose wh o do n ot la bou r r ega r d t h em selves a s
t h e sover eign s of t h ose wh o do.

If we sea r ch a m on g a ll n a t ion s, we sh a ll fin d t h a t for t h e m ost pa r t gr a vit y,
pr ide, a n d in dolen ce go h a n d in h a n d.
Th e people of Ach im 10 a r e pr ou d a n d la zy; t h ose wh o h a ve n o sla ves, h ir e on e,
if it be on ly t o ca r r y a qu a r t of r ice a h u n dr ed pa ces; t h ey wou ld be dish on ou r ed
if t h ey ca r r ied it t h em selves.
In m a n y pla ces people let t h eir n a ils gr ow, t h a t a ll m a y see t h ey do n ot wor k.
Wom en in t h e In dies 11 believe it sh a m efu l for t h em t o lea r n t o r ea d: t h is is,
t h ey sa y, t h e bu sin ess of t h eir sla ves, wh o sin g t h eir spir it u a l son gs in t h e
t em ples of t h eir pa gods. In on e t r ibe t h ey do n ot spin ; in a n ot h er t h ey m a k e
n ot h in g bu t ba sket s a n d m a t s; t h ey a r e n ot even t o pou n d r ice; a n d in ot h er s
t h ey m u st n ot go t o fet ch wa t er . Th ese r u les a r e est a blish ed by pr ide, a n d t h e
sa m e pa ssion m a kes t h em followed. Th er e is n o n ecessit y for m en t ion in g t h a t
t h e m or a l qu a lit ies, a ccor din g a s t h ey a r e blen ded wit h ot h er s, a r e pr odu ct ive
of differ en t effect s; t h u s pr ide, join ed t o a va st a m bit ion a n d n ot ion s of
gr a n deu r , pr odu ced su ch effect s a m on g t h e Rom a n s a s a r e kn own t o a ll t h e
wor ld.
BT1&@(&+-%&)-"."9+%.&'(&+-%&34"*5".0,&"*0&)-5*%,%1
Th e ch a r a ct er s of t h e sever a l n a t ion s a r e for m ed of vir t u es a n d vices, of good
a n d ba d qu a lit ies. F r om t h e h a ppy m ixt u r e of t h ese, gr ea t a dva n t a ges r esu lt ,
a n d fr equ en t ly wh er e it wou ld be lea st expect ed; t h er e a r e ot h er s wh en ce gr ea t
evils a r ise — evils wh ich on e wou ld n ot su spect .
Th e Spa n ia r ds h a ve been in a ll a ges fa m ou s for t h eir h on est y. J u st in 12
m en t ion s t h eir fidelit y in keepin g wh a t ever wa s en t r u st ed t o t h eir ca r e; t h ey
h a ve fr equ en t ly su ffer ed dea t h r a t h er t h a n r evea l a secr et . Th ey h a ve st ill t h e
sa m e fidelit y for wh ich t h ey wer e for m er ly dist in gu ish ed. All t h e n a t ion s wh o
t r a de a t Ca diz t r u st t h eir for t u n es t o t h e Spa n ia r ds, a n d h a ve n ever yet
r epen t ed it . Bu t t h is a dm ir a ble qu a lit y, join ed t o t h eir in dolen ce, for m s a
m ixt u r e wh en ce su ch effect s r esu lt a s t o t h em a r e m ost per n iciou s. Th e r est of
t h e E u r opea n n a t ion s ca r r y on in t h eir ver y sigh t a ll t h e com m er ce of t h eir
m on a r ch y.
Th e ch a r a ct er of t h e Ch in ese is for m ed of a n ot h er m ixt u r e, dir ect ly opposit e
t o t h a t of t h e Spa n ia r ds; t h e pr eca r iou sn ess of t h eir su bsist en ce 13 in spir es t h em

wit h a pr odigiou s a ct ivit y, a n d su ch a n excessive desir e of ga in , t h a t n o t r a din g
n a t ion ca n con fide in t h em . 14 Th is a ckn owledged in fidelit y h a s secu r ed t h em t h e
possession of t h e t r a de t o J a pa n . No E u r opea n m er ch a n t h a s ever da r ed t o
u n der t a ke it in t h eir n a m e, h ow ea sy soever it m igh t be for t h em t o do it fr om
t h eir m a r it im e pr ovin ces in t h e n or t h .
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I h a ve sa id n ot h in g h er e wit h a view t o lessen t h a t in fin it e dist a n ce wh ich
m u st ever be bet ween vir t u e a n d vice. God for bid t h a t I sh ou ld be gu ilt y of su ch
a n a t t em pt ! I wou ld on ly m a ke m y r ea der s com pr eh en d t h a t a ll polit ica l a r e n ot
a ll m or a l vices; a n d t h a t a ll m or a l a r e n ot polit ica l vices; a n d t h a t t h ose wh o
m a ke la ws wh ich sh ock t h e gen er a l spir it of a n a t ion ou gh t n ot t o be ign or a n t
of t h is.
BE1&@(&)F,+'<,&"*0&K"**%.,&5*&"&0%,4'+59&3+"+%1
It is a ca pit a l m a xim t h a t t h e m a n n er s a n d cu st om s of a despot ic em pir e
ou gh t n ever t o be ch a n ged; for n ot h in g wou ld m or e speedily pr odu ce a
r evolu t ion . Th e r ea son is t h a t in t h ese st a t es t h er e a r e n o la ws, t h a t is, n on e
t h a t ca n be pr oper ly ca lled so; t h er e a r e on ly m a n n er s a n d cu st om s; a n d if you
over t u r n t h ese you over t u r n a ll.
La ws a r e est a blish ed, m a n n er s a r e in spir ed; t h ese pr oceed fr om a gen er a l
spir it , t h ose fr om a pa r t icu la r in st it u t ion : n ow it is a s da n ger ou s, n a y m or e so,
t o su bver t t h e gen er a l spir it a s t o ch a n ge a pa r t icu la r in st it u t ion .
Th er e is less com m u n ica t ion in a cou n t r y wh er e ea ch , eit h er a s su per ior or
in fer ior , exer cises or is oppr essed by a r bit r a r y power , t h a n t h er e is in t h ose
wh er e liber t y r eign s in ever y st a t ion . Th ey do n ot , t h er efor e, so oft en ch a n ge
t h eir m a n n er s a n d beh a viou r . F ixed a n d est a blish ed cu st om s h a ve a n ea r
r esem bla n ce t o la ws. Th u s it is h er e n ecessa r y t h a t a pr in ce or a legisla t or
sh ou ld less oppose t h e m a n n er s a n d cu st om s of t h e people t h a n in a n y ot h er
cou n t r y u pon ea r t h .
Th eir wom en a r e com m on ly con fin ed, a n d h a ve n o in flu en ce in societ y. In
ot h er cou n t r ies, wh er e t h ey h a ve in t er cou r se wit h m en , t h eir desir e of plea sin g,
a n d t h e desir e m en a lso h a ve of givin g t h em plea su r e, pr odu ce a con t in u a l

ch a n ge of cu st om s. Th e t wo sexes spoil ea ch ot h er ; t h ey bot h lose t h eir
dist in ct ive a n d essen t ia l qu a lit y; wh a t wa s n a t u r a lly fixed becom es qu it e
u n set t led, a n d t h eir cu st om s a n d beh a viou r a lt er ever y da y.
BG1&@(&+-%&=%-";5'F.&'(&+-%&)-5*%,%1
Bu t Ch in a is t h e pla ce wh er e t h e cu st om s of t h e cou n t r y ca n n ever be
ch a n ged. Besides t h eir wom en bein g a bsolu t ely sepa r a t ed fr om t h e m en , t h eir
cu st om s, like t h eir m or a ls, a r e t a u gh t in t h e sch ools. A m a n of let t er s m a y be
kn own by h is ea sy a ddr ess. 15 Th ese t h in gs bein g on ce t a u gh t by pr ecept , a n d
in cu lca t ed by gr a ve doct or s, becom e fixed, like t h e pr in ciples of m or a lit y, a n d
a r e n ever ch a n ged.
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)F,+'<,&'(&"&2"+5'*1
We h a ve sa id t h a t t h e la ws wer e t h e pa r t icu la r a n d pr ecise in st it u t ion s of a
legisla t or , a n d m a n n er s a n d cu st om s t h e in st it u t ion s of a n a t ion in gen er a l.
H en ce it follows t h a t wh en t h ese m a n n er s a n d cu st om s a r e t o be ch a n ged, it
ou gh t n ot t o be don e by la ws; t h is wou ld h a ve t oo m u ch t h e a ir of t yr a n n y: it
wou ld be bet t er t o ch a n ge t h em by in t r odu cin g ot h er m a n n er s a n d ot h er
cu st om s.
Th u s wh en a pr in ce wou ld m a ke gr ea t a lt er a t ion s in h is kin gdom , h e sh ou ld
r efor m by la w wh a t is est a blish ed by la w, a n d ch a n ge by cu st om wh a t is set t led
by cu st om ; for it is ver y ba d policy t o ch a n ge by la w wh a t ou gh t t o be ch a n ged
by cu st om .
Th e la w wh ich obliged t h e Mu scovit es t o cu t off t h eir bea r ds a n d t o sh or t en
t h eir clot h es, a n d t h e r igou r wit h wh ich P et er I m a de t h em cr op, even t o t h eir
kn ees, t h e lon g cloa ks of t h ose wh o en t er ed in t o t h e cit ies, wer e in st a n ces of
t yr a n n y. Th er e a r e m ea n s t h a t m a y be m a de u se of t o pr even t cr im es; t h ese a r e
pu n ish m en t s: t h er e a r e t h ose for ch a n gin g ou r cu st om s; t h ese a r e exa m ples.
Th e fa cilit y a n d ea se wit h wh ich t h a t n a t ion h a s been polish ed pla in ly sh ows
t h a t t h is pr in ce h a d a wor se opin ion of h is people t h a n t h ey deser ved; a n d t h a t
t h ey wer e n ot br u t es, t h ou gh h e wa s plea sed t o ca ll t h em so. Th e violen t

m ea su r es wh ich h e em ployed wer e n eedless; h e wou ld h a ve a t t a in ed h is en d a s
well by m ilder m et h ods.
H e h im self exper ien ced t h e fa cilit y of br in gin g a bou t t h ese a lt er a t ion s. Th e
wom en wer e sh u t u p, a n d in som e m ea su r e sla ves; h e ca lled t h em t o cou r t ; h e
sen t t h em silks a n d fin e st u ffs, a n d m a de t h em dr ess like t h e Ger m a n la dies.
Th is sex im m edia t ely r elish ed a m a n n er of life wh ich so gr ea t ly fla t t er ed t h eir
t a st e, t h eir va n it y, a n d t h eir pa ssion s; a n d by t h eir m ea n s it wa s r elish ed by t h e
m en .
Wh a t r en der ed t h e ch a n ge t h e m or e ea sy wa s t h a t t h eir m a n n er s a t t h a t t im e
wer e for eign t o t h e clim a t e, a n d h a d been in t r odu ced a m on g t h em by con qu est
a n d by a m ixt u r e of n a t ion s. P et er I, in givin g t h e m a n n er s a n d cu st om s of
E u r ope t o a E u r opea n n a t ion , fou n d a fa cilit y wh ich h e did n ot h im self expect .
Th e em pir e of t h e clim a t e is t h e fir st , t h e m ost power fu l, of a ll em pir es. H e h a d
t h en n o occa sion for la ws t o ch a n ge t h e m a n n er s a n d cu st om s of h is cou n t r y; it
wou ld h a ve been su fficien t t o h a ve in t r odu ced ot h er m a n n er s a n d ot h er
cu st om s.
Na t ion s a r e in gen er a l ver y t en a ciou s of t h eir cu st om s; t o t a ke t h em a wa y by
violen ce is t o r en der t h em u n h a ppy: we sh ou ld n ot t h er efor e ch a n ge t h em , bu t
en ga ge t h e people t o m a ke t h e ch a n ge t h em selves.
All pu n ish m en t wh ich is n ot der ived fr om n ecessit y is t yr a n n ica l. Th e la w is
n ot a m er e a ct of power ; t h in gs in t h eir own n a t u r e in differ en t a r e n ot wit h in
it s pr ovin ce.
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Th is a lt er a t ion in t h e m a n n er s of wom en will dou bt less h a ve a gr ea t in flu en ce
on t h e gover n m en t of Mu scovy. On e n a t u r a lly follows t h e ot h er : t h e despot ic
power of t h e pr in ce is con n ect ed wit h t h e ser vit u de of wom en ; t h e liber t y of
wom en wit h t h e spir it of m on a r ch y.
BO1&R'7&,'<%&6%D5,$"+'.,&-";%&9'*('F*0%0&+-%&8.5*954$%,&7-59-
D';%.*&K"*>5*01
Ma n n er s a n d cu st om s a r e t h ose h a bit s wh ich a r e n ot est a blish ed by
legisla t or s, eit h er beca u se t h ey wer e n ot a ble or wer e n ot willin g t o est a blish
t h em .
Th er e is t h is differ en ce bet ween la ws a n d m a n n er s, t h a t t h e la ws a r e m ost
a da pt ed t o r egu la t e t h e a ct ion s of t h e su bject , a n d m a n n er s t o r egu la t e t h e
a ct ion s of t h e m a n . Th er e is t h is differ en ce bet ween m a n n er s a n d cu st om s, t h a t
t h e for m er pr in cipa lly r ela t e t o t h e in t er ior con du ct , t h e la t t er t o t h e ext er ior .
Th ese t h in gs h a ve been som et im es con fou n ded. 16 Lycu r gu s m a de t h e sa m e
code for t h e la ws, m a n n er s, a n d cu st om s, a n d t h e legisla t or s of Ch in a h a ve don e
t h e sa m e.
We ou gh t n ot t o be su r pr ised t h a t t h e legisla t or s of Ch in a a n d Spa r t a sh ou ld
con fou n d t h e la ws, m a n n er s, a n d cu st om s; t h e r ea son is, t h eir m a n n er s
r epr esen t t h eir la ws, a n d t h eir cu st om s t h eir m a n n er s.
Th e pr in cipa l object wh ich t h e legisla t or s of Ch in a h a d in view wa s t o m a ke
t h eir su bject s live in pea ce a n d t r a n qu illit y. Th ey wou ld h a ve people filled wit h
a ven er a t ion for on e a n ot h er , t h a t ea ch sh ou ld be ever y m om en t sen sible of h is
depen den ce on societ y, a n d of t h e obliga t ion s h e owed t o h is fellow-cit izen s.
Th ey t h er efor e ga ve r u les of t h e m ost ext en sive civilit y.
Th u s t h e in h a bit a n t s of t h e villa ges of Ch in a 17 pr a ct ise a m on gst t h em selves
t h e sa m e cer em on ies a s t h ose obser ved by per son s of a n exa lt ed st a t ion ; a ver y
pr oper m et h od of in spir in g m ild a n d gen t le disposit ion s, of m a in t a in in g pea ce
a n d good or der , a n d of ba n ish in g a ll t h e vices wh ich spr in g fr om a n a sper it y of
t em per . In effect , wou ld n ot t h e fr eein g t h em fr om t h e r u les of civilit y be t o
sea r ch ou t a m et h od for t h em t o in du lge t h eir own h u m ou r s?
Civilit y is in t h is r espect of m or e va lu e t h a n polit en ess. P olit en ess fla t t er s t h e
vices of ot h er s, a n d civilit y pr even t s ou r s fr om bein g br ou gh t t o ligh t . It is a
ba r r ier wh ich m en h a ve pla ced wit h in t h em selves t o pr even t t h e cor r u pt ion of
ea ch ot h er .
Lycu r gu s, wh ose in st it u t ion s wer e sever e, h a d n o r ega r d t o civilit y; in for m in g
t h e ext er n a l beh a viou r h e h a d a view t o t h a t wa r like spir it wit h wh ich h e wou ld
fa in in spir e h is people. A people wh o wer e in a con t in u a l st a t e of disciplin e a n d
in st r u ct ion , a n d wh o wer e en du ed wit h equ a l sim plicit y a n d r igou r , a t on ed by

t h eir vir t u es for t h eir wa n t of com pla isa n ce.
BP1&@(&+-%&4%9F$5".&_F"$5+H&'(&+-%&)-5*%,%&A';%.*<%*+1
Th e legisla t or s of Ch in a wen t fu r t h er . 18 Th ey con fou n ded t h eir r eligion , la ws,
m a n n er s, a n d cu st om s; a ll t h ese wer e m or a lit y, a ll t h ese wer e vir t u e. Th e
pr ecept s r ela t in g t o t h ese fou r poin t s wer e wh a t t h ey ca lled r it es; a n d it wa s in
t h e exa ct obser va n ce of t h ese t h a t t h e Ch in ese gover n m en t t r iu m ph ed. Th ey
spen t t h eir wh ole you t h in lea r n in g t h em , t h eir wh ole life in t h e pr a ct ice. Th ey
wer e t a u gh t by t h eir m en of let t er s, t h ey wer e in cu lca t ed by t h e m a gist r a t es;
a n d a s t h ey in clu ded a ll t h e or din a r y a ct ion s of life, wh en t h ey fou n d t h e m ea n s
of m a kin g t h em st r ict ly obser ved, Ch in a wa s well gover n ed.
Two t h in gs h a ve con t r ibu t ed t o t h e ea se wit h wh ich t h ese r it es a r e en gr a ved
on t h e h ea r t s a n d m in ds of t h e Ch in ese; on e, t h e difficu lt y of wr it in g, wh ich
du r in g t h e gr ea t est pa r t of t h eir lives wh olly em ploys t h eir a t t en t ion , 19 beca u se
it is n ecessa r y t o pr epa r e t h em t o r ea d a n d u n der st a n d t h e books in wh ich t h ey
a r e com pr ised; t h e ot h er , t h a t t h e r it u a l pr ecept s h a vin g n ot h in g in t h em t h a t
is spir it u a l, bu t bein g m er ely r u les of com m on pr a ct ice, a r e m or e a da pt ed t o
con vin ce a n d st r ike t h e m in d t h a n t h in gs m er ely in t ellect u a l.
Th ose pr in ces wh o, in st ea d of r u lin g by t h ese r it es, gover n ed by t h e for ce of
pu n ish m en t s, wa n t ed t o a ccom plish t h a t by pu n ish m en t s wh ich it is n ot in t h eir
power t o pr odu ce, t h a t is, t o give h a bit s of m or a lit y. By pu n ish m en t s, a su bject
is ver y ju st ly cu t off fr om societ y, wh o, h a vin g lost t h e pu r it y of h is m a n n er s,
viola t es t h e la ws; bu t if a ll t h e wor ld wer e t o lose t h eir m or a l h a bit s, wou ld
t h ese r eest a blish t h em ? P u n ish m en t s m a y be ju st ly in flict ed t o pu t a st op t o
m a n y of t h e con sequ en ces of t h e gen er a l evil, bu t t h ey will n ot r em ove t h e evil
it self. Th u s wh en t h e pr in ciples of t h e Ch in ese gover n m en t wer e disca r ded, a n d
m or a lit y wa s ba n ish ed, t h e st a t e fell in t o a n a r ch y, a n d r evolu t ion s su cceeded.
BQ1&:&)'*,%XF%*9%&0."7*&(.'<&+-%&4.%9%05*D&)-"4+%.1
H en ce it follows t h a t t h e la ws of Ch in a a r e n ot dest r oyed by con qu est . Th eir
cu st om s, m a n n er s, la ws, a n d r eligion bein g t h e sa m e t h in g, t h ey ca n n ot ch a n ge
a ll t h ese a t on ce; a n d a s it will h a ppen t h a t eit h er t h e con qu er or or t h e
con qu er ed m u st ch a n ge, in Ch in a it h a s a lwa ys been t h e con qu er or . F or t h e

m a n n er s of t h e con qu er in g n a t ion n ot bein g t h eir cu st om s, n or t h eir cu st om s
t h eir la ws, n or t h eir la ws t h eir r eligion , it h a s been m or e ea sy for t h em t o
con for m by degr ees t o t h e va n qu ish ed people t h a n t h e la t t er t o t h em .
Th er e st ill follows h en ce a ver y u n h a ppy con sequ en ce, wh ich is t h a t it is
a lm ost im possible for Ch r ist ia n it y ever t o be est a blish ed in Ch in a . 20 Th e vows
of vir gin it y, t h e a ssem blin g of wom en in ch u r ch es, t h eir n ecessa r y
com m u n ica t ion wit h t h e m in ist er s of r eligion , t h eir pa r t icipa t ion in t h e
sa cr a m en t s, a u r icu la r con fession , ext r em e u n ct ion , t h e m a r r ia ge of on ly on e
wife — a ll t h ese over t u r n t h e m a n n er s a n d cu st om s of t h e cou n t r y, a n d wit h t h e
sa m e blow st r ike a t t h eir r eligion a n d la ws.
Th e Ch r ist ia n r eligion , by t h e est a blish m en t of ch a r it y, by a pu blic wor sh ip,
by a pa r t icipa t ion of t h e sa m e sa cr a m en t s, seem s t o dem a n d t h a t a ll sh ou ld be
u n it ed; wh ile t h e r it es of Ch in a seem t o or da in t h a t a ll sh ou ld be sepa r a t ed.
An d a s we h a ve seen t h a t t h is sepa r a t ion 21 depen ds, in gen er a l, on t h e spir it
of despot ism , t h is will sh ow u s t h e r ea son wh y m on a r ch ies, a n d in deed a ll
m oder a t e gover n m en t s, a r e m or e con sist en t wit h t h e Ch r ist ia n r eligion .22
BS1&R'7&+-5,&^*5'*&'(&/%$5D5'*I&6"7,I&K"**%.,I&"*0&)F,+'<,&"<'*D
+-%&)-5*%,%&7",&%((%9+%01
Th e pr in cipa l object of gover n m en t wh ich t h e Ch in ese legisla t or s h a d in view
wa s t h e pea ce a n d t r a n qu illit y of t h e em pir e; a n d su bor din a t ion a ppea r ed t o
t h em a s t h e m ost pr oper m ea n s t o m a in t a in it . F illed wit h t h is idea , t h ey
believed it t h eir du t y t o in spir e a r espect for pa r en t s, a n d t h er efor e exer t ed a ll
t h eir power t o effect it . Th ey est a blish ed a n in fin it e n u m ber of r it es a n d
cer em on ies t o do t h em h on ou r wh en livin g, a n d a ft er t h eir dea t h . It wa s
im possible for t h em t o pa y su ch h on ou r s t o decea sed pa r en t s wit h ou t bein g led
t o r ever en ce t h e livin g. Th e cer em on ies a t t h e dea t h of a fa t h er wer e m or e
n ea r ly r ela t ed t o r eligion ; t h ose for a livin g pa r en t h a d a gr ea t er r ela t ion t o t h e
la ws, m a n n er s, a n d cu st om s: h owever , t h ese wer e on ly pa r t s of t h e sa m e code;
bu t t h is code wa s ver y ext en sive.
A ven er a t ion for t h eir pa r en t s wa s n ecessa r ily con n ect ed wit h a su it a ble
r espect for a ll wh o r epr esen t ed t h em ; su ch a s old m en , m a st er s, m a gist r a t es,
a n d t h e sover eign . Th is r espect for pa r en t s su pposed a r et u r n of love t owa r ds

ch ildr en , a n d con sequ en t ly t h e sa m e r et u r n fr om old m en t o t h e you n g, fr om
m a gist r a t es t o t h ose wh o wer e u n der t h eir ju r isdict ion , a n d fr om t h e em per or
t o h is su bject s. Th is for m ed t h e r it es, a n d t h ese r it es t h e gen er a l spir it of t h e
n a t ion .
We sh a ll n ow sh ow t h e r ela t ion wh ich t h in gs in a ppea r a n ce t h e m ost
in differ en t m a y bea r t o t h e fu n da m en t a l con st it u t ion of Ch in a . Th is em pir e is
for m ed on t h e pla n of a gover n m en t of a fa m ily. If you dim in ish t h e pa t er n a l
a u t h or it y, or even if you r et r en ch t h e cer em on ies wh ich expr ess you r r espect for
it , you wea ken t h e r ever en ce du e t o m a gist r a t es, wh o a r e con sider ed a s fa t h er s;
n or wou ld t h e m a gist r a t es h a ve t h e sa m e ca r e of t h e people, wh om t h ey ou gh t
t o look u pon a s t h eir ch ildr en ; a n d t h a t t en der r ela t ion wh ich su bsist s bet ween
t h e pr in ce a n d h is su bject s wou ld in sen sibly be lost . Ret r en ch bu t on e of t h ese
h a bit s a n d you over t u r n t h e st a t e. It is a t h in g in it self ver y in differ en t wh et h er
t h e da u gh t er -in -la w r ises ever y m or n in g t o pa y su ch a n d su ch du t ies t o h er
m ot h er -in -la w; bu t if we con sider t h a t t h ese ext er ior h a bit s in cessa n t ly r evive
a n idea n ecessa r y t o be im pr in t ed on a ll m in ds — a n idea t h a t for m s t h e r u lin g
spir it of t h e em pir e — we sh a ll see t h a t it is n ecessa r y t h a t su ch or su ch a
pa r t icu la r a ct ion be per for m ed.
ET1&UV4$"*"+5'*&'(&"&8"."0'V&.%$"+5*D&+'&+-%&)-5*%,%1
It is ver y r em a r ka ble t h a t t h e Ch in ese, wh ose lives a r e gu ided by r it es, a r e
n ever t h eless t h e gr ea t est ch ea t s u pon ea r t h . Th is a ppea r s ch iefly in t h eir t r a de,
wh ich , in spit e of it s n a t u r a l t en den cy, h a s n ever been a ble t o m a ke t h em
h on est . H e wh o bu ys of t h em ou gh t t o ca r r y wit h h im h is own weigh t s;23 ever y
m er ch a n t h a vin g t h r ee sor t s, t h e on e h ea vy for bu yin g, a n ot h er ligh t for sellin g,
a n d a n ot h er of t h e t r u e st a n da r d for t h ose wh o a r e u pon t h eir gu a r d. It is
possible, I believe, t o expla in t h is con t r a dict ion .
Th e legisla t or s of Ch in a h a d t wo object s in view: t h ey wer e desir ou s t h a t t h e
people sh ou ld be su bm issive a n d pea cefu l, a n d t h a t t h ey sh ou ld a lso be
la bor iou s a n d in du st r iou s. By t h e n a t u r e of t h e soil a n d clim a t e, t h eir
su bsist en ce is ver y pr eca r iou s; n or ca n it be in a n y ot h er wa y secu r ed t h a n by
in du st r y a n d la bou r .
Wh en ever y on e obeys, a n d ever y on e is em ployed, t h e st a t e is in a h a ppy

sit u a t ion . It is n ecessit y, a n d per h a ps t h e n a t u r e of t h e clim a t e, t h a t h a s given
t o t h e Ch in ese a n in con ceiva ble gr eedin ess for ga in , a n d la ws h a ve n ever been
m a de t o r est r a in it . E ver yt h in g h a s been for bidden wh en a cqu ir ed by a ct s of
violen ce; ever yt h in g per m it t ed wh en obt a in ed by a r t ifice or la bou r . Let u s n ot
t h en com pa r e t h e m or a ls of Ch in a wit h t h ose of E u r ope. E ver y on e in Ch in a is
obliged t o be a t t en t ive t o wh a t will be for h is a dva n t a ge; if t h e ch ea t h a s been
wa t ch fu l over h is own in t er est , h e wh o is t h e du pe ou gh t t o be a t t en t ive t o h is.
At Spa r t a t h ey wer e per m it t ed t o st ea l; in Ch in a t h ey a r e su ffer ed t o deceive.
EB1&R'7&+-%&6"7,&'FD-+&+'&-";%&"&/%$"+5'*&+'&K"**%.,&"*0
)F,+'<,1
It is on ly sin gu la r in st it u t ion s wh ich t h u s con fou n d la ws, m a n n er s, a n d
cu st om s — t h in gs n a t u r a lly dist in ct a n d sepa r a t e; bu t t h ou gh t h ey a r e in
t h em selves differ en t , t h er e is n ever t h eless a gr ea t r ela t ion bet ween t h em .
Solon bein g a sked if t h e la ws h e h a d given t o t h e At h en ia n s wer e t h e best , h e
r eplied, “I h a ve given t h em t h e best t h ey wer e a ble t o bea r ”24 — a fin e
expr ession , t h a t ou gh t t o be per fect ly u n der st ood by a ll legisla t or s! Wh en Divin e
Wisdom sa id t o t h e J ews, “I h a ve given you pr ecept s wh ich a r e n ot good,” t h is
sign ified t h a t t h ey h a d on ly a r ela t ive goodn ess; wh ich is t h e spon ge t h a t wipes
ou t a ll t h e difficu lt ies in t h e la w of Moses.
EE1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Wh en a people h a ve pu r e a n d r egu la r m a n n er s, t h eir la ws becom e sim ple a n d
n a t u r a l. P la t o25 sa ys t h a t Rh a da m a n t h u s, wh o gover n ed a n a t ion ext r em ely
r eligiou s, fin ish ed ever y pr ocess wit h ext r a or din a r y despa t ch , a dm in ist er in g
on ly t h e oa t h on ea ch a ccu sa t ion . “Bu t ,” sa ys t h e sa m e P la t o, 26 “wh en a people
a r e n ot r eligiou s we sh ou ld n ever h a ve r ecou r se t o a n oa t h , except h e wh o
swea r s is en t ir ely disin t er est ed, a s in t h e ca se of a ju dge a n d a wit n ess.”
EG1&R'7&+-%&6"7,&".%&('F*0%0&'*&+-%&K"**%.,&'(&"&8%'4$%1
At t h e t im e wh en t h e m a n n er s of t h e Rom a n s wer e pu r e, t h ey h a d n o
pa r t icu la r la w a ga in st t h e em bezzlem en t of t h e pu blic m on ey. Wh en t h is cr im e
bega n t o a ppea r , it wa s t h ou gh t so in fa m ou s, t h a t t o be con dem n ed t o r est or e 27
wh a t t h ey h a d t a ken wa s con sider ed a s a su fficien t disgr a ce: for a pr oof of t h is,
see t h e sen t en ce of L. Scipio.28
EJ1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Th e la ws wh ich ga ve t h e r igh t of t u t ela ge t o t h e m ot h er wer e m ost a t t en t ive
t o t h e pr eser va t ion of t h e in fa n t ’s per son ; t h ose wh ich gr a n t ed it t o t h e n ext h eir
wer e m ost a t t en t ive t o t h e pr eser va t ion of t h e st a t e. Wh en t h e m a n n er s of a
people a r e cor r u pt ed, it is m u ch bet t er t o give t h e t u t ela ge t o t h e m ot h er .
Am on g t h ose wh ose la ws con fide in t h e m a n n er s of t h e su bject s, t h e
gu a r dia n sh ip is gr a n t ed eit h er t o t h e n ext h eir or t o t h e m ot h er , a n d som et im es
t o bot h .
If we r eflect on t h e Rom a n la ws, we sh a ll fin d t h a t t h e spir it of t h ese wa s
con for m a ble t o wh a t I h a ve a dva n ced. At t h e t im e wh en t h e la ws of t h e Twelve
Ta bles wer e m a de, t h e m a n n er s of t h e Rom a n s wer e m ost a dm ir a ble. Th e
gu a r dia n sh ip wa s given t o t h e n ea r est r ela t ive of t h e in fa n t , fr om a
con sider a t ion t h a t h e ou gh t t o h a ve t h e t r ou ble of t h e t u t ela ge wh o m igh t en joy
t h e a dva n t a ge of possessin g t h e in h er it a n ce. Th ey did n ot im a gin e t h e life of t h e
h eir in da n ger t h ou gh it wa s pu t in t o a per son ’s h a n ds wh o wou ld r ea p a ben efit
by h is dea t h . Bu t wh en t h e m a n n er s of Rom e wer e ch a n ged, h er legisla t or s
a lt er ed t h eir con du ct . “If, in t h e pu pilla r y su bst it u t ion ,” sa y Ga iu s 29 a n d
J u st in ia n , 30 “t h e t est a t or is a fr a id t h a t t h e su bst it u t e will la y a n y sn a r es for t h e
pu pil, h e m a y lea ve t h e vu lga r su bst it u t ion open , 31 a n d pu t t h e pu pilla r y in t o
a pa r t of t h e t est a m en t , wh ich ca n n ot be open ed t ill a ft er a cer t a in t im e.” Th ese
fea r s a n d pr eca u t ion s wer e u n kn own t o t h e pr im it ive Rom a n s.
EL1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Th e Rom a n la w ga ve t h e liber t y of m a kin g pr esen t s befor e m a r r ia ge; a ft er t h e
m a r r ia ge t h ey wer e n ot a llowed. Th is wa s fou n ded on t h e m a n n er s of t h e
Rom a n s, wh o wer e led t o m a r r ia ge on ly by fr u ga lit y, sim plicit y, a n d m odest y;

bu t m igh t su ffer t h em selves t o be sedu ced by dom est ic ca r es, by com pla cen cy,
a n d t h e con st a n t t en or of con ju ga l felicit y.
A la w of t h e Visigot h s 32 for ba de t h e m a n givin g m or e t o t h e wom a n h e wa s t o
m a r r y t h a n t h e t en t h pa r t of h is su bst a n ce, a n d h is givin g h er a n yt h in g du r in g
t h e fir st yea r of t h eir m a r r ia ge. Th is a lso t ook it s r ise fr om t h e m a n n er s of t h e
cou n t r y. Th e legisla t or s wer e willin g t o pu t a st op t o t h a t Spa n ish ost en t a t ion
wh ich on ly led t h em t o displa y a n excessive liber a lit y in a ct s of m a gn ificen ce.
Th e Rom a n s by t h eir la ws pu t a st op t o som e of t h e in con ven ien ces wh ich
a r ose fr om t h e m ost du r a ble em pir e in t h e wor ld — t h a t of vir t u e; t h e
Spa n ia r ds, by t h eir s, wou ld pr even t t h e ba d effect s of a t yr a n n y t h e m ost fr a il
a n d t r a n sit or y — t h a t of bea u t y.
EO1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Th e la w of Th eodosiu s a n d Va len t in ia n 33 dr ew t h e ca u ses of r epu dia t ion fr om
t h e a n cien t m a n n er s a n d cu st om s of t h e Rom a n s.34 It pla ced in t h e n u m ber of
t h ese ca u ses t h e beh a viou r of t h e h u sba n d wh o bea t h is wife 35 in a m a n n er t h a t
disgr a ced t h e ch a r a ct er of a fr ee-bor n wom a n . Th is ca u se wa s om it t ed in t h e
followin g la ws:36 for t h eir m a n n er s, in t h is r espect , h a d u n der gon e a ch a n ge, t h e
ea st er n cu st om s h a vin g ba n ish ed t h ose of E u r ope. Th e fir st eu n u ch of t h e
em pr ess, wife t o J u st in ia n II, t h r ea t en ed, sa ys t h e h ist or ia n , t o ch a st ise h er in
t h e sa m e m a n n er a s ch ildr en a r e pu n ish ed a t sch ool. Not h in g bu t est a blish ed
m a n n er s, or t h ose wh ich t h ey wer e seekin g t o est a blish , cou ld r a ise even a n
idea of t h is kin d.
We h a ve seen h ow t h e la ws follow t h e m a n n er s of a people; let u s n ow obser ve
h ow t h e m a n n er s follow t h e la ws.
EP1&R'7&+-%&6"7,&9'*+.5#F+%&+'&('.<&+-%&K"**%.,I&)F,+'<,I&"*0
)-"."9+%.&'(&"&2"+5'*1
Th e cu st om s of a n en sla ved people a r e a pa r t of t h eir ser vit u de, t h ose of a fr ee
people a r e a pa r t of t h eir liber t y.
I h a ve spoken in t h e eleven t h book 37 of a fr ee people, a n d h a ve given t h e
pr in ciples of t h eir con st it u t ion : let u s n ow see t h e effect s wh ich follow fr om t h is

liber t y, t h e ch a r a ct er it is ca pa ble of for m in g, a n d t h e cu st om s wh ich n a t u r a lly
r esu lt fr om it .
I do n ot den y t h a t t h e clim a t e m a y h a ve pr odu ced a gr ea t pa r t of t h e la ws,
m a n n er s, a n d cu st om s of t h is n a t ion ; bu t I m a in t a in t h a t it s m a n n er s a n d
cu st om s h a ve a close con n ect ion wit h it s la ws.
As t h er e a r e in t h is st a t e t wo visible power s — t h e legisla t ive a n d execu t ive,
a n d a s ever y cit izen h a s a will of h is own , a n d m a y a t plea su r e a sser t h is
in depen den ce, m ost m en h a ve a gr ea t er fon dn ess for on e of t h ese power s t h a n
for t h e ot h er , a n d t h e m u lt it u de h a ve com m on ly n eit h er equ it y n or sen se
en ou gh t o sh ow a n equ a l a ffect ion t o bot h .
An d a s t h e execu t ive power , by disposin g of a ll em ploym en t s, m a y give gr ea t
h opes, a n d n o fea r s, ever y m a n wh o obt a in s a n y fa vou r fr om it is r ea dy t o
espou se it s ca u se; wh ile it is lia ble t o be a t t a cked by t h ose wh o h a ve n ot h in g t o
h ope fr om it .
All t h e pa ssion s bein g u n r est r a in ed, h a t r ed, en vy, jea lou sy, a n d a n a m bit iou s
desir e of r ich es a n d h on ou r s, a ppea r s in t h eir ext en t ; wer e it ot h er wise, t h e
st a t e wou ld be in t h e con dit ion of a m a n wea ken ed by sickn ess, wh o is wit h ou t
pa ssion s beca u se h e is wit h ou t st r en gt h .
Th e h a t r ed wh ich a r ises bet ween t h e t wo pa r t ies will a lwa ys su bsist , beca u se
it will a lwa ys be im pot en t .
Th ese pa r t ies bein g com posed of fr eem en , if t h e on e becom es t oo power fu l for
t h e ot h er , a s a con sequ en ce of liber t y, t h is ot h er is depr essed; wh ile t h e cit izen s
t a ke t h e wea ker side wit h t h e sa m e r ea din ess a s t h e h a n ds len d t h eir
a ssist a n ce t o r em ove t h e in fir m it ies a n d disor der s of t h e body.
E ver y in dividu a l is in depen den t , a n d bein g com m on ly led by ca pr ice a n d
h u m ou r , fr equ en t ly ch a n ges pa r t ies; h e a ba n don s on e wh er e h e left a ll h is
fr ien ds, t o u n it e h im self t o a n ot h er in wh ich h e fin ds a ll h is en em ies: so t h a t in
t h is n a t ion it fr equ en t ly h a ppen s t h a t t h e people for get t h e la ws of fr ien dsh ip,
a s well a s t h ose of h a t r ed.
Th e sover eign is h er e in t h e sa m e ca se wit h a pr iva t e per son ; a n d a ga in st t h e
or din a r y m a xim s of pr u den ce is fr equ en t ly obliged t o give h is con fiden ce t o
t h ose wh o h a ve m ost offen ded h im , a n d t o disgr a ce t h e m en wh o h a ve best
ser ved h im : h e does t h a t by n ecessit y wh ich ot h er pr in ces do by ch oice.

As we a r e a fr a id of bein g depr ived of t h e blessin g we a lr ea dy en joy, a n d wh ich
m a y be disgu ised a n d m isr epr esen t ed t o u s; a n d a s fea r a lwa ys en la r ges object s,
t h e people a r e u n ea sy u n der su ch a sit u a t ion , a n d believe t h em selves in da n ger ,
even in t h ose m om en t s wh en t h ey a r e m ost secu r e.
As t h ose wh o wit h t h e gr ea t est wa r m t h oppose t h e execu t ive power da r e n ot
a vow t h e self-in t er est ed m ot ives of t h eir opposit ion , so m u ch t h e m or e do t h ey
in cr ea se t h e t er r or s of t h e people, wh o ca n n ever be cer t a in wh et h er t h ey a r e in
da n ger or n ot . Bu t even t h is con t r ibu t es t o m a ke t h em a void t h e r ea l da n ger s,
t o wh ich t h ey m a y, in t h e en d, be exposed.
Bu t t h e legisla t ive body h a vin g t h e con fiden ce of t h e people, a n d bein g m or e
en ligh t en ed t h a n t h ey, m a y ca lm t h eir u n ea sin ess, a n d m a ke t h em r ecover fr om
t h e ba d im pr ession s t h ey h a ve en t er t a in ed.
Th is is t h e gr ea t a dva n t a ge wh ich t h is gover n m en t h a s over t h e a n cien t
dem ocr a cies, in wh ich t h e people h a d a n im m edia t e power ; for wh en t h ey wer e
m oved a n d a git a t ed by t h e or a t or s, t h ese a git a t ion s a lwa ys pr odu ced t h eir
effect .
Bu t wh en a n im pr ession of t er r or h a s n o cer t a in object , it pr odu ces on ly
cla m ou r a n d a bu se; it h a s, h owever , t h is good effect , t h a t it pu t s a ll t h e spr in gs
of gover n m en t in t o m ot ion , a n d fixes t h e a t t en t ion of ever y cit izen . Bu t if it
a r ises fr om a viola t ion of t h e fu n da m en t a l la ws, it is su llen , cr u el, a n d pr odu ces
t h e m ost dr ea dfu l ca t a st r oph es.
Soon we sh ou ld see a fr igh t fu l ca lm , du r in g wh ich ever y on e wou ld u n it e
a ga in st t h a t power wh ich h a d viola t ed t h e la ws.
If, wh en t h e u n ea sin ess pr oceeds fr om n o cer t a in object , som e for eign power
sh ou ld t h r ea t en t h e st a t e, or pu t it s pr osper it y or it s glor y in da n ger , t h e lit t le
in t er est s of pa r t y wou ld t h en yield t o t h e m or e st r on g a n d bin din g, a n d t h er e
wou ld be a per fect coa lit ion in fa vou r of t h e execu t ive power .
Bu t if t h e dispu t es wer e occa sion ed by a viola t ion of t h e fu n da m en t a l la ws,
a n d a for eign power sh ou ld a ppea r , t h er e wou ld be a r evolu t ion t h a t wou ld
n eit h er a lt er t h e con st it u t ion n or t h e for m of gover n m en t . F or a r evolu t ion
for m ed by liber t y becom es a con fir m a t ion of liber t y.
A fr ee n a t ion m a y h a ve a deliver er : a n a t ion en sla ved ca n h a ve on ly a n ot h er
oppr essor .
F or wh oever is a ble t o det h r on e a n a bsolu t e pr in ce h a s a power su fficien t t o
becom e a bsolu t e h im self.
As t h e en joym en t of liber t y, a n d even it s su ppor t a n d pr eser va t ion , con sist s
in ever y m a n ’s bein g a llowed t o spea k h is t h ou gh t s, a n d t o la y open h is
sen t im en t s, a cit izen in t h is st a t e will sa y or wr it e wh a t ever t h e la ws do n ot
expr essly for bid t o be sa id or wr it t en .
A people like t h is, bein g a lwa ys in a fer m en t , a r e m or e ea sily con du ct ed by
t h eir pa ssion s t h a n by r ea son , wh ich n ever pr odu ces a n y gr ea t effect in t h e
m in d of m a n ; it is t h er efor e ea sy for t h ose wh o gover n t o m a ke t h em u n der t a ke
en t er pr ises con t r a r y t o t h eir t r u e in t er est .
Th is n a t ion is pa ssion a t ely fon d of liber t y, beca u se t h is liber t y is r ea l; a n d it
is possible for it , in it s defen ce, t o sa cr ifice it s wea lt h , it s ea se, it s in t er est , a n d
t o su ppor t t h e bu r den of t h e h ea viest t a xes, even su ch a s a despot ic pr in ce du r st
n ot la y u pon h is su bject s.
Bu t a s t h e people h a ve a cer t a in kn owledge of t h e n ecessit y of su bm it t in g t o
t h ose t a xes, t h ey pa y t h em fr om t h e well-fou n ded h ope of t h eir discon t in u a n ce;
t h eir bu r den s a r e h ea vy, bu t t h ey do n ot feel t h eir weigh t ; wh ilst in ot h er st a t es
t h e u n ea sin ess is in fin it ely gr ea t er t h a n t h e evil.
Th is n a t ion m u st t h er efor e h a ve a fixed a n d cer t a in cr edit , beca u se it bor r ows
of it self a n d pa ys it self. It is possible for it t o u n der t a ke t h in gs a bove it s n a t u r a l
st r en gt h , a n d em ploy a ga in st it s en em ies im m en se su m s of fict it iou s r ich es,
wh ich t h e cr edit a n d n a t u r e of t h e gover n m en t m a y r en der r ea l.
To pr eser ve it s liber t y, it bor r ows of it s su bject s: a n d t h e su bject s, seein g t h a t
it s cr edit wou ld be lost if ever it wer e con qu er ed, h a ve a n ew m ot ive t o m a ke
fr esh effor t s in defen ce of it s liber t y.
Th is n a t ion , in h a bit in g a n isla n d, is n ot fon d of con qu er in g, beca u se it wou ld
be wea ken ed by dist a n t con qu est s — especia lly a s t h e soil of t h e isla n d is good,
for it h a s t h en n o n eed of en r ich in g it self by wa r ; a n d a s n o cit izen is su bject t o
a n ot h er , ea ch set s a gr ea t er va lu e on h is own liber t y t h a n on t h e glor y of on e or
a n y n u m ber of cit izen s.
Milit a r y m en a r e t h er e r ega r ded a s belon gin g t o a pr ofession wh ich m a y be
u sefu l bu t is oft en da n ger ou s, a n d a s m en wh ose ver y ser vices a r e bu r den som e
t o t h e n a t ion : civil qu a lifica t ion s a r e t h er efor e m or e est eem ed t h a n t h e m ilit a r y.

Th is n a t ion , wh ich liber t y a n d t h e la ws r en der ea sy, on bein g fr eed fr om
per n iciou s pr eju dices, h a s becom e a t r a din g people; a n d a s it h a s som e of t h ose
pr im it ive m a t er ia ls of t r a de ou t of wh ich a r e m a n u fa ct u r ed su ch t h in gs a s fr om
t h e a r t ist ’s h a n d r eceive a con sider a ble va lu e, it h a s m a de set t lem en t s pr oper
t o pr ocu r e t h e en joym en t of t h is gift of h ea ven in it s fu llest ext en t .
As t h is n a t ion is sit u a t ed t owa r ds t h e n or t h , a n d h a s m a n y su per flu ou s
com m odit ies, it m u st wa n t a lso a gr ea t a m ou n t of m er ch a n dise wh ich it s
clim a t e will n ot pr odu ce: it h a s t h er efor e en t er ed in t o a gr ea t a n d n ecessa r y
in t er cou r se wit h t h e sou t h er n n a t ion s; a n d m a kin g ch oice of t h ose st a t es wh om
it is willin g t o fa vou r wit h a n a dva n t a geou s com m er ce, it en t er s in t o su ch
t r ea t ies wit h t h e n a t ion it h a s ch osen a s a r e r ecipr oca lly u sefu l t o bot h .
In a st a t e wh er e, on t h e on e h a n d, t h e opu len ce is ext r em e, a n d on t h e ot h er
t h e t a xes a r e excessive, t h ey a r e h a r dly a ble t o live on a sm a ll for t u n e wit h ou t
in du st r y. Ma n y, t h er efor e, u n der a pr et en ce of t r a vellin g, or of h ea lt h , r et ir e
fr om a m on g t h em , a n d go in sea r ch of plen t y, even t o t h e cou n t r ies of sla ver y.
A t r a din g n a t ion h a s a pr odigiou s n u m ber of lit t le pa r t icu la r in t er est s; it m a y
t h en in ju r e or be in ju r ed in a n in fin it e n u m ber of wa ys. Th u s it becom es
im m oder a t ely jea lou s, a n d is m or e a fflict ed a t t h e pr osper it y of ot h er s t h a n it
r ejoices a t it s own .
An d it s la ws, ot h er wise m ild a n d ea sy, m a y be so r igid wit h r espect t o t h e
t r a de a n d n a viga t ion ca r r ied on wit h it , t h a t it m a y seem t o t r a de on ly wit h
en em ies.
If t h is n a t ion sen ds colon ies a br oa d, it m u st r a t h er be t o ext en d it s com m er ce
t h a n it s dom in ion .
As m en a r e fon d of in t r odu cin g in t o ot h er pla ces wh a t t h ey h a ve est a blish ed
a m on g t h em selves, t h ey h a ve given t h e people of t h e colon ies t h eir own for m of
gover n m en t ; a n d t h is gover n m en t ca r r yin g pr osper it y a lon g wit h it , t h ey h a ve
r a ised gr ea t n a t ion s in t h e for est s t h ey wer e sen t t o in h a bit .
H a vin g for m er ly su bdu ed a n eigh bou r in g n a t ion , wh ich by it s sit u a t ion , t h e
goodn ess of it s por t s, a n d t h e n a t u r e of it s pr odu ct s, in spir es it wit h jea lou sy,
t h ou gh it h a s given t h is n a t ion it s own la ws, yet it h olds it in gr ea t depen den ce:
t h e su bject s t h er e a r e fr ee a n d t h e st a t e it self in sla ver y.
Th e con qu er ed st a t e h a s a n excellen t civil gover n m en t , bu t is oppr essed by t h e

la w of n a t ion s. La ws a r e im posed by on e cou n t r y on t h e ot h er , a n d t h ese a r e
su ch a s r en der it s pr osper it y pr eca r iou s a n d depen den t on t h e will of a m a st er .
Th e r u lin g n a t ion in h a bit in g a la r ge isla n d, a n d bein g in possession of a gr ea t
t r a de, h a s wit h ext r a or din a r y ea se gr own power fu l a t sea ; a n d a s t h e
pr eser va t ion of it s liber t ies r equ ir es t h a t it sh ou ld h a ve n eit h er st r on gh olds n or
for t r esses n or la n d for ces, it h a s occa sion for a for m ida ble n a vy t o defen d it
a ga in st in va sion s; a n a vy wh ich m u st be su per ior t o t h a t of a ll ot h er power s,
wh o, em ployin g t h eir t r ea su r es in wa r s on la n d, h a ve n ot su fficien t for t h ose a t
sea .
Th e em pir e of t h e sea h a s a lwa ys given t h ose wh o h a ve en joyed it a n a t u r a l
pr ide; beca u se, t h in kin g t h em selves ca pa ble of ext en din g t h eir in su lt s wh er ever
t h ey plea se, t h ey im a gin e t h a t t h eir power is a s bou n dless a s t h e ocea n .
Th is n a t ion h a s a gr ea t in flu en ce in t h e a ffa ir s of it s n eigh bou r s; for a s it s
power is n ot em ployed in con qu est s, it s fr ien dsh ip is m or e cou r t ed, a n d it s
r esen t m en t m or e dr ea ded, t h a n cou ld n a t u r a lly be expect ed fr om t h e
in con st a n cy of it s gover n m en t , a n d it s dom est ic division s.
Th u s it is t h e fa t e of t h e execu t ive power t o be a lm ost a lwa ys dist u r bed a t
h om e a n d r espect ed a br oa d.
Sh ou ld t h is n a t ion on som e occa sion s becom e t h e cen t r e of t h e n egot ia t ion s of
E u r ope, pr obit y a n d good fa it h wou ld be ca r r ied t o a gr ea t er h eigh t t h a n in
ot h er pla ces; beca u se t h e m in ist er s bein g fr equ en t ly obliged t o ju st ify t h eir
con du ct befor e a popu la r cou n cil, t h eir n egot ia t ion s cou ld n ot be secr et ; a n d t h ey
wou ld be for ced t o be, in t h is r espect , a lit t le m or e h on est .
Besides, a s t h ey wou ld in som e sor t be a n swer a ble for t h e even t s wh ich a n
ir r egu la r con du ct m igh t pr odu ce, t h e su r est , t h e sa fest wa y for t h em wou ld be
t o t a ke t h e st r a igh t est pa t h .
If t h e n obles wer e for m er ly possessed of a n im m oder a t e power , a n d t h e
m on a r ch h a d fou n d t h e m ea n s of a ba sin g t h em by r a isin g t h e people, t h e poin t
of ext r em e ser vit u de m u st h a ve been t h a t bet ween h u m blin g t h e n obilit y a n d
t h a t in wh ich t h e people bega n t o feel t h eir power .
Th u s t h is n a t ion , h a vin g been for m er ly su bject t o a n a r bit r a r y power , on m a n y
occa sion s pr eser ves t h e st yle of it , in su ch a m a n n er a s t o let u s fr equ en t ly see
u pon t h e fou n da t ion of a fr ee gover n m en t t h e for m of a n a bsolu t e m on a r ch y.

Wit h r ega r d t o r eligion , a s in t h is st a t e ever y su bject h a s a fr ee will, a n d m u st
con sequ en t ly be eit h er con du ct ed by t h e ligh t of h is own m in d or by t h e ca pr ice
of fa n cy, it n ecessa r ily follows t h a t ever y on e m u st eit h er look u pon a ll r eligion
wit h in differ en ce, by wh ich m ea n s t h ey a r e led t o em br a ce t h e est a blish ed
r eligion , or t h ey m u st be zea lou s for r eligion in gen er a l, by wh ich m ea n s t h e
n u m ber of sect s is in cr ea sed.
It is n ot im possible bu t t h a t in t h is n a t ion t h er e m a y be m en of n o r eligion ,
wh o wou ld n ot , h owever , bea r t o be obliged t o ch a n ge t h a t wh ich t h ey wou ld
ch oose, if t h ey ca r ed t o ch oose a n y; for t h ey wou ld im m edia t ely per ceive t h a t
t h eir lives a n d for t u n es a r e n ot m or e pecu lia r ly t h eir s t h a n t h eir m a n n er of
t h in kin g, a n d t h a t wh oever wou ld depr ive t h em of t h e on e m igh t even wit h
bet t er r ea son t a ke a wa y t h e ot h er .
If, a m on g t h e differ en t r eligion s, t h er e is on e t h a t h a s been a t t em pt ed t o be
est a blish ed by m et h ods of sla ver y, it m u st t h er e be odiou s; beca u se a s we ju dge
of t h in gs by t h e a ppen da ges we join wit h t h em , it cou ld n ever pr esen t it self t o
t h e m in d in con ju n ct ion wit h t h e idea of liber t y.
Th e la ws a ga in st t h ose wh o pr ofess t h is r eligion cou ld n ot , h owever , be of t h e
sa n gu in a r y kin d; for liber t y ca n n ever in flict su ch pu n ish m en t s; bu t t h ey m a y
be so r igor ou s a s t o do a ll t h e m isch ief t h a t ca n be don e in cold blood.
It is possible t h a t a t h ou sa n d cir cu m st a n ces m igh t con cu r t o give t h e cler gy
so lit t le cr edit , t h a t ot h er cit izen s m a y h a ve m or e. Th er efor e, in st ea d of a
sepa r a t ion , t h ey h a ve ch osen r a t h er t o su ppor t t h e sa m e bu r den s a s t h e la it y,
a n d in t h is r espect t o m a ke on ly on e body wit h t h em ; bu t a s t h ey a lwa ys seek
t o con cilia t e t h e r espect of t h e people, t h ey dist in gu ish t h em selves by a m or e
r et ir ed life, a con du ct m or e r eser ved, a n d a gr ea t er pu r it y of m a n n er s.
Th e cler gy n ot bein g a ble t o pr ot ect r eligion , n or t o be pr ot ect ed by it , on ly
seek t o per su a de; t h eir pen s t h er efor e fu r n ish u s wit h excellen t wor ks in pr oof
of a r evela t ion a n d of t h e pr oviden ce of t h e Su pr em e Bein g.
Yet t h e st a t e pr even t s t h e sit t in g of t h eir a ssem blies, a n d does n ot su ffer t h em
t o cor r ect t h eir own a bu ses; it ch ooses t h u s, t h r ou gh a ca pr ice of liber t y, r a t h er
t o lea ve t h eir r efor m a t ion im per fect t h a n t o su ffer t h e cler gy t o be t h e
r efor m er s.
Th ose dign it ies wh ich m a ke a fu n da m en t a l pa r t of t h e con st it u t ion a r e m or e

fixed t h a n elsewh er e; bu t , on t h e ot h er h a n d, t h e gr ea t in t h is cou n t r y of liber t y
a r e n ea r er u pon a level wit h t h e people; t h eir r a n ks a r e m or e sepa r a t ed, a n d
t h eir per son s m or e con fou n ded.
As t h ose wh o gover n h a ve a power wh ich , in som e m ea su r e, h a s n eed of fr esh
vigou r ever y da y, t h ey h a ve a gr ea t er r ega r d for su ch a s a r e u sefu l t o t h em t h a n
for t h ose wh o on ly con t r ibu t e t o t h eir a m u sem en t : we see, t h er efor e, fewer
cou r t ier s, fla t t er er s, a n d pa r a sit es; in sh or t , fewer of a ll t h ose wh o m a ke t h eir
own a dva n t a ge of t h e folly of t h e gr ea t .
Men a r e less est eem ed for fr ivolou s t a len t s a n d a t t a in m en t s t h a n for essen t ia l
qu a lit ies; a n d of t h is kin d t h er e a r e bu t t wo, r ich es a n d per son a l m er it .
Th ey en joy a solid lu xu r y, fou n ded, n ot on t h e r efin em en t s of va n it y, bu t on
t h a t of r ea l wa n t s; t h ey a sk n ot h in g of n a t u r e bu t wh a t n a t u r e ca n best ow.
Th e r ich en joy a gr ea t su per flu it y of for t u n e, a n d yet h a ve n o r elish for
fr ivolou s a m u sem en t s; t h u s, m a n y h a vin g m or e wea lt h t h a n oppor t u n it ies of
expen se, em ploy it in a fa n t a st ic m a n n er : in t h is n a t ion t h ey h a ve m or e
ju dgm en t t h a n t a st e.
As t h ey a r e a lwa ys em ployed a bou t t h eir own in t er est , t h ey h a ve n ot t h a t
polit en ess wh ich is fou n ded on in dolen ce; a n d t h ey r ea lly h a ve n ot leisu r e t o
a t t a in it .
Th e er a of Rom a n polit en ess is t h e sa m e a s t h a t of t h e est a blish m en t of
a r bit r a r y power . An a bsolu t e gover n m en t pr odu ces in dolen ce, a n d t h is gives
bir t h t o polit en ess.
Th e m or e people t h er e a r e in a n a t ion wh o r equ ir e cir cu m spect beh a viou r , a n d
ca r e n ot t o displea se, t h e m or e t h er e is of polit en ess. Bu t it is r a t h er t h e
polit en ess of m or a ls t h a n t h a t of m a n n er s wh ich ou gh t t o dist in gu ish u s fr om
ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s.
In a cou n t r y wh er e ever y m a n h a s, in som e sor t , a sh a r e in t h e a dm in ist r a t ion
of t h e gover n m en t , t h e wom en ou gh t sca r cely t o live wit h t h e m en . Th ey a r e
t h er efor e m odest , t h a t is, t im id; a n d t h is t im idit y con st it u t es t h eir vir t u e:
wh ilst t h e m en wit h ou t a t a st e for ga lla n t r y plu n ge t h em selves in t o a
deba u ch er y, wh ich lea ves t h em a t leisu r e, a n d in t h e en joym en t of t h eir fu ll
liber t y.
Th eir la ws n ot bein g m a de for on e in dividu a l m or e t h a n a n ot h er , ea ch

con sider s h im self a m on a r ch ; a n d, in deed, t h e m en of t h is n a t ion a r e r a t h er
con feder a t es t h a n fellow-su bject s.
As t h e clim a t e h a s given m a n y per son s a r est less spir it a n d ext en ded views,
in a cou n t r y wh er e t h e con st it u t ion gives ever y m a n a sh a r e in it s gover n m en t
a n d polit ica l in t er est s, con ver sa t ion gen er a lly t u r n s u pon polit ics: a n d we see
m en spen d t h eir lives in t h e ca lcu la t ion of even t s wh ich , con sider in g t h e n a t u r e
of t h in gs a n d t h e ca pr ices of for t u n e, or r a t h er of m en , ca n sca r cely be t h ou gh t
su bject t o t h e r u les of ca lcu la t ion .
In a fr ee n a t ion it is ver y oft en a m a t t er of in differ en ce wh et h er in dividu a ls
r ea son well or ill; it is su fficien t t h a t t h ey do r ea son : h en ce spr in gs t h a t liber t y
wh ich is a secu r it y fr om t h e effect s of t h ese r ea son in gs.
Bu t in a despot ic gover n m en t , it is equ a lly per n iciou s wh et h er t h ey r ea son
well or ill; t h eir r ea son in g is a lon e su fficien t t o sh ock t h e pr in ciple of t h a t
gover n m en t .
Ma n y people wh o h a ve n o desir e of plea sin g a ba n don t h em selves t o t h eir own
pa r t icu la r h u m ou r ; a n d m ost of t h ose wh o h a ve wit a n d in gen u it y a r e in gen iou s
in t or m en t in g t h em selves: filled wit h con t em pt or disgu st for a ll t h in gs, t h ey a r e
u n h a ppy a m idst a ll t h e blessin gs t h a t ca n possibly con t r ibu t e t o pr om ot e t h eir
felicit y.
As n o su bject fea r s a n ot h er , t h e wh ole n a t ion is pr ou d; for t h e pr ide of kin gs
is fou n ded on ly on t h eir in depen den ce.
F r ee n a t ion s a r e h a u gh t y; ot h er s m a y m or e pr oper ly be ca lled va in .
Bu t a s t h ese m en wh o a r e n a t u r a lly so pr ou d live m u ch by t h em selves, t h ey
a r e com m on ly ba sh fu l wh en t h ey a ppea r a m on g st r a n ger s; a n d we fr equ en t ly
see t h em beh a ve for a con sider a ble t im e wit h a n odd m ixt u r e of pr ide a n d
ill-pla ced sh a m e.
Th e ch a r a ct er of t h e n a t ion is m or e pa r t icu la r ly discover ed in t h eir lit er a r y
per for m a n ces, in wh ich we fin d t h e m en of t h ou gh t a n d deep m edit a t ion .
As societ y gives u s a sen se of t h e r idicu le of m a n kin d, r et ir em en t r en der s u s
m or e fit t o r eflect on t h e folly of vice. Th eir sa t ir ica l wr it in gs a r e sh a r p a n d
sever e, a n d we fin d a m on g t h em m a n y J u ven a ls, wit h ou t discover in g on e
H or a ce.
In m on a r ch ies ext r em ely a bsolu t e, h ist or ia n s bet r a y t h e t r u t h , beca u se t h ey

a r e n ot a t liber t y t o spea k it ; in st a t es r em a r ka bly fr ee, t h ey bet r a y t h e t r u t h ,
beca u se of t h eir liber t y it self; wh ich a lwa ys pr odu ces division s, ever y on e
becom in g a s gr ea t a sla ve t o t h e pr eju dices of h is fa ct ion a s h e cou ld be in a
despot ic st a t e.
Th eir poet s h a ve m or e fr equ en t ly a n or igin a l r u den ess of in ven t ion t h a n t h a t
pa r t icu la r kin d of delica cy wh ich spr in gs fr om t a st e; we t h er e fin d som et h in g
wh ich a ppr oa ch es n ea r er t o t h e bold st r en gt h of a Mich a el An gelo t h a n t o t h e
soft er gr a ces of a Ra ph a el.
2'+%,1
1. Th ey cu t ou t t h e t on gu es of t h e a dvoca t es, a n d cr ied, “Viper , don ’t h iss.” —
Ta cit u s.
2. Aga t h ia s, iv.
3. J u st in , xxxviii.
4. Ca lu m n ia s lit iu m — Ibid.
5. Ta cit u s.
6. H e h a s descr ibed t h is in t er view, wh ich h a ppen ed in 1596, in t h e Collect ion
of Voya ges t h a t Con t r ibu t ed t o t h e E st a blish m en t of t h e E a st In dia
Com pa n y, iii, pa r t I, p. 33.
7. Book liv. 17, p. 532.
8. Fable of th e B ees.
9. Th e people wh o follow t h e kh a n of Ma la ca m ber , t h ose of Ca r n a t a ca a n d
Cor om a n del, a r e pr ou d a n d in dolen t ; t h ey con su m e lit t le, beca u se t h ey a r e
m iser a bly poor ; wh ile t h e su bject s of t h e Mogu l a n d t h e people of H in dost a n
em ploy t h em selves, a n d en joy t h e con ven ien ces of life, like t h e E u r opea n s.
— Collect ion of Voya ges t h a t Con t r ibu t ed t o t h e E st a blish m en t of t h e E a st
10. See Da m pier , iii.
11. E difyin g Let t er s, coll. xil, p. 80.
12. Book xliii. 2.
13. By t h e n a t u r e of t h e soil a n d clim a t e.
14. F a t h er Du H a lde, ii.

15. F a t h er Du H a lde.
16. Moses m a de t h e sa m e code for la ws a n d r eligion . Th e old Rom a n s
con fou n ded t h e a n cien t cu st om s wit h t h e la ws.
17. See F a t h er Du H a lde.
18. See t h e cla ssic books fr om wh ich F a t h er Du H a lde gives u s som e excellen t
ext r a ct s.
19. It is t h is wh ich h a s est a blish ed em u la t ion , wh ich h a s ba n ish ed la zin ess, a n d
cu lt iva t ed a love of lea r n in g.
20. See t h e r ea son s given by t h e Ch in ese m a gist r a t es in t h eir decr ees for
pr oscr ibin g t h e Ch r ist ia n r eligion . E difyin g Let t er s, coll. xvii.
21. See iv. 3, xix. 13.
22. See xxiv. 3.
23. La n ge, J ou r n a l in 1721 a n d 1722; in Voya ges t o t h e Nor t h , viii, p. 363.
24. P lu t a r ch , Solon .
25. La ws, xii.
26. Ibid., xii.
27. In sim plu m .
28. Livy, xxxviii.
29. In st it u t es, ii. t it . 6, § 2. Ozel’s com pila t ion , Leyden , 1658.
30. Ibid., ii., De P u pil. su bst it . § 3.
31. Th e for m of t h e vu lga r su bst it u t ion r a n t h u s: “If su ch a on e is u n willin g t o
t a ke t h e in h er it a n ce, I su bst it u t e in h is st ea d,” &c.; t h e pu pilla r y
su bst it u t ion : “If su ch a on e dies befor e h e a r r ives a t t h e a ge of pu ber t y, I
su bst it u t e,” &c.
32. Book iii, t it . 5, § 5.
33. Leg. 8, Cod., De Repu d.
34. An d t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles. See Cicer o, P h ilipp., ii. 69.
35. Si ver ber ibu s qu a in gen u is a lien a su n t , a fficien t em pr oba ver it .
36. In Nov. 117, ca p. xiv.
37. Ch a pt er 6.
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Th e followin g su bject s deser ve t o be t r ea t ed in a m or e ext en sive m a n n er t h a n
t h e n a t u r e of t h is wor k will per m it . F a in wou ld I glide down a gen t le r iver , bu t
I a m ca r r ied a wa y by a t or r en t .
Com m er ce is a cu r e for t h e m ost dest r u ct ive pr eju dices; for it is a lm ost a
gen er a l r u le t h a t wh er ever we fin d a gr eea ble m a n n er s, t h er e com m er ce
flou r ish es; a n d t h a t wh er ever t h er e is com m er ce, t h er e we m eet wit h a gr eea ble
m a n n er s.
Let u s n ot be a st on ish ed, t h en , if ou r m a n n er s a r e n ow less sa va ge t h a n
for m er ly. Com m er ce h a s ever ywh er e diffu sed a kn owledge of t h e m a n n er s of a ll
n a t ion s: t h ese a r e com pa r ed on e wit h a n ot h er , a n d fr om t h is com pa r ison a r ise
t h e gr ea t est a dva n t a ges.
Com m er cia l la ws, it m a y be sa id, im pr ove m a n n er s t or t h e sa m e r ea son t h a t
t h ey dest r oy t h em . Th ey cor r u pt t h e pu r est m or a ls. 1 Th is wa s t h e su bject of
P la t o’s com pla in t s; a n d we ever y da y see t h a t t h ey polish a n d r efin e t h e m ost
ba r ba r ou s.
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P ea ce is t h e n a t u r a l effect of t r a de. Two n a t ion s wh o t r a ffic wit h ea ch ot h er
becom e r ecipr oca lly depen den t ; for if on e h a s a n in t er est in bu yin g, t h e ot h er
h a s a n in t er est in sellin g: a n d t h u s t h eir u n ion is fou n ded on t h eir m u t u a l
n ecessit ies.
Bu t if t h e spir it of com m er ce u n it es n a t ion s, it does n ot in t h e sa m e m a n n er
u n it e in dividu a ls. We see t h a t in cou n t r ies 2 wh er e t h e people m ove on ly by t h e
spir it of com m er ce, t h ey m a ke a t r a ffic of a ll t h e h u m a n e, a ll t h e m or a l vir t u es;
t h e m ost t r iflin g t h in gs, t h ose wh ich h u m a n it y wou ld dem a n d, a r e t h er e don e,

or t h er e given , on ly for m on ey.
Th e spir it of t r a de pr odu ces in t h e m in d of a m a n a cer t a in sen se of exa ct
ju st ice, opposit e, on t h e on e h a n d, t o r obber y, a n d on t h e ot h er t o t h ose m or a l
vir t u es wh ich for bid ou r a lwa ys a dh er in g r igidly t o t h e r u les of pr iva t e in t er est ,
a n d su ffer u s t o n eglect t h is for t h e a dva n t a ge of ot h er s.
Th e t ot a l pr iva t ion of t r a de, on t h e con t r a r y, pr odu ces r obber y, wh ich Ar ist ot le
r a n ks in t h e n u m ber of m ea n s of a cqu ir in g; yet it is n ot a t a ll in con sist en t wit h
cer t a in m or a l vir t u es. H ospit a lit y, for in st a n ce, is m ost r a r e in t r a din g
cou n t r ies, wh ile it is fou n d in t h e m ost a dm ir a ble per fect ion a m on g n a t ion s of
va ga bon ds.
It is a sa cr ilege, sa ys Ta cit u s, for a Ger m a n t o sh u t h is door a ga in st a n y m a n
wh om soever , wh et h er kn own or u n kn own . H e wh o h a s beh a ved wit h h ospit a lit y
t o a st r a n ger goes t o sh ow h im a n ot h er h ou se wh er e t h is h ospit a lit y is a lso
pr a ct ised; a n d h e is t h er e r eceived wit h t h e sa m e h u m a n it y. 3 Bu t wh en t h e
Ger m a n s h a d fou n ded kin gdom s, h ospit a lit y h a d becom e bu r den som e. Th is
a ppea r s by t wo la ws of t h e code of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s;4 on e of wh ich in flict ed a
pen a lt y on ever y ba r ba r ia n wh o pr esu m ed t o sh ow a st r a n ger t h e h ou se of a
Rom a n ; a n d t h e ot h er decr eed t h a t wh oever r eceived a st r a n ger sh ou ld be
in dem n ified by t h e in h a bit a n t s, ever y on e bein g obliged t o pa y h is pr oper
pr opor t ion .
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Th er e a r e t wo sor t s of poor ; t h ose wh o a r e r en der ed su ch by t h e sever it y of
gover n m en t : t h ese a r e, in deed, in ca pa ble of per for m in g a lm ost a n y gr ea t a ct ion ,
beca u se t h eir in digen ce is a con sequ en ce of t h eir sla ver y. Ot h er s a r e poor , on ly
beca u se t h ey eit h er despise or kn ow n ot t h e con ven ien ces of life; a n d t h ese a r e
ca pa ble of a ccom plish in g gr ea t t h in gs, beca u se t h eir pover t y con st it u t es a pa r t
of t h eir liber t y.
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Tr a de h a s som e r ela t ion t o for m s of gover n m en t . In a m on a r ch y, it is gen er a lly
fou n ded on lu xu r y; a n d t h ou gh it be a lso fou n ded on r ea l wa n t s, yet t h e
pr in cipa l view wit h wh ich it is ca r r ied on is t o pr ocu r e ever yt h in g t h a t ca n
con t r ibu t e t o t h e pr ide, t h e plea su r e, a n d t h e ca pr iciou s wh im s of t h e n a t ion . In
r epu blics, it is com m on ly fou n ded on econ om y. Th eir m er ch a n t s, h a vin g a n eye
t o a ll t h e n a t ion s of t h e ea r t h , br in g fr om on e wh a t is wa n t ed by a n ot h er . It is
t h u s t h a t t h e r epu blics of Tyr e, Ca r t h a ge, At h en s, Ma r seilles, F lor en ce, Ven ice,
a n d H olla n d en ga ged in com m er ce.
Th is kin d of t r a ffic h a s a n a t u r a l r ela t ion t o a r epu blica n gover n m en t : t o
m on a r ch ies it is on ly occa sion a l. F or a s it is fou n ded on t h e pr a ct ice of ga in in g
lit t le, a n d even less t h a n ot h er n a t ion s, a n d of r em edyin g t h is by ga in in g
in cessa n t ly, it ca n h a r dly be ca r r ied on by a people swa llowed u p in lu xu r y, wh o
spen d m u ch , a n d see n ot h in g bu t object s of gr a n deu r .
Cicer o wa s of t h is opin ion , wh en h e so ju st ly sa id, “I do n ot like t h a t t h e sa m e
people sh ou ld be a t on ce bot h t h e lor ds a n d fa ct or s of t h e wh ole ea r t h .”5 F or t h is
wou ld, in deed, be t o su ppose t h a t ever y in dividu a l in t h e st a t e, a n d t h e wh ole
st a t e collect ively, h a d t h eir h ea ds con st a n t ly filled wit h gr a n d views, a n d a t t h e
sa m e t im e wit h sm a ll on es; wh ich is a con t r a dict ion .
Not bu t t h a t t h e m ost n oble en t er pr ises a r e com plet ed a lso in t h ose st a t es
wh ich su bsist by econ om ica l com m er ce: t h ey h a ve even a n in t r epidit y n ot t o be
fou n d in m on a r ch ies. An d t h e r ea son is t h is:
On e br a n ch of com m er ce lea ds t o a n ot h er , t h e sm a ll t o t h e m oder a t e, t h e
m oder a t e t o t h e gr ea t ; t h u s h e wh o h a s gr a t ified h is desir e of ga in in g a lit t le
r a ises h im self t o a sit u a t ion in wh ich h e is n ot less desir ou s of ga in in g a gr ea t
dea l.
Besides, t h e gr a n d en t er pr ises of m er ch a n t s a r e a lwa ys n ecessa r ily con n ect ed
wit h t h e a ffa ir s of t h e pu blic. Bu t , in m on a r ch ies, t h ese pu blic a ffa ir s give a s
m u ch dist r u st t o t h e m er ch a n t s a s in fr ee st a t es t h ey a ppea r t o give sa fet y.
Gr ea t en t er pr ises, t h er efor e, in com m er ce a r e n ot for m on a r ch ica l, bu t for
r epu blica n , gover n m en t s.
In sh or t , a n opin ion of gr ea t er cer t a in t y, a s t o t h e possession of pr oper t y in
t h ese st a t es, m a kes t h em u n der t a ke ever yt h in g. Th ey fla t t er t h em selves wit h
t h e h opes of r eceivin g gr ea t a dva n t a ges fr om t h e sm iles of for t u n e; a n d t h in kin g

t h em selves su r e of wh a t t h ey h a ve a lr ea dy a cqu ir ed, t h ey boldly expose it in
or der t o a cqu ir e m or e; r iskin g n ot h in g, bu t a s t h e m ea n s of obt a in in g.
I do n ot pr et en d t o sa y t h a t a n y m on a r ch y is en t ir ely exclu ded fr om a n
econ om ica l com m er ce; bu t of it s own n a t u r e it h a s less t en den cy t owa r ds it :
n eit h er do I m ea n t h a t t h e r epu blics wit h wh ich we a r e a cqu a in t ed a r e
a bsolu t ely depr ived of t h e com m er ce of lu xu r y; bu t it is less con n ect ed wit h
t h eir con st it u t ion .
Wit h r ega r d t o a despot ic st a t e, t h er e is n o occa sion t o m en t ion it . A gen er a l
r u le: A n a t ion in sla ver y la bou r s m or e t o pr eser ve t h a n t o a cqu ir e; a fr ee n a t ion ,
m or e t o a cqu ir e t h a n t o pr eser ve.
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Ma r seilles, a n ecessa r y r et r ea t in t h e m idst of a t em pest u ou s sea ; Ma r seilles,
a h a r bou r wh ich a ll t h e win ds, t h e sh elves of t h e sea , t h e disposit ion of t h e
coa st s, poin t ou t for a la n din g-pla ce, beca m e fr equ en t ed by m a r in er s; wh ile t h e
st er ilit y of t h e a dja cen t cou n t r y det er m in ed t h e cit izen s t o a n econ om ica l
com m er ce. 6 It wa s n ecessa r y t h a t t h ey sh ou ld be la bor iou s t o su pply wh a t
n a t u r e h a d r efu sed; t h a t t h ey sh ou ld be ju st , in or der t o live a m on g ba r ba r ou s
n a t ion s, fr om wh om t h ey wer e t o der ive t h eir pr osper it y; t h a t t h ey sh ou ld be
m oder a t e, t o t h e en d t h a t t h ey m igh t a lwa ys t a st e t h e sweet s of a t r a n qu il
gover n m en t ; in fin e, t h a t t h ey sh ou ld be fr u ga l in t h eir m a n n er s, t o en a ble t h em
t o su bsist by t r a de — a t r a de t h e m or e cer t a in a s it wa s less a dva n t a geou s.
We ever ywh er e see violen ce a n d oppr ession give bir t h t o a com m er ce fou n ded
on econ om y, wh ile m en a r e con st r a in ed t o t a ke r efu ge in m a r sh es, in isles, in
t h e sh a llows of t h e sea , a n d even on r ocks t h em selves. Th u s it wa s t h a t Tyr e,
Ven ice, a n d t h e cit ies of H olla n d wer e fou n ded. F u git ives fou n d t h er e a pla ce of
sa fet y. It wa s n ecessa r y t h a t t h ey sh ou ld su bsist ; t h ey dr ew, t h er efor e, t h eir
su bsist en ce fr om a ll pa r t s of t h e wor ld.
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It som et im es h a ppen s t h a t a n a t ion , wh en en ga ged in a n econ om ica l
com m er ce, h a vin g n eed of t h e m er ch a n dise of on e cou n t r y, wh ich ser ves a s a
ca pit a l or st ock for pr ocu r in g t h e com m odit ies of a n ot h er , is sa t isfied wit h
m a kin g ver y lit t le pr ofit , a n d fr equ en t ly n on e a t a ll, in t r a din g wit h t h e for m er ,
in expect a t ion of ga in in g gr ea t ly by t h e la t t er . Th u s, wh en t h e Du t ch wer e
a lm ost t h e on ly n a t ion t h a t ca r r ied on t h e t r a de fr om t h e sou t h t o t h e n or t h of
E u r ope; t h e F r en ch win es wh ich t h ey im por t ed t o t h e n or t h wer e in som e
m ea su r e on ly a ca pit a l or st ock for con du ct in g t h eir com m er ce in t h a t pa r t of
t h e wor ld.
It is a kn own fa ct t h a t t h er e a r e som e kin ds of m er ch a n dise in H olla n d wh ich ,
t h ou gh im por t ed fr om a fa r , sell for ver y lit t le m or e t h a n t h ey cost u pon t h e spot .
Th ey a ccou n t for it t h u s: a ca pt a in wh o h a s occa sion t o ba lla st h is sh ip will loa d
it wit h m a r ble; if h e wa n t s wood for st owa ge, h e will bu y it ; a n d, pr ovided h e
loses n ot h in g by t h e ba r ga in , h e will t h in k h im self a ga in er . Th u s it is t h a t
H olla n d h a s it s qu a r r ies a n d it s for est s.
F u r t h er , it m a y h a ppen so t h a t n ot on ly a com m er ce wh ich br in gs in n ot h in g
sh a ll be u sefu l, bu t even a losin g t r a de sh a ll be ben eficia l. I h a ve h ea r d it
a ffir m ed in H olla n d t h a t t h e wh a le fish er y in gen er a l does n ot a n swer t h e
expen se; bu t it m u st be obser ved t h a t t h e per son s em ployed in bu ildin g t h e
sh ips, a s a lso t h ose wh o fu r n ish t h e r iggin g a n d pr ovision s, a r e join t ly
con cer n ed in t h e fish er y. Sh ou ld t h ey h a ppen t o lose in t h e voya ge, t h ey h a ve
h a d a pr ofit in fit t in g ou t t h e vessel. Th is com m er ce, in sh or t , is a kin d of
lot t er y, a n d ever y on e is a llu r ed wit h t h e h opes of a pr ize. Ma n kin d a r e
gen er a lly fon d of ga m in g; a n d even t h e m ost pr u den t h a ve n o a ver sion t o it ,
wh en t h e disa gr eea ble cir cu m st a n ces a t t en din g it , su ch a s dissipa t ion , a n xiet y,
pa ssion , loss of t im e, a n d even of life a n d for t u n e, a r e con cea led fr om t h eir view.
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Th e t a r iff or cu st om s of E n gla n d a r e ver y u n set t led wit h r espect t o ot h er
n a t ion s; t h ey a r e ch a n ged, in som e m ea su r e, wit h ever y pa r lia m en t , eit h er by
t a kin g off pa r t icu la r du t ies, or by im posin g n ew on es. Th ey en dea vou r by t h ese
m ea n s st ill t o pr eser ve t h eir in depen den ce. Su pr em ely jea lou s wit h r espect t o
t r a de, t h ey bin d t h em selves bu t lit t le by t r ea t ies, a n d depen d on ly on t h eir own

la ws.
Ot h er n a t ion s h a ve m a de t h e in t er est s of com m er ce yield t o t h ose of polit ics;
t h e E n glish , on t h e con t r a r y, h a ve ever m a de t h eir polit ica l in t er est s give wa y
t o t h ose of com m er ce. Th ey kn ow bet t er t h a n a n y ot h er people u pon ea r t h h ow
t o va lu e, a t t h e sa m e t im e, t h ese t h r ee gr ea t a dva n t a ges — r eligion , com m er ce,
a n d liber t y.
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In sever a l kin gdom s la ws h a ve been m a de ext r em ely pr oper t o h u m ble t h e
st a t es t h a t h a ve en t er ed in t o econ om ica l com m er ce. Th ey h a ve for bidden t h eir
im por t in g a n y m er ch a n dise, except t h e pr odu ct of t h eir r espect ive cou n t r ies;
a n d h a ve per m it t ed t h em t o t r a ffic on ly in vessels bu ilt in t h e kin gdom t o wh ich
t h ey br ou gh t t h eir com m odit ies.
It is n ecessa r y t h a t t h e kin gdom wh ich im poses t h ese la ws sh ou ld it self be
a ble ea sily t o en ga ge in com m er ce; ot h er wise it will, a t lea st , be a n equ a l
su ffer er . It is m u ch m or e a dva n t a geou s t o t r a de wit h a com m er cia l n a t ion ,
wh ose pr ofit s a r e m oder a t e, a n d wh o a r e r en der ed in som e sor t depen den t by
t h e a ffa ir s of com m er ce; wit h a n a t ion wh ose la r ger views a n d wh ose ext en ded
t r a de en a bles t h em t o dispose of t h eir su per flu ou s m er ch a n dise; wit h a wea lt h y
n a t ion , wh o ca n t a ke off m a n y of t h eir com m odit ies, a n d m a ke t h em a qu icker
r et u r n in specie; wit h a n a t ion u n der a kin d of n ecessit y t o be fa it h fu l, pa cific
fr om pr in ciple, a n d t h a t seeks t o ga in , a n d n ot t o con qu er : it is m u ch bet t er , I
sa y, t o t r a de wit h su ch a n ot ion t h a n wit h ot h er s, t h eir con st a n t r iva ls, wh o will
n ever gr a n t su ch gr ea t a dva n t a ges.
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It is a t r u e m a xim t h a t on e n a t ion sh ou ld n ever exclu de a n ot h er fr om t r a din g
wit h it , except for ver y gr ea t r ea son s. Th e J a pa n ese t r a de on ly wit h t wo n a t ion s,
t h e Ch in ese a n d t h e Du t ch . Th e Ch in ese 7 ga in a t h ou sa n d per cen t u pon su ga r s,
a n d som et im es a s m u ch by t h e goods t h ey t a ke in exch a n ge. Th e Du t ch m a ke
n ea r ly t h e sa m e pr ofit s. E ver y n a t ion t h a t a ct s u pon J a pa n ese pr in ciples m u st

n ecessa r ily be deceived; for it is com pet it ion wh ich set s a ju st va lu e on
m er ch a n dise, a n d est a blish es t h e r ela t ion bet ween t h em .
Mu ch less ou gh t a st a t e t o la y it self u n der a n obliga t ion of sellin g it s
m a n u fa ct u r es on ly t o a sin gle n a t ion , u n der a pr et en ce of t h eir t a kin g a ll a t a
cer t a in pr ice. Th e P oles, in t h is m a n n er , dispose of t h eir cor n t o t h e cit y of
Da n zig; a n d sever a l In dia n pr in ces h a ve m a de a like con t r a ct for t h eir spices
wit h t h e Du t ch . 8 Th ese a gr eem en t s a r e pr oper on ly for a poor n a t ion , wh ose
in h a bit a n t s a r e sa t isfied t o for ego t h e h opes of en r ich in g t h em selves, pr ovided
t h ey ca n be secu r e of a cer t a in su bsist en ce; or for n a t ion s wh ose sla ver y con sist s
eit h er in r en ou n cin g t h e u se of t h ose t h in gs wh ich n a t u r e h a s given t h em , or in
bein g obliged t o su bm it t o a disa dva n t a geou s com m er ce.
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In st a t es t h a t ca r r y on a n econ om ica l com m er ce, t h ey h a ve lu ckily est a blish ed
ba n ks, wh ich by t h eir cr edit h a ve for m ed a n ew species of wea lt h : bu t it wou ld
be qu it e wr on g t o in t r odu ce t h em in t o gover n m en t s wh ose com m er ce is fou n ded
on ly on lu xu r y. Th e er ect in g of ba n ks in cou n t r ies gover n ed by a n a bsolu t e
m on a r ch su pposes m on ey on t h e on e side, a n d on t h e ot h er power : t h a t is, on
t h e on e h a n d, t h e m ea n s of pr ocu r in g ever yt h in g, wit h ou t a n y power ; a n d on t h e
ot h er , t h e power , wit h ou t a n y m ea n s of pr ocu r in g a t a ll. In a gover n m en t of t h is
kin d, n on e bu t t h e pr in ce ever h a d, or ca n h a ve, a t r ea su r e; a n d wh er ever t h er e
is on e, it n o soon er becom es gr ea t t h a n it becom es t h e t r ea su r e of t h e pr in ce.
F or t h e sa m e r ea son , a ll a ssocia t ion s of m er ch a n t s, in or der t o ca r r y on a
pa r t icu la r com m er ce, a r e seldom pr oper in a bsolu t e gover n m en t s. Th e design
of t h ese com pa n ies is t o give t o t h e wea lt h of pr iva t e per son s t h e weigh t of
pu blic r ich es. Bu t in t h ose gover n m en t s t h is weigh t ca n be fou n d on ly in t h e
pr in ce. Na y, t h ey a r e n ot even a lwa ys pr oper in st a t es en ga ged in econ om ica l
com m er ce; for , if t h e t r a de be n ot so gr ea t a s t o su r pa ss t h e m a n a gem en t of
pa r t icu la r per son s, it is m u ch bet t er t o lea ve it open t h a n , by exclu sive
pr ivileges, t o r est r a in t h e liber t y of com m er ce.
BB1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
A fr ee por t m a y be est a blish ed in t h e dom in ion s of st a t es wh ose com m er ce is
econ om ica l. Th a t econ om y in t h e gover n m en t wh ich a lwa ys a t t en ds t h e
fr u ga lit y of in dividu a ls is, if I m a y so expr ess m yself, t h e sou l of it s econ om ica l
com m er ce. Th e loss it su st a in s wit h r espect t o cu st om s it ca n r epa ir by dr a win g
fr om t h e wea lt h a n d in du st r y of t h e r epu blic. Bu t in a m on a r ch y a st ep of t h is
kin d m u st be opposit e t o r ea son ; for it cou ld h a ve n o ot h er effect t h a n t o ea se
lu xu r y of t h e weigh t of t a xes. Th is wou ld be depr ivin g it self of t h e on ly
a dva n t a ge t h a t lu xu r y ca n pr ocu r e, a n d of t h e on ly cu r b wh ich , in a con st it u t ion
like t h is, it is ca pa ble of r eceivin g.
BE1&@(&+-%&Y.%%0'<&'(&)'<<%.9%1
Th e fr eedom of com m er ce is n ot a power gr a n t ed t o t h e m er ch a n t s t o do wh a t
t h ey plea se: t h is wou ld be m or e pr oper ly it s sla ver y. Th e con st r a in t of t h e
m er ch a n t is n ot t h e con st r a in t of com m er ce. It is in t h e fr eest cou n t r ies t h a t t h e
m er ch a n t fin ds in n u m er a ble obst a cles; a n d h e is n ever less cr ossed by la ws t h a n
in a cou n t r y of sla ves.
E n gla n d pr oh ibit s t h e expor t a t ion of h er wool; coa ls m u st be br ou gh t by sea
t o t h e ca pit a l; n o h or ses, except geldin gs, a r e a llowed t o be expor t ed; a n d t h e
vessels of h er colon ies t r a din g t o E u r ope m u st t a ke in wa t er in E n gla n d.9 Th e
E n glish con st r a in t h e m er ch a n t , bu t it is in fa vou r of com m er ce.
BG1&W-"+&5+&5,&+-"+&0%,+.'H,&+-5,&65#%.+H1
Wh er ever com m er ce su bsist s, cu st om s a r e est a blish ed. Com m er ce is t h e
expor t a t ion a n d im por t a t ion of m er ch a n dise, wit h a view t o t h e a dva n t a ge of
t h e st a t e: cu st om s a r e a cer t a in r igh t over t h is sa m e expor t a t ion a n d
im por t a t ion , fou n ded a lso on t h e a dva n t a ge of t h e st a t e. H en ce it becom es
n ecessa r y t h a t t h e st a t e sh ou ld be n eu t r a l bet ween it s cu st om s a n d it s
com m er ce, t h a t n eit h er of t h ese t wo in t er fer e wit h ea ch ot h er , a n d t h en t h e
in h a bit a n t s en joy a fr ee com m er ce.
Th e fa r m in g of t h e cu st om s dest r oys com m er ce by it s in ju st ice a n d vexa t ion s,
a s well a s by t h e excess of t h e im post s: bu t in depen den t of t h is, it dest r oys it
even m or e by t h e difficu lt ies t h a t a r ise fr om it , a n d by t h e for m a lit ies it exa ct s.

In E n gla n d, wh er e t h e cu st om s a r e m a n a ged by t h e kin g’s officer s, bu sin ess is
n egot ia t ed wit h a sin gu la r dext er it y: on e wor d of wr it in g a ccom plish es t h e
gr ea t est a ffa ir s. Th e m er ch a n t n eeds n ot lose a n in fin it e dea l of t im e; h e h a s n o
occa sion for a pa r t icu la r com m ission er , eit h er t o obvia t e a ll t h e difficu lt ies of
t h e fa r m er s, or t o su bm it t o t h em .
BJ1&!-%&6"7,&'(&)'<<%.9%&9'*9%.*5*D&+-%&)'*(5,9"+5'*&'(
K%.9-"*05,%1
Th e Ma gn a Ch a r t a of E n gla n d for bids t h e seizin g a n d con fisca t in g, in ca se of
wa r , t h e effect s of for eign m er ch a n t s, except by wa y of r epr isa ls. It is a n h on ou r
t o t h e E n glish n a t ion t h a t t h ey h a ve m a de t h is on e of t h e a r t icles of t h eir
liber t y.
In t h e la t e wa r bet ween Spa in a n d E n gla n d, t h e for m er m a de a la w wh ich
pu n ish ed wit h dea t h t h ose wh o br ou gh t E n glish m er ch a n dise in t o t h e
dom in ion s of Spa in ; a n d t h e sa m e pen a lt y on t h ose wh o ca r r ied Spa n ish
m er ch a n dise in t o E n gla n d. 10 An or din a n ce like t h is ca n n ot , I believe, fin d a
pr eceden t in a n y la ws bu t t h ose of J a pa n . It equ a lly sh ocks h u m a n it y, t h e spir it
of com m er ce, a n d t h e h a r m on y wh ich ou gh t t o su bsist in t h e pr opor t ion of
pen a lt ies; it con fou n ds a ll ou r idea s, m a kin g t h a t a cr im e a ga in st t h e st a t e
wh ich is on ly a viola t ion of civil polit y.
BL1&@(&,%5`5*D&+-%&8%.,'*,&'(&K%.9-"*+,1
Solon m a de a la w t h a t t h e At h en ia n s sh ou ld n o lon ger seize t h e body for civil
debt s.11 Th is la w h e r eceived fr om E gypt . It h a d been m a de by Boccor is, a n d
r en ewed by Sesost r is. 12
Th is la w is ext r em ely good wit h r espect t o t h e gen er a lit y of civil a ffa ir s; bu t
t h er e is su fficien t r ea son for it s n ot bein g obser ved in t h ose of com m er ce. 13 F or
a s m er ch a n t s a r e obliged t o en t r u st la r ge su m s, fr equ en t ly for a ver y sh or t t im e,
a n d t o pa y m on ey a s well a s t o r eceive it , t h er e is a n ecessit y t h a t t h e debt or
sh ou ld con st a n t ly fu lfil h is en ga gem en t s a t t h e t im e pr efixed; a n d h en ce it
becom es n ecessa r y t o la y a con st r a in t on h is per son .
In a ffa ir s r ela t in g t o com m on civil con t r a ct s, t h e la w ou gh t n ot t o per m it t h e

seizu r e of t h e per son ; beca u se t h e liber t y of on e cit izen is of gr ea t er im por t a n ce
t o t h e pu blic t h a n t h e ea se or pr osper it y of a n ot h er . Bu t in con ven t ion s der ived
fr om com m er ce, t h e la w ou gh t t o con sider t h e pu blic pr osper it y a s of gr ea t er
im por t a n ce t h a n t h e liber t y of a cit izen ; wh ich , h owever , does n ot h in der t h e
r est r ict ion s a n d lim it a t ion s t h a t h u m a n it y a n d good policy dem a n d.
BO1&:*&%V9%$$%*+&6"71&
Adm ir a ble is t h a t la w of Gen eva wh ich exclu des fr om t h e m a gist r a cy, a n d
even fr om t h e a dm it t a n ce in t o t h e gr ea t cou n cil, t h e ch ildr en of t h ose wh o h a ve
lived or died in solven t , except t h ey h a ve disch a r ged t h eir fa t h er ’s debt s. It h a s
t h is effect : it cr ea t es a con fiden ce in t h e m er ch a n t s, in t h e m a gist r a t es, a n d in
t h e cit y it self. Th er e t h e cr edit of t h e in dividu a l h a s st ill a ll t h e weigh t of pu blic
cr edit .
BP1&:&6"7&'(&/-'0%,1
Th e in h a bit a n t s of Rh odes wen t fu r t h er . Sext u s E m pir icu s obser ves t h a t
a m on g t h ose people a son cou ld n ot be excu sed fr om pa yin g h is fa t h er ’s debt s
by r en ou n cin g t h e su ccession . Th is la w of Rh odes wa s ca lcu la t ed for a r epu blic
fou n ded on com m er ce. Now I a m in clin ed t o t h in k t h a t r ea son s dr a wn fr om
com m er ce it self sh ou ld m a ke t h is lim it a t ion , t h a t t h e debt s con t r a ct ed by t h e
fa t h er sin ce t h e son ’s en t er in g in t o com m er ce sh ou ld n ot a ffect t h e est a t e or
pr oper t y a cqu ir ed by t h e la t t er . A m er ch a n t ou gh t a lwa ys t o kn ow h is
obliga t ion s, a n d t o squ a r e h is con du ct by h is cir cu m st a n ces a n d pr esen t for t u n e.
BQ1&@(&+-%&[F0D%,&'(&)'<<%.9%1
Xen oph on , in h is book of Reven u es, wou ld h a ve r ewa r ds given t o t h ose
over seer s of com m er ce wh o despa t ch ed t h e ca u ses br ou gh t befor e t h em wit h t h e
gr ea t est expedit ion . H e wa s sen sible of t h e n eed of ou r m oder n ju r isdict ion of
a con su l.
Th e a ffa ir s of com m er ce a r e bu t lit t le su scept ible of for m a lit ies. Th ey a r e t h e
a ct ion s of a da y, a n d a r e ever y da y followed by ot h er s of t h e sa m e n a t u r e. H en ce
it becom es n ecessa r y t h a t ever y da y t h ey sh ou ld be decided. It is ot h er wise wit h

t h ose a ct ion s of life wh ich h a ve a pr in cipa l in flu en ce on fu t u r it y, bu t r a r ely
h a ppen . We seldom m a r r y m or e t h a n on ce; deeds a n d wills a r e n ot t h e wor k of
ever y da y; we a r e bu t on ce of a ge.
P la t o15 sa ys t h a t in a cit y wh er e t h er e is n o m a r it im e com m er ce t h er e ou gh t
n ot t o be a bove h a lf t h e n u m ber of civil la ws: t h is is ver y t r u e. Com m er ce br in gs
in t o t h e sa m e cou n t r y differ en t kin ds of people; it in t r odu ces a lso a gr ea t
n u m ber of con t r a ct s a n d species of wea lt h , wit h va r iou s wa ys of a cqu ir in g it .
Th u s in a t r a din g cit y t h er e a r e fewer ju dges, a n d m or e la ws.
BS1&!-"+&"&8.5*9%&'FD-+&*'+&+'&%*D"D%&-5<,%$(&5*&)'<<%.9%1
Th eoph ilu s,16 seein g a vessel la den wit h m er ch a n dise for h is wife Th eodor a ,
or der ed it t o be bu r n ed. “I a m em per or ,” sa id h e, “a n d you m a ke m e t h e m a st er
of a ga lley. By wh a t m ea n s sh a ll t h ese poor m en ga in a livelih ood if we t a ke
t h eir t r a de ou t of t h eir h a n ds?” H e m igh t h a ve a dded. Wh o sh a ll set bou n ds t o
u s if we m on opolise a ll ou r selves? Wh o sh a ll oblige u s t o fu lfil ou r en ga gem en t s?
Ou r cou r t ier s will follow ou r exa m ple; t h ey will be m or e gr eedy a n d m or e u n ju st
t h a n we: t h e people h a ve som e con fiden ce in ou r ju st ice, t h ey will h a ve n on e in
ou r opu len ce: a ll t h ese n u m er ou s du t ies, t h e ca u se of t h eir wa n t s, a r e cer t a in
pr oofs of ou r s.
ET1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Wh en t h e P or t u gu ese a n d Ca st ilia n s bor e swa y in t h e E a st In dies, com m er ce
h a d su ch opu len t br a n ch es t h a t t h eir pr in ces did n ot fa il t o seize t h em . Th is
r u in ed t h eir set t lem en t s in t h ose pa r t s of t h e wor ld.
Th e vicer oy of Goa gr a n t ed exclu sive pr ivileges t o pa r t icu la r per son s. Th e
people h a d n o con fiden ce in t h ese m en ; a n d t h e com m er ce declin ed, by t h e
per pet u a l ch a n ge of t h ose t o wh om it wa s en t r u st ed; n obody t ook ca r e t o
im pr ove it , or t o lea ve it en t ir e t o h is su ccessor . In sh or t , t h e pr ofit cen t r ed in
a few h a n ds, a n d wa s n ot su fficien t ly ext en ded.
EB1&@(&+-%&)'<<%.9%&'(&+-%&2'#5$5+H&5*&"&K'*".9-H1
In a m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t , it is con t r a r y t o t h e spir it of com m er ce t h a t a n y
of t h e n obilit y sh ou ld be m er ch a n t s. “Th is,” sa id t h e E m per or s H on or iu s a n d
Th eodosiu s,17 “wou ld be per n iciou s t o cit ies; a n d wou ld r em ove t h e fa cilit y of
bu yin g a n d sellin g bet ween t h e m er ch a n t s a n d t h e plebeia n s.”
It is con t r a r y t o t h e spir it of m on a r ch y t o a dm it t h e n obilit y in t o com m er ce.
Th e cu st om of su ffer in g t h e n obilit y of E n gla n d t o t r a de is on e of t h ose t h in gs
wh ich h a s t h er e m ost ly con t r ibu t ed t o wea ken t h e m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t .
EE1&:&,5*DF$".&/%($%9+5'*1
P er son s st r u ck wit h t h e pr a ct ice of som e st a t es im a gin e t h a t in F r a n ce t h ey
ou gh t t o m a ke la ws t o en ga ge t h e n obilit y t o en t er in t o com m er ce. Bu t t h ese
la ws wou ld be t h e m ea n s of dest r oyin g t h e n obilit y, wit h ou t bein g of a n y
a dva n t a ge t o t r a de. Th e pr a ct ice of t h is cou n t r y is ext r em ely wise; m er ch a n t s
a r e n ot n obles, t h ou gh t h ey m a y becom e so. Th ey h a ve t h e h opes of obt a in in g
a degr ee of n obilit y, u n a t t en ded wit h it s a ct u a l in con ven ien ces. Th er e is n o
su r er wa y of bein g a dva n ced a bove t h eir pr ofession t h a n t o m a n a ge it well, or
wit h su ccess; t h e con sequ en ce of wh ich is gen er a lly a n a fflu en t for t u n e.
La ws wh ich oblige ever y on e t o con t in u e in h is pr ofession , a n d t o devolve it
u pon h is ch ildr en , n eit h er a r e n or ca n be of u se in a n y bu t despot ic kin gdom s;
wh er e n obody eit h er ca n or ou gh t t o h a ve em u la t ion .18
Let n on e sa y t h a t ever y on e will su cceed bet t er in h is pr ofession wh en h e
ca n n ot ch a n ge it for a n ot h er : I sa y t h a t a per son will su cceed best wh en t h ose
wh o h a ve excelled h ope t o r ise t o a n ot h er .
Th e possibilit y of pu r ch a sin g h on ou r wit h gold en cou r a ges m a n y m er ch a n t s
t o pu t t h em selves in cir cu m st a n ces by wh ich t h ey m a y a t t a in it . I do n ot t a ke
it u pon m e t o exa m in e t h e ju st ice of t h u s ba r t er in g for m on ey t h e pr ice of vir t u e.
Th er e a r e gover n m en t s wh er e t h is m a y be ver y u sefu l.
In F r a n ce t h e dign it y of t h e lon g r obe, wh ich pla ces t h ose wh o wea r it bet ween
t h e gr ea t n obilit y a n d t h e people, a n d wit h ou t h a vin g su ch sh in in g h on ou r s a s
t h e for m er , h a s a ll t h eir pr ivileges; a dign it y wh ich , wh ile t h is body, t h e
deposit a r y of t h e la ws, is en cir cled wit h glor y, lea ves t h e pr iva t e m em ber s in a
m ediocr it y of for t u n e; a dign it y in wh ich t h er e a r e n o ot h er m ea n s of dist in ct ion
bu t by a su per ior ca pa cit y a n d vir t u e, yet wh ich st ill lea ves in view on e m u ch
m or e illu st r iou s: t h e wa r like n obilit y, likewise, wh o con ceive t h a t , wh a t ever
degr ee of wea lt h t h ey a r e possessed of, t h ey m a y st ill in cr ea se t h eir for t u n es;
wh o a r e a sh a m ed of a u gm en t in g, if t h ey begin n ot wit h dissipa t in g, t h eir
est a t es; wh o a lwa ys ser ve t h eir pr in ce wit h t h eir wh ole ca pit a l st ock, a n d wh en
t h a t is su n k m a ke r oom for ot h er s, wh o follow t h eir exa m ple; wh o t a ke t h e field
t h a t t h ey m a y n ever be r epr oa ch ed wit h n ot h a vin g been t h er e; wh o, wh en t h ey
ca n n o lon ger h ope for r ich es, live in expect a t ion of h on ou r s; a n d wh en t h ey
h a ve n ot obt a in ed t h e la t t er , en joy t h e con sola t ion of h a vin g a cqu ir ed glor y: a ll
t h ese t h in gs t oget h er h a ve n ecessa r ily con t r ibu t ed t o a u gm en t t h e gr a n deu r of
t h is kin gdom ; a n d if for t wo or t h r ee cen t u r ies it h a s been in cessa n t ly
in cr ea sin g in power , t h is m u st be a t t r ibu t ed n ot t o F or t u n e, wh o wa s n ever
fa m ed for con st a n cy, bu t t o t h e goodn ess of it s la ws.
EG1&!'&7-"+&2"+5'*,&)'<<%.9%&5,&4.%ZF0595"$1
Rich es con sist eit h er in la n ds or in m ova ble effect s. Th e soil of ever y cou n t r y
is com m on ly possessed by t h e n a t ives. Th e la ws of m ost st a t es r en der for eign er s
u n willin g t o pu r ch a se t h eir la n ds; a n d n ot h in g bu t t h e pr esen ce of t h e own er
im pr oves t h em : t h is kin d of r ich es, t h er efor e, belon gs t o ever y st a t e in
pa r t icu la r ; bu t m ova ble effect s, a s m on ey, n ot es, bills of exch a n ge, st ocks in
com pa n ies, vessels, a n d, in fin e, a ll m er ch a n dise, belon g t o t h e wh ole wor ld in
gen er a l; in t h is r espect , it is com posed of bu t on e sin gle st a t e, of wh ich a ll t h e
societ ies u pon ea r t h a r e m em ber s. Th e people wh o possess m or e of t h ese
m ova ble effect s t h a n a n y ot h er on t h e globe a r e t h e m ost opu len t . Som e st a t es
h a ve a n im m en se qu a n t it y a cqu ir ed by t h eir com m odit ies, by t h e la bou r of t h eir
m ech a n ics, by t h eir in du st r y, by t h eir discover ies, a n d even by ch a n ce. Th e
a va r ice of n a t ion s m a kes t h em qu a r r el for t h e m ova bles of t h e wh ole u n iver se.
If we cou ld fin d a st a t e so u n h a ppy a s t o be depr ived of t h e effect s of ot h er
cou n t r ies, a n d a t t h e sa m e t im e of a lm ost a ll it s own , t h e pr opr iet or s of t h e
la n ds wou ld be on ly pla n t er s t o for eign er s. Th is st a t e, wa n t in g a ll, cou ld a cqu ir e
n ot h in g; t h er efor e, it wou ld be m u ch bet t er for t h e in h a bit a n t s n ot t o h a ve t h e
lea st com m er ce wit h a n y n a t ion u pon ea r t h , for com m er ce in t h ese
cir cu m st a n ces m u st n ecessa r ily lea d t h em t o pover t y.
A cou n t r y t h a t con st a n t ly expor t s fewer m a n u fa ct u r es or com m odit ies t h a n

it r eceives will soon fin d t h e ba la n ce sin kin g; it will r eceive less a n d less, u n t il,
fa llin g in t o ext r em e pover t y, it will r eceive n ot h in g a t a ll.
In t r a din g cou n t r ies t h e specie, wh ich su dden ly va n ish es, qu ickly r et u r n s;
beca u se t h ose n a t ion s t h a t h a ve r eceived it a r e it s debt or s. Bu t it n ever r et u r n s
in t o t h ose st a t es of wh ich we h a ve ju st been spea kin g, beca u se t h ose wh o h a ve
r eceived it owe t h em n ot h in g.
P ola n d will ser ve u s for a n exa m ple. It h a s sca r cely a n y of t h ose t h in gs wh ich
we ca ll t h e m ova ble effect s of t h e u n iver se, except cor n , t h e pr odu ce of it s la n ds.
Som e of t h e lor ds possess en t ir e pr ovin ces; t h ey oppr ess t h e h u sba n dm en , in
or der t o h a ve gr ea t er qu a n t it ies of cor n , wh ich t h ey sen d t o st r a n ger s, t o
pr ocu r e t h e su per flu ou s dem a n ds of lu xu r y. If P ola n d h a d n o for eign t r a de, it s
in h a bit a n t s wou ld be h a ppier . Th e gr a n dees, wh o wou ld h a ve on ly t h eir cor n ,
wou ld give it t o t h eir pea sa n t s for su bsist en ce; a s t h eir t oo ext en sive est a t es
wou ld becom e bu r den som e, t h ey would divide t hem am on g t h eir pea sa n t s; ever y
on e wou ld fin d skin s or wool in t h eir h er ds or flocks, so t h a t t h ey wou ld n o
lon ger be a t a n im m en se expen se in pr ovidin g clot h es; t h e gr ea t , wh o a r e ever
fon d of lu xu r y, n ot bein g a ble t o fin d it bu t in t h eir own cou n t r y, wou ld
en cou r a ge t h e la bou r of t h e poor . Th is n a t ion , I a ffir m , wou ld t h en becom e m or e
flou r ish in g, a t lea st if it did n ot becom e ba r ba r ou s; a n d t h is t h e la ws m igh t
ea sily pr even t .
Let u s n ext con sider J a pa n . Th e va st qu a n t it y of wh a t t h ey r eceive is t h e
ca u se of t h e va st qu a n t it y of m er ch a n dise t h ey sen d a br oa d. Th in gs a r e t h u s in
a s n ice a n equ ilibr iu m a s if t h e im por t a t ion a n d expor t a t ion wer e bu t sm a ll.
Besides, t h is k in d of exu ber a n ce in t h e st a t e is pr odu ct ive of a t h ou sa n d
a dva n t a ges; t h er e is a gr ea t er con su m pt ion , a gr ea t er qu a n t it y of t h ose t h in gs
on wh ich t h e a r t s a r e exer cised; m or e m en em ployed, a n d m or e n u m er ou s
m ea n s of a cqu ir in g power ; exigen cies m a y a lso h a ppen t h a t r equ ir e a speedy
a ssist a n ce, wh ich so opu len t a st a t e ca n bet t er a ffor d t h a n a n y ot h er . It is
difficu lt for a cou n t r y t o a void h a vin g su per flu it ies; bu t it is t h e n a t u r e of
com m er ce t o r en der t h e su per flu ou s u sefu l, a n d t h e u sefu l n ecessa r y. Th e st a t e
will be, t h er efor e, a ble t o a ffor d n ecessa r ies t o a m u ch gr ea t er n u m ber of
su bject s.
Let u s sa y, t h en , t h a t it is n ot t h ose n a t ion s wh o h a ve n eed of n ot h in g t h a t

m u st lose by t r a de; it is t h ose wh o h a ve n eed of ever yt h in g. It is n ot su ch people
a s h a ve a su fficien cy wit h in t h em selves, bu t t h ose wh o a r e m ost in wa n t , t h a t
will fin d a n a dva n t a ge in pu t t in g a st op t o a ll com m er cia l in t er cou r se.
2'+%,1
1. Ca esa r sa id of t h e Ga u ls t h a t t h ey wer e spoiled by t h e n eigh bou r h ood a n d
com m er ce of Ma r seilles; in som uch t h a t t h ey wh o for m er ly a lwa ys con qu er ed
t h e Ger m a n s h a d n ow becom e in fer ior t o t h em . — De B ello Gall., vi. 23.
2. H olla n d.
3. E t qu i m odo h ospes fu er a t , m on st r a t or h ospit ii. — De M oribu s Germ an oru m ,
21. See Ca esa r , De B ello Gall. vi. 21.
4. Tit . 38.
5. Cicer o, De R ep., iv.
6. J u st in , xliii. 3.
7. F a t h er Du H a lde, ii, p. 170.
8. Th is wa s fir st est a blish ed by t h e P or t u gu ese. — P ir a r d, Voyages, pa r t II, 15.
9. Act s of Na viga t ion , 1660. It is on ly in t im e of wa r t h a t t h e m er ch a n t s of
Bost on a n d P h ila delph ia sen d t h eir vessels dir ect ly t o t h e Medit er r a n ea n .
10. P u blish ed in Ca diz in Ma r ch , 1740.
11. P lu t a r ch , Again st L en d in g Upon Usu ry, 4.
12. Diodor u s, i, pa r t II, 79.
13. Th e Gr eek legisla t or s wer e t o bla m e in pr even t in g t h e a r m s a n d plou gh of
a n y m a n fr om bein g t a ken in pledge, a n d yet per m it t in g t h e t a kin g of t h e
m a n h im self. — Ibid.
14. H ypot iposes, i. 14.
15. L aw s, viii.
16. Zon a r a s.
17. Leg., Nobilior es, Cod. de Com m .; Leg. u lt . de r escin d, ven dit .
18. Th is is a ct u a lly ver y oft en t h e ca se in su ch gover n m en t s.
=''>&\\?1&@(&6"7,&5*&.%$"+5'*&+'&)'<<%.9%I&9'*,50%.%0&5*&+-%
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B1&3'<%&D%*%."$&)'*,50%."+5'*,1
Th ou gh com m er ce be su bject t o gr ea t r evolu t ion s, yet it is possible t h a t cer t a in
ph ysica l ca u ses, a s t h e qu a lit y of t h e soil, or t h e clim a t e, m a y fix it s n a t u r e for
ever .
We a t pr esen t ca r r y on t h e t r a de of t h e In dies m er ely by m ea n s of t h e silver
wh ich we sen d t h it h er . Th e Rom a n s ca r r ied a n n u a lly t h it h er about fift y m illion s
of sest er ces;1 a n d t h is silver , a s ou r s is a t pr esen t , wa s exch a n ged for
m er ch a n dise, wh ich wa s br ou gh t t o t h e west . E ver y n a t ion t h a t ever t r a ded t o
t h e In dies h a s con st a n t ly ca r r ied bu llion a n d br ou gh t m er ch a n dise in r et u r n .
It is n a t u r e it self t h a t pr odu ces t h is effect . Th e In dia n s h a ve t h eir h ea r t s
a da pt ed t o t h eir m a n n er of livin g. Ou r lu xu r y ca n n ot be t h eir s; n or t h eir s ou r
wa n t s. Th eir clim a t e dem a n ds a n d per m it s h a r dly a n yt h in g wh ich com es fr om
ou r s. Th ey go in a gr ea t m ea su r e n a ked; su ch clot h es a s t h ey h a ve t h e cou n t r y
it self fu r n ish es; a n d t h eir r eligion , wh ich is deeply r oot ed, gives t h em a n
a ver sion for t h ose t h in gs t h a t ser ve for ou r n ou r ish m en t . Th ey wa n t , t h er efor e,
n ot h in g bu t ou r bu llion t o ser ve a s t h e m ediu m of va lu e; a n d for t h is t h ey give
u s m er ch a n dise in r et u r n , wit h wh ich t h e fr u ga lit y of t h e people a n d t h e n a t u r e
of t h e cou n t r y fu r n ish t h em in gr ea t a bu n da n ce. Th ose a n cien t a u t h or s wh o
h a ve m en t ion ed t h e In dies descr ibe t h em ju st a s we n ow fin d t h em , a s t o t h eir
policy, cu st om s, a n d m a n n er s. 2 Th e In dies h a ve ever been t h e sa m e In dies t h ey
a r e a t pr esen t ; a n d in ever y per iod of t im e t h ose wh o t r a ded wit h t h a t cou n t r y
ca r r ied specie t h it h er a n d br ou gh t n on e in r et u r n .
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Th e gr ea t est pa r t of t h e people on t h e coa st of Afr ica a r e sa va ges a n d
ba r ba r ia n s. Th e pr in cipa l r ea son , I believe, of t h is is, beca u se t h e sm a ll
cou n t r ies ca pa ble of bein g in h a bit ed a r e sepa r a t ed fr om ea ch ot h er by la r ge a n d
a lm ost u n in h a bit a ble t r a ct s of la n d. Th ey a r e wit h ou t in du st r y or a r t s. Th ey
h a ve gold in a bu n da n ce, wh ich t h ey r eceive im m edia t ely fr om t h e h a n d of
n a t u r e. E ver y civilised st a t e is t h er efor e in a con dit ion t o t r a ffic wit h t h em t o
a dva n t a ge, by r a isin g t h eir est eem for t h in gs of n o va lu e, a n d r eceivin g a ver y
h igh pr ice in r et u r n .
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In E u r ope t h er e is a kin d of ba la n ce bet ween t h e sou t h er n a n d n or t h er n
n a t ion s. Th e fir st h a ve ever y con ven ien ce of life, a n d few of it s wa n t s: t h e la st
h a ve m a n y wa n t s, a n d few con ven ien ces. To on e n a t u r e h a s given m u ch , a n d
dem a n ds bu t lit t le; t o t h e ot h er sh e h a s given bu t lit t le, a n d dem a n ds a gr ea t
dea l. Th e equ ilibr iu m is m a in t a in ed by t h e la zin ess of t h e sou t h er n n a t ion s, a n d
by t h e in du st r y a n d a ct ivit y wh ich sh e h a s given t o t h ose in t h e n or t h . Th e
la t t er a r e obliged t o u n der go excessive la bou r , wit h ou t wh ich t h ey wou ld wa n t
ever yt h in g, a n d degen er a t e in t o ba r ba r ia n s. Th is h a s n eu t r a lised sla ver y t o t h e
people of t h e sou t h : a s t h ey ca n ea sily dispen se wit h r ich es, t h ey ca n m or e
ea sily dispen se wit h liber t y. Bu t t h e people of t h e n or t h h a ve n eed of liber t y, for
t h is ca n best pr ocu r e t h em t h e m ea n s of sa t isfyin g a ll t h ose wa n t s wh ich t h ey
h a ve r eceived fr om n a t u r e. Th e people of t h e n or t h , t h en , a r e in a for ced st a t e,
if t h ey a r e n ot eit h er fr ee or ba r ba r ia n s. Alm ost a ll t h e people of t h e sou t h a r e,
in som e m ea su r e, in a st a t e of violen ce, if t h ey a r e n ot sla ves.
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Th e wor ld h a s fou n d it self, fr om t im e t o t im e, in differ en t sit u a t ion s; by wh ich
t h e fa ce of com m er ce h a s been a lt er ed. Th e t r a de of E u r ope is, a t pr esen t ,
ca r r ied on pr in cipa lly fr om t h e n or t h t o t h e sou t h ; a n d t h e differ en ce of clim a t e
is t h e ca u se t h a t t h e sever a l n a t ion s h a ve gr ea t occa sion for t h e m er ch a n dise

of ea ch ot h er . F or exa m ple, t h e liqu or s of t h e sou t h , wh ich a r e ca r r ied t o t h e
n or t h , for m a com m er ce lit t le kn own t o t h e a n cien t s. Th u s t h e bu r den of vessels,
wh ich wa s for m er ly com pu t ed by m ea su r es of cor n , is a t pr esen t det er m in ed by
t u n s of liqu or .
Th e a n cien t com m er ce, so fa r a s it is kn own t o u s, wa s ca r r ied on fr om on e
por t in t h e Medit er r a n ea n t o a n ot h er ; a n d wa s a lm ost wh olly con fin ed t o t h e
sou t h . N ow t h e people of t h e sa m e clim a t e, h a vin g n ea r ly t h e sa m e t h in gs of
t h eir own , h a ve n ot t h e sa m e n eed of t r a din g a m on g t h em selves a s wit h t h ose
of a differ en t clim a t e. Th e com m er ce of E u r ope wa s t h er efor e for m er ly less
ext en ded t h a n a t pr esen t .
Th is does n ot a t a ll con t r a dict wh a t I h a ve sa id of ou r com m er ce t o t h e In dies:
for h er e t h e pr odigiou s differ en ce of clim a t e dest r oys a ll r ela t ion bet ween t h eir
wa n t s a n d ou r s.
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Com m er ce is som et im es dest r oyed by con qu er or s, som et im es cr a m ped by
m on a r ch s; it t r a ver ses t h e ea r t h , flies fr om t h e pla ces wh er e it is oppr essed, a n d
st a ys wh er e it h a s liber t y t o br ea t h : it r eign s a t pr esen t wh er e n ot h in g wa s
for m er ly t o be seen bu t deser t s, sea s, a n d r ocks; a n d wh er e it on ce r eign ed n ow
t h er e a r e on ly deser t s.
To see Colch is in it s pr esen t sit u a t ion , wh ich is n o m or e t h a n a va st for est ,
wh er e t h e people a r e ever y da y dim in ish in g, a n d on ly defen d t h eir liber t y t o sell
t h em selves by piecem ea l t o t h e Tu r ks a n d P er sia n s, on e cou ld n ever im a gin e
t h a t t h is cou n t r y h a d ever , in t h e t im e of t h e Rom a n s, been fu ll of cit ies, wh er e
com m er ce con ven ed a ll t h e n a t ion s of t h e wor ld. We fin d n o m on u m en t of t h ese
fa ct s in t h e cou n t r y it self; t h er e a r e n o t r a ces of t h em , except in P lin y3 a n d
St r a bo. 4
Th e h ist or y of com m er ce is t h a t of t h e com m u n ica t ion of people. Th eir
n u m er ou s defea t s, a n d t h e flu x a n d r eflu x of popu la t ion s a n d deva st a t ion s, h er e
for m t h e m ost ext r a or din a r y even t s.
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Th e im m en se t r ea su r es of Sem ir a m is, 5 wh ich cou ld n ot be a cqu ir ed in a da y,
give u s r ea son t o believe t h a t t h e Assyr ia n s t h em selves h a d pilla ged ot h er r ich
n a t ion s, a s ot h er n a t ion s a ft er wa r ds pilla ged t h em .
Th e effect of com m er ce is r ich es; t h e con sequ en ce of r ich es, lu xu r y; a n d t h a t
of lu xu r y t h e per fect ion of a r t s. We fin d t h a t t h e a r t s wer e ca r r ied t o gr ea t
per fect ion in t h e t im e of Sem ir a m is;6 wh ich is a su fficien t in dica t ion t h a t a
con sider a ble com m er ce wa s t h en est a blish ed.
In t h e em pir es of Asia t h er e wa s a gr ea t com m er ce of lu xu r y. Th e h ist or y of
lu xu r y wou ld m a ke a fin e pa r t of t h a t of com m er ce. Th e lu xu r y of t h e P er sia n s
wa s t h a t of t h e Medes, a s t h e lu xu r y of t h e Medes wa s t h a t of t h e Assyr ia n s.
Gr ea t r evolu t ion s h a ve h a ppen ed in Asia . Th e n or t h ea st pa r t s of P er sia , viz.,
H yr ca n ia , Ma r gia na , Ba ctria , &c., wer e for m er ly fu ll of flou r ish in g cit ies, 7 wh ich
a r e n ow n o m or e; a n d t h e n or t h of t h is em pir e,8 t h a t is, t h e ist h m u s wh ich
sepa r a t es t h e Ca spia n a n d t h e E u xin e Sea s, wa s cover ed wit h cit ies a n d
n a t ion s, wh ich a r e n ow dest r oyed.
E r a t ost h en es a n d Ar ist obu lu s 9 lea r n ed fr om P a t r oclu s 10 t h a t t h e m er ch a n dise
of In dia pa ssed by t h e Oxu s in t o t h e sea of P on t u s. Ma r cu s Va r r o11 t ells u s t h a t
a t t h e t im e wh en P om pey com m a n ded a ga in st Mit h r ida t es, t h ey wer e in for m ed
t h a t people wen t in seven da ys fr om In dia t o t h e cou n t r y of t h e Ba ct r ia n s, a n d
t o t h e r iver Ica r u s, wh ich fa lls in t o t h e Oxu s; t h a t by t h is m et h od t h ey wer e
a ble t o br in g t h e m er ch a n dise of In dia a cr oss t h e Ca spia n Sea , a n d t o en t er t h e
m ou t h of Cyr u s; wh en ce it wa s on ly five da ys’ pa ssa ge t o t h e P h a sis, a r iver t h a t
disch a r ges it self in t o t h e E u xin e Sea . Th er e is n o dou bt bu t it wa s by t h e
n a t ion s in h a bit in g t h ese sever a l cou n t r ies t h a t t h e gr ea t em pir es of t h e
Assyr ia n s, Medes, a n d P er sia n s h a d com m u n ica t ion wit h t h e m ost dist a n t pa r t s
of t h e ea st a n d west .
An en t ir e st op is n ow pu t t o t h is com m u n ica t ion . All t h ese cou n t r ies h a ve been
la id wa st e by t h e Ta r t a r s, 12 a n d a r e st ill in fest ed by t h is dest r u ct ive n a t ion . Th e
Oxu s n o lon ger r u n s in t o t h e Ca spia n Sea ; t h e Ta r t a r s, for som e pr iva t e
r ea son s, h a ve ch a n ged it s cou r se, a n d it n ow loses it self in t h e ba r r en sa n ds. 13
Th e J a xa r t es, wh ich wa s for m er ly a ba r r ier bet ween t h e polit e a n d ba r ba r ou s
n a t ion s, h a s h a d it s cou r se t u r n ed in t h e sa m e m a n n er by t h e Ta r t a r s, a n d it
n o lon ger em pt ies it self in t o t h e sea .14

Seleu cu s Nica t or for m ed t h e pr oject of join in g t h e E u xin e t o t h e Ca spia n
Sea . 15 Th is pr oject , wh ich wou ld h a ve gr ea t ly fa cilit a t ed t h e com m er ce of t h ose
da ys, va n ish ed a t h is dea t h . 16 We a r e n ot cer t a in it cou ld h a ve been execu t ed in
t h e ist h m u s wh ich sepa r a t es t h e t wo sea s. Th is cou n t r y is a t pr esen t ver y lit t le
kn own ; it is depopu la t ed, a n d fu ll of for est s; h owever , wa t er is n ot wa n t in g, for
a n in fin it e n u m ber of r iver s r oll in t o it fr om Mou n t Ca u ca su s; bu t a s t h is
m ou n t a in for m s t h e n or t h of t h e ist h m u s, a n d ext en ds like t wo a r m s 17 t owa r ds
t h e sou t h , it wou ld h a ve been a gr a n d obst a cle t o su ch a n en t er pr ise, especia lly
in t h ose t im es, wh en t h ey h a d n ot t h e a r t of m a kin g slu ices.
It m a y be im a gin ed t h a t Seleu cu s wou ld h a ve join ed t h e t wo sea s in t h e ver y
pla ce wh er e P et er I h a s sin ce join ed t h em ; t h a t is, in t h a t n eck of la n d wh er e
t h e Ta n a is a ppr oa ch es t h e Volga ; bu t t h e n or t h of t h e Ca spia n Sea wa s n ot t h en
discover ed.
Wh ile t h e em pir es of Asia en joyed t h e com m er ce of lu xu r y, t h e Tyr ia n s h a d
t h e com m er ce of econ om y, wh ich t h ey ext en ded t h r ou gh ou t t h e wor ld. Boch a r d
h a s em ployed t h e fir st book of h is Ca n a a n in en u m er a t in g a ll t h e colon ies wh ich
t h ey sen t in t o a ll t h e cou n t r ies bor der in g u pon t h e sea ; t h ey pa ssed t h e pilla r s
of H er cu les, a n d m a de est a blish m en t s on t h e coa st s of t h e ocea n .18
In t h ose t im es t h eir pilot s wer e obliged t o follow t h e coa st s, wh ich wer e, if I
m a y so expr ess m yself, t h eir com pa ss. Voya ges wer e lon g a n d pa in fu l. Th e
la bor iou s voya ge of Ulysses h a s been t h e fr u it fu l su bject of t h e fin est poem in
t h e wor ld, n ext t o t h a t wh ich a lon e h a s t h e pr efer en ce.
Th e lit t le kn owledge wh ich t h e gr ea t est pa r t of t h e wor ld h a d of t h ose wh o
wer e fa r dist a n t fr om t h em fa vou r ed t h e n a t ion s en ga ged in t h e econ om ica l
com m er ce. Th ey m a n a ged t r a de wit h a s m u ch obscu r it y a s t h ey plea sed; t h ey
h a d a ll t h e a dva n t a ges wh ich t h e m ost in t elligen t n a t ion s cou ld t a ke over t h e
m ost ign or a n t .
Th e E gypt ia n s — a people wh o by t h eir r eligion a n d t h eir m a n n er s wer e
a ver se t o a ll com m u n ica t ion wit h st r a n ger s — h a d sca r cely a t t h a t t im e a n y
for eign t r a de. Th ey en joyed a fr u it fu l soil a n d gr ea t plen t y. Th eir cou n t r y wa s
t h e J a pa n of t h ose t im es; it possessed ever yt h in g wit h in it self.
So lit t le jea lou s wer e t h ese people of com m er ce, t h a t t h ey left t h a t of t h e Red
Sea t o a ll t h e pet t y n a t ion s t h a t h a d a n y h a r bou r s in it . H er e t h ey su ffer ed t h e

Idu m ea n s, t h e Syr ia n s a n d t h e J ews t o h a ve fleet s. Solom on em ployed in t h is
n a viga t ion t h e Tyr ia n s, wh o kn ew t h ose sea s. 19
J oseph u s 20 sa ys t h a t t h is n a t ion , bein g en t ir ely em ployed in a gr icu lt u r e, kn ew
lit t le of n a viga t ion : t h e J ews, t h er efor e, t r a ded on ly occa sion a lly in t h e Red Sea .
Th ey t ook fr om t h e Idu m ea n s E lot h a n d E zion geber , fr om wh om t h ey r eceived
t h is com m er ce; t h ey lost t h ese t wo cit ies, a n d wit h t h em lost t h is com m er ce.
It wa s n ot so wit h t h e P h oen icia n s: t h eir s wa s n ot a com m er ce of lu xu r y; n or
wa s t h eir t r a de owin g t o con qu est ; t h eir fr u ga lit y, t h eir a bilit ies, t h eir in du st r y,
t h eir per ils, a n d t h e h a r dsh ips t h ey su ffer ed, r en der ed t h em n ecessa r y t o a ll t h e
n a t ion s of t h e wor ld.
Befor e Alexa n der , t h e people bor der in g on t h e Red Sea t r a ded on ly in t h is sea ,
a n d in t h a t of Afr ica . Th e a st on ish m en t wh ich filled t h e globe a t t h e discover y
of t h e In dia n Sea , u n der t h a t con qu er or , is a su fficien t pr oof of t h is. I h a ve
obser ved 21 t h a t bu llion wa s a lwa ys ca r r ied t o t h e In dies, a n d n ever a n y br ou gh t
t h en ce; n ow t h e J ewish fleet s, wh ich br ou gh t gold a n d silver by t h e wa y of t h e
Red Sea , r et u r n ed fr om Afr ica , a n d n ot fr om t h e In dies.22
Besides, t h is n a viga t ion wa s m a de on t h e ea st er n coa st of Afr ica ; for t h e st a t e
of n a viga t ion a t t h a t t im e is a con vin cin g pr oof t h a t t h ey did n ot sa il t o a ver y
dist a n t sh or e.
I a m n ot ign or a n t t h a t t h e fleet s of Solom on a n d J eh osh a ph a t r et u r n ed on ly
ever y t h r ee yea r s; bu t I do n ot see t h a t t h e t im e t a ken u p in t h e voya ge is a n y
pr oof of t h e gr ea t n ess of t h e dist a n ce.
P lin y a n d St r a bo in for m u s t h a t t h e ju n ks of In dia a n d t h e Red Sea wer e
t wen t y da ys in per for m in g a voya ge wh ich a Gr eek or Rom a n vessel wou ld
a ccom plish in seven . 23 In t h is pr opor t ion , a voya ge of on e yea r , m a de by t h e
fleet s of Gr eece or Rom e, wou ld t a ke ver y n ea r ly t h r ee wh en per for m ed by t h ose
of Solom on . Two sh ips of u n equ a l swift n ess do n ot per for m t h eir voya ge in a
t im e pr opor t ion a t e t o t h eir swift n ess. Slown ess is fr equ en t ly t h e ca u se of m u ch
gr ea t er slown ess. Wh en it becom es n ecessa r y t o follow t h e coa st , a n d t o be
in cessa n t ly in a differ en t posit ion , wh en t h ey m u st wa it for a fa ir win d t o get
ou t of a gu lf, a n d for a n ot h er t o pr oceed, a good sa ilor t a kes t h e a dva n t a ge of
ever y fa vou r a ble m om en t , wh ile t h e ot h er st ill con t in u es in a difficu lt sit u a t ion ,
a n d wa it s m a n y da ys for a n ot h er ch a n ge.
Th e slown ess of t h e In dia n vessels, wh ich in a n equ a l t im e cou ld m a ke bu t t h e
t h ir d of t h e wa y of t h ose of t h e Gr eeks a n d Rom a n s, m a y be expla in ed by wh a t
we ever y da y see in ou r m oder n n a viga t ion . Th e In dia n vessels, wh ich wer e
bu ilt wit h a kin d of sea -r u sh es, dr ew less wa t er t h a n t h ose of Gr eece a n d Rom e,
wh ich wer e of wood a n d join ed wit h ir on .
We m a y com pa r e t h ese In dia n vessels t o t h ose a t pr esen t m a de u se of in por t s
of lit t le dept h of wa t er . Su ch a r e t h ose of Ven ice, a n d even of a ll It a ly in
gen er a l 24 of t h e Ba lt ic, a n d of t h e pr ovin ce of H olla n d. 25 Th eir sh ips, wh ich
ou gh t t o be a ble t o go in a n d ou t of por t , a r e bu ilt r ou n d a n d br oa d a t t h e
bot t om ; wh ile t h ose of ot h er n a t ion s, wh o h a ve good h a r bou r s, a r e for m ed t o
sin k deep in t o t h e wa t er . Th is m ech a n ism r en der s t h ese la st -m en t ion ed vessels
a ble t o sa il m u ch n ea r er t h e win d; wh ile t h e fir st ca n h a r dly sa il, except t h e
win d be n ea r ly in t h e poop. A sh ip t h a t sin ks deep in t o t h e wa t er sa ils t owa r ds
t h e sa m e side wit h a lm ost ever y win d; t h is pr oceeds fr om t h e r esist a n ce wh ich
t h e vessel, wh ile dr iven by t h e win d, m eet s wit h fr om t h e wa t er , fr om wh ich it
r eceives a st r on g su ppor t ; a n d fr om t h e len gt h of t h e vessel wh ich pr esen t s it s
side t o t h e win d, wh ile, fr om t h e for m of t h e h elm , t h e pr ow is t u r n ed t o t h e
poin t pr oposed; so t h a t sh e ca n sa il ver y n ea r t h e win d, or , in ot h er wor ds, ver y
n ea r t h e poin t wh en ce t h e win d blows. Bu t wh en t h e h u ll is r ou n d a n d br oa d a t
t h e bot t om , a n d con sequ en t ly dr a ws lit t le wa t er , it n o lon ger fin ds t h is st ea dy
su ppor t ; t h e win d dr ives t h e vessel, wh ich is in ca pa ble of r esist a n ce, a n d ca n
r u n t h em bu t wit h a sm a ll va r ia t ion fr om t h e poin t opposit e t o t h e win d.
Whence it follows t h a t br oa d-bot t om ed vessels a r e lon ger in per for m ing voyages.
1. Th ey lose m u ch t im e in wa it in g for t h e win d, especia lly if t h ey a r e obliged
fr equ en t ly t o ch a n ge t h eir cou r se, 2. Th ey sa il m u ch slower , beca u se n ot h a vin g
a pr oper su ppor t fr om a dept h of wa t er , t h ey ca n n ot ca r r y so m u ch sa il. If t h is
be t h e ca se a t a t im e wh en t h e a r t s a r e ever ywh er e kn own , a t a t im e wh en a r t
cor r ect s t h e defect s of n a t u r e, a n d even of a r t it self; if a t t h is t im e, I sa y, we fin d
t h is differ en ce, h ow gr ea t m u st t h a t h a ve been in t h e n a viga t ion of t h e
a n cien t s?
I ca n n ot yet lea ve t h is su bject . Th e In dia n vessels wer e sm a ll, a n d t h ose of t h e
Gr eeks a n d Rom a n s, if we except t h ose m a ch in es bu ilt for ost en t a t ion , m u ch
less t h a n ou r s. N ow, t h e sm a ller t h e vessel t h e gr ea t er da n ger it en cou n t er s

fr om fou l wea t h er . A t em pest t h a t wou ld swa llow u p a sm a ll vessel wou ld on ly
m a ke a la r ge on e r oll. Th e m or e on e body su r pa sses a n ot h er in size, t h e m or e
it s su r fa ce is r ela t ively sm a ll. Wh en ce it follows t h a t in a sm a ll sh ip t h er e is a
less pr opor t ion , t h a t is, a gr ea t er differ en ce in r espect t o t h e su r fa ce of t h e
vessel, com pa r ed wit h t h e weigh t or la din g sh e ca n ca r r y, t h a n in a la r ge on e.
We kn ow t h a t it is a pr et t y gen er a l pr a ct ice t o m a ke t h e weigh t of t h e la din g
equ a l t o t h a t of h a lf t h e wa t er t h e vessel cou ld con t a in . Su ppose a vessel will
con t a in eigh t h u n dr ed t on s, h er la din g t h en m u st be fou r h u n dr ed; a n d t h a t of
a vessel wh ich wou ld h old bu t fou r h u n dr ed t on s of wa t er wou ld be t wo h u n dr ed
t on s. Th u s t h e la r gen ess of t h e fir st sh ip will be t o t h e weigh t sh e ca r r ies a s 8
t o 4, a n d t h a t of t h e secon d a s 4 t o 2. Let u s su ppose, t h en , t h a t t h e su r fa ce of
t h e gr ea t er is t o t h e su r fa ce of t h e sm a ller a s 8 t o 6; t h e su r fa ce of t h e la t t er will
be t o h er weigh t a s 6 t o 2, 26 wh ile t h e su r fa ce of t h e for m er will be t o h er weigh t
on ly a s 8 t o 4. Th er efor e a s t h e win ds a n d wa ves a ct on ly u pon t h e su r fa ce, t h e
la r ge vessel will, by h er weigh t , r esist t h eir im pet u osit y m u ch m or e t h a n t h e
sm a ll.
P1&@(&+-%&)'<<%.9%&'(&+-%&A.%%>,1
Th e fir st Gr eeks wer e a ll pir a t es. Min os, wh o en joyed t h e em pir e of t h e sea ,
wa s on ly m or e su ccessfu l, per h a ps, t h a n ot h er s in pir a cy; for h is m a r it im e
dom in ion ext en ded n o fa r t h er t h a n r ou n d h is own isle. Bu t wh en t h e Gr eeks
beca m e a gr ea t people, t h e At h en ia n s obt a in ed t h e r ea l dom in ion of t h e sea ;
beca u se t h is t r a din g a n d vict or iou s n a t ion ga ve la ws t o t h e m ost pot en t
m on a r ch of t h a t t im e,27 a n d h u m bled t h e m a r it im e power s of Syr ia , of t h e isle
of Cypr u s, a n d P h oen icia .
Bu t t h is At h en ia n lor dsh ip of t h e sea deser ves t o be m or e pa r t icu la r ly
m en t ion ed. “At h en s,” sa ys Xen oph on , 28 “r u les t h e sea ; bu t a s t h e cou n t r y of
At t ica is join ed t o t h e con t in en t , it is r a va ged by en em ies wh ile t h e At h en ia n s
a r e en ga ged in dist a n t expedit ion s. Th eir lea der s su ffer t h eir la n ds t o be
dest r oyed, a n d secu r e t h eir wea lt h by sen din g it t o som e isla n d. Th e popu la ce,
wh o a r e n ot possessed of la n ds, h a ve n o u n ea sin ess. Bu t if t h e At h en ia n s
in h a bit ed a n isla n d, a n d, besides t h is, en joyed t h e em pir e of t h e sea , t h ey
wou ld, so lon g a s t h ey wer e possessed of t h ese a dva n t a ges, be a ble t o a n n oy

ot h er s, a n d a t t h e sa m e t im e t o be ou t of a ll da n ger of bein g a n n oyed.” On e
wou ld im a gin e t h a t Xen oph on wa s spea kin g of E n gla n d.
Th e At h en ia n s, a people wh ose h ea ds wer e filled wit h a m bit iou s pr oject s; t h e
At h en ia n s, wh o a u gm en t ed t h eir jea lou sy in st ea d of in cr ea sin g t h eir in flu en ce;
wh o wer e m or e a t t en t ive t o ext en d t h eir m a r it im e em pir e t h a n t o en joy it ;
wh ose polit ica l gover n m en t wa s su ch t h a t t h e com m on people dist r ibu t ed t h e
pu blic r even u es a m on g t h em selves, wh ile t h e r ich wer e in a st a t e of oppr ession ;
t h e At h en ia n s, I sa y, did n ot ca r r y on so ext en sive a com m er ce a s m igh t be
expect ed fr om t h e pr odu ce of t h eir m in es, fr om t h e m u lt it u de of t h eir sla ves,
fr om t h e n u m ber of t h eir sea m en , fr om t h eir in flu en ce over t h e cit ies of Gr eece,
a n d, a bove a ll, fr om t h e excellen t in st it u t ion s of Solon . Th eir t r a de wa s a lm ost
wh olly con fin ed t o Gr eece a n d t o t h e E u xin e Sea , wh en ce t h ey dr ew t h eir
su bsist en ce.
Cor in t h wa s a dm ir a bly sit u a t ed; it sepa r a t ed t wo sea s, a n d open ed a n d sh u t
t h e P elopon n esu s; it wa s t h e key of Gr eece, a n d a cit y of t h e gr ea t est
im por t a n ce, a t a t im e wh en t h e people of Gr eece wer e a wor ld, a n d t h e cit ies of
Gr eece n a t ion s. It s t r a de wa s m or e ext en sive t h a n t h a t of At h en s, h a vin g a por t
t o r eceive t h e m er ch a n dise of Asia , a n d a n ot h er t h ose of It a ly; for t h e gr ea t
difficu lt ies wh ich a t t en ded t h e dou blin g Ca pe Ma lea , wh er e t h e m eet in g of
opposit e win ds ca u ses sh ipwr ecks, 29 in du ced ever y on e t o go t o Cor in t h , a n d
t h ey cou ld even con vey t h eir vessels over la n d fr om on e sea t o t h e ot h er . Never
wa s t h er e a cit y in wh ich t h e wor ks of a r t wer e ca r r ied t o so h igh a degr ee of
per fect ion . Bu t h er e r eligion fin ish ed t h e cor r u pt ion wh ich t h eir opu len ce bega n .
Th ey er ect ed a t em ple t o Ven u s, in wh ich m or e t h a n a t h ou sa n d cou r t esa n s
wer e con secr a t ed t o t h a t deit y; fr om t h is sem in a r y ca m e t h e gr ea t est pa r t of
t h ose celebr a t ed bea u t ies wh ose h ist or y At h en a eu s h a s pr esu m ed t o com m it t o
wr it in g.
It seem s t h a t in H om er ’s t im e t h e opu len ce of Gr eece cen t r ed in Rh odes,
Cor in t h , a n d Or ch om en u s; “J u pit er ,” h e sa ys, “loved t h e Rh odia n s, a n d m a de
t h em a ver y wea lt h y n a t ion .”30 On Cor in t h h e best ows t h e epit h et of r ich .31 In
like m a n n er , wh en h e spea ks of cit ies t h a t h a ve plen t y of gold, h e m en t ion s
Or ch om en u s, t o wh ich h e join s Th ebes in E gypt . Rh odes a n d Cor in t h pr eser ved
t h eir power ; bu t Or ch om en u s lost h er s. Th e sit u a t ion of Or ch om en u s in t h e

n eigh bou r h ood of t h e H ellespon t , t h e P r opon t is, a n d t h e E u xin e Sea m a kes u s
n a t u r a lly im a gin e t h a t sh e wa s in debt ed for h er opu len ce t o a t r a de a lon g t h a t
m a r it im e coa st , wh ich h a d given r ise t o t h e fa ble of t h e golden fleece; a n d,
in deed, t h e n a m e of Min yeios h a s been given t o Or ch om en u s a s well a s t o t h e
Ar gon a u t s.32 Bu t t h ese sea s becom in g a ft er wa r ds m or e fr equ en t ed, t h e Gr eeks
pla n t ed a lon g t h e coa st s a gr ea t er n u m ber of colon ies, wh ich t r a ded wit h t h e
ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s, a n d a t t h e sa m e t im e pr eser ved a n in t er cou r se wit h t h eir
m ot h er cou n t r y. In con sequ en ce of t h is, Or ch om en u s bega n t o declin e, t ill a t
len gt h it wa s lost in t h e cr owd of t h e ot h er cit ies of Gr eece.
Befor e H om er ’s t im e t h e Gr eeks h a d sca r cely a n y t r a de bu t a m on g
t h em selves, a n d wit h a few ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s; in pr opor t ion , h owever , a s t h ey
for m ed n ew colon ies, t h ey ext en ded t h eir dom in ion . Gr eece wa s a la r ge
pen in su la , t h e ca pes of wh ich seem ed t o h a ve kept off t h e sea s, wh ile it s gu lfs
open ed on a ll sides t o r eceive t h em . if we ca st a n eye on Gr eece, we sh a ll fin d,
in a pr et t y com pa ct cou n t r y, a con sider a ble ext en t of sea -coa st . H er
in n u m er a ble colon ies for m ed a n im m en se cir cle r ou n d h er ; a n d t h er e sh e
beh eld, in som e m ea su r e, t h e wh ole civilised wor ld. Did sh e pen et r a t e in t o Sicily
a n d It a ly, sh e for m ed n ew n a t ion s. Did sh e n a viga t e t owa r ds t h e sea of P on t u s,
t h e coa st of Asia Min or , or t h a t of Afr ica , sh e a ct ed in t h e sa m e m a n n er . H er
cit ies in cr ea sed in pr osper it y in pr opor t ion a s t h ey h a ppen ed t o h a ve n ew people
in t h eir n eigh bou r h ood. An d wh a t wa s ext r em ely bea u t ifu l, sh e wa s su r r ou n ded
on ever y side wit h a pr odigiou s n u m ber of isla n ds, dr a wn , a s it wer e, in a lin e
of cir cu m va lla t ion .
Wh a t a sou r ce of pr osper it y m u st Gr eece h a ve fou n d in t h ose ga m es wit h
wh ich sh e en t er t a in ed, in som e m ea su r e, t h e wh ole globe; in t h ose t em ples, t o
wh ich a ll t h e kin gs of t h e ea r t h sen t t h eir offer in gs; in t h ose fest iva ls, a t wh ich
su ch a con cou r se of people u sed t o a ssem ble fr om a ll pa r t s; in t h ose or a cles, t o
wh ich t h e a t t en t ion of a ll m a n kin d wa s dir ect ed; a n d, in sh or t , in t h a t exqu isit e
t a st e for t h e polit e a r t s, wh ich sh e ca r r ied t o su ch a h eigh t t h a t t o expect ever
t o su r pa ss h er wou ld be on ly bet r a yin g ou r ign or a n ce!
Q1&@(&:$%V"*0%.a&-5,&)'*XF%,+,1&
F ou r gr ea t even t s h a ppen ed in t h e r eign of Alexa n der wh ich en t ir ely ch a n ged
t h e fa ce of com m er ce: t h e t a kin g of Tyr e, t h e con qu est of E gypt , t h a t likewise
of t h e In dies, a n d t h e discover y of t h e sea wh ich lies sou t h of t h a t cou n t r y.
Th e em pir e of P er sia ext en ded t o t h e In du s. 33 Da r iu s, lon g befor e Alexa n der ,
h a d sen t som e vessels, wh ich sa iled down t h is r iver , a n d pa ssed even in t o t h e
Red Sea .34 H ow t h en wer e t h e Gr eeks t h e fir st wh o t r a ded wit h t h e In dies by
t h e sou t h ? H a d n ot t h e P er sia n s don e t h is befor e? Did t h ey m a ke n o a dva n t a ge
of sea s wh ich wer e so n ea r t h em , of t h e ver y sea s t h a t wa sh ed t h eir coa st s?
Alexa n der , it is t r u e, con qu er ed t h e In dies; bu t wa s it n ecessa r y for h im t o
con qu er a cou n t r y in or der t o t r a de wit h it ? Th is is wh a t I sh a ll n ow exa m in e.
Ar ia n a , 35 wh ich ext en ded fr om t h e P er sia n Gu lf a s fa r a s t h e In du s, a n d fr om
t h e Sou t h Sea t o t h e m ou n t a in s of P a r opa m isu s, depen ded in deed, in som e
m ea su r e, on t h e em pir e of P er sia ; bu t in t h e sou t h er n pa r t it wa s ba r r en ,
scor ch ed, r u de, a n d u n cu lt iva t ed. Tr a dit ion r ela t es 36 t h a t t h e a r m ies of
Sem ir a m is a n d Cyr u s per ish ed in t h ese deser t s; a n d Alexa n der , wh o ca u sed h is
fleet t o follow h im , cou ld n ot a void losin g in t h is pla ce a gr ea t pa r t of h is a r m y.
Th e P er sia n s left t h e wh ole coa st t o t h e Ich t h yoph a gi, 37 t h e Or it a e, a n d ot h er
ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s. Besides, t h e P er sia n s wer e n o gr ea t sa ilor s,38 a n d t h eir ver y
r eligion deba r r ed t h em fr om en t er t a in in g a n y su ch n ot ion a s t h a t of a m a r it im e
com m er ce. Th e voya ge u n der t a ken by Da r iu s’s dir ect ion u pon t h e In du s a n d t h e
In dia n Sea pr oceeded r a t h er fr om t h e ca pr iciou sn ess of a pr in ce va in ly
a m bit iou s of sh owin g h is power t h a n fr om a n y set t led r egu la r pr oject . It wa s
a t t en ded wit h n o con sequ en ce eit h er t o t h e a dva n t a ge of com m er ce or of
n a viga t ion . Th ey em er ged fr om t h eir ign or a n ce on ly t o plu n ge in t o it a ga in .
Besides, it wa s a r eceived opin ion 39 befor e t h e expedit ion of Alexa n der t h a t t h e
sou t h er n pa r t s of In dia wer e u n in h a bit a ble.40 Th is pr oceeded fr om a t r a dit ion
t h a t Sem ir a m is 41 h a d br ou gh t ba ck t h en ce on ly t wen t y m en , a n d Cyr u s bu t
seven .
Alexa n der en t er ed by t h e n or t h . H is design wa s t o m a r ch t owa r ds t h e ea st ;
bu t h a vin g fou n d a pa r t of t h e sou t h fu ll of gr ea t n a t ion s, cit ies, a n d r iver s, h e
a t t em pt ed t o con qu er it , a n d su cceeded.
H e t h en for m ed a design of u n it in g t h e In dies t o t h e west er n n a t ion s by a
m a r it im e com m er ce, a s h e h a d a lr ea dy u n it ed t h em by t h e colon ies h e h a d

est a blish ed by la n d.
H e or der ed a fleet t o be bu ilt on t h e H yda spes, t h en fell down t h a t r iver ,
en t er ed t h e In du s, a n d sa iled even t o it s m ou t h . H e left h is a r m y a n d h is fleet
a t P a t a la , wen t h im self wit h a few vessels t o view t h e sea , a n d m a r ked t h e
pla ces wh er e h e wou ld h a ve por t s t o be open ed a n d a r sen a ls er ect ed. Upon h is
r et u r n fr om P a t a la h e sepa r a t ed t h e fleet , a n d t ook t h e r ou t e by la n d, for t h e
m u t u a l su ppor t of fleet a n d a r m y. Th e fleet followed t h e coa st fr om t h e In du s
a lon g t h e ba n ks of t h e cou n t r y of t h e Or it a e, of t h e Ich t h yoph a gi, of Ca r m a n ia
a n d P er sia . H e ca u sed wells t o be du g, bu ilt cit ies, a n d wou ld n ot su ffer t h e
Ich t h yoph a gi t o live on fish ,42 bein g desir ou s of h a vin g t h e bor der s of t h e sea
in h a bit ed by civilised n a t ion s. Nea r ch u s a n d On esecr it u s wr ot e a jou r n a l of t h is
voya ge, wh ich wa s per for m ed in t en m on t h s. Th ey a r r ived a t Su sa , wh er e t h ey
fou n d Alexa n der , wh o ga ve a n en t er t a in m en t t o h is wh ole a r m y.
Th is pr in ce h a d fou n ded Alexa n dr ia , wit h a view of secu r in g h is con qu est of
E gypt ; t h is wa s a key t o open it , in t h e ver y pla ce wh er e t h e kin gs h is
pr edecessor s h a d a key t o sh u t it ;43 a n d h e h a d n ot t h e lea st t h ou gh t of a
com m er ce of wh ich t h e discover y of t h e In dia n Sea cou ld a lon e give h im t h e
idea .
It even seem s t h a t a ft er h is discover y h e h a d n o n ew design in r ega r d t o
Alexa n dr ia . H e h a d, in deed, a gen er a l sch em e of open in g a t r a de bet ween t h e
E a st In dies a n d t h e west er n pa r t s of h is em pir e; bu t a s for t h e pr oject of
con du ct in g t h is com m er ce t h r ou gh E gypt , h is kn owledge wa s t oo im per fect t o
be a ble t o for m a n y su ch design . It is t r u e h e h a d seen t h e In du s, h e h a d seen
t h e Nile, bu t h e k n ew n ot h in g of t h e Ar a bia n sea s bet ween t h e t wo r iver s.
Sca r cely h a d h e r et u r n ed fr om In dia wh en h e fit t ed ou t n ew fleet s, a n d
n a viga t ed on t h e E u leu s,44 t h e Tigr is, t h e E u ph r a t es, a n d t h e ocea n ; h e r em oved
t h e ca t a r a ct s, wit h wh ich t h e P er sia n s h a d en cu m ber ed t h ose r iver s; a n d h e
discover ed t h a t t h e P er sia n Gu lf wa s a br a n ch of t h e m a in sea . Bu t a s h e wen t
t o view t h is sea 45 in t h e sa m e m a n n er a s h e h a d don e in r espect t o t h a t of In dia ;
a s h e ca u sed a por t t o be open ed for a t h ou sa n d sh ips, a n d a r sen a ls t o be
er ect ed a t Ba bylon ; a s h e sen t five h u n dr ed t a len t s in t o P h oen icia a n d Syr ia , t o
dr a w m a r in er s in t o t h is ser vice wh om h e in t en ded t o dist r ibu t e in t h e colon ies
a lon g t h e coa st ; in fin e, a s h e ca u sed im m en se wor ks t o be er ect ed on t h e

E u ph r a t es, a n d t h e ot h er r iver s of Assyr ia , t h er e cou ld be n o dou bt bu t h e
design ed t o ca r r y on t h e com m er ce of In dia by t h e wa y of Ba bylon a n d t h e
P er sia n Gu lf.
Th er e a r e som e wh o pr et en d t h a t Alexa n der wa n t ed t o su bdu e Ar a bia , 46 a n d
h a d for m ed a design t o m a ke it t h e sea t of h is em pir e: bu t h ow cou ld h e h a ve
pit ch ed u pon a pla ce wit h wh ich h e wa s en t ir ely u n a cqu a in t ed?47 Besides, of a ll
cou n t r ies, t h is wou ld h a ve been t h e m ost in con ven ien t t o h im ; for it wou ld h a ve
sepa r a t ed h im fr om t h e r est of h is em pir e. Th e Ca liph s, wh o m a de dist a n t
con qu est s, soon wit h dr ew fr om Ar a bia t o r eside elsewh er e.
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:$%V"*0%.1
At t h e t im e wh en Alexa n der m a de t h e con qu est of E gypt , t h ey h a d bu t a ver y
im per fect idea of t h e Red Sea , a n d n on e a t a ll of t h e ocea n , wh ich , join in g t h is
sea , on on e side wa sh es t h e coa st of Afr ica , a n d on t h e ot h er t h a t of Ar a bia ; n a y,
t h ey t h ou gh t it im possible t o sa il r ou n d t h e pen in su la of Ar a bia . Th ey wh o
a t t em pt ed it on ea ch side h a d r elin qu ish ed t h eir design . “H ow is it possible,”
sa id t h ey, 48 “t o n a viga t e t o t h e sou t h er n coa st of Ar a bia , wh en Ca m byses’ a r m y,
wh ich t r a ver sed it on t h e n or t h side, a lm ost en t ir ely per ish ed; a n d t h e for ces
wh ich P t olem y, t h e son of La gu s, sen t t o t h e a ssist a n ce of Seleu cu s Nica t or a t
Ba bylon , u n der wen t in cr edible h a r dsh ips, a n d, u pon a ccou n t of t h e h ea t , cou ld
m a r ch on ly in t h e n igh t ?”
Th e P er sia n s wer e en t ir e st r a n ger s t o n a viga t ion . Wh en t h ey h a d su bdu ed
E gypt , t h ey in t r odu ced t h e sa m e spir it in t o t h a t cou n t r y a s pr eva iled in P er sia :
h en ce, so gr ea t wa s t h e su pin en ess of t h e P er sia n s in t h is r espect , t h a t t h e
Gr ecia n kin gs fou n d t h em qu it e st r a n ger s, n ot on ly t o t h e com m er ce of t h e
Tyr ia n s, Idu m ea n s, a n d t h e J ews on t h e ocea n , bu t even t o t h e n a viga t ion of t h e
Red Sea . I a m a pt t o t h in k t h a t t h e dest r u ct ion of t h e fir st Tyr e by
Nebu ch a dn ezza r , t oget h er wit h t h e su bver sion of sever a l pet t y n a t ion s a n d
t own s bor der in g on t h e Red Sea , h a d oblit er a t ed a ll t h eir for m er kn owledge of
com m er ce.
E gypt , a t t h e t im e of t h e P er sia n m on a r ch y, did n ot fr on t t h e Red Sea ; it
con t a in ed on ly t h a t lon g n a r r ow n eck of la n d wh ich t h e Nile cover s wit h it s

in u n da t ion s, a n d is en closed on bot h sides by a ch a in of m ou n t a in s. 49 Th ey wer e,
t h er efor e, u n der t h e n ecessit y of m a kin g a secon d discover y of t h e ocea n a n d t h e
Red Sea ; a n d t h is discover y en ga ged t h e cu r iosit y of t h e Gr ecia n m on a r ch s.
Th ey a scen ded t h e Nile, a n d h u n t ed a ft er eleph a n t s in t h e cou n t r ies sit u a t ed
bet ween t h a t r iver a n d t h e sea ; by t h is pr ogr ession t h ey t r a ced t h e sea -coa st ;
a n d a s t h e discover ies wer e m a de by t h e Gr eeks, t h e n a m es a r e a ll Gr ecia n , a n d
t h e t em ples a r e con - secr a t ed t o Gr eek divin it ies. 50
Th e Gr eeks set t led in E gypt wer e a ble t o com m a n d a m ost ext en sive
com m er ce; t h ey wer e m a st er s of a ll t h e h a r bou r s on t h e Red Sea ; Tyr e, t h e r iva l
of ever y t r a din g n a t ion , wa s n o m or e; t h ey wer e n ot con st r a in ed by t h e a n cien t
su per st it ion s 51 on t h e cou n t r y; in sh or t , E gypt h a d becom e t h e cen t r e of t h e
wor ld.
Th e kin gs of Syr ia left t h e com m er ce of t h e sou t h t o t h ose of E gypt , a n d
a t t a ch ed t h em selves on ly t o t h e n or t h er n t r a de, wh ich wa s ca r r ied on by m ea n s
of t h e Oxu s a n d t h e Ca spia n Sea . Th ey t h en im a gin ed t h a t t h is sea wa s pa r t of
t h e n or t h er n ocea n ; a n d Alexa n der , 52 som e t im e befor e h is dea t h , h a d fit t ed ou t
a fleet 53 in or der t o discover wh et h er it com m u n ica t ed wit h t h e ocea n by t h e
E u xin e Sea , or som e ot h er ea st er n sea t owa r ds In dia . Aft er h im , Seleu cu s a n d
An t ioch u s a pplied t h em selves t o m a ke discover ies in it , wit h pa r t icu la r
a t t en t ion ; a n d wit h t h is view t h ey scou r ed it wit h t h eir fleet s. 54 Th a t pa r t wh ich
Seleu cu s su r veyed wa s ca lled t h e Seleu cidia n Sea ; t h a t wh ich An t ioch u s
discover ed r eceived t h e n a m e of t h e Sea of An t ioch u s. At t en t ive t o t h e pr oject s
t h ey m igh t h a ve for m ed on t h a t side, t h ey n eglect ed t h e sea s on t h e sou t h ;
wh et h er it wa s t h a t t h e P t olem ies, by m ea n s of t h eir fleet s on t h e Red Sea , h a d
a lr ea dy becom e t h e m a st er s of it , or t h a t t h ey discover ed a n in vin cible a ver sion
in t h e P er sia n s a ga in st en ga gin g in m a r it im e a ffa ir s. Th e sou t h er n coa st s of
P er sia su pplied t h em wit h n o sea m en ; t h er e h a d been n on e in t h ose pa r t s,
except t owa r ds t h e la t t er en d of Alexa n der ’s r eign . Bu t t h e E gypt ia n kin gs,
bein g m a st er s of t h e Isle of Cypr u s, of P h oen icia , a n d of a gr ea t n u m ber of
t own s on t h e coa st of Asia Min or , wer e possessed of a ll sor t s of con ven ien ces for
u n der t a kin g m a r it im e expedit ion s. Th ey h a d n o occa sion t o for ce; t h ey h a d on ly
t o follow t h e gen iu s a n d ben t of t h eir su bject s.
I a m su r pr ised, I con fess, a t t h e obst in a cy wit h wh ich t h e a n cien t s believed

t h a t t h e Ca spia n Sea wa s a pa r t of t h e ocea n . Th e expedit ion s of Alexa n der , of
t h e kin gs of Syr ia , of t h e P a r t h ia n s a n d t h e Rom a n s, cou ld n ot m a ke t h em
ch a n ge t h eir sen t im en t s; n ot wit h st a n din g t h ese n a t ion s descr ibed t h e Ca spia n
Sea wit h won der fu l exa ct n ess: bu t m en a r e gen er a lly t en a ciou s of t h eir er r or s.
Wh en on ly t h e sou t h of t h is sea wa s kn own , it wa s a t fir st t a ken for t h e ocea n ;
in pr opor t ion a s t h ey a dva n ced a lon g t h e ba n ks of t h e n or t h er n coa st , in st ea d
of im a gin in g it a gr ea t la ke, t h ey st ill believed it t o be t h e ocea n , t h a t h er e m a de
a sor t of ba y: su r veyin g t h e coa st , t h eir discover ies n ever wen t ea st wa r d beyon d
t h e J a xa r t es, n or west wa r d fa r t h er t h a n t h e ext r em it y of Alba n ia . Th e sea
t owa r ds t h e n or t h wa s sh a llow, a n d of cou r se ver y u n fit for n a viga t ion .55 H en ce
it wa s t h a t t h ey a lwa ys looked u pon t h is a s t h e ocea n .
Th e la n d a r m y of Alexa n der h a d been in t h e ea st on ly a s fa r a s t h e H ypa n is,
wh ich is t h e la st of t h ose r iver s t h a t fa ll in t o t h e In du s: t h u s t h e fir st t r a de
wh ich t h e Gr eeks ca r r ied on wit h t h e In dies wa s con fin ed t o a ver y sm a ll pa r t
of t h e cou n t r y. Seleu cu s Nica t or pen et r a t ed a s fa r a s t h e Ga n ges, a n d t h er eby
discover ed t h e sea in t o wh ich t h is r iver fa lls, t h a t is t o sa y, t h e Ba y of Ben ga l. 56
Th e m oder n s discover cou n t r ies by voya ges a t sea ; t h e a n cien t s discover ed sea s
by con qu est s a t la n d.
St r a bo, 57 n ot wit h st a n din g t h e t est im on y of Apollodor u s, seem s t o dou bt
wh et h er t h e Gr ecia n kin gs of Ba ct r ia pr oceeded fa r t h er t h a n Seleu cu s a n d
Alexa n der . 58 Wer e it even t r u e t h a t t h ey wen t n o fa r t h er t o t h e ea st t h a n
Seleu cu s, yet t h ey wen t fa r t h er t owa r ds t h e sou t h ; t h ey discover ed Siger , a n d
t h e por t s on t h e coa st of Ma la ba r , wh ich ga ve r ise t o t h e n a viga t ion I a m goin g
t o m en t ion .59
P lin y in for m s u s t h a t t h e n a viga t ion of t h e In dies wa s su ccessively ca r r ied on
in t h r ee differ en t wa ys. 60 At fir st t h ey sa iled fr om t h e Ca pe of Sia gr e t o t h e
isla n d of P a t a len a , wh ich is a t t h e m ou t h of t h e In du s. Th is we fin d wa s t h e
cou r se t h a t Alexa n der ’s fleet st eer ed t o t h e In dies. Th ey t ook a ft er wa r ds a
sh or t er a n d m or e cer t a in cou r se, by sa ilin g fr om t h e sa m e ca pe or pr om on t or y
t o Siger :61 t h is ca n be n o ot h er t h a n t h e kin gdom of Siger m en t ion ed by St r a bo, 62
a n d discover ed by t h e Gr ecia n kin gs of Ba ct r ia . P lin y, by sa yin g t h a t t h is wa y
wa s sh or t er t h a n t h e ot h er , ca n m ea n on ly t h a t t h e voya ge wa s m a de in less
t im e: for , a s Siger wa s discover ed by t h e kin gs of Ba ct r ia , it m u st h a ve been

fa r t h er t h a n t h e In du s: by t h is pa ssa ge t h ey m u st t h er efor e h a ve a voided t h e
win din g of cer t a in coa st s, a n d t a ken a dva n t a ge of pa r t icu la r win ds. Th e
m er ch a n t s a t la st t ook a t h ir d wa y; t h ey sa iled t o Ca n es, or Ocelis, por t s
sit u a t ed a t t h e en t r a n ce of t h e Red Sea ; wh en ce by a west win d t h ey a r r ived a t
Mu zir is, t h e fir st st a ple t own of t h e In dies, a n d t h en ce t o t h e ot h er por t s. H er e
we see t h a t in st ea d of sa ilin g t o t h e m ou t h of t h e Red Sea a s fa r a s Sia gr e, by
coa st in g Ar a bia F elix t o t h e n or t h -ea st , t h ey st eer ed dir ect ly fr om west t o ea st ,
fr om on e side t o t h e ot h er , by m ea n s of t h e m on soon s, wh ose r egu la r cou r se t h ey
discover ed by sa ilin g in t h ese la t it u des. Th e a n cien t s n ever lost sigh t of t h e
coa st s, except wh en t h ey t ook a dva n t a ge of t h ese a n d t h e t r a de-win ds, wh ich
wer e t o t h em a kin d of com pa ss.63
P lin y 64 sa ys t h a t t h ey set sa il for t h e In dies in t h e m iddle of su m m er a n d
r et u r n ed t owa r ds t h e en d of Decem ber , or in t h e begin n in g of J a n u a r y. Th is is
en t ir ely con for m a ble t o ou r n a va l jou r n a ls. In t h a t pa r t of t h e In dia n Ocea n
wh ich is bet ween t h e P en in su la of Afr ica , a n d t h a t on t h is side t h e Ga n ges,
t h er e a r e t wo m on soon s; t h e fir st , du r in g wh ich t h e win ds blow fr om west t o
ea st , begin s in t h e m on t h of Au gu st or Sept em ber ; a n d t h e secon d, du r in g wh ich
t h e win d is in t h e ea st , begin s in J a n u a r y. Th u s we set sa il fr om Afr ica for
Ma la ba r a t t h e sea son of t h e yea r t h a t P t olem y’s fleet u sed t o pu t t o sea t h en ce;
a n d we r et u r n t oo a t t h e sa m e t im e a s t h ey.
Alexa n der ’s fleet wa s seven m on t h s in sa ilin g fr om P a t a la t o Su sa . It set ou t
in t h e m on t h of J u ly, t h a t is, a t a sea son wh en n o sh ip da r e n ow pu t t o sea t o
r et u r n fr om t h e In dies. Bet ween t h ese t wo m on soon s t h er e is a n in t er va l du r in g
wh ich t h e win ds va r y; wh en a n or t h win d, m eet in g wit h t h e com m on win ds,
r a ises, especia lly n ea r t h e coa st s, t h e m ost t er r ible t em pest s. Th ese con t in u e
du r in g t h e m on t h s of J u n e, J u ly, a n d Au gu st . Alexa n der ’s fleet , t h er efor e,
set t in g sa il fr om P a t a la in t h e m on t h of J u ly, m u st h a ve been exposed t o m a n y
st or m s, a n d t h e voya ge m u st h a ve been lon g, beca u se t h ey sa iled a ga in st t h e
m on soon .
P lin y sa ys t h a t t h ey set ou t for t h e In dies a t t h e en d of su m m er ; t h u s t h ey
spen t t h e t im e pr oper for t a kin g a dva n t a ge of t h e m on soon in t h eir pa ssa ge
fr om Alexa n dr ia t o t h e Red Sea .
Obser ve h er e, I pr a y, h ow n a viga t ion h a s, lit t le by lit t le, a r r ived a t per fect ion .
Da r iu s’s fleet wa s t wo yea r s a n d a h a lf in fa llin g down t h e In du s a n d goin g t o
t h e Red Sea . 65 Aft er wa r ds t h e fleet of Alexa n der , 66 descen din g t h e In du s,
a r r ived a t Su sa , in t en m on t h s, h a vin g sa iled t h r ee m on t h s on t h e In du s, a n d
seven on t h e In dia n Ocea n ; a t la st t h e pa ssa ge fr om t h e coa st of Ma la ba r t o t h e
Red Sea wa s m a de in for t y da ys.67
St r a bo, 68 wh o a ccou n t s for t h eir ign or a n ce of t h e cou n t r ies bet ween t h e
H ypa n is a n d t h e Ga n ges, sa ys t h er e wer e ver y few of t h ose wh o sa iled fr om
E gypt t o t h e In dies t h a t ever pr oceeded so fa r a s t h e Ga n ges. Th eir fleet s, in
fa ct , n ever wen t t h it h er : t h ey sa iled wit h t h e west er n m on soon s fr om t h e m ou t h
of t h e Red Sea t o t h e coa st of Ma la ba r . Th ey ca st a n ch or in t h e por t s a lon g t h a t
coa st , a n d n ever a t t em pt ed t o get r ou n d t h e pen in su la on t h is side t h e Ga n ges
by Ca pe Com or in a n d t h e coa st of Cor om a n del. Th e pla n of n a viga t ion la id down
by t h e kin gs of E gypt a n d t h e Rom a n s wa s t o set ou t a n d r et u r n t h e sa m e
yea r . 69
Th u s it is dem on st r a ble t h a t t h e com m er ce of t h e Gr eeks a n d Rom a n s t o t h e
In dies wa s m u ch less ext en sive t h a n ou r s. We kn ow im m en se cou n t r ies, wh ich
t o t h em wer e en t ir ely u n kn own ; we t r a ffic wit h a ll t h e In dia n n a t ion s; we even
m a n a ge t h eir t r a de a n d ca r r y on t h eir com m er ce. Bu t t h is com m er ce of t h e
a n cien t s wa s ca r r ied on wit h fa r gr ea t er fa cilit y t h a n ou r s. An d if t h e m oder n s
wer e t o t r a de on ly wit h t h e coa st of Gu zer a t a n d Ma la ba r , a n d, wit h ou t seekin g
for t h e sou t h er n isles, wer e sa t isfied wit h wh a t t h ese isla n der s br ou gh t t h em ,
t h ey wou ld cer t a in ly pr efer t h e wa y of E gypt t o t h a t of t h e Ca pe of Good H ope.
St r a bo in for m s u s 70 t h a t t h ey t r a ded t h u s wit h t h e people of Ta pr oba n e.
BT1&@(&+-%&)5.9F5+&'(&:(.59"1
We fin d fr om h ist or y t h a t befor e t h e discover y of t h e m a r in er ’s com pa ss fou r
a t t em pt s wer e m a de t o sa il r ou n d t h e coa st of Afr ica . Th e P h oen icia n s sen t by
Nech o71 a n d E u doxu s, 72 flyin g fr om t h e wr a t h of P t olem y La t h yr u s, set ou t fr om
t h e Red Sea , a n d su cceeded. Sa t a spes 73 sen t by Xer xes, a n d H a n n o by t h e
Ca r t h a gin ia n s, set ou t fr om t h e P illa r s of H er cu les, a n d fa iled in t h e a t t em pt .
Th e ca pit a l poin t in su r r ou n din g Afr ica wa s t o discover a n d dou ble t h e Ca pe
of Good H ope. Th ose wh o set ou t fr om t h e Red Sea fou n d t h is ca pe n ea r er by
h a lf t h a n it wou ld h a ve been in set t in g ou t fr om t h e Medit er r a n ea n . Th e sh or e

fr om t h e Red Sea is n ot so sh a llow a s t h a t fr om t h e ca pe t o H er cu les’ P illa r s. 74
Th e discover y of t h e ca pe by H er cu les’ P illa r s wa s owin g t o t h e in ven t ion of t h e
com pa ss, wh ich per m it t ed t h em t o lea ve t h e coa st of Afr ica , a n d t o la u n ch ou t
in t o t h e va st ocea n , in or der t o sa il t owa r ds t h e isla n d of St . H elen a , or t owa r ds
t h e coa st of Br a zil. 75 It wa s, t h er efor e, possible for t h em t o sa il fr om t h e Red Sea
in t o t h e Medit er r a n ea n , bu t n ot t o set ou t fr om t h e Medit er r a n ea n t o r et u r n by
t h e Red Sea .
Th u s, wit h ou t m a kin g t h is gr a n d cir cu it , a ft er wh ich t h ey cou ld h a r dly h ope
t o r et u r n , it wa s m ost n a t u r a l t o t r a de t o t h e ea st of Afr ica by t h e Red Sea , a n d
t o t h e west er n coa st by H er cu les’ P illa r s.
Th e Gr ecia n kin gs of E gypt discover ed a t fir st , in t h e Red Sea , t h a t pa r t of t h e
coa st of Afr ica wh ich ext en ds fr om t h e bot t om of t h e gu lf, wh er e st a n ds t h e
t own of H er ou m , a s fa r a s Dir a , t h a t is, t o t h e st r a it n ow kn own by t h e n a m e of
Ba belm a n del. Th en ce t o t h e pr om on t or y of Ar om a t ia , sit u a t e a t t h e en t r a n ce of
t h e Red Sea , 76 t h e coa st h a d n ever been su r veyed by n a viga t or s: a n d t h is is
eviden t fr om wh a t Ar t em idor u s t ells u s, 77 t h a t t h ey wer e a cqu a in t ed wit h t h e
pla ces on t h a t coa st , bu t kn ew n ot t h eir dist a n ces: t h e r ea son of wh ich is, t h ey
su ccessively ga in ed a kn owledge of t h ose por t s by la n d, wit h ou t sa ilin g fr om on e
t o t h e ot h er .
Beyon d t h is pr om on t or y, a t wh ich t h e coa st a lon g t h e ocea n com m en ced, t h ey
kn ew n ot h in g, a s we lea r n fr om E r a t ost h en es a n d Ar t em idor u s.78
Su ch wa s t h e kn owledge t h ey h a d of t h e coa st s of Afr ica in St r a bo’s t im e, t h a t
is, in t h e r eign of Au gu st u s. Bu t a ft er t h e pr in ce’s decea se, t h e Rom a n s fou n d
ou t t h e t wo ca pes Ra pt u m a n d P r a ssu m , of wh ich St r a bo m a kes n o m en t ion ,
beca u se t h ey h a d n ot a s yet been discover ed. It is pla in t h a t bot h t h ose n a m es
a r e of Rom a n or igin .
P t olem y, t h e geogr a ph er , flou r ish ed u n der Adr ia n a n d An t on in u s P iu s; a n d
t h e a u t h or of t h e P er iplu s of t h e Red Sea , wh oever h e wa s, lived a lit t le a ft er .
Yet t h e for m er lim it s kn own Afr ica t o Ca pe P r a ssu m , 79 wh ich is in a bou t t h e
14t h degr ee of sou t h la t it u de; wh ile t h e a u t h or of t h e P er iplu s 80 con fin es it t o
Ca pe Ra pt u m , wh ich is n ea r ly in t h e t en t h degr ee of t h e sa m e la t it u de. In a ll
lik elih ood t h e la t t er t ook h is lim it fr om a pla ce t h en fr equ en t ed, a n d P t olem y
h is fr om a pla ce wit h wh ich t h er e wa s n o lon ger a n y com m u n ica t ion .

Wh a t con fir m s m e in t h is n ot ion is t h a t t h e people a bou t Ca pe P r a ssu m wer e
An t h r opoph a gi. 81 P t olem y t a kes n ot ice 82 of a gr ea t n u m ber of pla ces bet ween t h e
por t or em por iu m Ar om a t u m a n d Ca pe Ra pt u m , bu t lea ves a n en t ir e bla n k
bet ween Ca pes Ra pt u m a n d P r a ssu m . Th e gr ea t pr ofit s of t h e E a st In dia t r a de
m u st h a ve occa sion ed a n eglect of t h a t of Afr ica . In fin e, t h e Rom a n s n ever h a d
a n y set t led n a viga t ion ; t h ey h a d discover ed t h ese sever a l por t s by la n d
expedit ion s, a n d by m ea n s of sh ips dr iven on t h a t coa st ; a n d a s a t pr esen t we
a r e well a cqu a in t ed wit h t h e m a r it im e pa r t s of Afr ica , bu t kn ow ver y lit t le of
t h e in la n d cou n t r y, t h e a n cien t s, on t h e con t r a r y, h a d a ver y good kn owledge of
t h e in la n d pa r t s, bu t wer e a lm ost st r a n ger s t o t h e coa st s.83
I sa id t h a t t h e P h oen icia n s sen t by Nech o a n d E u doxu s u n der P t olem y
La t h yr u s h a d m a de t h e cir cu it of Afr ica ; bu t a t t h e t im e of P t olem y, t h e
geogr a ph er , t h ose t wo voya ges m u st h a ve been looked u pon a s fa bu lou s, sin ce
h e pla ces a ft er 84 t h e Sin u s Ma gn u s, wh ich I a ppr eh en d t o be t h e Gu lf of Sia m ,
a n u n kn own cou n t r y, ext en din g fr om Asia t o Afr ica , a n d t er m in a t in g a t Ca pe
P r a ssu m , so t h a t t h e In dia n Ocea n wou ld h a ve been n o m or e t h a n a la ke. Th e
a n cien t s wh o discover ed t h e In dies t owa r ds t h e n or t h , a dva n cin g ea st wa r d,
pla ced t h is u n kn own cou n t r y t o t h e sou t h .
BB1&@(&)".+-"D%&"*0&K".,%5$$%,1
Th e la w of n a t ion s wh ich pr eva iled a t Ca r t h a ge wa s ver y ext r a or din a r y: a ll
st r a n ger s wh o t r a ded t o Sa r din ia a n d t owa r ds H er cu les’ P illa r s t h is h a u gh t y
r epu blic sen t en ced t o be dr own ed. H er civil polit y wa s equ a lly su r pr isin g; sh e
for ba de t h e Sa r din ia n s t o cu lt iva t e t h eir la n ds, u pon pa in of dea t h . Sh e
in cr ea sed h er power by h er r ich es, a n d a ft er wa r ds h er r ich es by h er power .
Bein g m ist r ess of t h e coa st s of Afr ica , wh ich a r e wa sh ed by t h e Medit er r a n ea n ,
sh e ext en ded h er self a lon g t h e ocea n . H a n n o, by or der of t h e sen a t e of Ca r t h a ge,
dist r ibu t ed t h ir t y t h ou sa n d Ca r t h a gin ia n s fr om H er cu les’ P illa r s a s fa r a s
Cer n e. Th is pla ce, h e sa ys, is a s dist a n t fr om H er cu les’ P illa r s a s t h e la t t er fr om
Ca r t h a ge. Th is sit u a t ion is ext r em ely r em a r ka ble. It let s u s see t h a t H a n n o
lim it ed h is set t lem en t s t o t h e 25t h degr ee of n or t h la t it u de; t h a t is, t o t wo or
t h r ee degr ees sou t h of t h e Ca n a r ies.
H a n n o bein g a t Cer n e u n der t ook a n ot h er voya ge, wit h a view of m a kin g

fu r t h er discover ies t owa r ds t h e sou t h . H e t ook bu t lit t le n ot ice of t h e con t in en t .
H e followed t h e coa st for t wen t y-six da ys, wh en h e wa s obliged t o r et u r n for
wa n t of pr ovision s. Th e Ca r t h a gin ia n s, it seem s, m a de n o u se of t h is secon d
en t er pr ise. Scyla x sa ys 85 t h a t t h e sea is n ot n a viga ble beyon d Cer n e, beca u se it
is sh a llow, fu ll of m u d a n d sea -weeds:86 a n d, in fa ct , t h er e a r e m a n y of t h ese in
t h ose la t it u des. 87 Th e Ca r t h a gin ia n m er ch a n t s m en t ion ed by Scyla x m igh t fin d
obst a cles wh ich H a n n o, wh o h a d sixt y vessels of fift y oa r s ea ch , h a d
su r m ou n t ed. Difficu lt ies a r e a t m ost bu t r ela t ive; besides, we ou gh t n ot t o
con fou n d a n en t er pr ise in wh ich br a ver y a n d r esolu t ion m u st be exer t ed wit h
t h in gs t h a t r equ ir e n o ext r a or din a r y con du ct .
Th e r ela t ion of H a n n o’s voya ge is a fin e fr a gm en t of a n t iqu it y. It wa s wr it t en
by t h e ver y m a n t h a t per for m ed it .
H is r ecit a l is n ot m in gled wit h ost en t a t ion . Gr ea t com m a n der s wr it e t h eir
a ct ion s wit h sim plicit y; beca u se t h ey r eceive m or e glor y fr om fa ct s t h a n fr om
wor ds.
Th e st yle is a gr eea ble t o t h e su bject ; h e dea ls n ot in t h e m a r vellou s. All h e
sa ys of t h e clim a t e, of t h e soil, t h e beh a viou r , t h e m a n n er s of t h e in h a bit a n t s,
cor r espon d wit h wh a t is ever y da y seen on t h is coa st of Afr ica ; on e wou ld
im a gin e it t h e jou r n a l of a m oder n sa ilor .
H e obser ved fr om h is fleet t h a t in t h e da y-t im e t h er e wa s a pr odigiou s silen ce
on t h e con t in en t , t h a t in t h e n igh t h e h ea r d t h e sou n d of va r iou s m u sica l
in st r u m en t s, a n d t h a t fir es m igh t t h en be ever ywh er e seen , som e la r ger t h a n
ot h er s. 88 Ou r r ela t ion s a r e con for m a ble t o t h is; it h a s been discover ed t h a t in
t h e da y t h e sa va ges r et ir e in t o t h e for est s t o a void t h e h ea t of t h e su n , t h a t t h ey
ligh t u p gr ea t fir es in t h e n igh t t o disper se t h e bea st s of pr ey, a n d t h a t t h ey a r e
pa ssion a t ely fon d of m u sic a n d da n cin g.
Th e sa m e wr it er descr ibes a volca n o wit h a ll t h e ph en om en a of Vesu viu s; a n d
r ela t es t h a t h e ca pt u r ed t wo h a ir y wom en , wh o ch ose t o die r a t h er t h a n follow
t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s, a n d wh ose skin s h e ca r r ied t o Ca r t h a ge. Th is h a s been fou n d
n ot void of pr oba bilit y.
Th is n a r r a t ion is so m u ch t h e m or e va lu a ble a s it is a m on u m en t of P u n ic
a n t iqu it y; a n d h en ce a lon e it h a s been r ega r ded a s fa bu lou s. F or t h e Rom a n s
r et a in ed t h eir h a t r ed of t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s, even a ft er t h ey h a d dest r oyed t h em .

Bu t it wa s vict or y a lon e t h a t decided wh et h er we ou gh t t o sa y t h e P u n ic or t h e
Rom a n fa it h .
Som e m oder n s 89 h a ve im bibed t h ese pr eju dices. Wh a t h a s becom e, sa y t h ey,
of t h e cit ies descr ibed by H a n n o, of wh ich even in P lin y’s t im e t h er e r em a in ed
n o vest iges? Bu t it wou ld h a ve been a won der in deed if a n y su ch vest iges h a d
r em a in ed. Wa s it a Cor in t h or At h en s t h a t H a n n o bu ilt on t h ose coa st s? H e left
Ca r t h a gin ia n fa m ilies in su ch pla ces a s wer e m ost com m odiou s for t r a de, a n d
secu r ed t h em a s well a s h is h u r r y wou ld per m it a ga in st sa va ges a n d wild
bea st s. Th e ca la m it ies of t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s pu t a per iod t o t h e n a viga t ion of
Afr ica ; t h ese fa m ilies m u st n ecessa r ily t h en eit h er per ish or becom e sa va ges.
Besides, wer e t h e r u in s of t h ese cit ies even st ill in bein g, wh o is it t h a t wou ld
ven t u r e in t o t h e woods a n d m a r sh es t o m a ke t h e discover y? We fin d, h owever ,
in Scyla x a n d P olybiu s t h a t t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s h a d con sider a ble set t lem en t s on
t h ose coa st s. Th ese a r e t h e vest iges of t h e cit ies of H a n n o; t h er e a r e n o ot h er s,
for t h e sa m e r ea son t h a t t h er e a r e n o ot h er s of Ca r t h a ge it self.
Th e Ca r t h a gin ia n s wer e in t h e h igh r oa d t o wea lt h ; a n d h a d t h ey gon e so fa r
a s fou r degr ees of n or t h la t it u de, a n d fift een of lon git u de, t h ey wou ld h a ve
discover ed t h e Gold Coa st . Th ey wou ld t h en h a ve h a d a t r a de of m u ch gr ea t er
im por t a n ce t h a n t h a t wh ich is ca r r ied on a t pr esen t on t h a t coa st , a t a t im e
wh en Am er ica seem s t o h a ve degr a ded t h e r ich es of a ll ot h er cou n t r ies. Th ey
wou ld t h er e h a ve fou n d t r ea su r es of wh ich t h ey cou ld n ever h a ve been depr ived
by t h e Rom a n s.
Ver y su r pr isin g t h in gs h a ve been sa id of t h e r ich es of Spa in . If we m a y believe
Ar ist ot le, 90 t h e P h oen icia n s wh o a r r ived a t Ta r t essu s fou n d so m u ch silver t h er e
t h a t t h eir sh ips cou ld n ot h old it a ll; a n d t h ey m a de of t h is m et a l t h eir m ea n est
u t en sils. Th e Ca r t h a gin ia n s, a ccor din g t o Diodor u s, 91 fou n d so m u ch gold a n d
silver in t h e P yr en ea n m ou n t a in s, t h a t t h ey a dor n ed t h e a n ch or s of t h eir sh ips
wit h it . Bu t n o fou n da t ion ca n be bu ilt on su ch popu la r r epor t s. Let u s t h er efor e
exa m in e t h e fa ct s t h em selves.
We fin d in a fr a gm en t of P olybiu s, cit ed by St r a bo, 92 t h a t t h e silver m in es a t
t h e sou r ce of t h e r iver Ba et is, in wh ich for t y t h ou sa n d m en wer e em ployed,
pr odu ced t o t h e Rom a n s t wen t y-five t h ou sa n d dr a ch m a s a da y, t h a t is, a bou t
five m illion livr es a yea r , a t fift y livr es t o t h e m a r k. Th e m ou n t a in s t h a t

con t a in ed t h ese m in es wer e ca lled t h e Silver Mou n t a in s:93 wh ich sh ows t h ey
wer e t h e P ot osi of t h ose t im es. At pr esen t , t h e m in es of H a n over do n ot em ploy
a fou r t h pa r t of t h e wor km en , a n d yet t h ey yield m or e. Bu t a s t h e Rom a n s h a d
n ot m a n y copper m in es, a n d bu t few of silver ; a n d a s t h e Gr eeks kn ew n on e bu t
t h e At t ic m in es, wh ich wer e of lit t le va lu e, t h ey m igh t well be a st on ish ed a t
t h eir a bu n da n ce.
In t h e wa r t h a t br oke ou t for t h e su ccession of Spa in , a m a n ca lled t h e
Ma r qu is of Rh odes, of wh om it wa s sa id t h a t h e wa s r u in ed in gold m in es a n d
en r ich ed in h ospit a ls, 94 pr oposed t o t h e cou r t of F r a n ce t o open t h e P yr en ea n
m in es. H e a lleged t h e exa m ple of t h e Tyr ia n s, t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s, a n d t h e
Rom a n s. H e wa s per m it t ed t o sea r ch , bu t sou gh t in va in ; h e st ill a lleged, a n d
fou n d n ot h in g.
Th e Ca r t h a gin ia n s, bein g m a st er s of t h e gold a n d silver t r a de, wer e willin g
t o be so of t h e lea d a n d pewt er . Th ese m et a ls wer e ca r r ied by la n d fr om t h e
por t s of Ga u l u pon t h e ocea n t o t h ose of t h e Medit er r a n ea n . Th e Ca r t h a gin ia n s
wer e desir ou s of r eceivin g t h em a t t h e fir st h a n d; t h ey sen t H im ilco t o m a ke a
set t lem en t in t h e isles ca lled Ca ssit er ides, 95 wh ich a r e im a gin ed t o be t h ose of
Scilly.
Th ese voya ges fr om Ba et ica in t o E n gla n d h a ve m a de som e per son s im a gin e
t h a t t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s kn ew t h e com pa ss: bu t it is ver y cer t a in t h a t t h ey
followed t h e coa st s. Th er e n eeds n o ot h er pr oof t h a n H im ilco’s bein g fou r
m on t h s in sa ilin g fr om t h e m ou t h of t h e Ba et is t o E n gla n d; besides, t h e fa m ou s
piece of h ist or y of t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n 96 pilot wh o, bein g followed by a Rom a n
vessel, r a n a gr ou n d, t h a t h e m igh t n ot sh ow h er t h e wa y t o E n gla n d, 97 pla in ly
in t im a t es t h a t t h ose vessels wer e ver y n ea r t h e sh or e wh en t h ey fell in wit h
ea ch ot h er .
Th e a n cien t s m igh t h a ve per for m ed voya ges t h a t wou ld m a ke on e im a gin e
t h ey h a d t h e com pa ss, t h ou gh t h ey h a d n ot . If a pilot wa s fa r fr om la n d, a n d
du r in g h is voya ge h a d su ch ser en e wea t h er t h a t in t h e n igh t h e cou ld a lwa ys
see a pola r st a r a n d in t h e da y t h e r isin g a n d set t in g of t h e su n , it is cer t a in h e
m igh t r egu la t e h is cou r se a s well a s we do n ow by t h e com pa ss: bu t t h is m u st
be a for t u it ou s ca se, a n d n ot a r egu la r m et h od of n a viga t ion .
We see in t h e t r ea t y wh ich pu t a n en d t o t h e fir st P u n ic wa r t h a t Ca r t h a ge

wa s pr in cipa lly a t t en t ive t o pr eser ve t h e em pir e of t h e sea , a n d Rom e t h a t of
t h e la n d. H a n n o, 98 in h is n egot ia t ion wit h t h e Rom a n s, decla r ed t h a t t h ey
sh ou ld n ot be su ffer ed even t o wa sh t h eir h a n ds in t h e sea of Sicily; t h ey wer e
n ot per m it t ed t o sa il beyon d t h e pr om on t or iu m pu lch r u m ; t h ey wer e for bidden
t o t r a de in Sicily, Sa r din ia , a n d Afr ica , except a t Ca r t h a ge:99 a n except ion t h a t
pr oves t h er e wa s n o design t o fa vou r t h em in t h eir t r a de wit h t h a t cit y.
In ea r ly t im es t h er e h a d been ver y gr ea t wa r s bet ween Ca r t h a ge a n d
Ma r seilles 100 on t h e su bject of fish in g. Aft er t h e pea ce t h ey en t er ed join t ly in t o
econ om ica l com m er ce. Ma r seilles a t len gt h gr ew jea lou s, especia lly a s, bein g
equ a l t o h er r iva l in in du st r y, sh e h a d becom e in fer ior t o h er in power . Th is is
t h e m ot ive of h er gr ea t fidelit y t o t h e Rom a n s. Th e wa r bet ween t h e la t t er a n d
t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s in Spa in wa s a sou r ce of r ich es t o Ma r seilles, wh ich h a d n ow
becom e t h eir m a ga zin e. Th e r u in of Ca r t h a ge a n d Cor in t h st ill in cr ea sed t h e
glor y of Ma r seilles, a n d h a d it n ot been for t h e civil wa r s, in wh ich t h is r epu blic
ou gh t on n o a ccou n t t o h a ve en ga ged, sh e wou ld h a ve been h a ppy u n der t h e
pr ot ect ion of t h e Rom a n s, wh o wer e n ot t h e lea st jea lou s of h er com m er ce.
BE1&!-%&?,$%&'(&C%$',1&K5+-.50"+%,1&
Upon t h e dest r u ct ion of Cor in t h by t h e Rom a n s, t h e m er ch a n t s r et ir ed t o
Delos, a n isla n d wh ich fr om r eligiou s con sider a t ion s wa s looked u pon a s a pla ce
of sa fet y:101 besides, it wa s ext r em ely well sit u a t ed for t h e com m er ce of It a ly a n d
Asia , wh ich , sin ce t h e r edu ct ion of Afr ica a n d t h e wea ken in g of Gr eece, h a d
gr own m or e im por t a n t .
F r om t h e ea r liest t im es t h e Gr eeks, a s we h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved, sen t
colon ies t o P r opon t is a n d t o t h e E u xin e Sea — colon ies wh ich r et a in ed t h eir
la ws a n d liber t ies u n der t h e P er sia n s. Alexa n der , h a vin g u n der t a ken h is
expedit ion a ga in st t h e ba r ba r ia n s on ly, did n ot m olest t h ese people. 102 Neit h er
does it a ppea r t h a t t h e kin gs of P on t u s, wh o wer e m a st er s of m a n y of t h ose
colon ies, ever depr ived t h em of t h eir own civil gover n m en t .103
Th e power of t h ose kin gs in cr ea sed a s soon a s t h ey su bdu ed t h ose cit ies.104
Mit h r ida t es fou n d h im self a ble t o h ir e t r oops on ever y side; t o r epa ir h is
fr equ en t losses; t o h a ve a m u lt it u de of wor km en , sh ips, a n d m ilit a r y m a ch in es;
t o pr ocu r e h im self a llies; t o br ibe t h ose of t h e Rom a n s, a n d even t h e Rom a n s

t h em selves; t o keep t h e ba r ba r ia n s of Asia a n d E u r ope in h is pa y;105 t o con t in u e
t h e wa r for m a n y yea r s, a n d of cou r se t o disciplin e h is t r oops, h e fou n d h im self
a ble t o t r a in t h em t o a r m s, t o in st r u ct t h em in t h e m ilit a r y a r t of t h e Rom a n s, 106
a n d t o for m con sider a ble bodies ou t of t h eir deser t er s; in a wor d, h e fou n d
h im self a ble t o su st a in gr ea t losses, a n d t o be fr equ en t ly defea t ed, wit h ou t
bein g r u in ed;107 n eit h er wou ld h e h a ve been r u in ed if t h e volu pt u ou s a n d
ba r ba r ou s kin g h a d n ot dest r oyed, in h is pr osper ou s da ys, wh a t h a d been don e
by t h e gr ea t pr in ce in t im es of a dver sit y.
Th u s it wa s t h a t wh en t h e Rom a n s h a d a r r ived a t t h eir h igh est pit ch of
gr a n deu r , a n d seem ed t o h a ve n ot h in g t o a ppr eh en d bu t fr om t h e a m bit ion of
t h eir own su bject s, Mit h r ida t es on ce m or e ven t u r ed t o con t est t h e m igh t y poin t ,
wh ich t h e over t h r ow of P h ilip, of An t ioch u s, a n d of P er seu s h a d a lr ea dy
decided. Never wa s t h er e a m or e dest r u ct ive wa r : t h e t wo con t en din g pa r t ies,
bein g possessed of gr ea t power , a n d r eceivin g a lt er n a t e a dva n t a ges, t h e
in h a bit a n t s of Gr eece a n d of Asia fell a sa cr ifice in t h e qu a r r el, eit h er a s foes,
or a s fr ien ds of Mit h r ida t es. Delos wa s in volved in t h e gen er a l fa t a lit y, a n d
com m er ce fa iled on ever y side: wh ich wa s a n ecessa r y con sequ en ce, t h e people
t h em selves bein g dest r oyed.
Th e Rom a n s, in pu r su a n ce of a syst em of wh ich I h a ve spoken elsewh er e, 108
a ct in g a s dest r oyer s, t h a t t h ey m igh t n ot a ppea r a s con qu er or s, dem olish ed
Ca r t h a ge a n d Cor in t h ; a pr a ct ice by wh ich t h ey wou ld h a ve r u in ed t h em selves
h a d t h ey n ot su bdu ed t h e wor ld. Wh en t h e kin gs of P on t u s beca m e m a st er s of
t h e Gr eek colon ies on t h e E u xin e Sea , t h ey t ook ca r e n ot t o dest r oy wh a t wa s
t o be t h e fou n da t ion of t h eir own gr a n deu r .
BG1&@(&+-%&A%*5F,&'(&+-%&/'<"*,&",&+'&K".5+5<%&:(("5.,1&
Th e Rom a n s la id n o st r ess on a n yt h in g bu t t h eir la n d for ces, wh o wer e
disciplin ed t o st a n d fir m , t o figh t on on e spot , a n d t h er e br a vely t o die. Th ey
cou ld n ot like t h e pr a ct ice of sea m en , wh o fir st offer t o figh t , t h en fly, t h en
r et u r n , con st a n t ly a void da n ger , oft en m a k e u se of st r a t a gem , a n d seldom of
for ce. Th is wa s n ot su it a ble t o t h e gen iu s of t h e Gr eeks 109 m u ch less t o t h a t of
t h e Rom a n s.
Th ey dest in ed t h er efor e t o t h e sea on ly t h ose cit izen s wh o wer e n ot

con sider a ble en ou gh t o h a ve a pla ce in t h eir legion s. 110 Th eir m a r in es wer e
com m on ly fr eedm en .
At t h is t im e we h a ve n eit h er t h e sa m e est eem for la n d for ces n or t h e sa m e
con t em pt for t h ose of t h e sea . In t h e for m er , a r t h a s decr ea sed;111 in t h e la t t er ,
it h a s a u gm en t ed:112 n ow t h in gs a r e gen er a lly est eem ed in pr opor t ion t o t h e
degr ee of a bilit y r equ isit e t o disch a r ge t h em .
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Th e Rom a n s wer e n ever dist in gu ish ed by a jea lou sy for t r a de. Th ey a t t a cked
Ca r t h a ge a s a r iva l, n ot a s a com m er cia l n a t ion . Th ey fa vou r ed t r a din g cit ies
t h a t wer e n ot su bject t o t h em . Th u s t h ey in cr ea sed t h e power of Ma r seilles by
t h e cession of a la r ge t er r it or y. Th ey wer e va st ly a fr a id of ba r ba r ia n s, bu t h a d
n ot t h e lea st a ppr eh en sion fr om a t r a din g people. Th eir gen iu s, t h eir glor y, t h eir
m ilit a r y edu ca t ion , a n d t h e ver y for m of t h eir gover n m en t est r a n ged t h em fr om
com m er ce.
In t h e cit y, t h ey wer e em ployed on ly a bou t wa r , elect ion s, fa ct ion s, a n d
la w-su it s; in t h e cou n t r y, a bou t a gr icu lt u r e; a n d a s for t h e pr ovin ces, a sever e
a n d t yr a n n ica l gover n m en t wa s in com pa t ible wit h com m er ce.
Bu t t h eir polit ica l con st it u t ion wa s n ot m or e opposed t o t r a de t h a n t h eir la w
of n a t ion s. “Th e people,” sa ys P om pon iu s, t h e civilia n ,113 “wit h wh om we h a ve
n eit h er fr ien dsh ip, n or h ospit a lit y n or a llia n ce, a r e n ot ou r en em ies; h owever ,
if a n yt h in g belon gin g t o u s fa lls in t o t h eir h a n ds, t h ey a r e t h e pr opr iet or s of it ;
fr eem en becom e t h eir sla ves; a n d t h ey a r e u pon t h e sa m e t er m s wit h r espect t o
u s.”
Th eir civil la w wa s n ot less oppr essive. Th e la w of Con st a n t in e, 114 a ft er h a vin g
st igm a t ised a s ba st a r ds t h e ch ildr en of a m ea n r a n k wh o h a d been m a r r ied t o
t h ose of a su per ior st a t ion , con fou n ds wom en wh o r et a il m er ch a n dise wit h
sla ves, wit h t h e m ist r esses of t a ver n s, wit h a ct r esses, wit h t h e da u gh t er s of
t h ose wh o keep pu blic st ews, or wh o h a d been con dem n ed t o figh t in t h e
a m ph it h ea t r e; t h is h a d it s or igin in t h e a n cien t in st it u t ion s of t h e Rom a n s.
I a m n ot ign or a n t t h a t m en pr epossessed wit h t h ese t wo idea s (t h a t com m er ce
is of t h e gr ea t est ser vice t o a st a t e, a n d t h a t t h e Rom a n s h a d t h e best -r egu la t ed
gover n m en t in t h e wor ld) h a ve believed t h a t t h ese people gr ea t ly h on ou r ed a n d

en cou r a ged com m er ce; bu t t h e t r u t h is, t h ey seldom t r ou bled t h eir h ea ds a bou t
it .
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Th e Rom a n s h a vin g er ect ed a va st em pir e in E u r ope, Asia , a n d Afr ica , t h e
wea kn ess of t h e people a n d t h e t yr a n n y of t h eir la ws u n it ed a ll t h e pa r t s of t h is
im m en se body. Th e Rom a n policy wa s t h en t o a void a ll com m u n ica t ion wit h
t h ose n a t ion s wh om t h ey h a d n ot su bdu ed: t h e fea r of ca r r yin g t o t h em t h e a r t
of con qu er in g m a de t h em n eglect t h e a r t of en r ich in g t h em selves. Th ey m a de
la ws t o h in der a ll com m er ce wit h ba r ba r ia n s. “Let n obody,” sa id Va len s a n d
Gr a t ia n , 115 “sen d win e, oil, or ot h er liqu or s t o t h e ba r ba r ia n s, t h ou gh it be on ly
for t h em t o t a st e.” “Let n o on e ca r r y gold t o t h em ,” a dd Gr a t ia n , Va len t in ia n ,
a n d Th eodosiu s;116 “r a t h er , if t h ey h a ve a n y, let ou r su bject s depr ive t h em of it
by st r a t a gem .” Th e expor t a t ion of ir on wa s pr oh ibit ed on pa in of dea t h .
Dom it ia n , a pr in ce of gr ea t t im idit y, or der ed t h e vin es in Ga u l t o be pu lled
u p, 117 fr om fea r , n o dou bt , lest t h eir win es sh ou ld dr a w t h it h er t h e ba r ba r ia n s.
P r obu s a n d J u lia n , wh o h a d n o su ch fea r s, ga ve or der s for t h eir bein g pla n t ed
a ga in .
I a m sen sible t h a t u pon t h e declen sion of t h e Rom a n em pir e t h e ba r ba r ia n s
obliged t h e Rom a n s t o est a blish st a ple t own s, a n d t o t r a de wit h t h em . Bu t even
t h is is a pr oof t h a t t h e m in ds of t h e Rom a n s wer e a ver se t o com m er ce.118
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Th e t r a de t o Ar a bia F elix, a n d t h a t t o t h e In dies, wer e t h e t wo br a n ch es, a n d
a lm ost t h e on ly on es, of t h eir for eign com m er ce. Th e Ar a bia n s wer e possessed
of im m en se r ich es, wh ich t h ey fou n d in t h eir sea s a n d for est s; a n d a s t h ey sold
m u ch a n d pu r ch a sed lit t le, t h ey dr ew t o t h em selves t h e gold a n d silver of t h e
Rom a n s. 119 Au gu st u s,120 bein g well a ppr ised of t h a t opu len ce, r esolved t h ey
sh ou ld be eit h er h is fr ien ds or h is en em ies. Wit h t h is view h e sen t Æ liu s Ga llu s
fr om E gypt in t o Ar a bia . Th is com m a n der fou n d t h e people in dolen t , pea cea ble,
a n d u n skilled in wa r . H e fou gh t ba t t les, la id sieges t o t own s, a n d lost bu t seven
of h is m en by t h e swor d; bu t t h e per fidy of h is gu ides, lon g m a r ch es, t h e
clim a t e, wa n t of pr ovision s, dist em per s, a n d ill-con du ct , ca u sed t h e r u in of h is

a r m y.
H e wa s t h er efor e obliged t o be con t en t wit h t r a din g t o Ar a bia , in t h e sa m e
m a n n er a s ot h er n a t ion s; t h a t is, wit h givin g t h em gold a n d silver in exch a n ge
for t h eir com m odit ies. Th e E u r opea n s t r a de wit h t h em st ill in t h e sa m e m a n n er ;
t h e ca r a va n s of Aleppo a n d t h e r oya l vessel of Su ez ca r r y t h it h er im m en se
su m s. 121
Na t u r e h a d for m ed t h e Ar a bs for com m er ce, n ot for wa r ; bu t wh en t h ose qu iet
people ca m e t o be n ea r n eigh bou r s t o t h e P a r t h ia n s a n d t h e Rom a n s, t h ey a ct ed
a s a u xilia r ies t o bot h n a t ion s. Æ liu s Ga llu s fou n d t h em a t r a din g people;
Ma h om et h a ppen ed t o fin d t h em t r a in ed t o wa r ; h e in spir ed t h em wit h
en t h u sia sm , wh ich led t h em t o glor y a n d con qu est .
Th e com m er ce of t h e Rom a n s t o t h e In dies wa s ver y con sider a ble. St r a bo122
h a d been in for m ed in E gypt t h a t t h ey em ployed in t h is n a viga t ion on e h u n dr ed
a n d t wen t y vessels; t h is com m er ce wa s ca r r ied on en t ir ely wit h bu llion . Th ey
sen t t h it h er a n n u a lly fift y m illion s of sest er ces. P lin y 123 sa ys t h a t t h e
m er ch a n dise br ou gh t t h en ce wa s sold a t Rom e a t cen t . per cen t pr ofit . H e
spea ks, I believe, t oo gen er a lly; if t h is t r a de h a d been so va st ly pr ofit a ble,
ever ybody wou ld h a ve been willin g t o en ga ge in it , a n d t h en it wou ld h a ve been
a t a n en d.
It will a dm it of a qu est ion , wh et h er t h e t r a de t o Ar a bia a n d t h e In dies wa s of
a n y a dva n t a ge t o t h e Rom a n s. Th ey wer e obliged t o expor t t h eir bu llion t h it h er ,
t h ou gh t h ey h a d n ot , like u s, t h e r esou r ce of Am er ica , wh ich su pplies wh a t we
sen d a wa y. I a m per su a ded t h a t on e of t h e r ea son s of t h eir in cr ea sin g t h e va lu e
of t h eir specie by est a blish in g ba se coin wa s t h e sca r cit y of silver , owin g t o t h e
con t in u a l expor t a t ion of it t o t h e In dies: a n d t h ou gh t h e com m odit ies of t h is
cou n t r y wer e sold a t Rom e a t t h e r a t e of cen t . per cen t , t h is pr ofit of t h e
Rom a n s, bein g obt a in ed fr om t h e Rom a n s t h em selves, cou ld n ot en r ich t h e
em pir e.
It m a y be a lleged, on t h e ot h er h a n d, t h a t t h is com m er ce in cr ea sed t h e Rom a n
n a viga t ion , a n d of cou r se t h eir power ; t h a t n ew m er ch a n dise a u gm en t ed t h eir
in la n d t r a de, ga ve en cou r a gem en t t o t h e a r t s, a n d em ploym en t t o t h e
in du st r iou s; t h a t t h e n u m ber of su bject s m u lt iplied in pr opor t ion t o t h e n ew
m ea n s of su ppor t ; t h a t t h is n ew com m er ce wa s pr odu ct ive of lu xu r y, wh ich I

h a ve pr oved t o be a s fa vou r a ble t o a m on a r ch ica l gover n m en t a s fa t a l t o a
com m on wea lt h ; t h a t t h is est a blish m en t wa s of t h e sa m e da t e a s t h e fa ll of t h eir
r epu blic; t h a t t h e lu xu r y of Rom e h a d becom e n ecessa r y; a n d t h a t it wa s
ext r em ely pr oper t h a t a cit y wh ich h a d a ccu m u la t ed a ll t h e wea lt h of t h e
u n iver se sh ou ld r efu n d it by it s lu xu r y.
St r a bo sa ys 124 t h a t t h e Rom a n s ca r r ied on a fa r m or e ext en sive com m er ce wit h
t h e In dies t h a n t h e kin gs of E gypt ; bu t it is ver y ext r a or din a r y t h a t t h ose people
wh o wer e so lit t le a cqu a in t ed wit h com m er ce sh ou ld h a ve pa id m or e a t t en t ion
t o t h a t of In dia t h a n t h e E gypt ia n kin gs, wh ose dom in ion s la y so con ven ien t ly
for it . Th e r ea son of t h is m u st be expla in ed.
Aft er t h e dea t h of Alexa n der , t h e kin gs of E gypt est a blish ed a m a r it im e
com m er ce wit h t h e In dies; wh ile t h e kin gs of Syr ia , wh o wer e possessed of t h e
m or e ea st er n pr ovin ces, a n d con sequ en t ly of t h e In dies, m a in t a in ed t h a t
com m er ce of wh ich we h a ve t a ken n ot ice in t h e sixt h ch a pt er , wh ich wa s ca r r ied
on pa r t ly by la n d, a n d pa r t ly by r iver s, a n d h a d been fu r t h er fa cilit a t ed by
m ea n s of t h e Ma cedon ia n colon ies; in som u ch t h a t E u r ope h a d com m u n ica t ion
wit h t h e In dies bot h by E gypt a n d by Syr ia . Th e dism em ber in g of t h e la t t er
kin gdom , wh en ce wa s for m ed t h a t of Ba ct r ia n a , did n ot pr ove in a n y wa y
pr eju dicia l t o t h is com m er ce. Ma r in u s t h e Tyr ia n , qu ot ed by P t olem y, 125
m en t ion s t h e discover ies m a de in In dia by m ea n s of som e Ma cedon ia n
m er ch a n t s, wh o fou n d ou t n ew r oa ds, wh ich h a d been u n kn own t o kin gs in t h eir
m ilit a r y expedit ion s. We fin d in P t olem y 126 t h a t t h ey wen t fr om P et er ’s t ower 127
a s fa r a s Ser a ; a n d t h e discover y m a de by m er ca n t ile people of so dist a n t a
m a r t , sit u a t ed in t h e n or t h -ea st pa r t of Ch in a , wa s a kin d of pr odigy. H en ce,
u n der t h e kin gs of Syr ia a n d Ba ct r ia n a , m er ch a n dise wa s con veyed t o t h e west
fr om t h e sou t h er n pa r t s of In dia , by t h e r iver In du s, t h e Oxu s, a n d t h e Ca spia n
Sea ; wh ile t h ose of t h e m or e ea st er n a n d n or t h er n pa r t s wer e t r a n spor t ed fr om
Ser a , P et er ’s t ower , a n d ot h er st a ples, a s fa r a s t h e E u ph r a t es. Th ose
m er ch a n t s dir ect ed t h eir r ou t e n ea r ly by t h e for t iet h degr ee of n or t h la t it u de,
t h r ou gh cou n t r ies sit u a t ed t o t h e west of Ch in a , m or e civilised a t t h a t t im e t h a n
a t pr esen t , beca u se t h ey h a d n ot a s yet been in fest ed by t h e Ta r t a r s.
Now wh ile t h e Syr ia n em pir e wa s ext en din g it s t r a de t o su ch a dist a n ce by
la n d, E gypt did n ot gr ea t ly en la r ge it s m a r it im e com m er ce.

Th e P a r t h ia n s soon a ft er a ppea r ed, a n d fou n ded t h eir em pir e; a n d wh en
E gypt fell u n der t h e power of t h e Rom a n s, t h is em pir e wa s a t it s h eigh t , a n d
h a d r eceived it s wh ole ext en sion .
Th e Rom a n s a n d P a r t h ia n s wer e t wo r iva l n a t ion s, t h a t fou gh t n ot for
dom in ion bu t for t h eir ver y exist en ce. Bet ween t h e t wo em pir es deser t s wer e
for m ed a n d a r m ies wer e a lwa ys st a t ion ed on t h e fr on t ier s; so t h a t in st ea d of
t h er e bein g a n y com m er ce, t h er e wa s n ot so m u ch a s com m u n ica t ion bet ween
t h em . Am bit ion , jea lou sy, r eligion , n a t ion a l a n t ipa t h y, a n d differ en ce of
m a n n er s com plet ed t h e sepa r a t ion . Th u s t h e t r a de fr om ea st t o west , wh ich h a d
for m er ly so m a n y ch a n n els, wa s r edu ced t o on e; a n d Alexa n dr ia becom in g t h e
on ly st a ple, t h e t r a de t o t h is cit y wa s im m en sely en la r ged.
We sh a ll sa y bu t on e wor d of t h eir in la n d t r a de. It s pr in cipa l br a n ch wa s t h e
cor n br ou gh t t o Rom e for t h e su bsist en ce of t h e people; bu t t h is wa s r a t h er a
polit ica l a ffa ir t h a n a poin t of com m er ce. On t h is a ccou n t t h e sa ilor s wer e
fa vou r ed wit h som e pr ivileges, beca u se t h e sa fet y of t h e em pir e depen ded on
t h eir vigila n ce.128
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Aft er t h e in va sion of t h e Rom a n em pir e on e effect of t h e gen er a l ca la m it y wa s
t h e dest r u ct ion of com m er ce. Th e ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s a t fir st r ega r ded it on ly a s
a n oppor t u n it y for r obber y; a n d wh en t h ey h a d su bdu ed t h e Rom a n s, t h ey
h on ou r ed it n o m or e t h a n a gr icu lt u r e, a n d t h e ot h er pr ofession s of a con qu er ed
people.
Soon wa s t h e com m er ce of E u r ope a lm ost en t ir ely lost . Th e n obilit y, wh o h a d
ever ywh er e t h e dir ect ion of a ffa ir s, wer e in n o pa in a bou t it .
Th e la ws of t h e Visigot h s 129 per m it t ed pr iva t e people t o occu py h a lf t h e beds
of gr ea t r iver s, pr ovided t h e ot h er h a lf r em a in ed fr ee for n et s a n d boa t s. Th er e
m u st h a ve been ver y lit t le t r a de in cou n t r ies con qu er ed by t h ese ba r ba r ia n s.
In t h ose t im es wer e est a blish ed t h e r idicu lou s r igh t s of esch ea t a ge a n d
sh ipwr ecks. Th ese m en t h ou gh t t h a t , a s st r a n ger s wer e n ot u n it ed t o t h em by
a n y civil la w, t h ey owed t h em on t h e on e h a n d n o kin d of ju st ice, a n d on t h e
ot h er n o sor t of pit y.
In t h e n a r r ow bou n ds wh ich n a t u r e h a d or igin a lly pr escr ibed t o t h e people of

t h e n or t h , a ll wer e st r a n ger s t o t h em : a n d in t h eir pover t y t h ey r ega r ded a ll
on ly a s con t r ibu t in g t o t h eir r ich es. Bein g est a blish ed, befor e t h eir con qu est , on
t h e coa st s of a sea of ver y lit t le br ea dt h , a n d fu ll of r ocks, fr om t h ese ver y r ocks
t h ey dr ew t h eir su bsist en ce.
Bu t t h e Rom a n s, wh o m a de la ws for a ll t h e wor ld, h a d est a blish ed t h e m ost
h u m a n e on es wit h r ega r d t o sh ipwr ecks. 130 Th ey su ppr essed t h e r a pin e of t h ose
wh o in h a bit ed t h e coa st s, a n d wh a t wa s m or e st ill, t h e r a pa cit y of t h eir
t r ea su r ies. 131
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Th e la w of t h e Visigot h s m a de, h owever , on e r egu la t ion in fa vou r of
com m er ce. 132 It or da in ed t h a t for eign m er ch a n t s sh ou ld be ju dged, in t h e
differ en ces t h a t a r ose a m on g t h em selves, by t h e la ws a n d by ju dges of t h eir own
n a t ion . Th is wa s fou n ded on a n est a blish ed cu st om a m on g a ll m ixed people,
t h a t ever y m a n sh ou ld live u n der h is own la w — a cu st om of wh ich I sh a ll spea k
m or e a t la r ge in a n ot h er pla ce.
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Th e Ma h om eda n s a ppea r ed, con qu er ed, ext en ded, a n d disper sed t h em selves.
E gypt h a d pa r t icu la r sover eign s; t h ese ca r r ied on t h e com m er ce of In dia , a n d
bein g possessed of t h e m er ch a n dise of t h is cou n t r y, dr ew t o t h em selves t h e
r ich es of a ll ot h er n a t ion s. Th e su lt a n s of E gypt wer e t h e m ost power fu l pr in ces
of t h ose t im es. H ist or y in for m s u s wit h wh a t a con st a n t a n d well-r egu la t ed
for ce t h ey st opped t h e a r dou r , t h e fir e, a n d t h e im pet u osit y of t h e cr u sa des.
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Ar ist ot le’s ph ilosoph y bein g ca r r ied t o t h e west , plea sed t h e su bt le gen iu ses
wh o wer e t h e vir t u osi of t h ose t im es of ign or a n ce. Th e sch oolm en wer e
in fa t u a t ed wit h it , a n d bor r owed fr om t h a t ph ilosoph er 133 a gr ea t m a n y n ot ion s
on len din g u pon in t er est , wh er ea s it s sou r ce m igh t h a ve been ea sily t r a ced in
t h e gospel; in sh or t , t h ey con dem n ed it a bsolu t ely a n d in a ll ca ses. H en ce
com m er ce, wh ich wa s t h e pr ofession on ly of m ea n per son s, beca m e t h a t of

k n a ves; for wh en ever a t h in g is for bidden , wh ich n a t u r e per m it s or n ecessit y
r equ ir es, t h ose wh o do it a r e looked u pon a s dish on est .
Com m er ce wa s t r a n sfer r ed t o a n a t ion cover ed wit h in fa m y, a n d soon r a n ked
wit h t h e m ost sh a m efu l u su r y, wit h m on opolies, wit h t h e levyin g of su bsidies,
a n d wit h a ll t h e dish on est m ea n s of a cqu ir in g wea lt h .
Th e J ews, en r ich ed by t h eir exa ct ion s, wer e pilla ged by t h e t yr a n n y of pr in ces;
wh ich plea sed in deed, bu t did n ot ea se, t h e people.134
Wh a t pa ssed in E n gla n d m a y ser ve t o give u s a n idea of wh a t wa s don e in
ot h er cou n t r ies. Kin g J oh n 135 h a vin g im pr ison ed t h e J ews, in or der t o obt a in
t h eir wea lt h , t h er e wer e few wh o h a d n ot a t lea st on e of t h eir eyes plu cked ou t .
Th u s did t h a t kin g a dm in ist er ju st ice. A cer t a in J ew, wh o h a d a t oot h pu lled ou t
ever y da y for seven da ys su ccessively, ga ve t en t h ou sa n d m a r ks of silver for t h e
eigh t h . H en r y III ext or t ed fr om Aa r on , a J ew a t Yor k, fou r t een t h ou sa n d m a r ks
of silver , a n d t en t h ou sa n d for t h e qu een , in t h ose t im es t h ey did by violen ce
wh a t is n ow don e in P ola n d wit h som e sem bla n ce of m oder a t ion . As pr in ces
cou ld n ot dive in t o t h e pu r ses of t h eir su bject s beca u se of t h eir pr ivileges, t h ey
pu t t h e J ews t o t h e t or t u r e, wh o wer e n ot con sider ed a s cit izen s.
At la st a cu st om wa s in t r odu ced of con fisca t in g t h e effect s of t h ose J ews wh o
em br a ced Ch r ist ia n it y. Th is r idicu lou s cu st om is kn own on ly by t h e la w wh ich
su ppr essed it . 136 Th e m ost va in a n d t r iflin g r ea son s wer e given in ju st ifica t ion
of t h a t pr oceedin g; it wa s a lleged t h a t it wa s pr oper t o t r y t h em , in or der t o be
cer t a in t h a t t h ey h a d en t ir ely sh a ken off t h e sla ver y of t h e devil. Bu t it is
eviden t t h a t t h is con fisca t ion wa s a species of t h e r igh t of a m or t isa t ion , t o
r ecom pen se t h e pr in ce, or t h e lor ds, for t h e t a xes levied on t h e J ews, wh ich
cea sed on t h eir em br a cin g Ch r ist ia n it y. 137 In t h ose t im es, m en , like la n ds, wer e
r ega r ded a s pr oper t y. I ca n n ot h elp r em a r kin g, by t h e wa y, h ow t h is n a t ion h a s
been spor t ed wit h fr om on e a ge t o a n ot h er : a t on e t im e, t h eir effect s wer e
con fisca t ed wh en t h ey wer e willin g t o becom e Ch r ist ia n s; a n d a t a n ot h er , if t h ey
r efu sed t o t u r n Ch r ist ia n s, t h ey wer e or der ed t o be bu r n ed.
In t h e m ea n t im e, com m er ce wa s seen t o a r ise fr om t h e bosom of vexa t ion a n d
despa ir . Th e J ews, pr oscr ibed by t u r n s fr om ever y cou n t r y, fou n d ou t t h e wa y
of sa vin g t h eir effect s. Th u s t h ey r en der ed t h eir r et r ea t s for ever fixed; for
t h ou gh pr in ces m igh t h a ve been willin g t o get r id of t h eir per son s, yet t h ey did
n ot ch oose t o get r id of t h eir m on ey.
Th e J ews in ven t ed let t er s of exch a n ge;138 com m er ce, by t h is m et h od, beca m e
ca pa ble of elu din g violen ce, a n d of m a in t a in in g ever ywh er e it s gr ou n d; t h e
r ich est m er ch a n t h a vin g n on e bu t in visible effect s, wh ich h e cou ld con vey
im per cept ibly wh er ever h e plea sed.
Th e Th eologia n s wer e obliged t o lim it t h eir pr in ciples; a n d com m er ce, wh ich
t h ey h a d befor e con n ect ed by m a in for ce wit h kn a ver y, r een t er ed, if I m a y so
expr ess m yself, t h e bosom of pr obit y.
Th u s we owe t o t h e specu la t ion s of t h e sch oolm en a ll t h e m isfor t u n es wh ich
a ccom pa n ied t h e dest r u ct ion of com m er ce;139 a n d t o t h e a va r ice of pr in ces, t h e
est a blish m en t of a pr a ct ice wh ich pu t s it in som e m ea su r e ou t of t h eir power .
F r om t h is t im e it beca m e n ecessa r y t h a t pr in ces sh ou ld gover n wit h m or e
pr u den ce t h a n t h ey t h em selves cou ld ever h a ve im a gin ed; for gr ea t exer t ion s
of a u t h or it y wer e, in t h e even t , fou n d t o be im polit ic; a n d fr om exper ien ce it is
m a n ifest t h a t n ot h in g bu t t h e goodn ess a n d len it y of a gover n m en t ca n m a k e
it flou r ish .
We begin t o be cu r ed of Ma ch ia velism , a n d r ecover fr om it ever y da y. Mor e
m oder a t ion h a s becom e n ecessa r y in t h e cou n cils of pr in ces. Wh a t wou ld
for m er ly ha ve been ca lled a m a st er -st r oke in polit ics wou ld be n ow, in depen den t
of t h e h or r or it m igh t occa sion , t h e gr ea t est im pr u den ce.
H a ppy is it for m en t h a t t h ey a r e in a sit u a t ion in wh ich , t h ou gh t h eir
pa ssion s pr om pt t h em t o be wicked, it is, n ever t h eless, t o t h eir in t er est t o be
h u m a n e a n d vir t u ou s.
EB1&!-%&C5,9';%.H&'(&+7'&*%7&W'.$0,I&"*0&5*&7-"+&K"**%.&UF.'4%&5,
"((%9+%0&#H&5+1
Th e com pa ss open ed, if I m a y so expr ess m yself, t h e u n iver se. Asia a n d Afr ica
wer e fou n d, of wh ich on ly som e bor der s wer e kn own ; a n d Am er ica , of wh ich we
kn ew n ot h in g.
Th e P or t u gu ese, sa ilin g on t h e At la n t ic Ocea n , discover ed t h e m ost sou t h er n
poin t of Afr ica ; t h ey sa w a va st sea , wh ich ca r r ied t h em t o t h e E a st In dies.
Th eir da n ger u pon t h is sea , t h e discover y of Moza m biqu e, Melin da , a n d Ca licu t ,
h a ve been su n g by Ca m oen s, wh ose poem s m a ke u s feel som et h in g of t h e

ch a r m s of t h e Odyssey a n d t h e m a gn ificen ce of t h e Æ n eid.
Th e Ven et ia n s h a d h it h er t o ca r r ied on t h e t r a de of t h e In dies t h r ou gh t h e
Tu r kish dom in ion s, a n d pu r su ed it in t h e m idst of oppr ession s a n d
discou r a gem en t s. By t h e discover y of t h e Ca pe of Good H ope, a n d t h ose wh ich
wer e m a de som e t im e a ft er , It a ly wa s n o lon ger t h e cen t r e of t h e t r a din g wor ld;
it wa s, if I m a y be per m it t ed t h e expr ession , on ly a cor n er of t h e u n iver se, a n d
is so st ill. Th e com m er ce even of t h e Leva n t depen din g n ow on t h a t of t h e gr ea t
t r a din g n a t ion s t o bot h t h e In dies, It a ly even in t h a t br a n ch ca n n o lon ger be
con sider ed a s a pr in cipa l.
Th e P or t u gu ese t r a ded t o t h e In dies in r igh t of con qu est . Th e con st r a in in g
la ws wh ich t h e Du t ch a t pr esen t im pose on t h e com m er ce of t h e lit t le In dia n
pr in ces h a d been est a blish ed befor e by t h e P or t u gu ese.140
Th e for t u n e of t h e h ou se of Au st r ia wa s pr odigiou s. Ch a r les V su cceeded t o
t h e possession of Bu r gu n dy, Ca st ile, a n d Ar a gon ; h e a r r ived a ft er wa r ds a t t h e
im per ia l dign it y; a n d t o pr ocu r e h im a n ew kin d of gr a n deu r , t h e globe ext en ded
it self, a n d t h er e wa s seen a n ew wor ld pa yin g h im obeisa n ce.
Ch r ist oph er Colu m bu s discover ed Am er ica ; a n d t h ou gh Spa in sen t t h it h er
on ly a for ce so sm a ll t h a t t h e lea st pr in ce in E u r ope cou ld h a ve sen t t h e sa m e,
yet it su bdu ed t wo va st em pir es, a n d ot h er gr ea t st a t es.
Wh ile t h e Spa n ia r ds discover ed a n d con qu er ed t h e west , t h e P or t u gu ese
pu sh ed t h eir con qu est s a n d discover ies in t h e ea st . Th ese t wo n a t ion s m et ea ch
ot h er ; t h ey h a d r ecou r se t o P ope Alexa n der VI, wh o m a de t h e celebr a t ed lin e of
pa r t it ion , a n d det er m in ed t h e gr ea t su it .
Bu t t h e ot h er n a t ion s of E u r ope wou ld n ot su ffer t h em qu iet ly t o en joy t h eir
sh a r es. Th e Du t ch ch a sed t h e P or t u gu ese fr om a lm ost a ll t h eir set t lem en t s in
t h e E a st In dies; a n d sever a l ot h er n a t ion s pla n t ed colon ies in Am er ica .
Th e Spa n ia r ds con sider ed t h ese n ewly-discover ed cou n t r ies a s t h e su bject of
con qu est ; wh ile ot h er s, m or e r efin ed in t h eir views, fou n d t h em t o be t h e pr oper
su bject s of com m er ce, a n d u pon t h is pr in ciple dir ect ed t h eir pr oceedin gs. H en ce
sever a l n a t ion s h a ve con du ct ed t h em selves wit h so m u ch wisdom t h a t t h ey h a ve
given a kin d of sover eign t y t o com pa n ies of m er ch a n t s, wh o, gover n in g t h ese
fa r -dist a n t cou n t r ies on ly wit h a view t o t r a de, h a ve m a de a gr ea t a ccessor y
power wit h ou t em ba r r a ssin g t h e pr in cipa l st a t e.

Th e colon ies t h ey h a ve for m ed a r e u n der a kin d of depen den ce, of wh ich t h er e
a r e bu t ver y few in st a n ces in a ll t h e colon ies of t h e a n cien t s; wh et h er we
con sider t h em a s h oldin gs of t h e st a t e it self, or of som e t r a din g com pa n y
est a blish ed in t h e st a t e.
Th e design of t h ese colon ies is t o t r a de on m or e a dva n t a geou s con dit ion s t h a n
cou ld ot h er wise be don e wit h t h e n eigh bou r in g people, wit h wh om a ll
a dva n t a ges a r e r ecipr oca l. It h a s been est a blish ed t h a t t h e m et r opolis, 141 or
m ot h er cou n t r y, a lon e sh a ll t r a de in t h e colon ies, a n d t h a t fr om ver y good
r ea son ; beca u se t h e design of t h e set t lem en t wa s t h e ext en sion of com m er ce, n ot
t h e fou n da t ion of a cit y or of a n ew em pir e.
Th u s it is st ill a fu n da m en t a l la w of E u r ope t h a t a ll com m er ce wit h a for eign
colon y sh a ll be r ega r ded a s a m er e m on opoly, pu n ish a ble by t h e la ws of t h e
cou n t r y; a n d in t h is ca se we a r e n ot t o be dir ect ed by t h e la ws a n d pr eceden t s
of t h e a n cien t s, wh ich a r e n ot a t a ll a pplica ble.142
It is likewise a ckn owledged t h a t a com m er ce est a blish ed bet ween t h e m ot h er
cou n t r ies does n ot in clu de a per m ission t o t r a de in t h e colon ies; for t h ese a lwa ys
con t in u e in a st a t e of pr oh ibit ion .
Th e disa dva n t a ge of a colon y t h a t loses t h e liber t y of com m er ce is visibly
com pen sa t ed by t h e pr ot ect ion of t h e m ot h er cou n t r y, wh o defen ds it by h er
a r m s, or su ppor t s it by h er la ws.
H en ce follows a t h ir d la w of E u r ope, t h a t wh en a for eign com m er ce wit h a
colon y is pr oh ibit ed, it is n ot la wfu l t o t r a de in t h ose sea s, except in su ch ca ses
a s a r e except ed by t r ea t y. Na t ion s wh o a r e, wit h r espect t o t h e wh ole globe,
wh a t in dividu a ls a r e in a st a t e, a r e gover n ed like t h e la t t er by t h e la ws of
n a t u r e, a n d by pa r t icu la r la ws of t h eir own m a kin g. On e n a t ion m a y r esign t o
a n ot h er t h e sea , a s well a s t h e la n d. Th e Ca r t h a gin ia n s for ba de t h e Rom a n s t o
sa il beyon d cer t a in lim it s, 143 a s t h e Gr eek s h a d obliged t h e Kin g of P er sia t o
keep a s fa r dist a n t fr om t h e sea -coa st a s a h or se cou ld ga llop.144
Th e gr ea t dist a n ce of ou r colon ies is n ot a n in con ven ien ce t h a t a ffect s t h eir
sa fet y; for if t h e m ot h er cou n t r y, on wh om t h ey depen d for t h eir defen ce, is
r em ot e, n o less r em ot e a r e t h ose n a t ion s wh o r iva l t h e m ot h er cou n t r y, a n d by
wh om t h ey m a y be a fr a id of bein g con qu er ed.
Besides, t h is dist a n ce is t h e ca u se t h a t t h ose wh o a r e est a blish ed t h er e ca n n ot

con for m t o t h e m a n n er of livin g in a clim a t e so differ en t fr om t h eir own ; t h ey
a r e obliged t h er efor e t o dr a w fr om t h e m ot h er cou n t r y a ll t h e con ven ien ces of
life. Th e Ca r t h a gin ia n s,145 t o r en der t h e Sa r din ia n s a n d Cor sica n s m or e
depen den t , for ba de t h eir pla n t in g, sowin g, or doin g a n yt h in g of t h e kin d, u n der
pa in of dea t h ; so t h a t t h ey su pplied t h em wit h n ecessa r ies fr om Afr ica .
Th e E u r opea n s h a ve com pa ssed t h e sa m e t h in g, wit h ou t h a vin g r ecou r se t o
su ch sever e la ws. Ou r colon ies in t h e Ca r ibbea n isla n ds a r e u n der a n a dm ir a ble
r egu la t ion in t h is r espect ; t h e su bject of t h eir com m er ce is wh a t we n eit h er h a ve
n or ca n pr odu ce; a n d t h ey wa n t wh a t is t h e su bject of ou r s.
A con sequ en ce of t h e discover y of Am er ica wa s t h e con n ect in g Asia a n d Afr ica
wit h E u r ope; it fu r n ish ed m a t er ia ls for a t r a de wit h t h a t va st pa r t of Asia
kn own by t h e n a m e of t h e E a st In dies. Silver , t h a t m et a l so u sefu l a s t h e
m ediu m of com m er ce, beca m e n ow a s m er ch a n dise t h e ba sis of t h e gr ea t est
com m er ce in t h e wor ld. In fin e, t h e n a viga t ion t o Afr ica beca m e n ecessa r y in
or der t o fu r n ish u s wit h m en t o la bou r in t h e m in es, a n d t o cu lt iva t e t h e la n ds
of Am er ica .
E u r ope h a s a r r ived a t so h igh a degr ee of power t h a t n ot h in g in h ist or y ca n
be com pa r ed wit h it , wh et h er we con sider t h e im m en sit y of it s expen ses, t h e
gr a n deu r of it s en ga gem en t s, t h e n u m ber of it s t r oops, a n d t h e r egu la r
pa ym en t s even of t h ose t h a t a r e lea st ser vicea ble, a n d wh ich a r e kept on ly for
ost en t a t ion .
F a t h er Du H a lde sa ys 146 t h a t t h e in t er ior t r a de of Ch in a is m u ch gr ea t er t h a n
t h a t of a ll E u r ope. Th a t m igh t be, if ou r for eign t r a de did n ot a u gm en t ou r
in la n d com m er ce. E u r ope ca r r ies on t h e t r a de a n d n a viga t ion of t h e ot h er t h r ee
pa r t s of t h e wor ld; a s F r a n ce, E n gla n d, a n d H olla n d do n ea r ly t h a t of E u r ope.
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If E u r ope h a s der ived so m a n y a dva n t a ges fr om t h e Am er ica n t r a de, it seem s
n a t u r a l t o im a gin e t h a t Spa in m u st h a ve der ived m u ch gr ea t er . 147 Sh e dr ew
fr om t h e n ewly- discover ed wor ld so pr odigiou s a qu a n t it y of gold a n d silver ,
t h a t a ll we h a d befor e cou ld n ot be com pa r ed wit h it .
Bu t (wh a t on e cou ld n ever h a ve expect ed) t h is gr ea t kin gdom wa s ever ywh er e
ba ffled by it s m isfor t u n es. P h ilip II, wh o su cceeded Ch a r les V, wa s obliged t o

m a ke t h e celebr a t ed ba n kr u pt cy kn own t o a ll t h e wor ld. Th er e n ever wa s a
pr in ce wh o su ffer ed m or e fr om t h e m u r m u r s, t h e in solen ce, a n d t h e r evolt of
t r oops con st a n t ly ill-pa id.
F r om t h a t t im e t h e m on a r ch y of Spa in h a s been in cessa n t ly declin in g. Th is
h a s been owin g t o a n in t er ior a n d ph ysica l defect in t h e n a t u r e of t h ose r ich es,
wh ich r en der s t h em va in — a defect wh ich in cr ea ses ever y da y.
Gold a n d silver a r e eit h er a fict it iou s or a r epr esen t a t ive wea lt h . Th e
r epr esen t a t ive sign s of wea lt h a r e ext r em ely du r a ble, a n d, in t h eir own n a t u r e,
bu t lit t le su bject t o deca y. Bu t t h e m or e t h ey a r e m u lt iplied, t h e m or e t h ey lose
t h eir va lu e, beca u se t h e fewer a r e t h e t h in gs wh ich t h ey r epr esen t .
Th e Spa n ia r ds, a ft er t h e con qu est of Mexico a n d P er u , a ba n don ed t h eir
n a t u r a l r ich es, in pu r su it of a r epr esen t a t ive wea lt h wh ich da ily degr a ded it self.
Gold a n d silver wer e ext r em ely sca r ce in E u r ope, a n d Spa in becom in g a ll of a
su dden m ist r ess of a pr odigiou s qu a n t it y of t h ese m et a ls, con ceived h opes t o
wh ich sh e h a d n ever befor e a spir ed. Th e wea lt h sh e fou n d in t h e con qu er ed
cou n t r ies, gr ea t a s it wa s, did n ot , h owever , equ a l t h a t of t h eir m in es. Th e
In dia n s con cea led pa r t of it ; a n d besides, t h ese people, wh o m a de n o ot h er u se
of gold a n d silver t h a n t o give m a gn ificen ce t o t h e t em ples of t h eir gods a n d t o
t h e pa la ces of t h eir kin gs, sou gh t n ot for it wit h a n a va r ice like ou r s. In sh or t ,
t h ey h a d n ot t h e secr et of dr a win g t h ese m et a ls fr om ever y m in e; bu t on ly fr om
t h ose in wh ich t h e sepa r a t ion m igh t be m a de wit h fir e: t h ey wer e st r a n ger s t o
t h e m a n n er of m a kin g u se of m er cu r y, a n d per h a ps t o m er cu r y it self.
H owever , it wa s n ot lon g befor e t h e specie of E u r ope wa s dou bled; t h is
a ppea r ed fr om t h e pr ice of com m odit ies, wh ich ever ywh er e wa s dou bled.
Th e Spa n ia r ds r a ked in t o t h e m in es, scooped ou t m ou n t a in s, in ven t ed
m a ch in es t o dr a w ou t wa t er , t o br ea k t h e or e, a n d sepa r a t e it ; a n d a s t h ey
spor t ed wit h t h e lives of t h e In dia n s, t h ey for ced t h em t o la bou r wit h ou t m er cy.
Th e specie of E u r ope soon dou bled, a n d t h e pr ofit of Spa in dim in ish ed in t h e
sa m e pr opor t ion ; t h ey h a d ever y yea r t h e sa m e qu a n t it y of m et a l, wh ich h a d
becom e by on e-h a lf less pr eciou s.
In dou ble t h e t im e t h e specie st ill dou bled, a n d t h e pr ofit st ill dim in ish ed
a n ot h er h a lf.
It dim in ish ed even m or e t h a n h a lf: let u s see in wh a t m a n n er .

To ext r a ct t h e gold fr om t h e m in es, t o give it t h e r equ isit e pr epa r a t ion s, a n d
t o im por t it in t o E u r ope, m u st be a t t en ded wit h som e cer t a in expen se. I will
su ppose t h is t o be a s 1 t o 64. Wh en t h e specie wa s on ce dou bled, a n d
con sequ en t ly beca m e by on e-h a lf less pr eciou s, t h e expen se wa s a s 2 t o 64. Th u s
t h e ga loon s wh ich br ou gh t t o Spa in t h e sa m e qu a n t it y of gold, br ou gh t a t h in g
wh ich r ea lly wa s of less va lu e by on e-h a lf, t h ou gh t h e expen ses a t t en din g it h a d
been t wice a s h igh .
If we pr oceed dou blin g a n d dou blin g, we sh a ll fin d in t h is pr ogr ession t h e
ca u se of t h e im pot en cy of t h e wea lt h of Spa in .
It is a bou t t wo h u n dr ed yea r s sin ce t h ey h a ve wor ked t h eir In dia n m in es. I
su ppose t h e qu a n t it y of specie a t pr esen t in t h e t r a din g wor ld is t o t h a t befor e
t h e discover y of t h e In dies a s 32 is t o 1; t h a t is, it h a s been dou bled five t im es:
in t wo h u n dr ed yea r s m or e t h e sa m e qu a n t it y will be t o t h a t befor e t h e
discover y a s 64 is t o 1; t h a t is, it will be dou bled on ce m or e. Now, a t pr esen t ,
fift y qu in t a ls of or e yield fou r , five, a n d six ou n ces of gold;148 a n d wh en it yields
on ly t wo, t h e m in er r eceives n o m or e fr om it t h a n h is expen ses. In t wo h u n dr ed
yea r s, wh en t h e m in er will ext r a ct on ly fou r , t h is t oo will on ly defr a y h is
ch a r ges. Th er e will t h en be bu t lit t le pr ofit t o be dr a wn fr om t h e gold m in es.
Th e sa m e r ea son in g will h old good of silver , except t h a t t h e wor kin g of t h e
silver m in es is a lit t le m or e a dva n t a geou s t h a n t h ose of gold.
Bu t , if m in es sh ou ld be discover ed so fr u it fu l a s t o give a m u ch gr ea t er pr ofit ,
t h e m or e fr u it fu l t h ey m a y be, t h e soon er t h e pr ofit will cea se.
Th e P or t u gu ese in Br a zil h a ve fou n d m in es of gold so r ich 149 t h a t t h ey m u st
n ecessa r ily ver y soon m a ke a con sider a ble dim in u t ion in t h e pr ofit s of t h ose of
Spa in , a s well a s in t h eir own .
I h a ve fr equ en t ly h ea r d people deplor e t h e blin dn ess of t h e cou r t of F r a n ce,
wh o r epu lsed Ch r ist oph er Colu m bu s, wh en h e m a de t h e pr oposa l of discover in g
t h e In dies. In deed t h ey did, t h ou gh per h a ps wit h ou t design , a n a ct of t h e
gr ea t est wisdom . Spa in h a s beh a ved like t h e foolish kin g wh o desir ed t h a t
ever yt h in g h e t ou ch ed m igh t be con ver t ed in t o gold, a n d wh o wa s obliged t o beg
of t h e gods t o pu t a n en d t o h is m iser y.
Th e com pa n ies a n d ba n ks est a blish ed in m a n y n a t ion s h a ve pu t a fin ish in g
st r oke t o t h e lower in g of gold a n d silver a s a sign of r epr esen t a t ion of r ich es; for
by n ew fict ion s t h ey h a ve m u lt iplied in su ch a m a n n er t h e sign s of wea lt h , t h a t
gold a n d silver h a vin g t h is office on ly in pa r t h a ve becom e less pr eciou s.
Th u s pu blic cr edit ser ves in st ea d of m in es, a n d dim in ish es t h e pr ofit wh ich
t h e Spa n ia r ds dr ew fr om t h eir s.
Tr u e it is t h a t t h e Du t ch t r a de t o t h e E a st In dies h a s in cr ea sed, in som e
m ea su r e, t h e va lu e of t h e Spa n ish m er ch a n dise: for a s t h ey ca r r y bu llion , a n d
give it in exch a n ge for t h e m er ch a n dise of t h e E a st , t h ey ea se t h e Spa n ia r ds of
pa r t of a com m odit y wh ich in E u r ope a bou n ds t oo m u ch .
An d t h is t r a de, in wh ich Spa in seem s t o be on ly in dir ect ly con cer n ed, is a s
a dva n t a geou s t o t h a t n a t ion a s t o t h ose wh o a r e dir ect ly em ployed in ca r r yin g
it on .
F r om wh a t h a s been sa id we m a y for m a ju dgm en t of t h e la st or der of t h e
cou n cil of Spa in , wh ich pr oh ibit s t h e m a kin g u se of gold a n d silver in gildin gs,
a n d ot h er su per flu it ies; a decr ee a s r idicu lou s a s it wou ld be for t h e st a t es of
H olla n d t o pr oh ibit t h e con su m pt ion of spices.
My r ea son in g does n ot h old good a ga in st a ll m in es; t h ose of Ger m a n y a n d
H u n ga r y, wh ich pr odu ce lit t le m or e t h a n t h e expen se of wor kin g t h em , a r e
ext r em ely u sefu l. Th ey a r e fou n d in t h e pr in cipa l st a t e; t h ey em ploy m a n y
t h ou sa n d m en , wh o t h er e con su m e t h eir su per flu ou s com m odit ies, a n d t h ey a r e
pr oper ly a m a n u fa ct u r e of t h e cou n t r y.
Th e m in es of Ger m a n y a n d H u n ga r y pr om ot e t h e cu lt u r e of la n d; t h e wor kin g
of t h ose of Mexico a n d P er u dest r oys it .
Th e In dies a n d Spa in a r e t wo power s u n der t h e sa m e m a st er ; bu t t h e In dies
a r e t h e pr in cipa l, wh ile Spa in is on ly a n a ccessor y, it is in va in for polit ics t o
a t t em pt t o br in g ba ck t h e pr in cipa l t o t h e a ccessor y; t h e In dies will a lwa ys dr a w
Spa in t o t h em selves.
Of t h e m er ch a n dise, t o t h e va lu e of a bou t fift y m illion s of livr es, a n n u a lly sen t
t o t h e In dies, Spa in fu r n ish es on ly t wo m illion s a n d a h a lf: t h e In dies t r a de for
fift y m illion s, t h e Spa n ia r ds for t wo a n d a h a lf.
Th a t m u st be a ba d kin d of r ich es wh ich depen ds on a cciden t , a n d n ot on t h e
in du st r y of a n a t ion , on t h e n u m ber of it s in h a bit a n t s, a n d on t h e cu lt iva t ion of
it s la n ds. Th e kin g of Spa in , wh o r eceives gr ea t su m s fr om h is cu st om -h ou se a t
Ca diz, is in t h is r espect on ly a r ich in dividu a l in a st a t e ext r em ely poor .

E ver yt h in g pa sses bet ween st r a n ger s a n d h im self, wh ile h is su bject s h a ve
sca r cely a n y sh a r e in it ; t h is com m er ce is in depen den t bot h of t h e good a n d ba d
for t u n e of h is kin gdom .
Wer e som e pr ovin ces of Ca st ile a ble t o give h im a su m equ a l t o t h a t of t h e
cu st om -h ou se of Ca diz, h is power wou ld be m u ch gr ea t er ; h is r ich es wou ld be
t h e effect of t h e wea lt h of t h e cou n t r y; t h ese pr ovin ces wou ld a n im a t e a ll t h e
ot h er s, a n d t h ey wou ld be a lt oget h er m or e ca pa ble of su ppor t in g t h eir
r espect ive ch a r ges; in st ea d of a gr ea t t r ea su r y h e wou ld h a ve a gr ea t people.
EG1&:&8.'#$%<1
It is n ot for m e t o decide t h e qu est ion wh et h er , if Spa in be n ot h er self a ble t o
ca r r y on t h e t r a de of t h e In dies, it wou ld n ot be bet t er t o lea ve it open t o
st r a n ger s. I will on ly sa y t h a t it is for t h eir a dva n t a ge t o loa d t h is com m er ce
wit h a s few obst a cles a s polit ics will per m it . Wh en t h e m er ch a n dise wh ich
sever a l n a t ion s sen d t o t h e In dies is ver y dea r , t h e in h a bit a n t s of t h a t cou n t r y
give a gr ea t dea l of t h eir com m odit ies, wh ich a r e gold a n d silver , for ver y lit t le
of t h ose of for eign er s; t h e con t r a r y t o t h is h a ppen s wh en t h ey a r e a t a low pr ice,
it wou ld per h a ps be of u se t h a t t h ese n a t ion s sh ou ld u n der sell ea ch ot h er , t o t h e
en d t h a t t h e m er ch a n dise ca r r ied t o t h e In dies m igh t be a lwa ys ch ea p. Th ese
a r e pr in ciples wh ich deser ve t o be exam in ed, wit h ou t sepa r a t in g t h em , h owever ,
fr om ot h er con sider a t ion s: t h e sa fet y of t h e In dies, t h e a dva n t a ges of on ly on e
cu st om -h ou se, t h e da n ger of m a kin g gr ea t a lt er a t ion s, a n d t h e for eseen
in con ven ien ces, wh ich a r e oft en less da n ger ou s t h a n t h ose wh ich ca n n ot be
for eseen .
2'+%,1
1. P lin y, vi. 23.
2. See P lin y, vi. 19, a n d St r a bo, xv.
3. Book vi. 4, 5.
4. Book xi.
5. Diodor u s, ii.
6. Ibid., 7, 8, 9.
7. P lin y, vi. 16, a n d St r a bo, xi.

8. St r a bo, xi.
9. Ibid.
10. Th e a u t h or it y of P a t r oclu s is of gr ea t weigh t , a s a ppea r s fr om a pa ssa ge in
St r a bo, ii.
11. P lin y, vi. 17. See a lso St r a bo, xi, u pon t h e pa ssa ge by wh ich t h e
m er ch a n dise wa s con veyed fr om t h e P h a sis t o t h e Cyr u s.
12. Th er e m u st h a ve been ver y gr ea t ch a n ges in t h a t cou n t r y sin ce t h e t im e of
P t olem y, wh o gives u s a n a ccou n t of so m a n y r iver s t h a t em pt y t h em selves
in t o t h e ea st side of t h e Ca spia n Sea . In t h e Cza r ’s ch a r t we fin d on ly t h e
r iver of Ast r a ba t : in t h a t of M. Ba t h a isi t h er e is n on e a t a ll.
13. See J en kin son ’s a ccou n t of t h is, in t h e Collection of Voyages to th e N orth , iv.
14. I a m disposed t o t h in k t h a t h en ce La ke Ar a l wa s for m ed.
15. Cla u diu s Ca esa r , in P lin y, vi. 11.
16. H e wa s sla in by P t olem y Cer a u n u s.
17. See St r a bo, xi.
18. Th ey fou n ded Ta r t essu s, a n d m a de a set t lem en t a t Ca diz.
19. I Kin gs, 9. 26; II Ch r on ., 8. 17.
20. Aga in st Appia n .
21. Ch a pt er 1 of t h is book.
22. Th e pr opor t ion bet ween gold a n d silver , a s set t led in E u r ope, m a y
som et im es r en der it pr ofit a ble t o t a ke gold in st ea d of silver in t o t h e E a st
In dies; bu t t h e a dva n t a ge is ver y t r iflin g.
23. See P lin y, vi. 22, a n d St r a bo, xv.
24. Th ey a r e m ost ly sh a llow; bu t Sicily h a s excellen t por t s.
25. I sa y t h e pr ovin ce of H olla n d; for t h e por t s of Zea la n d a r e deep en ou gh .
26. Th a t is, t o com pa r e m a gn it u des of t h e sa m e kin d, t h e a ct ion or pr essu r e of
t h e flu id u pon t h e sh ip will be t o t h e r esist a n ce of t h e sa m e sh ip a s, &c.
27. Th e Kin g of P er sia .
28. On t h e At h en ia n Repu blic, 2.
29. See St r a bo, viii.
30. Iliad , ii. 668.
31. Ibid., 570.
32. St r a bo, ix, p. 414.

33. St r a bo, xv.
34. H er odot u s, Melpom en e, iv. 44.
35. St r a bo, xv.
36. Ibid., xv.
37. P lin y, vi. 33, St r a bo, xv.
38. Th ey sa iled n ot u pon t h e r iver s, lest t h ey sh ou ld defile t h e elem en t s —
H yde, Religion of t h e P er sia n s. E ven t o t h is da y t h ey h a ve n o m a r it im e
com m er ce. Th ose wh o t a ke t o t h e sea a r e t r ea t ed by t h em a s At h eist s.
39. St r a bo, xv.
40. H er odot u s, Melpom en e, iv. 44, sa ys t h a t Da r iu s con qu er ed t h e In dies; t h is
m u st be u n der st ood on ly t o m ea n Ar ia n a ; a n d even t h is wa s on ly a n idea l
con qu est .
41. St r a bo, xv.
42. Th is ca n n ot be u n der st ood of a ll t h e Ich t h yoph a gi, wh o in h a bit ed a coa st of
t en t h ou sa n d fu r lon gs in ext en t . H ow wa s it possible for Alexa n der t o h a ve
m a in t a in ed t h em ? H ow cou ld h e com m a n d t h eir su bm ission ? Th is ca n be
on ly u n der st ood of som e pa r t icu la r t r ibes. Nea r ch u s, in h is book Rer u m
In dica r u m , sa ys t h a t a t t h e ext r em it y of t h is coa st , on t h e side of P er sia , h e
h a d fou n d som e people wh o wer e less Ich t h yoph a gi t h a n t h e ot h er s. I sh ou ld
t h in k t h a t Alexa n der ’s pr oh ibit ion r ela t ed t o t h ese people, or t o som e ot h er
t r ibe st ill m or e bor der in g on P er sia .
43. Alexa n dr ia wa s fou n ded on a fla t sh or e, ca lled Rh a cot is, wh er e, in a n cien t
t im es, t h e kin gs h a d kept a ga r r ison t o pr even t a ll st r a n ger s, a n d m or e
pa r t icu la r ly t h e Gr eeks, fr om en t er in g t h e cou n t r y. — P lin y, vi. 10; St r a bo,
xviii.
44. Ar r ia n , De E xpedit . Alex. vii.
45. Ibid.
46. St r a bo, vi, t owa r ds t h e en d.
47. Seein g Ba bylon over flowed, h e looked u pon t h e n eigh bou r in g cou n t r y of
Ar a bia a s a n isla n d. — Ar ist obu lu s, in St r a bo, xvi.
48. See Rer u m In dica r u m .
49. St r a bo, xvi.
50. St r a bo, xvi.

51. Th ese ga ve t h em a n a ver sion t o st r a n ger s.
52. P lin y, ii. 67, vi. 9, 13; St r a bo, xi., p. 507; Ar r ia n , De E xped it. Alex., iii, p 74,
v, p. 104.
53. Ar r ia n , De E xped it. Alex., vii.
54. P lin y, ii. 67.
55. See t h e Cza r ’s Ch a r t .
56. P lin y, vi. 17.
57. Book xv.
58. Apollon iu s Adr u m a t in u s in St r a bo, xi.
59. Th e Ma cedon ia n s of Ba ct r ia , In dia , a n d Ar ia n a , h a vin g sepa r a t ed
t h em selves fr om Syr ia , for m ed a gr ea t st a t e.
60. Book vi. 23.
61. Ibid.
62. Siger t idis r egn u m , xi.
63. Th e m on soon s blow pa r t of t h e yea r fr om on e qu a r t er , a n d pa r t fr om
a n ot h er ; t h e t r a de win ds blow t h e wh ole yea r r ou n d fr om t h e sa m e qu a r t er .
64. Book vi. 23.
66. P lin y, vi. 23.
67. Ibid.
68. Book xv.
69. P lin y, vi. 23.
70. Book xv.
71. H e wa s desir ou s of con qu er in g it . — H er odot u s, iv. 42.
72. P lin y, ii. 67; P om pon iu s Mela , iii. 9.
74. Add t o t h is wh a t I sh a ll sa y in ch a pt er 11 of t h is book on t h e n a viga t ion of
H a n n o.
75. In t h e m on t h s of Oct ober , Novem ber , Decem ber , a n d J a n u a r y t h e win d in
t h e At la n t ic Ocea n is fou n d t o blow n or t h -ea st ; ou r sh ips t h er efor e eit h er
cr oss t h e lin e, a n d t o a void t h e win d, wh ich is t h er e gen er a lly ea st , t h ey
dir ect t h eir cou r se t o t h e sou t h : or else t h ey en t er in t o t h e t or r id zon e, in
t h ose pla ces wh er e t h e win d is west .

76. Th e sea t o wh ich we give t h is n a m e wa s ca lled by t h e a n cien t s t h e Gu lf of
Ar a bia ; t h e n a m e of Red Sea t h ey ga ve t o t h a t pa r t of t h e ocea n wh ich
bor der s on t h is gu lf.
77. St r a bo, xvi.
78. Ibid. Ar t em idor u s set t led t h e bor der s of t h e kn own coa st a t t h e pla ce ca lled
Au st r icor n u ; a n d E r a t ost h en es, Cin n a m om ifer a m .
79. St r a bo, i. 7; iv. 9; t a ble 4 of Afr ica .
80. Th is P er iplu s is a t t r ibu t ed t o Ar r ia n .
81. P t olem y, iv. 9.
82. Book iv. 7, 8.
83. See wh a t exa ct descr ipt ion s St r a bo a n d P t olem y h a ve given u s of t h e
differ en t pa r t s of Afr ica . Th eir kn owledge wa s owin g t o t h e sever a l wa r s
wh ich t h e t wo m ost power fu l n a t ion s in t h e wor ld h a d wa ged wit h t h e
people of Afr ica , t o t h e a llia n ces t h ey h a d con t r a ct ed, a n d t o t h e t r a de t h ey
h a d ca r r ied on wit h t h ose cou n t r ies.
84. Book vii. 3.
85. See h is P er iplu s, u n der t h e a r t icle on Ca r t h a ge.
86. See H er odot u s, Melpom en e, iv. 43, on t h e obst a cles wh ich Sa t a spes
en cou n t er ed.
87. See t h e ch a r t s a n d r ela t ion s in t h e fir st volu m e of Collect ion of Voya ges t h a t
Con t r ibu t ed t o t h e E st a blish m en t of t h e E a st In dia Com pa n y, pa r t i, p. 201.
Th is weed cover s t h e su r fa ce of t h e wa t er in su ch a m a n n er a s t o be sca r cely
per ceived, a n d sh ips ca n on ly pa ss t h r ou gh it wit h a st iff ga le.
88. P lin y, v. i, t ells u s t h e sa m e t h in g, spea kin g of Mou n t At la s: Noct ibu s
m ica r e cr ebr is ign ibu s, t ibia r u m ca n t u t im pa n or u m qu e son it u st r eper e,
n em in em in t er diu cer n i.
89. Mr . Dodwell. See h is Disser t a t ion on H a n n o’s P er iplu s.
90. Of Won der fu l Th in gs.
91. Book vi.
92. Book iii.
93. Mon s a r gen t a r iu s.
94. H e h a d som e sh a r e in t h eir m a n a gem en t .
95. See F est u s Avien u s.

96. St r a bo, iii, t owa r ds t h e en d.
97. H e wa s r ewa r ded by t h e sen a t e of Ca r t h a ge.
98. F r ein sh em iu s, Su pplem en t t o Livy, dec. 2, vi.
99. In t h e pa r t s su bject t o t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s.
100. J u st in , xliii. 5.
101. See St r a bo, x.
102. H e con fir m ed t h e liber t y of t h e cit y of Am isu s, a n At h en ia n colon y wh ich
h a d en joyed a popu la r gover n m en t , even u n der t h e kin gs of P er sia . Lu cu llu s
h a vin g t a ken Sin on e a n d Am isu s, r est or ed t h em t o t h eir liber t y, a n d
r eca lled t h e in h a bit a n t s, wh o h a d fled on boa r d t h eir sh ips.
103. See wh a t Appia n wr it es con cer n in g t h e P h a n a gor ea n s, t h e Am isia n s, a n d
t h e Syn opia n s, in h is t r ea t ise Of t h e Wa r a ga in st Mit h r ida t es.
104. See Appia n , in r ega r d t o t h e im m en se t r ea su r es wh ich Mit h r ida t es
em ployed in h is wa r s, t h ose wh ich h e h a d bu r ied, t h ose wh ich h e fr equ en t ly
lost by t h e t r ea ch er y of h is own people, a n d t h ose wh ich wer e fou n d a ft er h is
dea t h .
105. See Appia n Of t h e Wa r a ga in st Mit h r ida t es.
106. Ibid.
107. H e lost a t on e t im e 170,000 m en , yet h e soon r ecr u it ed h is a r m ies.
108. In t h e Con sider a t ion s on t h e Ca u ses of t h e Rise a n d Declen sion of t h e
Rom a n Gr a n deu r .
109. As P la t o h a s obser ved. La ws, iv.
110. P olybiu s, v.
111. See t h e Con sider a t ion s on t h e Ca u ses of t h e Rise a n d Declen sion of t h e
112. Ibid.
113. Leg. 5, § 2, ff. De Ca pt ivis.
114. Qu a e m er cim on iis pu blice pr a efu it — Leg. 1, Cod. de n a t u r a l. liber is.
115. Leg. a d ba r ba r icu m . Cod. qu a e r es expor t a r i n on debea n t .
116. Leg. 2, Cod. de com m er c. et m er ca t or .
117. P r ocopiu s, Wa r of t h e P er sia n s, i.
118. See t h e Con sider a t ion s on t h e Ca u ses of t h e Rise a n d Declen sion of t h e
119. P lin y, vi. 28, a n d St r a bo, xvi.
120. Ibid.
121. Th e ca r a va n s of Aleppo a n d Su ez ca r r y t h it h er a n n u a lly t o t h e va lu e of
a bou t t wo m illion s of livr es, a n d a s m u ch m or e cla n dest in ely; t h e r oya l
vessel of Su ez ca r r ies t h it h er a lso t wo m illion s.
122. Book ii, p. 181, ed. 1587.
123. Book vi. 23.
124. H e sa ys, book ii, t h a t t h e Rom a n s em ployed a h u n dr ed a n d t wen t y sh ips
in t h a t t r a de; a n d, in book xvii, t h a t t h e Gr ecia n kin gs sca r cely em ployed
t wen t y.
125. Book i, 2.
126. Book i, 13.
127. Ou r best m a ps pla ce P et er ’s t ower in t h e h u n dr edt h degr ee of lon git u de,
a n d a bou t t h e for t iet h of la t it u de.
128. Su et on iu s, Life of Cla u diu s, 18; Leg. 7. Cod. Th eodos. de n a vicu la r iis.
129. Book viii, t it . 4, § 9.
130. Tot o t it u lo, ff. de in cen d, r u in . et n a u fr a g.; Cod. de n a u fr a giis; Leg. 3, ff. a d
leg. Cor n el, de sica r iis.
131. Leg. 1, Cod. de n a u fr a giis.
132. Book xi, t it . 3, § 2.
133. See Ar ist ot le, Politics, i. 9, 10.
134. See in Ma r ca H ispa n ica , t h e con st it u t ion s of Ar a gon , in t h e yea r s 1228 a n d
1231; a n d in Br u ssel, t h e a gr eem en t , in t h e yea r 1206, bet ween t h e Kin g,
t h e Cou n t ess of Ch a m pa gn e, a n d Gu y of Da m pier r e.
135. St ow, S u rvey of L on d on, iii, p. 54.
136. Th e edict pa ssed a t Ba ville, 4t h of Apr il, 1392.
137. In F r a n ce t h e J ews wer e sla ves in m or t m a in , a n d t h e lor ds t h eir
su ccessor s. Mr . Br u ssel m en t ion s a n a gr eem en t m a de in t h e yea r 1206,
bet ween t h e Kin g a n d Th iba u t , Cou n t of Ch a m pa gn e, by wh ich it wa s
a gr eed t h a t t h e J ews of t h e on e sh ou ld n ot len d in t h e la n ds of t h e ot h er .
138. It is kn own t h a t u n der P h ilip Au gu st u s a n d P h ilip t h e Lon g, t h e J ews wh o
wer e ch a sed fr om F r a n ce t ook r efu ge in Lom ba r dy, a n d t h a t t h er e t h ey ga ve
t o for eign m er ch a n t s a n d t r a veller s secr et let t er s, dr a wn u pon t h ose t o

wh om t h ey h a d en t r u st ed t h eir effect s in F r a n ce, wh ich wer e a ccept ed.
139. See Nov. 83 of t h e E m per or Leo, wh ich r evokes t h e la w of Ba sil h is fa t h er .
Th is la w of Ba sil is in H er m en opu lu s, u n der t h e n a m e of Leo, iii, t it . 7, § 27.
140. See t h e a ccou n t of P ir a r d, pa r t II, 15.
141. Th is, in t h e la n gu a ge of t h e a n cien t s, is t h e st a t e wh ich fou n ded t h e colon y.
142. E xcept t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s, a s we see by t h e t r ea t y wh ich pu t a n en d t o t h e
fir st P u n ic wa r .
143. P olybiu s, iii.
144. Th e Kin g of P er sia obliged h im self by t r ea t y n ot t o sa il wit h a n y vessel of
wa r beyon d t h e Cya n ea n r ocks a n d t h e Ch elidon ea n isles. — P lu t a r ch ,
Cim on .
145. Ar ist ot le, Of Won d erfu l T h in gs; Livy, dec. 2, vii.
146. Book ii, p. 170.
147. Th is h a s been a lr ea dy sh own in a sm a ll t r ea t ise wr it t en by t h e a u t h or
a bou t t wen t y yea r s a go; wh ich h a s been a lm ost en t ir ely in cor por a t ed in t h e
pr esen t wor k.
148. See F r ezier , Voyages.
149. Accor din g t o Lor d An son , E u r ope r eceives ever y yea r fr om Br a zil t wo
m illion s st er lin g in gold, wh ich is fou n d in sa n d a t t h e foot of t h e m ou n t a in s,
or in t h e beds of r iver s. Wh en I wr ot e t h e lit t le t r ea t ise m en t ion ed in t h e
fir st n ot e of t h is ch a pt er , t h e r et u r n s fr om Br a zil wer e fa r fr om bein g so
con sider a ble a n it em a s t h ey a r e a t pr esen t .
=''>&\\??1&@(&6"7,&5*&/%$"+5'*&+'&+-%&^,%&'(&K'*%H1
B1&!-%&/%",'*&'(&+-%&^,%&'(&K'*%H1
P eople wh o h a ve lit t le m er ch a n dise, a s sa va ges, a n d a m on g civilised n a t ion s
t h ose wh o h a ve on ly t wo or t h r ee species, t r a de by exch a n ge. Th u s t h e ca r a va n s
of Moor s t h a t go t o Tim bu ct oo, in t h e h ea r t of Afr ica , h a ve n o n eed of m on ey, for
t h ey exch a n ge t h eir sa lt for gold. Th e Moor pu t s h is sa lt in a h ea p, a n d t h e
Negr o h is du st in a n ot h er ; if t h er e is n ot gold en ou gh , t h e Moor t a kes a wa y
som e of h is sa lt , or t h e Negr o a dds m or e gold, t ill bot h pa r t ies a r e a gr eed.
Bu t wh en a n a t ion t r a ffics wit h a gr ea t va r iet y of m er ch a n dise, m on ey
becom es n ecessa r y; beca u se a m et a l ea sily ca r r ied fr om pla ce t o pla ce sa ves t h e
gr ea t expen ses wh ich people wou ld be obliged t o be a t if t h ey a lwa ys pr oceeded
by exch a n ge.
As a ll n a t ion s h a ve r ecipr oca l wa n t s, it fr equ en t ly h a ppen s t h a t on e is
desir ou s of a la r ge qu a n t it y of t h e ot h er ’s m er ch a n dise, wh en t h e la t t er will
h a ve ver y lit t le of t h eir s, t h ou gh wit h r espect t o a n ot h er n a t ion t h e ca se is
dir ect ly opposit e. Bu t wh en n a t ion s h a ve m on ey, a n d pr oceed by bu yin g a n d
sellin g, t h ose wh o t a ke m ost m er ch a n dise pa y t h e ba la n ce in specie. An d t h er e
is t h is differ en ce, t h a t , in t h e ca se of bu yin g, t h e t r a de ca r r ied on is in
pr opor t ion t o t h e wa n t s of t h e n a t ion t h a t h a s t h e gr ea t est dem a n ds; wh ile in
ba r t er in g, t h e t r a de is on ly a ccor din g t o t h e wa n t s of t h e n a t ion wh ose dem a n ds
a r e t h e fewest ; wit h ou t wh ich t h e la t t er wou ld be u n der a n im possibilit y of
ba la n cin g it s a ccou n t s.
E1&@(&+-%&2"+F.%&'(&K'*%H1
Mon ey is a sign wh ich r epr esen t s t h e va lu e of a ll m er ch a n dise. Met a l is t a ken
for t h is sign , a s bein g du r a ble, 1 beca u se it is con su m ed bu t lit t le by u se; a n d
beca u se, wit h ou t bein g dest r oyed, it is ca pa ble of m a n y division s. A pr eciou s
m et a l h a s been ch osen a s a sign , a s bein g m ost por t a ble. A m et a l is m ost pr oper

for a com m on m ea su r e, beca u se it ca n be ea sily r edu ced t o t h e sa m e st a n da r d.
E ver y st a t e fixes u pon it a pa r t icu la r im pr ession , t o t h e en d t h a t t h e for m m a y
cor r espon d wit h t h e st a n da r d a n d t h e weigh t , a n d t h a t bot h m a y be kn own by
in spect ion on ly. Th e At h en ia n s, n ot h a vin g t h e u se of m et a ls, m a de u se of oxen , 2
a n d t h e Rom a n s of sh eep; bu t on e ox is n ot t h e sa m e a s a n ot h er ox in t h e
m a n n er t h a t on e piece of m et a l m a y be t h e sa m e a s a n ot h er .
A specie is t h e sign of t h e va lu e of m er ch a n dise, pa per is t h e sign of t h e va lu e
of specie; a n d wh en it is of t h e r igh t sor t , it r epr esen t s t h is va lu e in su ch a
m a n n er t h a t a s t o t h e effect s pr odu ced by it t h er e is n ot t h e lea st differ en ce.
In t h e sa m e m a n n er , a s m on ey is t h e sign a n d r epr esen t a t ive of a t h in g,
ever yt h in g is a sign a n d r epr esen t a t ive of m on ey; a n d t h e st a t e is in a
pr osper ou s con dit ion wh en on t h e on e h a n d m on ey per fect ly r epr esen t s a ll
t h in gs, a n d on t h e ot h er a ll t h in gs per fect ly r epr esen t m on ey, a n d a r e
r ecipr oca lly t h e sign of ea ch ot h er ; t h a t is, wh en t h ey h a ve su ch a r ela t ive va lu e
t h a t we m a y h a ve t h e on e a s soon a s we h a ve t h e ot h er . Th is n ever h a ppen s in
a n y ot h er t h a n a m oder a t e gover n m en t , n or does it a lwa ys h a ppen t h er e; for
exa m ple, if t h e la ws fa vou r t h e dish on est debt or , h is effect s a r e n o lon ger a
r epr esen t a t ive or sign of m on ey. Wit h r ega r d t o a despot ic gover n m en t , it wou ld
be a pr odigy did t h in gs t h er e r epr esen t t h eir sign . Tyr a n n y a n d dist r u st m a ke
ever y on e bu r y t h eir specie;3 t h in gs t h er efor e a r e n ot t h er e t h e r epr esen t a t ive
of m on ey.
Legisla t or s h a ve som et im es h a d t h e a r t n ot on ly t o m a ke t h in gs in t h eir own
n a t u r e t h e r epr esen t a t ive of specie, bu t t o con ver t t h em even in t o specie, like
t h e cu r r en t coin . Ca esa r , wh en h e wa s dict a t or , per m it t ed debt or s t o give t h eir
la n ds in pa ym en t t o t h eir cr edit or s, a t t h e pr ice t h ey wer e wor t h befor e t h e civil
wa r . 4 Tiber iu s or der ed t h a t t h ose wh o desir ed specie sh ou ld h a ve it fr om t h e
pu blic t r ea su r y on bin din g over t h eir la n d t o dou ble t h e va lu e.5 Un der Ca esa r
t h e la n ds wer e t h e m on ey wh ich pa id a ll debt s; u n der Tiber iu s t en t h ou sa n d
sest er ces in la n d beca m e a s cu r r en t m on ey equ a l t o five t h ou sa n d sest er ces in
silver . Th e Ma gn a Ch a r t a of E n gla n d pr ovides a ga in st t h e seizin g of t h e la n ds
or r even u es of a debt or , wh en h is m ova ble or per son a l goods a r e su fficien t t o
pa y, a n d h e is willin g t o give t h em u p t o h is cr edit or s; t h u s a ll t h e goods of a n
E n glish m a n r epr esen t m on ey.

Th e la ws of t h e Ger m a n s con st it u t ed m on ey a sa t isfa ct ion for t h e in ju r ies t h a t
wer e com m it t ed, a n d for t h e su ffer in gs du e t o gu ilt . Bu t a s t h er e wa s bu t ver y
lit t le specie in t h e cou n t r y, t h ey a ga in con st it u t ed t h is m on ey t o be pa id in
goods or ch a t t els. Th is we fin d a ppoin t ed in a Sa xon la w, wit h cer t a in
r egu la t ion s su it a ble t o t h e ea se a n d con ven ien ce of t h e sever a l r a n ks of people.
At fir st t h e la w decla r ed t h e va lu e of a sou in ca t t le;6 t h e sou of t wo t r em ises
a n swer ed t o a n ox of t welve m on t h s, or t o a ewe wit h h er la m b; t h a t of t h r ee
t r em ises wa s wor t h a n ox of sixt een m on t h s. Wit h t h ese people m on ey beca m e
ca t t le, goods, a n d m er ch a n dise, a n d t h ese a ga in beca m e m on ey.
Mon ey is n ot on ly a sign of t h in gs; it is a lso a sign a n d r epr esen t a t ive of
m on ey, a s we sh a ll see in t h e ch a pt er on exch a n ge.
G1&@(&50%"$&K'*%H1
Th er e is bot h r ea l a n d idea l m on ey. Civilised n a t ion s gen er a lly m a ke u se of
idea l m on ey on ly, beca u se t h ey h a ve con ver t ed t h eir r ea l m on ey in t o idea l. At
fir st t h eir r ea l m on ey wa s som e m et a l of a cer t a in weigh t a n d st a n da r d, bu t
soon dish on est y or wa n t m a de t h em r et r en ch a pa r t of t h e m et a l fr om ever y
piece of m on ey, t o wh ich t h ey left t h e sa m e n a m e; for exa m ple, fr om a livr e a t
a pou n d weigh t t h ey t ook h a lf t h e silver , a n d st ill con t in u ed t o ca ll it a livr e; t h e
piece wh ich wa s t h e t wen t iet h pa r t of a pou n d of silver t h ey con t in u ed t o ca ll
a sou , t h ou gh it is n o m or e t h e t wen t iet h pa r t of t h is pou n d of silver . By t h is
m et h od t h e livr e is a n idea l livr e, a n d t h e sou a n idea l sou . Th u s of t h e ot h er
su bdivision s; a n d so fa r m a y t h is be ca r r ied t h a t wh a t we ca ll a livr e sh a ll be
on ly a sm a ll pa r t of t h e or igin a l livr e or pou n d, wh ich r en der s it st ill m or e idea l.
It m a y even h a ppen t h a t we h a ve n o piece of m on ey of t h e pr ecise va lu e of a
livr e, n or a n y piece exa ct ly wit h a sou , t h en t h e livr e a n d t h e sou will be pu r ely
idea l. Th ey m a y give t o a n y piece of m on ey t h e den om in a t ion of a s m a n y livr es
a n d a s m a n y sou s a s t h ey plea se, t h e va r ia t ion m a y be con t in u a l, beca u se it is
a s ea sy t o give a n ot h er n a m e t o a t h in g a s it is difficu lt t o ch a n ge t h e t h in g
it self.
To t a ke a wa y t h e sou r ce of t h is a bu se, it wou ld be a n excellen t la w for a ll
cou n t r ies wh o a r e desir ou s of m a kin g com m er ce flou r ish t o or da in t h a t n on e bu t
r ea l m on ey sh ou ld be cu r r en t , a n d t o pr even t a n y m et h ods fr om bein g t a ken t o

r en der it idea l.
Not h in g ou gh t t o be so exem pt fr om va r ia t ion a s t h a t wh ich is t h e com m on
m ea su r e of a ll. Tr a de is in it s own n a t u r e ext r em ely u n cer t a in ; a n d it is a gr ea t
evil t o a dd a n ew u n cer t a in t y t o t h a t wh ich is fou n ded on t h e n a t u r e of t h e
t h in g.
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Wh ile civilised n a t ion s a r e t h e m ist r esses of t h e wor ld, gold a n d silver ,
wh et h er t h ey dr a w it fr om a m on g t h em selves, or fet ch it fr om t h e m in es, m u st
in cr ea se ever y da y. On t h e con t r a r y, it dim in ish es wh en ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s
pr eva il. We kn ow h ow gr ea t wa s t h e sca r cit y of t h ese m et a ls wh en t h e Got h s
a n d Va n da ls on t h e on e side, a n d on t h e ot h er t h e Sa r a cen s a n d Ta r t a r s, br oke
in like a t or r en t on t h e civilised wor ld.
L1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Th e bu llion dr a wn fr om t h e Am er ica n m in es, im por t ed in t o E u r ope, a n d
t h en ce sen t t o t h e E a st , h a s gr ea t ly pr om ot ed t h e n a viga t ion of t h e E u r opea n
n a t ion s; for it is m er ch a n dise wh ich E u r ope r eceives in exch a n ge fr om Am er ica ,
a n d wh ich sh e sen ds in exch a n ge t o t h e In dies. A pr odigiou s qu a n t it y of gold
a n d silver is t h er efor e a n a dva n t a ge, wh en we con sider t h ese m et a ls a s
m er ch a n dise; bu t it is ot h er wise wh en we con sider t h em a s a sign , beca u se t h eir
a bu n da n ce gives a n a lloy t o t h eir qu a lit y a s a sign , wh ich is ch iefly fou n ded on
t h eir sca r cit y.
Befor e t h e fir st P u n ic wa r , 7 copper wa s t o silver a s 960 t o 1;8 it is a t pr esen t
n ea r ly a s 73½ t o 1. Wh en t h e pr opor t ion sh a ll be a s it wa s for m er ly, silver will
bet t er per for m it s office a s a sign .
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'(&+-%&?*05%,1
Ga r cila sso in for m s u s 9 t h a t in Spa in a ft er t h e con qu est of t h e In dies t h e
in t er est , wh ich wa s a t t en per cen t , fell t o five. Th is wa s a n ecessa r y
con sequ en ce. A gr ea t qu a n t it y of specie bein g a ll of a su dden br ou gh t in t o

E u r ope, m u ch fewer per son s h a d n eed of m on ey. Th e pr ice of a ll t h in gs
in cr ea sed, wh ile t h e va lu e of m on ey dim in ish ed; t h e pr opor t ion wa s t h en
br oken , a n d a ll t h e old debt s wer e disch a r ged. We m a y r ecollect t h e t im e of t h e
Syst em , 10 wh en ever yt h in g wa s a t a h igh pr ice except specie. Th ose wh o h a d
m on ey a ft er t h e con qu est of t h e In dies wer e obliged t o lower t h e pr ice or h ir e of
t h eir m er ch a n dise, t h a t is, in ot h er wor ds, t h eir in t er est .
F r om t h is t im e t h ey wer e u n a ble t o br in g in t er est t o it s a n cien t st a n da r d,
beca u se t h e qu a n t it y of specie br ou gh t t o E u r ope h a s been a n n u a lly in cr ea sin g.
Besides, a s t h e pu blic fu n ds of som e st a t es, fou n ded on r ich es pr ocu r ed by
com m er ce, ga ve bu t a ver y sm a ll in t er est , it beca m e n ecessa r y for t h e con t r a ct s
of in dividu a ls t o be r egu la t ed by t h ese. In sh or t , t h e cou r se of exch a n ge h a vin g
r en der ed t h e con veyin g of specie fr om on e cou n t r y t o a n ot h er r em a r ka bly ea sy,
m on ey ca n n ot be sca r ce in a pla ce wh er e t h ey m a y be so r ea dily su pplied wit h
it by t h ose wh o h a ve it in plen t y.
P1&R'7&+-%&8.59%&'(&!-5*D,&5,&(5V%0&5*&+-%&N".5"+5'*&'(&+-%&35D*&'(
/59-%,1
Mon ey is t h e pr ice of m er ch a n dise or m a n u fa ct u r es. Bu t h ow sh a ll we fix t h is
pr ice? or , in ot h er wor ds, by wh a t piece of m on ey is ever yt h in g t o be
r epr esen t ed?
If we com pa r e t h e m a ss of gold a n d silver in t h e wh ole wor ld wit h t h e qu a n t it y
of m er ch a n dise t h er ein con t a in ed, it is cer t a in t h a t ever y com m odit y or
m er ch a n dise in pa r t icu la r m a y be com pa r ed t o a cer t a in por t ion of t h e en t ir e
m a ss of gold a n d silver . As t h e t ot a l of t h e on e is t o t h e t ot a l of t h e ot h er , so pa r t
of t h e on e will be t o pa r t of t h e ot h er . Let u s su ppose t h a t t h er e is on ly on e
com m odit y or m er ch a n dise in t h e wor ld, or on ly on e t o be pu r ch a sed, a n d t h a t
t h is is divisible like m on ey; a pa r t of t h is m er ch a n dise will a n swer t o a pa r t of
t h e m a ss of gold a n d silver ; t h e h a lf of t h e t ot a l of t h e on e t o t h e h a lf of t h e t ot a l
of t h e ot h er ; t h e t en t h , t h e h u n dr edt h , t h e t h ou sa n dt h pa r t of t h e on e, t o t h e
t en t h , t h e h u n dr edt h , t h e t h ou sa n dt h pa r t of t h e ot h er . Bu t a s t h a t wh ich
con st it u t es pr oper t y a m on g m a n kin d is n ot a ll a t on ce in t r a de, a n d a s t h e
m et a ls or m on ey wh ich a r e t h e sign of pr oper t y a r e n ot a ll in t r a de a t t h e sa m e
t im e, t h e pr ice is fixed in t h e com pou n d r a t io of t h e t ot a l of t h in gs wit h t h e t ot a l

of sign s, a n d t h a t of t h e t ot a l of t h in gs in t r a de wit h t h e t ot a l of sign s in t r a de
a lso; a n d a s t h e t h in gs wh ich a r e n ot in t r a de t o-da y m a y be in t r a de t o-m or r ow,
a n d t h e sign s n ot n ow in t r a de m a y en t er in t o t r a de a t t h e sa m e t im e, t h e
est a blish m en t of t h e pr ice of t h in gs fu n da m en t a lly depen ds on t h e pr opor t ion
of t h e t ot a l of t h in gs t o t h e t ot a l of sign s.
Th u s t h e pr in ce or t h e m a gist r a t e ca n n o m or e a scer t a in t h e va lu e of
m er ch a n dise t h a n h e ca n est a blish by a decr ee t h a t t h e r ela t ion 1 h a s t o 10 is
equ a l t o t h a t of 1 t o 20. J u lia n ’s lower in g t h e pr ice of pr ovision s a t An t ioch wa s
t h e ca u se of a m ost t er r ible fa m in e.11
Q1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Th e Negr oes on t h e coa st of Afr ica h a ve a sign of va lu e wit h ou t m on ey. It is
a sign m er ely idea l, fou n ded on t h e degr ee of est eem wh ich t h ey fix in t h eir
m in ds for a ll m er ch a n dise, in pr opor t ion t o t h e n eed t h ey h a ve of it . A cer t a in
com m odit y or m er ch a n dise is wor t h t h r ee m a cou t es; a n ot h er , six m a cou t es;
a n ot h er , t en m a cou t es; t h a t is, a s if t h ey sa id sim ply t h r ee, six, a n d t en . Th e
pr ice is for m ed by a com pa r ison of a ll m er ch a n dise wit h ea ch ot h er . Th ey h a ve
t h er efor e n o pa r t icu la r m on ey; bu t ea ch kin d of m er ch a n dise is m on ey t o t h e
ot h er .
Let u s for a m om en t t r a n sfer t o ou r selves t h is m a n n er of va lu in g t h in gs, a n d
join it wit h ou r s: a ll t h e m er ch a n dise a n d goods in t h e wor ld, or else a ll t h e
m er ch a n dise or m a n u fa ct u r es of a st a t e, pa r t icu la r ly con sider ed a s sepa r a t e
fr om a ll ot h er s, wou ld be wor t h a cer t a in n u m ber of m a cou t es; a n d, dividin g t h e
m on ey of t h is st a t e in t o a s m a n y pa r t s a s t h er e a r e m a cou t es, on e pa r t of t h is
division of m on ey will be t h e sign of a m a cou t e.
If we su ppose t h e qu a n t it y of specie in a st a t e dou bled, it will be n ecessa r y t o
dou ble t h e specie in t h e m a cou t e; bu t if in dou blin g t h e specie you dou ble a lso
t h e m a cou t e, t h e pr opor t ion will r em a in t h e sa m e a s befor e t h e dou blin g of
eit h er .
If, sin ce t h e discover y of t h e In dies, gold a n d silver h a ve in cr ea sed in E u r ope
in t h e pr opor t ion of 1 t o 20, t h e pr ice of pr ovision s a n d m er ch a n dise m u st h a ve
been en h a n ced in t h e pr opor t ion of 1 t o 20. Bu t if, on t h e ot h er h a n d, t h e
qu a n t it y of m er ch a n dise h a s in cr ea sed a s 1 t o 2 — it n ecessa r ily follows t h a t t h e

pr ice of t h is m er ch a n dise a n d pr ovision s, h a vin g been r a ised in pr opor t ion of 1
t o 20, a n d fa llen in pr opor t ion of 1 t o 2 — it n ecessa r ily follows, I sa y, t h a t t h e
pr opor t ion is on ly a s 1 t o 10.
Th e qu a n t it y of goods a n d m er ch a n dise in cr ea ses by a n a u gm en t a t ion of
com m er ce, t h e a u gm en t a t ion of com m er ce by a n a u gm en t a t ion of t h e specie
wh ich su ccessively ar r ives, a n d by n ew com m u n ica t ion s wit h fr esh ly-discover ed
cou n t r ies a n d sea s, wh ich fu r n ish u s wit h n ew com m odit ies a n d n ew
m er ch a n dise.
S1&@(&+-%&.%$"+5;%&39".95+H&'(&A'$0&"*0&35$;%.1
Besides t h e posit ive plen t y a n d sca r cit y of gold a n d silver , t h er e is st ill a
r ela t ive a bu n da n ce a n d a r ela t ive sca r cit y of on e of t h ese m et a ls com pa r ed wit h
t h e ot h er .
Th e a va r iciou s h oa r d u p t h eir gold a n d silver , for a s t h ey do n ot ca r e t o spen d,
t h ey a r e fon d of sign s t h a t a r e n ot su bject t o deca y. Th ey pr efer gold t o silver ,
beca u se a s t h ey a r e a lwa ys a fr a id of losin g, t h ey ca n best con cea l t h a t wh ich
t a kes u p t h e lea st r oom . Gold t h er efor e disa ppea r s wh en t h er e is plen t y of
silver , by r ea son t h a t ever y on e h a s som e t o con cea l; it a ppea r s a ga in wh en
silver is sca r ce, beca u se t h ey a r e obliged t o dr a w it fr om it s con fin em en t .
It is t h en a r u le t h a t gold is com m on wh en silver is sca r ce, a n d gold is sca r ce
wh en silver is com m on . Th is let s u s see t h e differ en ce bet ween t h eir r ela t ive
a n d t h eir r ea l a bu n da n ce a n d sca r cit y, of wh ich I sh a ll pr esen t ly spea k m or e a t
la r ge.
BT1&@(&UV9-"*D%1
Th e r ela t ive a bu n da n ce a n d sca r cit y of specie in differ en t cou n t r ies for m s
wh a t is ca lled t h e cou r se of exch a n ge.
E xch a n ge is a fixin g of t h e a ct u a l a n d m om en t a r y va lu e of m on ey.
Silver a s a m et a l h a s va lu e like a ll ot h er m er ch a n dise, a n d a n a ddit ion a l
va lu e a s it is ca pa ble of becom in g t h e sign of ot h er m er ch a n dise. If it wer e n o
m or e t h a n m er e m er ch a n dise, it wou ld lose m u ch of it s va lu e.
Silver , a s m on ey, h a s a va lu e, wh ich t h e pr in ce in som e r espect s ca n fix, a n d
in ot h er s ca n n ot .
1. Th e pr in ce est a blish es a pr opor t ion bet ween a qu a n t it y of silver a s m et a l,
a n d t h e sa m e qu a n t it y a s m on ey, 2. H e fixes t h e pr opor t ion bet ween t h e sever a l
m et a ls m a de u se of a s m on ey. 3. H e est a blish es t h e weigh t a n d st a n da r d of
ever y piece of m on ey. In fin e, 4, h e gives t o ever y piece t h a t idea l va lu e of wh ich
I h a ve spoken . I sh a ll ca ll t h e va lu e of m on ey in t h ese fou r r espect s it s posit ive
va lu e, beca u se it m a y be fixed by la w.
Th e coin of ever y st a t e h a s, besides t h is, a r ela t ive va lu e, a s it is com pa r ed
wit h t h e m on ey of ot h er cou n t r ies. Th is r ela t ive va lu e is est a blish ed by t h e
exch a n ge, a n d gr ea t ly depen ds on it s posit ive va lu e. It is fixed by t h e gen er a l
opin ion of t h e m er ch a n t s, n ever by t h e decr ees of t h e pr in ce; beca u se it is
su bject t o in cessa n t va r ia t ion s, a n d depen ds on a t h ou sa n d a cciden t s.
Th e sever a l n a t ion s, in fixin g t h is r ela t ive va lu e, a r e ch iefly gu ided by t h a t
wh ich h a s t h e gr ea t est qu a n t it y of specie. If sh e h a s a s m u ch specie a s a ll t h e
ot h er s t oget h er , it is t h en m ost pr oper for t h e ot h er s t o r egu la t e t h eir s by h er
st a n da r d: a n d t h e r egu la t ion bet ween a ll t h e ot h er s will pr et t y n ea r ly a gr ee
wit h t h e r egu la t ion m a de wit h t h is pr in cipa l n a t ion .
In t h e a ct u a l st a t e of t h e globe, H olla n d is t h e n a t ion we a r e spea kin g of. Let
u s exa m in e t h e cou r se of exch a n ge wit h r ela t ion t o h er .
Th ey h a ve in H olla n d a piece of m on ey ca lled a flor in , wor t h t wen t y sou s, or
for t y h a lf-sou s or gr os. Bu t , t o r en der ou r idea s a s sim ple a s possible, let u s
im a gin e t h a t t h ey h a ve n ot a n y su ch piece of m on ey in H olla n d a s a flor in , a n d
t h a t t h ey h a ve n o ot h er bu t t h e gr os: a m a n wh o sh ou ld h a ve a t h ou sa n d flor in s
sh ou ld h a ve for t y t h ou sa n d gr os; a n d so of t h e r est . Now t h e exch a n ge wit h
H olla n d is det er m in ed by ou r kn owin g h ow m a n y gr os ever y piece of m on ey in
ot h er cou n t r ies is wor t h ; a n d a s t h e F r en ch com m on ly r eckon by a cr own of
t h r ee livr es, t h e exch a n ge m a kes it n ecessa r y for t h em t o kn ow h ow m a n y gr os
a r e con t a in ed in a cr own of t h r ee livr es. If t h e cou r se of exch a n ge is a t fift y-fou r ,
a cr own of t h r ee livr es will be wor t h fift y-fou r gr os; if it is a t sixt y, it will be
wor t h sixt y gr os. If silver is sca r ce in F r a n ce, a cr own of t h r ee livr es will be
wor t h m or e gr os; if plen t ifu l, it will be wor t h less.
Th is sca r cit y or plen t y, wh en ce r esu lt s t h e m u t a bilit y of t h e cou r se of
exch a n ge, is n ot t h e r ea l, bu t a r ela t ive, sca r cit y or plen t y. F or exa m ple, wh en
F r a n ce h a s gr ea t er occa sion for fu n ds in H olla n d t h a n t h e Du t ch of h a vin g

fu n ds in F r a n ce, specie is sa id t o be com m on in F r a n ce a n d sca r ce in H olla n d:
a n d vice versa.
Let u s su ppose t h a t t h e cou r se of exch a n ge wit h H olla n d is a t fift y-fou r . If
F r a n ce a n d H olla n d com posed on ly on e cit y, t h ey wou ld a ct a s we do wh en we
give ch a n ge for a cr own : t h e F r en ch m a n wou ld t a ke t h r ee livr es ou t of h is
pocket , a n d t h e Du t ch m a n fift y-fou r gr os fr om h is. Bu t a s t h er e is som e dist a n ce
bet ween P a r is a n d Am st er da m , it is n ecessa r y t h a t h e wh o for a cr own of t h r ee
livr es gives m e fift y-fou r gr os, wh ich h e h a s in H olla n d, sh ou ld give m e a bill of
exch a n ge for fift y-fou r gr os pa ya ble in H olla n d. Th e fift y-fou r gr os is n ot t h e
t h in g in qu est ion , bu t a bill for t h a t su m . Th u s, in or der t o ju dge of t h e sca r cit y
or plen t y of specie, 12 we m u st kn ow if t h er e a r e in F r a n ce m or e bills of fift y-fou r
gr os dr a wn u pon H olla n d t h a n t h er e a r e cr own s dr a wn u pon F r a n ce. If t h er e
a r e m or e bills fr om H olla n d t h a n t h er e a r e fr om F r a n ce, specie is sca r ce in
F r a n ce, a n d com m on in H olla n d; it t h en becom es n ecessa r y t h a t t h e exch a n ge
sh ou ld r ise, a n d t h a t t h ey give for m y cr own m or e t h a n fift y-fou r gr os; ot h er wise
I will n ot pa r t wit h it ; a n d vice ver sa .
Th u s t h e va r iou s t u r n s in t h e cou r se of exch a n ge for m a n a ccou n t of debt or
a n d cr edit or , wh ich m u st be fr equ en t ly set t led, a n d wh ich t h e st a t e in debt ca n
n o m or e disch a r ge by exch a n ge t h a n a n in dividu a l ca n pa y a debt by givin g
ch a n ge for a piece of silver .
We will su ppose t h a t t h er e a r e bu t t h r ee st a t es in t h e wor ld, F r a n ce, Spa in ,
a n d H olla n d; t h a t sever a l in dividu a ls in Spa in a r e in debt ed t o F r a n ce, t o t h e
va lu e of on e h u n dr ed t h ou sa n d m a r ks of silver ; a n d t h a t sever a l in dividu a ls of
F r a n ce owe in Spa in on e h u n dr ed a n d t en t h ou sa n d m a r ks: n ow, if som e
cir cu m st a n ce bot h in Spa in a n d F r a n ce sh ou ld ca u se ea ch t o wit h dr a w h is
specie, wh a t will t h en be t h e cou r se of exch a n ge? Th ese t wo n a t ion s will
r ecipr oca lly a cqu it ea ch ot h er of a h u n dr ed t h ou sa n d m a r ks; bu t F r a n ce will
st ill owe t en t h ou sa n d m a r ks in Spa in , a n d t h e Spa n ia r ds will st ill h a ve bills
u pon F r a n ce, t o t h e va lu e of t en t h ou sa n d m a r ks; wh ile F r a n ce will h a ve n on e
a t a ll u pon Spa in .
Bu t if H olla n d wa s in a con t r a r y sit u a t ion wit h r espect t o F r a n ce, a n d in or der
t o ba la n ce t h e a ccou n t m u st pa y h er t en t h ou sa n d m a r ks, t h e F r en ch wou ld
h a ve t wo wa ys of pa yin g t h e Spa n ia r ds: eit h er by givin g t h eir cr edit or s in Spa in

bills for t en t h ou sa n d m a r ks u pon t h eir debt or s in H olla n d, or else by sen din g
specie t o t h e va lu e of t en t h ou sa n d m a r ks t o Spa in .
H en ce it follows t h a t wh en a st a t e h a s occa sion t o r em it a su m of m on ey t o
a n ot h er cou n t r y, it is in differ en t , in t h e n a t u r e of t h e t h in g, wh et h er specie be
con veyed t h it h er or t h ey t a ke bills of exch a n ge. Th e a dva n t a ge or disa dva n t a ge
of t h ese t wo m et h ods solely depen ds on a ct u a l cir cu m st a n ces. We m u st in qu ir e
wh ich will yield m ost gr os in H olla n d-m on ey ca r r ied t h it h er in specie, or a bill
u pon H olla n d for t h e like su m .13
Wh en m on ey of t h e sa m e st a n da r d a n d weigh t in F r a n ce yields m on ey of t h e
sa m e st a n da r d a n d weigh t in H olla n d, we sa y t h a t t h e exch a n ge is a t pa r . In
t h e a ct u a l st a t e of specie 14 t h e pa r is n ea r ly a t fift y-fou r gr os t o t h e cr own . Wh en
t h e exch a n ge is a bove fift y-fou r gr os, we sa y it is h igh ; wh en ben ea t h , we sa y it
is low.
In or der t o kn ow t h e loss a n d ga in of a st a t e in a pa r t icu la r sit u a t ion of
exch a n ge, it m u st be con sider ed a s debt or a n d cr edit or , a s bu yer a n d seller .
Wh en t h e exch a n ge is below pa r , it loses a s a debt or , a n d ga in s a s a cr edit or ; it
loses a s a bu yer a n d ga in s a s a seller . It is obviou s it loses a s debt or ; su ppose,
for exa m ple, F r a n ce owes H olla n d a cer t a in n u m ber of gr os, t h e fewer gr os t h er e
a r e in a cr own t h e m or e cr own s sh e h a s t o pa y. On t h e con t r a r y, if F r a n ce is
cr edit or for a cer t a in n u m ber of gr os, t h e less n u m ber of gr os t h er e a r e in a
cr own t h e m or e cr own s sh e will r eceive. Th e st a t e loses a lso a s bu yer , for t h er e
m u st be t h e sa m e n u m ber of gr os t o pu r ch a se t h e sa m e qu a n t it y of
m er ch a n dise; a n d wh ile t h e exch a n ge is low, ever y F r en ch cr own is wor t h fewer
gr os. F or t h e sa m e r ea son t h e st a t e ga in s a s a seller . I sell m y m er ch a n dise in
H olla n d for a cer t a in n u m ber of gr os; I r eceive t h en m or e cr own s in F r a n ce,
wh en for ever y fift y gr os I r eceive a cr own , t h a n I sh ou ld do if I r eceived on ly t h e
sa m e cr own for ever y fift y-fou r . Th e con t r a r y t o t h is t a kes pla ce in t h e ot h er
st a t e. If t h e Du t ch a r e in debt ed a cer t a in n u m ber of cr own s t o F r a n ce, t h ey will
ga in ; if t h is m on ey is owin g t o t h em , t h ey will lose; if t h ey sell, t h ey lose; a n d
if t h ey bu y, t h ey ga in .
It is pr oper t o pu r su e t h is som ewh a t fu r t h er . Wh en t h e exch a n ge is below pa r ;
for exa m ple, if it be a t fift y in st ea d of fift y-fou r , it sh ou ld follow t h a t F r a n ce, on
sen din g bills of exch a n ge t o H olla n d for fift y-fou r t h ou sa n d cr own s, cou ld bu y
m er ch a n dise on ly t o t h e va lu e of fift y t h ou sa n d; a n d t h a t on t h e ot h er h a n d, t h e
Du t ch sen din g t h e va lu e of fift y t h ou sa n ds cr own s t o F r a n ce m igh t bu y
fift y-fou r t h ou sa n d, wh ich m a kes a differ en ce of 8 /54 , t h a t is, a loss t o F r a n ce of
m or e t h a n on e-seven t h ; so t h a t F r a n ce wou ld be obliged t o sen d t o H olla n d
on e-seven t h m or e in specie or m er ch a n dise t h a n sh e wou ld do wer e t h e
exch a n ge a t pa r . An d a s t h e m isch ief m u st con st a n t ly in cr ea se, beca u se a debt
of t h is kin d wou ld br in g t h e exch a n ge st ill lower , F r a n ce wou ld in t h e en d be
r u in ed. It seem s, I sa y, a s if t h is sh ou ld cer t a in ly follow; a n d yet it does n ot ,
beca u se of t h e pr in ciple wh ich I h a ve elsewh er e est a blish ed;15 wh ich is t h a t
st a t es con st a n t ly lea n t owa r ds a ba la n ce, in or der t o pr eser ve t h eir
in depen den cy. Th u s t h ey bor r ow on ly in pr opor t ion t o t h eir a bilit y t o pa y, a n d
m ea su r e t h eir bu yin g by wh a t t h ey sell; a n d t a kin g t h e exa m ple fr om a bove, if
t h e exch a n ge fa lls in F r a n ce fr om fift y-fou r t o fift y, t h e Du t ch wh o bu y
m er ch a n dise in F r a n ce t o t h e va lu e of a t h ou sa n d cr own s, for wh ich t h ey u sed
t o pa y fift y-fou r t h ou sa n d gr os, wou ld n ow pa y on ly fift y t h ou sa n d, if t h e F r en ch
wou ld con sen t t o it . Bu t t h e m er ch a n dise of F r a n ce will r ise in sen sibly, a n d t h e
pr ofit will be sh a r ed bet ween t h e F r en ch a n d t h e Du t ch ; for wh en a m er ch a n t
ca n ga in , h e ea sily sh a r es h is pr ofit ; t h er e a r ises t h en a com m u n ica t ion of pr ofit
bet ween t h e F r en ch a n d t h e Du t ch . In t h e sa m e m a n n er t h e F r en ch , wh o
bou gh t m er ch a n dise of H olla n d for fift y-fou r t h ou sa n d gr os, a n d wh o, wh en t h e
exch a n ge wa s a t fift y-fou r , pa id for t h em a t h ou sa n d cr own s, will be obliged t o
a dd on e-seven t h m or e in F r en ch cr own s t o bu y t h e sa m e m er ch a n dise. Bu t t h e
F r en ch m er ch a n t , bein g sen sible of t h e loss h e su ffer s, will t a ke u p less of t h e
m er ch a n dise of H olla n d. Th e F r en ch a n d t h e Du t ch m er ch a n t will t h en bot h be
loser s, t h e st a t e will in sen sibly fa ll in t o a ba la n ce, a n d t h e lower in g of t h e
exch a n ge will n ot be a t t en ded wit h a ll t h ose in con ven ien ces wh ich we h a d
r ea son t o fea r .
A m er ch a n t m a y sen d h is st ock in t o a for eign cou n t r y wh en t h e exch a n ge is
below pa r wit h ou t in ju r in g h is for t u n e, beca u se, wh en it r et u r n s, h e r ecover s
wh a t h e h a d lost ; bu t a pr in ce wh o sen ds on ly specie in t o a for eign cou n t r y
wh ich n ever ca n r et u r n , is a lwa ys a loser .
Wh en t h e m er ch a n t s h a ve gr ea t dea lin gs in a n y cou n t r y, t h e exch a n ge t h er e
in fa llibly r ises. Th is pr oceeds fr om t h eir en t er in g in t o m a n y en ga gem en t s,

bu yin g gr ea t qu a n t it ies of m er ch a n dise, a n d dr a win g u pon for eign cou n t r ies t o
pa y for t h em .
A pr in ce m a y a m a ss gr ea t wea lt h in h is dom in ion s, a n d yet specie m a y be
r ea lly sca r ce, a n d r ela t ively com m on ; for in st a n ce, if t h e st a t e is in debt ed for
m u ch m er ch a n dise t o a for eign cou n t r y, t h e exch a n ge will be low, t h ou gh specie
be sca r ce.
Th e exch a n ge of a ll pla ces con st a n t ly t en ds t o a cer t a in pr opor t ion , a n d t h a t
in t h e ver y n a t u r e of t h in gs. If t h e cou r se of exch a n ge fr om Ir ela n d t o E n gla n d
is below pa r , a n d t h a t of E n gla n d t o H olla n d is a lso u n der pa r , t h a t of Ir ela n d
t o H olla n d will be st ill lower ; t h a t is, in t h e com pou n d r a t io of t h a t of Ir ela n d
t o E n gla n d, a n d t h a t of E n gla n d t o H olla n d; for a Du t ch m er ch a n t wh o ca n h a ve
h is specie in dir ect ly fr om Ir ela n d, by wa y of E n gla n d, will n ot ch oose t o pa y
dea r er by h a vin g it in t h e dir ect wa y. Th is, I sa y, ou gh t n a t u r a lly t o be t h e ca se;
bu t , h owever , it is n ot exa ct ly so. Th er e a r e a lwa ys cir cu m st a n ces wh ich va r y
t h ese t h in gs; a n d t h e differ en t pr ofit of dr a win g by on e pla ce, or of dr a win g by
a n ot h er , con st it u t es t h e pa r t icu la r a r t a n d dext er it y of t h e ba n ker s, wh ich does
n ot belon g t o t h e pr esen t su bject .
Wh en a st a t e r a ises it s specie, for in st a n ce, wh en it gives t h e n a m e of six
livr es, or t wo cr own s, t o wh a t wa s befor e ca lled t h r ee livr es, or on e cr own , t h is
n ew den om in a t ion , wh ich a dds n ot h in g r ea l t o t h e cr own , ou gh t n ot t o pr ocu r e
a sin gle gr os m or e by t h e exch a n ge. We ou gh t on ly t o h a ve for t h e t wo n ew
cr own s t h e sa m e n u m ber of gr os wh ich we befor e r eceived for t h e old on e. If t h is
does n ot h a ppen , it m u st n ot be im pu t ed a s a n effect of t h e r egu la t ion it self, bu t
t o t h e n ovelt y a n d su dden n ess of t h e a ffa ir . Th e exch a n ge a dh er es t o wh a t is
a lr ea dy est a blish ed, a n d is n ot a lt er ed t ill a ft er a cer t a in t im e.
Wh en a st a t e, in st ea d of on ly r a isin g t h e specie by a la w, ca lls it in , in or der
t o dim in ish it s size, it fr equ en t ly h a ppen s t h a t du r in g t h e t im e t a ken u p in
pa ssin g a ga in t h r ou gh t h e m in t t h er e a r e t wo k in ds of m on ey — t h e la r ge,
wh ich is t h e old, a n d t h e sm a ll, wh ich is t h e n ew; a n d a s t h e la r ge is cr ied down
a s n ot t o be r eceived a s m on ey, a n d bills of exch a n ge m u st con sequ en t ly be pa id
in t h e n ew, on e wou ld im a gin e t h en t h a t t h e exch a n ge sh ou ld be r egu la t ed by
t h e n ew. If, for exa m ple, in F r a n ce, t h e a n cien t cr own of t h r ee livr es, bein g
wor t h in H olla n d sixt y gr os, wa s r edu ced on e-h a lf, t h e n ew cr own ou gh t t o be

va lu ed on ly a t t h ir t y. On t h e ot h er h a n d, it seem s a s if t h e exch a n ge ou gh t t o
be r egu la t ed by t h e old coin ; beca u se t h e ba n ker wh o h a s specie, a n d r eceives
bills, is obliged t o ca r r y t h e old coin t o t h e m in t in or der t o ch a n ge it for t h e
n ew, by wh ich h e m u st be a loser . Th e exch a n ge t h en ou gh t t o be fixed bet ween
t h e va lu e of t h e old coin a n d t h a t of t h e n ew. Th e va lu e of t h e old is decr ea sed,
if we m a y ca ll it so, bot h beca u se t h er e is a lr ea dy som e of t h e n ew in t r a de, a n d
beca u se t h e ba n ker s ca n n ot keep u p t o t h e r igou r of t h e la w, h a vin g a n in t er est
in let t in g loose t h e old coin fr om t h eir ch est s, a n d bein g som et im es obliged t o
m a ke pa ym en t s wit h it . Aga in , t h e va lu e of t h e n ew specie m u st r ise, beca u se
t h e ba n ker h a vin g t h is fin ds h im self in a sit u a t ion in wh ich , a s we sh a ll
im m edia t ely pr ove, h e will r ea p gr ea t a dva n t a ge by pr ocu r in g t h e old. Th e
exch a n ge sh ou ld t h en be fixed, a s I h a ve a lr ea dy sa id, bet ween t h e n ew a n d t h e
old coin . F or t h en t h e ba n ker s fin d it t o t h eir in t er est t o sen d t h e old ou t of t h e
kin gdom , beca u se by t h is m et h od t h ey pr ocu r e t h e sa m e a dva n t a ge a s t h ey
cou ld r eceive fr om a r egu la r exch a n ge of t h e old specie, t h a t is, a gr ea t m a n y
gr os in H olla n d; a n d in r et u r n , a r egu la r exch a n ge a lit t le lower , bet ween t h e
old a n d t h e n ew specie, wh ich wou ld br in g m a n y cr own s t o F r a n ce.
Su ppose t h a t t h r ee livr es of t h e old coin yield by t h e a ct u a l exch a n ge for t y-five
gr os, a n d t h a t by sen din g t h is sa m e cr own t o H olla n d t h ey r eceive sixt y, bu t
wit h a bill of for t y-five gr os, t h ey pr ocu r e a cr own of t h r ee livr es in F r a n ce,
wh ich bein g sen t in t h e old specie t o H olla n d, st ill yields sixt y gr os; t h u s a ll t h e
old specie wou ld be sen t ou t of t h e kin gdom , a n d t h e ba n ker s wou ld r u n a wa y
wit h t h e wh ole pr ofit .
To r em edy t h is, n ew m ea su r es m u st be t a ken . Th e st a t e wh ich coin ed t h e n ew
specie wou ld it self be obliged t o sen d gr ea t qu a n t it ies of t h e old t o t h e n a t ion
wh ich r egu la t es t h e exch a n ge, a n d, by t h u s ga in in g cr edit t h er e, r a ise t h e
exch a n ge pr et t y n ea r ly t o a s m a n y gr os for a cr own of t h r ee livr es ou t of t h e
cou n t r y. I sa y t o n ea r ly t h e sa m e, for wh ile t h e pr ofit s a r e sm a ll t h e ba n ker s
will n ot be t em pt ed t o sen d it a br oa d, beca u se of t h e expen se of ca r r ia ge a n d t h e
da n ger of con fisca t ion .
It is fit t h a t we sh ou ld give a ver y clea r idea of t h is. Mr . Ber n a r d, or a n y ot h er
ba n ker em ployed by t h e st a t e, pr oposes bills u pon H olla n d, a n d gives t h em a t
on e, t wo, or t h r ee gr os h igh er t h a n t h e a ct u a l exch a n ge; h e h a s m a de a

pr ovision in a for eign cou n t r y, by m ea n s of t h e old specie, wh ich h e h a s
con t in u a lly been sen din g t h it h er ; a n d t h u s h e h a s r a ised t h e exch a n ge t o t h e
poin t we h a ve ju st m en t ion ed. In t h e m ea n t im e, by disposin g of h is bills, h e
seizes on a ll t h e n ew specie, a n d obliges t h e ot h er ba n ker s, wh o h a ve pa ym en t s
t o m a ke, t o ca r r y t h eir old specie t o t h e m in t ; a n d, a s h e in sen sibly obt a in s a ll
t h e specie, h e obliges t h e ot h er ba n ker s t o give h im bills of exch a n ge a t a ver y
h igh pr ice. By t h is m ea n s h is pr ofit in t h e en d com pen sa t es in a gr ea t m ea su r e
for t h e loss h e su ffer ed a t t h e begin n in g.
It is eviden t t h a t du r in g t h ese t r a n sa ct ion s, t h e st a t e m u st be in a da n ger ou s
cr isis. Specie m u st becom e ext r em ely sca r ce — 1, beca u se m u ch t h e gr ea t est
pa r t is cr ied down ; 2, beca u se a pa r t will be sen t in t o for eign cou n t r ies; 3,
beca u se ever y on e will la y it u p, a s n ot bein g willin g t o give t h a t pr ofit t o t h e
pr in ce wh ich h e h opes t o r eceive h im self. It is da n ger ou s t o do it slowly; a n d
da n ger ou s a lso t o do it in t oo m u ch h a st e. If t h e su pposed ga in be im m oder a t e,
t h e in con ven ien ces in cr ea se in pr opor t ion .
We see, fr om wh a t h a s been a lr ea dy sa id, t h a t wh en t h e exch a n ge is lower
t h a n t h e specie, a pr ofit m a y be m a de by sen din g it a br oa d; for t h e sa m e r ea son ,
wh en it is h igh er t h a n t h e specie, t h er e is pr ofit in ca u sin g it t o r et u r n .
Bu t t h er e is a ca se in wh ich pr ofit m a y be m a de by sen din g t h e specie ou t of
t h e kin gdom , wh en t h e exch a n ge is a t pa r ; t h a t is, by sen din g it in t o a for eign
cou n t r y t o be coin ed over a ga in . Wh en it r et u r n s, a n a dva n t a ge m a y be m a de
of it , wh et h er it be cir cu la t ed in t h e cou n t r y or pa id for for eign bills.
If a com pa n y h a s been er ect ed in a st a t e wit h a n im m en se n u m ber of sh a r es,
a n d t h ese sh a r es h a ve in a few m on t h s r isen t wen t y or t wen t y-five t im es a bove
t h e or igin a l pu r ch a se va lu e; if, a ga in , t h e sa m e st a t e est a blish ed a ba n k, wh ose
bills wer e t o per for m t h e office of m on ey, wh ile t h e lega l va lu e of t h ese bills wa s
pr odigiou s, in or der t o a n swer t o t h e lega l va lu e of t h e sh a r es (t h is is Mr . La w’s
Syst em ), it wou ld follow, fr om t h e n a t u r e of t h in gs, t h a t t h ese sh a r es a n d t h ese
bills wou ld va n ish in t h e sa m e m a n n er a s t h ey a r ose. St ocks ca n n ot su dden ly
be r a ised t wen t y or t wen t y-five t im es a bove t h eir or igin a l va lu e wit h ou t givin g
a n u m ber of people t h e m ea n s of pr ocu r in g im m en se r ich es in pa per : ever y on e
wou ld en dea vou r t o m a ke h is for t u n e; a n d a s t h e exch a n ge offer s t h e m ost ea sy
wa y of r em ovin g it fr om h om e, or con veyin g it wh it h er on e plea ses, people

wou ld in cessa n t ly r em it a pa r t of t h eir effect s t o t h e n a t ion t h a t r egu la t es t h e
exch a n ge. A con t in u a l pr ocess of r em it t a n ces in t o a for eign cou n t r y m u st lower
t h e exch a n ge. Let u s su ppose t h a t a t t h e t im e of t h e Syst em , in pr opor t ion t o
t h e st a n da r d a n d weigh t of t h e silver coin , t h e exch a n ge wa s fixed a t for t y gr os
t o t h e cr own ; wh en a va st qu a n t it y of pa per beca m e m on ey, t h ey wer e u n willin g
t o give m or e t h a n t h ir t y-n in e gr os for a cr own , a n d a ft er wa r ds t h ir t y-eigh t ,
t h ir t y-seven , &c. Th is pr oceeded so fa r , t h a t a ft er a wh ile t h ey wou ld give bu t
eigh t gr os, a n d a t la st t h er e wa s n o exch a n ge a t a ll.
Th e exch a n ge ou gh t in t h is ca se t o h a ve r egu la t ed t h e pr opor t ion bet ween t h e
specie a n d t h e pa per of F r a n ce. I su ppose t h a t , by t h e weigh t a n d st a n da r d of
t h e silver , t h e cr own of t h r ee livr es in silver wa s wor t h for t y gr os, a n d t h a t t h e
exch a n ge bein g m a de in pa per , t h e cr own of t h r ee livr es in pa per wa s wor t h
on ly eigh t gr os, t h e differ en ce wa s fou r -fift h s. Th e cr own of t h r ee livr es in pa per
wa s t h en wor t h fou r -fift h s less t h a n t h e cr own of t h r ee livr es in silver .
BB1&@(&+-%&8.'9%%05*D,&'(&+-%&/'<"*,&75+-&.%,4%9+&+'&K'*%H1
H ow gr ea t soever t h e exer t ion of a u t h or it y h a d been in ou r t im es, wit h r espect
t o t h e specie of F r a n ce, du r in g t h e a dm in ist r a t ion of t wo su ccessive m in ist er s,
st ill it wa s va st ly exceeded by t h e Rom a n s; n ot a t t h e t im e wh en cor r u pt ion h a d
cr ept in t o t h eir r epu blic, n or wh en t h ey wer e in a st a t e of a n a r ch y, bu t wh en
t h ey wer e a s m u ch by t h eir wisdom a s t h eir cou r a ge in t h e fu ll vigou r of t h e
con st it u t ion , a ft er h a vin g con qu er ed t h e cit ies of It a ly, a n d a t t h e ver y t im e t h a t
t h ey dispu t ed for em pir e wit h t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s.
An d h er e I a m plea sed t h a t I h a ve a n oppor t u n it y of exa m in in g m or e closely
in t o t h is m a t t er , t h a t n o exa m ple m a y be t a ken fr om wh a t ca n n ever ju st ly be
ca lled on e.
In t h e fir st P u n ic wa r t h e a s, 16 wh ich ou gh t t o be t welve ou n ces of copper ,
weigh ed on ly t wo, a n d in t h e secon d it wa s n o m or e t h a n on e. Th is
r et r en ch m en t a n swer s t o wh a t we n ow ca ll t h e r a isin g of coin . To t a ke h a lf t h e
silver fr om a cr own of six livr es, in or der t o m a ke t wo cr own s, or t o r a ise it t o
t h e va lu e of t welve livr es, is pr ecisely t h e sa m e t h in g.
Th ey h a ve left u s n o m on u m en t of t h e m a n n er in wh ich t h e Rom a n s con du ct ed
t h is a ffa ir in t h e fir st P u n ic wa r ; bu t wh a t t h ey did in t h e secon d is a pr oof of

t h e m ost con su m m a t e wisdom . Th e r epu blic fou n d h er self u n der a n
im possibilit y of pa yin g h er debt s: t h e a s weigh ed t wo ou n ces of copper , a n d t h e
den a r iu s, va lu ed a t t en a ses, weigh ed t wen t y ou n ces of copper . Th e r epu blic,
bein g willin g t o ga in h a lf on h er cr edit or s, m a de t h e a s of a n ou n ce of copper , 17
a n d by t h is m ea n s pa id t h e va lu e of a den a r iu s wit h t en ou n ces. Th is pr oceedin g
m u st h a ve given a gr ea t sh ock t o t h e st a t e; t h ey wer e obliged t h er efor e t o br ea k
t h e for ce of it a s well a s t h ey cou ld. It wa s in it self u n ju st , a n d it wa s n ecessa r y
t o r en der it a s lit t le so a s possible. Th ey h a d in view t h e deliver a n ce of t h e
r epu blic wit h r espect t o t h e cit izen s; t h ey wer e n ot t h er efor e obliged t o dir ect
t h eir view t o t h e deliver a n ce of t h e cit izen s wit h r espect t o ea ch ot h er . Th is
m a de a secon d st ep n ecessa r y. It wa s or da in ed t h a t t h e den a r iu s, wh ich
h it h er t o con t a in ed bu t t en a ses, sh ou ld con t a in sixt een . Th e r esu lt of t h is dou ble
oper a t ion wa s, t h a t wh ile t h e cr edit or s of t h e r epu blic lost on e-h a lf, 18 t h ose of
in dividu a ls lost on ly a fift h ;19 t h e pr ice of m er ch a n dise wa s in cr ea sed on ly a
fift h ; t h e r ea l ch a n ge of t h e m on ey wa s on ly a fift h . Th e ot h er con sequ en ces a r e
obviou s.
Th e Rom a n s t h en con du ct ed t h em selves wit h gr ea t er pr u den ce t h a n we, wh o
in ou r t r a n sa ct ion s in volved bot h t h e pu blic t r ea su r e a n d t h e for t u n es of
in dividu a ls. Bu t t h is is n ot a ll: t h eir bu sin ess wa s ca r r ied on a m idst m or e
fa vou r a ble cir cu m st a n ces t h a n ou r s.
BE1&!-%&)5.9F<,+"*9%,&5*&7-59-&+-%&/'<"*,&9-"*D%0&+-%&N"$F%&'(
+-%&34%95%1
Th er e wa s for m er ly ver y lit t le gold a n d silver in It a ly. Th is cou n t r y h a s few
or n o m in es of gold or silver . Wh en Rom e wa s t a ken by t h e Ga u ls, t h ey fou n d
on ly a t h ou sa n d-weigh t of gold. 20 An d yet t h e Rom a n s h a d sa cked m a n y
power fu l cit ies, a n d br ou gh t h om e t h eir wea lt h . F or a lon g t im e t h ey m a de u se
of n on e bu t copper m on ey; a n d it wa s n ot t ill a ft er t h e pea ce wit h P yr r h u s t h a t
t h ey h a d silver en ou gh t o coin m on ey:21 Th ey m a de den a r ii of t h is m et a l of t h e
va lu e of t en a ses, 22 or t en pou n ds of copper . At t h a t t im e t h e pr opor t ion of silver
wa s t o t h a t of copper a s 1 t o 960. F or a s t h e Rom a n den a r iu s wa s va lu ed a t t en
a ses, or t en pou n ds of copper , it wa s wor t h on e h u n dr ed a n d t wen t y ou n ces of
copper ; a n d a s t h e sa m e den a r iu s wa s va lu ed on ly a t on e-eigh t h of a n ou n ce of

silver , 23 t h is pr odu ced t h e a bove pr opor t ion .
Wh en Rom e beca m e m ist r ess of t h a t pa r t of It a ly wh ich is n ea r est t o Gr eece
a n d Sicily, by degr ees sh e fou n d h er self bet ween t wo r ich n a t ion s — t h e Gr eeks
a n d t h e Ca r t h a gin ia n s. Silver in cr ea sed a t Rom e; a n d a s t h e pr opor t ion of 1 t o
960 bet ween silver a n d copper cou ld be n o lon ger su ppor t ed, sh e m a de sever a l
r egu la t ion s wit h r espect t o m on ey, wh ich t o u s a r e u n kn own . H owever , a t t h e
begin n in g of t h e secon d P u n ic wa r , t h e Rom a n den a r iu s wa s wor t h n o m or e
t h a n t wen t y ou n ces of copper ;24 a n d t h u s t h e pr opor t ion bet ween silver a n d
copper wa s n o lon ger bu t a s 1 t o 160. Th e r edu ct ion wa s ver y con sider a ble, sin ce
t h e r epu blic ga in ed five-sixt h s u pon a ll copper m on ey. Bu t sh e did on ly wh a t
wa s n ecessa r y in t h e n a t u r e of t h in gs, by est a blish in g t h e pr opor t ion bet ween
t h e m et a ls m a de u se of a s m on ey.
Th e pea ce wh ich t er m in a t ed t h e fir st P u n ic wa r left t h e Rom a n s m a st er s of
Sicily. Th ey soon en t er ed Sa r din ia ; a ft er wa r ds t h ey bega n t o kn ow Spa in ; a n d
t h u s t h e qu a n t it y of silver in cr ea sed a t Rom e. Th ey t ook m ea su r es t o r edu ce t h e
den a r iu s fr om t wen t y ou n ces t o sixt een ,25 wh ich h a d t h e effect of pu t t in g a
n ea r er pr opor t ion bet ween t h e silver a n d copper ; t h u s t h e pr opor t ion , wh ich
wa s befor e a s 1 t o 160, wa s n ow m a de a s 1 t o 128.
If we exa m in e in t o t h e con du ct of t h e Rom a n s, we sh a ll n ever fin d t h em so
gr ea t a s in ch oosin g a pr oper con ju n ct u r e for per for m in g a n y ext r a or din a r y
oper a t ion .
BG1&8.'9%%05*D,&75+-&.%,4%9+&+'&K'*%H&5*&+-%&!5<%&'(&+-%&U<4%.'.,1
In t h e ch a n ges m a de in t h e specie du r in g t h e t im e of t h e r epu blic, t h ey
pr oceeded by dim in ish in g it : in it s wa n t s, t h e st a t e en t r u st ed t h e kn owledge t o
t h e people, a n d did n ot pr et en d t o deceive t h em . Un der t h e em per or s, t h ey
pr oceeded by wa y of a lloy. Th ese pr in ces, r edu ced t o despa ir even by t h eir
liber a lit ies, fou n d t h em selves obliged t o degr a de t h e specie; a n in dir ect m et h od,
wh ich dim in ish ed t h e evil wit h ou t seem in g t o t ou ch it . Th ey wit h h eld a pa r t of
t h e gift a n d yet con cea led t h e h a n d t h a t did it ; a n d, wit h ou t spea k in g of t h e
dim in u t ion of t h e pa y, or of t h e gr a t u it y, it wa s fou n d dim in ish ed.
We even st ill see in ca bin et s a kin d of m eda ls wh ich a r e ca lled pla t ed, a n d a r e
on ly pieces of copper cover ed wit h a t h in pla t e of silver . 26 Th is m on ey is

m en t ion ed in a fr a gm en t of t h e 77t h book of Dio.27
Didiu s J u lia n fir st bega n t o deba se it . We fin d t h a t t h e coin of Ca r a ca lla 28 h a d
a n a lloy of m or e t h a n h a lf; t h a t of Alexa n der Sever u s of t wo-t h ir ds;29 t h e
deba sin g st ill in cr ea sed, t ill in t h e t im e of Ga llien u s n ot h in g wa s t o be seen bu t
copper silver ed over .30
It is eviden t t h a t su ch violen t pr oceedin gs cou ld n ot t a ke pla ce in t h e pr esen t
a ge; a pr in ce m igh t deceive h im self, bu t h e cou ld deceive n obody else. Th e
exch a n ge h a s t a u gh t t h e ba n ker t o dr a w a com pa r ison bet ween a ll t h e m on ey
in t h e wor ld, a n d t o est a blish it s ju st va lu e. Th e st a n da r d of m on ey ca n be n o
lon ger a secr et . Wer e t h e pr in ce t o begin t o a lloy h is silver , ever ybody else wou ld
con t in u e it , a n d do it for h im ; t h e specie of t h e t r u e st a n da r d wou ld go a br oa d
fir st , a n d n ot h in g wou ld be sen t ba ck bu t ba se m et a l. If, like t h e Rom a n
E m per or s, h e deba sed t h e silver wit h ou t deba sin g t h e gold, t h e gold wou ld
su dden ly disa ppea r , a n d h e wou ld be r edu ced t o h is ba d silver . Th e exch a n ge,
a s I h a ve sa id in t h e pr ecedin g book, 31 h a s depr ived pr in ces of t h e oppor t u n it y
of sh owin g gr ea t exer t ion s of a u t h or it y, or a t lea st h a s r en der ed t h em
in effect u a l.
BJ1&R'7&+-%&UV9-"*D%&5,&"&)'*,+."5*+&'*&0%,4'+59&8'7%.1
Ru ssia wou ld h a ve descen ded fr om it s despot ic power , bu t cou ld n ot . Th e
est a blish m en t of com m er ce depen ded on t h a t of t h e exch a n ge, a n d t h e
t r a n sa ct ion s wer e in con sist en t wit h a ll it s la ws.
In 1745 t h e Cza r in a m a de a la w t o expel t h e J ews, beca u se t h ey r em it t ed in t o
for eign cou n t r ies t h e specie of t h ose wh o wer e ba n ish ed in t o Siber ia , a s well a s
t h a t of t h e for eign er s en t er t a in ed in h er ser vice. As a ll t h e su bject s of t h e
em pir e a r e sla ves, t h ey ca n n eit h er go a br oa d t h em selves n or sen d a wa y t h eir
effect s wit h ou t per m ission . Th e exch a n ge wh ich gives t h em t h e m ea n s of
r em it t in g t h eir specie fr om on e cou n t r y t o a n ot h er is t h er efor e en t ir ely
in com pa t ible wit h t h e la ws of Ru ssia .
Com m er ce it self is in con sist en t wit h t h e Ru ssia n la ws. Th e people a r e
com posed on ly of sla ves em ployed in a gr icu lt u r e, a n d of sla ves ca lled
ecclesia st ics or gen t lem en , wh o a r e t h e lor ds of t h ose sla ves; t h er e is t h en
n obody left for t h e t h ir d est a t e, wh ich ou gh t t o be com posed of m ech a n ics a n d

m er ch a n t s.
BL1&!-%&8."9+59%&'(&,'<%&)'F*+.5%,&5*&?+"$H1
Th ey h a ve m a de la ws in som e pa r t of It a ly t o pr even t su bject s fr om sellin g
t h eir la n ds in or der t o r em ove t h eir specie in t o for eign cou n t r ies. Th ese la ws
m a y be good, wh en t h e r ich es of a st a t e a r e so con n ect ed wit h t h e cou n t r y it self
t h a t t h er e wou ld be gr ea t difficu lt y in t r a n sfer r in g t h em t o a n ot h er . Bu t sin ce,
by t h e cou r se of exch a n ge, r ich es a r e in som e degr ee in depen den t of a n y
pa r t icu la r st a t e, a n d sin ce t h ey m a y wit h so m u ch ea se be con veyed fr om on e
cou n t r y t o a n ot h er , t h a t m u st be a ba d la w wh ich will n ot per m it per son s for
t h eir own in t er est t o dispose of t h eir la n ds, wh ile t h ey ca n dispose of t h eir
m on ey. It is a ba d la w, beca u se it gives a n a dva n t a ge t o m ova ble effect s, in
pr eju dice t o t h e la n d; beca u se it det er s st r a n ger s fr om set t lin g in t h e cou n t r y;
a n d, in sh or t , beca u se it m a y be elu ded.
BO1&!-%&:,,5,+"*9%&"&3+"+%&<"H&0%.5;%&(.'<&="*>%.,1
Th e ba n ker ’s bu sin ess is t o ch a n ge, n ot t o len d, m on ey. If t h e pr in ce m a kes
u se of t h em t o ch a n ge h is specie, a s h e n ever does it bu t in gr ea t a ffa ir s, t h e
lea st pr ofit h e ca n give for t h e r em it t a n ce becom es con sider a ble; a n d if t h ey
dem a n d la r ge pr ofit s, we m a y be cer t a in t h a t t h er e is a fa u lt in t h e
a dm in ist r a t ion . On t h e con t r a r y, wh en t h ey a r e em ployed t o a dva n ce specie,
t h eir a r t con sist s in pr ocu r in g t h e gr ea t est pr ofit for t h e u se of it , wit h ou t bein g
lia ble t o be ch a r ged wit h u su r y.
BP1&@(&8F#$59&C%#+,1
Som e h a ve im a gin ed t h a t it wa s for t h e a dva n t a ge of a st a t e t o be in debt ed t o
it self: t h ey t h ou gh t t h a t t h is m u lt iplied r ich es by in cr ea sin g t h e cir cu la t ion .
Th ose wh o a r e of t h is opin ion h a ve, I believe, con fou n ded a cir cu la t in g pa per
wh ich r epr esen t s m on ey, or a cir cu la t in g pa per wh ich is t h e sign of t h e pr ofit s
t h a t a com pa n y h a s or will m a ke by com m er ce, wit h a pa per wh ich r epr esen t s
a debt . Th e fir st t wo a r e ext r em ely a dva n t a geou s t o t h e st a t e: t h e la st ca n n ever
be so; a n d a ll t h a t we ca n expect fr om it is t h a t in dividu a ls h a ve a good secu r it y

fr om t h e gover n m en t for t h eir m on ey. Bu t let u s see t h e in con ven ien ces wh ich
r esu lt fr om it .
1. If for eign er s possess m u ch pa per wh ich r epr esen t s a debt , t h ey a n n u a lly
dr a w ou t of t h e n a t ion a con sider a ble su m for in t er est .
2. In a n a t ion t h a t is t h u s per pet u a lly in debt , t h e exch a n ge m u st be ver y low.
3. Th e t a xes r a ised for t h e pa ym en t of t h e in t er est of t h e debt a r e a n in ju r y t o
t h e m a n u fa ct u r es, by r a isin g t h e pr ice of t h e a r t ificer ’s la bou r .
4. It t a kes t h e t r u e r even u e of t h e st a t e fr om t h ose wh o h a ve a ct ivit y a n d
in du st r y, t o con vey it t o t h e in dolen t ; t h a t is, it gives fa cilit ies for la bou r t o
t h ose wh o do n ot wor k, a n d clogs wit h difficu lt ies t h ose wh o do wor k.
Th ese a r e it s in con ven ien ces: I kn ow of n o a dva n t a ges. Ten per son s h a ve ea ch
a yea r ly in com e of a t h ou sa n d cr own s, eit h er in la n d or t r a de; t h is r a ises t o t h e
n a t ion , a t five per cen t , a ca pit a l of t wo h u n dr ed t h ou sa n d cr own s. If t h ese t en
per son s em ployed on e-h a lf of t h eir in com e, t h a t is, five t h ou sa n d cr own s, in
pa yin g t h e in t er est of a h u n dr ed t h ou sa n d cr own s, wh ich t h ey h a d bor r owed of
ot h er s, t h a t st ill wou ld be on ly t o t h e st a t e a s t wo h u n dr ed t h ou sa n d cr own s;
t h a t is, in t h e la n gu a ge of t h e a lgebr a ist s, 200,000 cr own s 100,000 cr own s +
100,000 cr own s = 200,000.
P eople a r e t h r own per h a ps in t o t h is er r or by r eflect in g t h a t t h e pa per wh ich
r epr esen t s t h e debt of a n a t ion is t h e sign of r ich es; for n on e bu t a r ich st a t e ca n
su ppor t su ch pa per wit h ou t fa llin g in t o deca y. An d if it does n ot fa ll, it is a pr oof
t h a t t h e st a t e h a s ot h er r ich es besides. Th ey sa y t h a t it is n ot a n evil, beca u se
t h er e a r e r esou r ces a ga in st it ; a n d t h a t it is a n a dva n t a ge, sin ce t h ese r esou r ces
su r pa ss t h e evil.
BQ1&@(&+-%&8"H<%*+&'(&8F#$59&C%#+,1
It is n ecessa r y t h a t t h er e sh ou ld be a pr opor t ion bet ween t h e st a t e a s cr edit or
a n d t h e st a t e a s debt or . Th e st a t e m a y be a cr edit or t o in fin it y, bu t it ca n on ly
be a debt or t o a cer t a in degr ee, a n d wh en it su r pa sses t h a t degr ee t h e t it le of
cr edit or va n ish es.
If t h e cr edit of t h e st a t e h a s n ever r eceived t h e lea st blem ish , it m a y do wh a t
h a s been so h a ppily pr a ct ised in on e of t h e kin gdom s of E u r ope;32 t h a t is, it m a y
r equ ir e a gr ea t qu a n t it y of specie, a n d offer t o r eim bu r se ever y in dividu a l, a t

lea st if t h ey will n ot r edu ce t h eir in t er est . Wh en t h e st a t e bor r ows, t h e
in dividu a ls fix t h e in t er est ; wh en it pa ys, t h e in t er est for t h e fu t u r e is fixed by
t h e st a t e.
It is n ot su fficien t t o r edu ce t h e in t er est : it is n ecessa r y t o er ect a sin kin g-fu n d
fr om t h e a dva n t a ge of t h e r edu ct ion , in or der t o pa y ever y yea r a pa r t of t h e
ca pit a l: a pr oceedin g so h a ppy t h a t it s su ccess in cr ea ses ever y da y.
Wh en t h e cr edit of t h e st a t e is n ot en t ir e, t h er e is a n ew r ea son for
en dea vou r in g t o for m a sin kin g-fu n d, beca u se t h is fu n d bein g on ce est a blish ed
will soon pr ocu r e t h e pu blic con fiden ce.
1. If t h e st a t e is a r epu blic, t h e gover n m en t of wh ich is in it s own n a t u r e
con sist en t wit h it s en t er in g in t o pr oject s of a lon g du r a t ion , t h e ca pit a l of t h e
sin kin g-fu n d m a y be in con sider a ble; bu t it is n ecessa r y in a m on a r ch y for t h e
ca pit a l t o be m u ch gr ea t er .
2. Th e r egu la t ion s ou gh t t o be so or der ed t h a t a ll t h e su bject s of t h e st a t e m a y
su ppor t t h e weigh t of t h e est a blish m en t of t h ese fu n ds, beca u se t h ey h a ve a ll
t h e weigh t of t h e est a blish m en t of t h e debt ; t h u s t h e cr edit or of t h e st a t e, by t h e
su m s h e con t r ibu t es, pa ys h im self.
3. Th er e a r e fou r cla sses of m en wh o pa y t h e debt s of t h e st a t e: t h e pr opr iet or s
of t h e la n d, t h ose en ga ged in t r a de, t h e la bou r er s a n d a r t ificer s, a n d, in fin e, t h e
a n n u it a n t s eit h er of t h e st a t e or of pr iva t e people. Of t h ese fou r cla sses t h e la st ,
in a ca se of n ecessit y on e wou ld im a gin e, ou gh t lea st t o be spa r ed, beca u se it is
a cla ss en t ir ely pa ssive, wh ile t h e st a t e is su ppor t ed by t h e a ct ive vigou r of t h e
ot h er t h r ee. Bu t a s it ca n n ot be h igh er t a xed, wit h ou t dest r oyin g t h e pu blic
con fiden ce, of wh ich t h e st a t e in gen er a l a n d t h ese t h r ee cla sses in pa r t icu la r
h a ve t h e u t m ost n eed; a s a br ea ch in t h e pu blic fa it h ca n n ot be m a de on a
cer t a in n u m ber of su bject s wit h ou t seem in g t o be m a de on a ll; a s t h e cla ss of
cr edit or s is a lwa ys t h e m ost exposed t o t h e pr oject s of m in ist er s, a n d a lwa ys in
t h eir eye, a n d u n der t h eir im m edia t e in spect ion , t h e st a t e is obliged t o give
t h em a sin gu la r pr ot ect ion , t h a t t h e pa r t wh ich is in debt ed m a y n ever h a ve t h e
lea st a dva n t a ge over t h a t wh ich is t h e cr edit or .
BS1&@(&$%*05*D&F4'*&?*+%.%,+1
Specie is t h e sign of va lu e. It is eviden t t h a t h e wh o h a s occa sion for t h is sign
ou gh t t o pa y for t h e u se of it , a s well a s for ever yt h in g else t h a t h e h a s occa sion
for . All t h e differ en ce is t h a t ot h er t h in gs m a y be eit h er h ir ed or bou gh t ; wh ile
m on ey, wh ich is t h e pr ice of t h in gs, ca n on ly be h ir ed, a n d n ot bou gh t . 33
To len d m on ey wit h ou t in t er est is cer t a in ly a n a ct ion la u da ble a n d ext r em ely
good; bu t it is obviou s t h a t it is on ly a cou n sel of r eligion , a n d n ot a civil la w.
In or der t h a t t r a de m a y be su ccessfu lly ca r r ied on , it is n ecessa r y t h a t a pr ice
be fixed on t h e u se of specie; bu t t h is sh ou ld be ver y in con sider a ble. If it be t oo
h igh , t h e m er ch a n t wh o sees t h a t it will cost h im m or e in in t er est t h a n h e ca n
ga in by com m er ce will u n der t a ke n ot h in g; if t h er e is n o con sider a t ion t o be pa id
for t h e u se of specie, n obody will len d it ; a n d h er e t oo t h e m er ch a n t will
u n der t a ke n ot h in g.
I a m m ist a ken wh en I sa y n obody will len d; t h e a ffa ir s of societ y will ever
m a ke it n ecessa r y. Usu r y will be est a blish ed, bu t wit h a ll t h e disor der s wit h
wh ich it h a s been con st a n t ly a t t en ded.
Th e la ws of Ma h om et con fou n d u su r y wit h len din g u pon in t er est . Usu r y
in cr ea ses in Ma h om et a n cou n t r ies in pr opor t ion t o t h e sever it y of t h e
pr oh ibit ion . Th e len der in dem n ifies h im self for t h e da n ger h e u n der goes of
su ffer in g t h e pen a lt y.
In t h ose ea st er n cou n t r ies, t h e gr ea t er pa r t of t h e people a r e secu r e in
n ot h in g; t h er e is h a r dly a n y pr opor t ion bet ween t h e a ct u a l possession of a su m
a n d t h e h opes of r eceivin g it a ga in a ft er h a vin g len t it : u su r y, t h en , m u st be
r a ised in pr opor t ion t o t h e da n ger of in solven cy.
ET1&@(&K".5+5<%&^,F.H1
Th e gr ea t n ess of m a r it im e u su r y is fou n ded on t wo t h in gs: t h e da n ger of t h e
sea , wh ich m a kes it pr oper t h a t t h ose wh o expose t h eir specie sh ou ld n ot do it
wit h ou t con sider a ble a dva n t a ge, a n d t h e ea se wit h wh ich t h e bor r ower , by
m ea n s of com m er ce, speedily a ccom plish es a va r iet y of gr ea t a ffa ir s. Bu t u su r y,
wit h r espect t o la n dm en , n ot bein g fou n ded on eit h er of t h ese t wo r ea son s, is
eit h er pr oh ibit ed by t h e legisla t or s, or , wh a t is m or e r a t ion a l, r edu ced t o pr oper
bou n ds.
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/'<"*,1
Besides t h e loa n s m a de for t h e a dva n t a ge of com m er ce, t h er e is st ill a kin d of
len din g by a civil con t r a ct , wh en ce r esu lt s in t er est or u su r y.
As t h e people of Rom e in cr ea sed ever y da y in power , t h e m a gist r a t es sou gh t
t o in sin u a t e t h em selves in t h eir fa vou r by en a ct in g su ch la ws a s wer e m ost
a gr eea ble t o t h em . Th ey r et r en ch ed ca pit a ls; t h ey fir st lower ed, a n d a t len gt h
pr oh ibit ed, in t er est ; t h ey t ook a wa y t h e power of con fin in g t h e debt or ’s body; in
fin e, t h e a bolit ion of debt s wa s con t en ded for wh en ever a t r ibu n e wa s disposed
t o r en der h im self popu la r .
Th ese con t in u a l ch a n ges, wh et h er m a de by t h e la ws or by t h e plebiscit a ,
n a t u r a lised u su r y a t Rom e; for t h e cr edit or s, seein g t h e people t h eir debt or ,
t h eir legisla t or , a n d t h eir ju dge, h a d n o lon ger a n y con fiden ce in t h eir
a gr eem en t s: t h e people, like a debt or wh o h a s lost h is cr edit , cou ld on ly t em pt
t h em t o len d by a llowin g a n exor bit a n t in t er est , especia lly a s t h e la ws a pplied
a r em edy t o t h e evil on ly fr om t im e t o t im e, wh ile t h e com pla in t s of t h e people
wer e con t in u a l, a n d con st a n t ly in t im ida t ed t h e cr edit or s. Th is wa s t h e ca u se
t h a t a ll h on est m ea n s of bor r owin g a n d len din g wer e a bolish ed a t Rom e, a n d
t h a t t h e m ost m on st r ou s u su r y est a blish ed it self in t h a t cit y, n ot wit h st a n din g
t h e st r ict pr oh ibit ion a n d sever it y of t h e la w.34 Th is evil wa s a con sequ en ce of
t h e sever it y of t h e la ws a ga in st u su r y. La ws excessively good a r e t h e sou r ce of
excessive evil. Th e bor r ower fou n d h im self u n der t h e n ecessit y of pa yin g for t h e
in t er est of t h e m on ey, a n d for t h e da n ger t h e cr edit or u n der wen t of su ffer in g
t h e pen a lt y of t h e la w.
EE1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Th e pr im it ive Rom a n s h a d n ot a n y la ws t o r egu la t e t h e r a t e of u su r y. 35 In t h e
con t est s wh ich a r ose on t h is su bject bet ween t h e plebeia n s a n d t h e pa t r icia n s,
even in t h e sedit ion on t h e Mon s Sa cer , n ot h in g wa s a lleged, on t h e on e h a n d,
bu t ju st ice, a n d on t h e ot h er , t h e sever it y of con t r a ct s.36
Th ey t h en on ly followed pr iva t e a gr eem en t s, wh ich , I believe, wer e m ost
com m on ly a t t welve per cen t per a n n u m . My r ea son is, t h a t in t h e a n cien t
la n gu a ge of t h e Rom a n s, in t er est a t six per cen t wa s ca lled h a lf-u su r y, a n d

in t er est a t t h r ee per cen t , qu a r t er -u su r y.37 Tot a l u su r y m u st , t h er efor e, h a ve
been in t er est a t t welve per cen t .
Bu t if it be a sked h ow su ch gr ea t in t er est cou ld be est a blish ed a m on g a people
a lm ost wit h ou t com m er ce, I a n swer t h a t t h is people, bein g ver y oft en obliged
t o go t o wa r wit h ou t pa y, wer e u n der a fr equ en t n ecessit y of bor r owin g: a n d a s
t h ey in cessa n t ly m a de h a ppy expedit ion s, t h ey wer e com m on ly well a ble t o pa y.
Th is is visible fr om t h e r ecit a l of t h e con t est s wh ich a r ose on t h is su bject ; t h ey
did n ot t h en disa gr ee con cer n in g t h e a va r ice of cr edit or s, bu t sa id t h a t t h ose
wh o com pla in ed m igh t h a ve been a ble t o pa y, h a d t h ey lived in a m or e r egu la r
m a n n er . 38
Th ey t h en m a de la ws wh ich h a d on ly a n in flu en ce on t h e pr esen t sit u a t ion of
a ffa ir s: t h ey or da in ed, for in st a n ce, t h a t t h ose wh o en r olled t h em selves for t h e
wa r t h ey wer e en ga ged in sh ou ld n ot be m olest ed by t h eir cr edit or s; t h a t t h ose
wh o wer e in pr ison sh ou ld be set a t liber t y; t h a t t h e m ost in digen t sh ou ld be
sen t in t o t h e colon ies; a n d som et im es t h ey open ed t h e pu blic t r ea su r y. Th e
people, bein g ea sed of t h eir pr esen t bu r den s, beca m e a ppea sed; a n d a s t h ey
r equ ir ed n ot h in g for t h e fu t u r e, t h e sen a t e wa s fa r fr om pr ovidin g a ga in st it .
At t h e t im e wh en t h e sen a t e m a in t a in ed t h e ca u se of u su r y wit h so m u ch
con st a n cy, t h e Rom a n s wer e dist in gu ish ed by a n ext r em e love of fr u ga lit y,
pover t y, a n d m oder a t ion : bu t t h e con st it u t ion wa s su ch t h a t t h e pr in cipa l
cit izen s a lon e su ppor t ed a ll t h e expen ses of gover n m en t , wh ile t h e com m on
people pa id n ot h in g. H ow, t h en , wa s it possible t o depr ive t h e for m er of t h e
liber t y of pu r su in g t h eir debt or s, a n d a t t h e sa m e t im e t o oblige t h em t o execu t e
t h eir offices, a n d t o su ppor t t h e r epu blic a m idst it s m ost pr essin g n ecessit ies?
Ta cit u s sa ys t h a t t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles fixed t h e in t er est a t on e per
cen t . 39 It is eviden t t h a t h e wa s m ist a ken , a n d t h a t h e t ook a n ot h er la w, of
wh ich I a m goin g t o spea k, for t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles. If t h is h a d been
r egu la t ed in t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles, wh y did t h ey n ot m a ke u se of it s
a u t h or it y in t h e dispu t es wh ich a ft er wa r ds a r ose bet ween t h e cr edit or s a n d
debt or s? We fin d n o vest ige of t h is la w u pon len din g a t in t er est ; a n d let u s h a ve
ever so lit t le kn owledge of t h e h ist or y of Rom e, we sh a ll see t h a t a la w like t h is
cou ld n ot be t h e wor k of t h e decem vir s.
Th e Licin ia n la w, m a de eigh t y-five yea r s a ft er t h a t of t h e Twelve Ta bles,40

wa s on e of t h ose t em por a r y r egu la t ion s of wh ich we h a ve spoken . It or da in ed
t h a t wh a t h a d been pa id for in t er est sh ou ld be dedu ct ed fr om t h e pr in cipa l, a n d
t h e r est disch a r ged by t h r ee equ a l pa ym en t s.
In t h e yea r of Rom e 398, t h e t r ibu n es Du elliu s a n d Men en iu s ca u sed a la w t o
be pa ssed wh ich r edu ced t h e in t er est t o on e per cen t per a n n u m . 41 it is t h is la w
wh ich Ta cit u s con fou n ds wit h t h a t of t h e Twelve Ta bles, 42 a n d t h is wa s t h e fir st
ever m a de by t h e Rom a n s t o fix t h e r a t e of in t er est . Ten yea r s a ft er , 43 t h is u su r y
wa s r edu ced on e-h a lf,44 a n d in t h e en d en t ir ely a bolish ed;45 a n d if we m a y
believe som e a u t h or s wh om Livy h a d r ea d, t h is wa s u n der t h e con su la t e of C.
Ma r t iu s Ru t iliu s a n d Q. Ser viliu s, in t h e yea r of Rom e 413.46
It fa r ed wit h t h is la w a s wit h a ll t h ose in wh ich t h e legisla t or ca r r ies t h in gs
t o excess: a n in fin it e n u m ber of wa ys wer e fou n d t o elu de it . Th ey en a ct ed,
t h er efor e, m a n y ot h er s t o con fir m , cor r ect , a n d t em per it . Som et im es t h ey
qu it t ed t h e la ws t o follow t h e com m on pr a ct ice; a t ot h er s, t h e com m on pr a ct ice
t o follow t h e la ws; bu t in t h is ca se, cu st om ea sily pr eva iled.47 Wh en a m a n
wa n t ed t o bor r ow, h e fou n d a n obst a cle in t h e ver y la w m a de in h is fa vou r ; t h is
la w m u st be eva ded by t h e per son it wa s m a de t o su ccou r , a n d by t h e per son
con dem n ed. Sem pr on iu s Asellu s, t h e pr a et or , h a vin g per m it t ed t h e debt or s t o
a ct in con for m it y t o t h e la ws, 48 wa s sla in by t h e cr edit or s for a t t em pt in g t o
r evive t h e m em or y of a sever it y t h a t cou ld n o lon ger be su ppor t ed.49
I qu it t h e cit y, in or der t o ca st a n eye on t h e pr ovin ces.
I h a ve som ewh er e else obser ved t h a t t h e Rom a n pr ovin ces wer e exh a u st ed by
a sever e a n d a r bit r a r y gover n m en t . 50 Bu t t h is is n ot a ll; t h ey wer e a lso r u in ed
by a m ost sh ockin g u su r y.
Cicer o t a kes n ot ice t h a t t h e in h a bit a n t s of Sa la m is wa n t ed t o bor r ow a su m
of m on ey a t Rom e, bu t cou ld n ot , beca u se of t h e Ga bin ia n la w.51 We m u st ,
t h er efor e, in qu ir e in t o t h e n a t u r e of t h is la w.
As soon a s len din g u pon in t er est wa s for bidden a t Rom e, t h ey con t r ived a ll
sor t of m ea n s t o elu de t h e la w;52 a n d a s t h eir a llies, 53 a n d t h e La t in s, wer e n ot
su bject t o t h e civil la ws of t h e Rom a n s, t h ey em ployed a La t in , or a n a lly, t o
len d h is n a m e, a n d per son a t e t h e cr edit or . Th e la w, t h er efor e, h a d on ly
su bject ed t h e cr edit or s t o a m a t t er of for m , a n d t h e pu blic wer e n ot r elieved.
Th e people com pla in ed of t h is a r t ifice; a n d Ma r iu s Sem pr on iu s, t r ibu n e of t h e

people, by t h e a u t h or it y of t h e sen a t e, ca u sed a plebiscit u m t o be en a ct ed t o t h is
pu r por t , t h a t in r ega r d t o loa n s t h e la ws pr oh ibit in g u su r y bet ween Rom a n
cit izen s sh ou ld equ a lly t a ke pla ce bet ween a cit izen a n d a n a lly, or a cit izen a n d
a La t in . 54
At t h a t t im e t h ey ga ve t h e n a m e of a llies t o t h e people of It a ly pr oper ly so
ca lled, wh ich ext en ded a s fa r a s t h e Ar n o a n d t h e Ru bicon , a n d wa s n ot
gover n ed in t h e for m of a Rom a n pr ovin ce.
It is a n obser va t ion of Ta cit u s 55 t h a t n ew fr a u ds wer e con st a n t ly com m it t ed,
wh en ever a n y la ws wer e pa ssed for t h e pr even t in g of u su r y. F in din g t h em selves
deba r r ed fr om len din g or bor r owin g in t h e n a m e of a n a lly, t h ey soon con t r ived
t o bor r ow of som e in h a bit a n t of t h e pr ovin ces.
To r em edy t h is a bu se t h ey wer e obliged t o en a ct a n ew la w; a n d Ga bin iu s 56
u pon t h e pa ssin g of t h a t fa m ou s la w, wh ich wa s in t en ded t o pr even t t h e
cor r u pt ion of su ffr a ges, m u st n a t u r a lly h a ve r eflect ed t h a t t h e best wa y t o
a t t a in h is en d wa s t o discou r a ge t h e len din g u pon in t er est : t h ese wer e t wo
object s n a t u r a lly con n ect ed; for u su r y a lwa ys in cr ea sed a t t h e t im e of
elect ion s, 57 beca u se t h ey st ood in n eed of m on ey t o br ibe t h e vot er s. It is pla in
t h a t t h e Ga bin ia n la w h a d ext en ded t h e Sen a t u s Con su lt u m of Ma r cu s
Sem pr on iu s t o t h e pr ovin ces, sin ce t h e people of Sa la m is cou ld n ot bor r ow
m on ey a t Rom e beca u se of t h a t ver y la w. Br u t u s, u n der fict it iou s n a m es, len t
t h em som e m on ey 58 a t fou r per cen t a m on t h , 59 a n d obt a in ed for t h a t pu r pose
t wo Sen a t u s Con su lt a ; in t h e for m er of wh ich it wa s expr essly m en t ion ed t h a t
t h is loa n sh ou ld n ot be con sider ed a s a n eva sion of t h e la w, 60 a n d t h a t t h e
gover n or of Sicily sh ou ld det er m in e a ccor din g t o t h e st ipu la t ion s m en t ion ed in
t h e bon d of t h e Sa la m in ia n s.
As len din g u pon in t er est wa s for bidden by t h e Ga bin ia n la w bet ween
pr ovin cia ls a n d Rom a n cit izen s, a n d t h e la t t er a t t h a t t im e h a d a ll t h e m on ey
of t h e globe in t h eir h a n ds, t h er e wa s a n ecessit y for t em pt in g t h em wit h t h e
ba it of ext r a va ga n t in t er est , t o t h e en d t h a t t h e a va r iciou s m igh t t h u s lose sigh t
of t h e da n ger of losin g t h eir m on ey. An d a s t h ey wer e m en of gr ea t power in
Rom e, wh o a wed t h e m a gist r a t es a n d over r u led t h e la ws, t h ey wer e em bolden ed
t o len d, a n d t o ext or t gr ea t u su r y. H en ce t h e pr ovin ces wer e su ccessively
r a va ged by ever y on e wh o h a d a n y cr edit in Rom e: a n d a s ea ch gover n or , a t

en t er in g u pon h is pr ovin ce, pu blish ed h is edict 61 wh er ein h e fixed t h e r a t e of
in t er est in wh a t m a n n er h e plea sed, t h e legisla t u r e pla yed in t o t h e h a n ds of
a va r ice, a n d t h e la t t er ser ved t h e m ea n pu r poses of t h e legisla t or .
Bu t t h e pu blic bu sin ess m u st be ca r r ied on ; a n d wh er ever a t ot a l in a ct ion
obt a in s, t h e st a t e is u n don e. On som e occa sion s t h e t own s, t h e cor por a t e bodies
a n d societ ies, a s well a s pr iva t e people, wer e u n der t h e n ecessit y of bor r owin g
— a n ecessit y bu t t oo u r gen t , wer e it on ly t o r epa ir t h e r a va ges of a r m ies, t h e
r a pa cit y of m a gist r a t es, t h e ext or t ion s of collect or s, a n d t h e cor r u pt pr a ct ices
da ily in t r odu ced; for n ever wa s t h er e a t on e per iod so m u ch pover t y a n d
opu len ce. Th e sen a t e, bein g possessed of t h e execu t ive power , gr a n t ed, t h r ou gh
n ecessit y, a n d oft en t im es t h r ou gh fa vou r , a per m ission of bor r owin g fr om
Rom a n cit izen s, so a s t o en a ct decr ees for t h a t pa r t icu la r pu r pose. Bu t even
t h ese decr ees wer e discr edit ed by t h e la w; for t h ey m igh t give occa sion t o t h e
people’s in sist in g u pon n ew r a t es of in t er est , wh ich wou ld a u gm en t t h e da n ger
of losin g t h e ca pit a l, wh ile t h ey m a de a fu r t h er ext en sion of u su r y. 62 I sh a ll ever
r epea t it , t h a t m a n kin d a r e gover n ed n ot by ext r em es, bu t by pr in ciples of
m oder a t ion .
H e pa ys lea st , sa ys Ulpia n , wh o pa ys la t est .63 Th is decides t h e qu est ion
wh et h er in t er est be la wfu l; t h a t is, wh et h er t h e cr edit or ca n sell t im e, a n d t h e
debt or bu y it .
2'+%,1
1. Th e sa lt m a de u se of for t h is pu r pose in Abyssin ia h a s t h is defect , t h a t it is
con t in u a lly wa st in g a wa y.
2. H er odot u s, Bk. i, t ells u s t h a t t h e Lydia n s fou n d ou t t h e a r t of coin in g m on ey;
t h e Gr eeks lea r n ed it fr om t h em : t h e At h en ia n coin h a d t h e im pr ession of
t h eir a n cien t ox. I h a ve seen on e of t h ose pieces in t h e E a r l of P em br oke’s
ca bin et .
3. It is a n a n cien t cu st om in Algier s for t h e fa t h er of a fa m ily t o h a ve a t r ea su r e
con cea led in t h e ea r t h . — La u gier de Ta ssis, H istory of th e Kin gd om of
Algiers.
4. Ca esa r , De B ello Civ., iii.
5. Ta cit u s, An n als, vi. 17.

6. T h e L aw s of th e S axon s, 18.
7. See ch a pt er 12 of t h is book.
8. Su pposin g a m a r k of eigh t ou n ces of silver t o be wor t h for t y-n in e livr es, a n d
copper t wen t y sols per pou n d.
9. H ist or y of t h e Civil Wa r s of t h e Spa n ia r ds in t h e West In dies.
10. In F r a n ce, La w’s pr oject wa s ca lled by t h is n a m e.
11. Socr a t es, H istory of th e Ch u rch, ii. 17.
12. Th er e is m u ch specie in a pla ce wh en t h er e is m or e specie t h a n pa per ; t h er e
is lit t le, wh en t h er e is m or e pa per t h a n specie.
13. Wit h t h e expen ses of ca r r ia ge a n d in su r a n ce dedu ct ed.
14. In 1744.
15. See book xx. 23.
16. P lin y, N atu ral H istory, xxxiii, a r t . 13.
17. Ibid.
18. Th ey r eceived t en ou n ces of copper for t wen t y.
19. Th ey r eceived sixt een ou n ces of copper for t wen t y.
20. P lin y, xxxiii, a r t . 5.
21. F r ein sh em iu s, dec. 2, v.
22. Ibid. Th ey st r u ck a lso, sa ys t h e sa m e a u t h or , h a lf den a r ii, ca lled qu in a r ii;
a n d qu a r t er s, ca lled sest er ces.
23. An eigh t h , a ccor din g t o Bu da eu s; a ccor din g t o ot h er a u t h or s, a seven t h .
24. P lin y, Na t u r a l H ist or y, xxxiii, a r t . 13.
25. Ibid.
26. See F a t h er J ou ber t , Scien ce of Meda ls, p. 59, P a r is, 1739.
27. E xt r a ct of Vir t u es a n d Vices.
28. See Sa vot e, pa r t II, 12, a n d Le J ou r n a l des Sa va n t s of t h e 28t h of J u ly,
1681, on a discover y of fift y t h ou sa n d m eda ls.
29. See Sa vot e, ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Ch a pt er 21.
32. E n gla n d.
33. We do n ot spea k h er e of gold a n d silver con sider ed a s a m er ch a n dise.

35. Usu r y a n d in t er est a m on g t h e Rom a n s sign ified t h e sa m e t h in g.
36. See Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, wh o h a s descr ibed it so well.
37. Usu r a e sem isses, t r ien t es, qu a dr a n t es. See t h e sever a l t it les of t h e digest s
a n d codes on u su r y, a n d especia lly Leg. 17, wit h t h e n ot e, ff. de u su r is.
38. See Appiu s’s speech on t h is su bject , in Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, v.
39. An n als, vi. 16.
40. In t h e yea r of Rom e 388. — Livy, vi. 25.
41. Un cia r ia u su r a . — Ibid., vii. 16.
42. An n als, vi. 16.
43. Un der t h e con su la t e of L. Ma n liu s Tor qu a t u s a n d C. P la u t iu s, a ccor din g t o
Livy, vii. 27. Th is is t h e la w m en t ion ed by Ta cit u s, An n a ls, vi.
44. Sem iu n cia r ia u su r a .
45. As Ta cit u s sa ys. An n als, vi.
46. Th is la w wa s pa ssed a t t h e in st a n ce of M. Gen u ciu s, t r ibu n e of t h e people.
— Livy, vii, t owa r ds t h e en d.
47. Ver t er i ja m m or e foen u s r ecept u m er a t . — Appia n . On t h e Civil Wa r , i.
48. P er m isit eos legibu s a ger e. — Ibid.; a n d t h e E pit om e of Livy, lxiv.
49. In t h e yea r of Rom e 663.
50. Book xi. 19.
51. Let t er s t o At t icu s, v. 21.
52. Livy, xxxv. 7.
53. Ibid.
54. In t h e yea r 561 of Rom e. — See Livy, xxv. 7.
55. An n als, vi. 16.
56. In t h e yea r 615 of Rom e.
57. See Let t er s t o At t icu s, iv. 15, 16.
58. Ibid., vi. i.
59. P om pey h a vin g len t 600 t a len t s t o Kin g Ar ioba r za n es, m a de t h a t pr in ce pa y
h im t h ir t y At t ic t a len t s ever y t h ir t y da ys. — Ibid., v. 21, vi. 1.
60. Ut n equ e Sa la m in iis, n equ e cu i eis dedisset , fr a u di esset . — Ibid.
61. Cicer o’s edict fixed it t o on e per cen t a m on t h , wit h in t er est u pon in t er est a t
t h e expir a t ion of t h e yea r . Wit h r ega r d t o t h e fa r m er s of t h e r epu blic, h e
en ga ged t h em t o gr a n t a r espit e t o t h eir debt or s; if t h e la t t er did n ot pa y a t

t h e t im e fixed, h e a wa r ded t h e in t er est m en t ion ed in t h e bon d. — Ibid., vi.
1.
62. See wh a t Lu cr et iu s sa ys, in t h e 21st let t er t o At t icu s, v. Th er e wa s even a
gen er a l Sen a t u s Con su lt u m , t o fix t h e r a t e of in t er est a t on e per cen t per
m on t h . See t h e sa m e let t er .
63. Leg. 12, ff. de ver b. sign if.
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34%95%,1
Deligh t of h u m a n kin d, 1 a n d gods a bove; P a r en t of Rom e, pr opit iou s Qu een of
Love;
F or wh en t h e r isin g spr in g a dor n s t h e m ea d, An d a n ew scen e of n a t u r e
st a n ds displa y’d; Wh en t eem in g bu ds, a n d ch eer fu l gr een s a ppea r , An d west er n
ga les u n lock t h e la zy yea r ; Th e joyou s bir ds t h y welcom e fir st expr ess, Wh ose
n a t ive son gs t h y gen ia l fir e con fess: Th en sa va ge bea st s bou n d o’er t h eir
sligh t ed food, St r u ck wit h t h y da r t s, a n d t em pt t h e r a gin g flood: All n a t u r e is
t h y gift , ea r t h , a ir , a n d sea ; Of a ll t h a t br ea t h es t h e va r iou s pr ogen y, St u n g
wit h deligh t , is goa ded on by t h ee. O’er ba r r en m ou n t a in s, o’er t h e flow’r y pla in ,
Th e lea fy for est , a n d t h e liqu id m a in , E xt en ds t h y u n con t r oll’d a n d bou n dless
r eign . Th r o’ a ll t h e livin g r egion s t h ou dost m ove, An d sca t t er ’st wh er e t h ou
go’st t h e kin dly seeds of love.
Th e fem a les of br u t es h a ve a n a lm ost con st a n t fecu n dit y. Bu t in t h e h u m a n
species, t h e m a n n er of t h in kin g, t h e ch a r a ct er , t h e pa ssion s, t h e h u m ou r , t h e
ca pr ice, t h e idea of pr eser vin g bea u t y, t h e pa in of ch ild-bea r in g, a n d t h e fa t igu e
of a t oo n u m er ou s fa m ily, obst r u ct pr opa ga t ion in a t h ou sa n d differ en t wa ys.
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Th e n a t u r a l obliga t ion of t h e fa t h er t o pr ovide for h is ch ildr en h a s est a blish ed
m a r r ia ge, wh ich m a kes kn own t h e per son wh o ou gh t t o fu lfil t h is obliga t ion .
Th e people 2 m en t ion ed by P om pon iu s Mela 3 h a d n o ot h er wa y of discover in g
h im bu t by r esem bla n ce.
Am on g civilised n a t ion s, t h e fa t h er is t h a t per son on wh om t h e la ws, by t h e
cer em on y of m a r r ia ge, h a ve fixed t h is du t y, beca u se t h ey fin d in h im t h e m a n

t h ey wa n t . 4
Am on g br u t es t h is is a n obliga t ion wh ich t h e m ot h er ca n gen er a lly per for m ;
bu t it is m u ch m or e ext en sive a m on g m en . Th eir ch ildr en in deed h a ve r ea son ;
bu t t h is com es on ly by slow degr ees. It is n ot su fficien t t o n ou r ish t h em ; we
m u st a lso dir ect t h em : t h ey ca n a lr ea dy live; bu t t h ey ca n n ot gover n
t h em selves.
Illicit con ju n ct ion s con t r ibu t e bu t lit t le t o t h e pr opa ga t ion of t h e species. Th e
fa t h er , wh o is u n der a n a t u r a l obliga t ion t o n ou r ish a n d edu ca t e h is ch ildr en ,
is n ot t h en fixed; a n d t h e m ot h er , wit h wh om t h e obliga t ion r em a in s, fin ds a
t h ou sa n d obst a cles fr om sh a m e, r em or se, t h e con st r a in t of h er sex, a n d t h e
r igou r of la ws; a n d besides, sh e gen er a lly wa n t s t h e m ea n s.
Wom en wh o h a ve su bm it t ed t o pu blic pr ost it u t ion ca n n ot h a ve t h e
con ven ien ce of edu ca t in g t h eir ch ildr en : t h e t r ou ble of edu ca t ion is in com pa t ible
wit h t h eir st a t ion ; a n d t h ey a r e so cor r u pt t h a t t h ey ca n h a ve n o pr ot ect ion fr om
t h e la w.
It follows fr om a ll t h is t h a t pu blic con t in en ce is n a t u r a lly con n ect ed wit h t h e
pr opa ga t ion of t h e species.
G1&@(&+-%&)'*05+5'*&'(&)-5$0.%*1
It is a dict a t e of r ea son t h a t wh en t h er e is a m a r r ia ge, ch ildr en sh ou ld follow
t h e st a t ion or con dit ion of t h e fa t h er ; a n d t h a t wh en t h er e is n ot , t h ey ca n
belon g t o t h e m ot h er on ly.5
J1&@(&Y"<5$5%,1
It is a lm ost ever ywh er e a cu st om for t h e wife t o pa ss in t o t h e fa m ily of t h e
h u sba n d. Th e con t r a r y is wit h ou t a n y in con ven ien ce est a blish ed a t F or m osa , 6
wh er e t h e h u sba n d en t er s in t o t h e fa m ily of t h e wife.
Th is la w, wh ich fixes t h e fa m ily in a su ccession of per son s of t h e sa m e sex,
gr ea t ly con t r ibu t es, in depen den t ly of t h e fir st m ot ives, t o t h e pr opa ga t ion of t h e
h u m a n species. Th e fa m ily is a kin d of pr oper t y: a m a n wh o h a s ch ildr en of a
sex wh ich does n ot per pet u a t e it is n ever sa t isfied if h e h a s n ot t h ose wh o ca n
r en der it per pet u a l.
Na m es, wh er eby m en a cqu ir e a n idea of a t h in g wh ich on e wou ld im a gin e

ou gh t n ot t o per ish , a r e ext r em ely pr oper t o in spir e ever y fa m ily wit h a desir e
of ext en din g it s du r a t ion . Th er e a r e people a m on g wh om n a m es dist in gu ish
fa m ilies: t h er e a r e ot h er s wh er e t h ey on ly dist in gu ish per son s: t h e la t t er h a ve
n ot t h e sa m e a dva n t a ge a s t h e for m er .
L1&@(&+-%&,%;%."$&@.0%.,&'(&$"7(F$&W5;%,1
La ws a n d r eligion som et im es est a blish m a n y kin ds of civil con ju n ct ion s; a n d
t h is is t h e ca se a m on g t h e Ma h om et a n s, wh er e t h er e a r e sever a l or der s of
wives, t h e ch ildr en of wh om a r e dist in gu ish ed by bein g bor n in t h e h ou se, by
civil con t r a ct s, or even by t h e sla ver y of t h e m ot h er , a n d t h e su bsequ en t
a ckn owledgm en t of t h e fa t h er .
It wou ld be con t r a r y t o r ea son t h a t t h e la w sh ou ld st igm a t ise t h e ch ildr en for
wh a t it a ppr oved in t h e fa t h er . All t h ese ch ildr en ou gh t , t h er efor e, t o su cceed,
a t lea st if som e pa r t icu la r r ea son does n ot oppose it , a s in J a pa n , wh er e n on e
in h er it bu t t h e ch ildr en of t h e wife given by t h e em per or . Th eir policy dem a n ds
t h a t t h e gift s of t h e em per or sh ou ld n ot be t oo m u ch divided, beca u se t h ey
su bject t h em t o a kin d of ser vice, like t h a t of ou r a n cien t fiefs.
Th er e a r e cou n t r ies wh er e a wife of t h e secon d r a n k en joys n ea r ly t h e sa m e
h on ou r s in a fa m ily a s in ou r pa r t of t h e wor ld a r e gr a n t ed t o a n on ly con sor t :
t h er e t h e ch ildr en of con cu bin es a r e deem ed t o belon g t o t h e fir st or pr in cipa l
wife. Th u s it is a lso est a blish ed in Ch in a . F ilia l r espect , 7 a n d t h e cer em on y of
deep m ou r n in g, a r e n ot du e t o t h e n a t u r a l m ot h er , bu t t o h er a ppoin t ed by t h e
la w.
By m ea n s of t h is fict ion t h ey h a ve n o ba st a r d ch ildr en ; a n d wh er e su ch a
fict ion does n ot t a ke pla ce, it is obviou s t h a t a la w t o legit im a t ize t h e ch ildr en
of con cu bin es m u st be con sider ed a s a n a ct of violen ce, a s t h e bu lk of t h e n a t ion
wou ld be st igm a t ised by su ch a decr ee. Neit h er is t h er e a n y r egu la t ion in t h ose
cou n t r ies wit h r ega r d t o ch ildr en bor n in a du lt er y. Th e r eclu se lives of wom en ,
t h e locks, t h e in closu r es, a n d t h e eu n u ch s r en der a ll in fidelit y t o t h eir h u sba n ds
so difficu lt , t h a t t h e la w ju dges it im possible. Besides, t h e sa m e swor d wou ld
ext er m in a t e t h e m ot h er a n d t h e ch ild.
O1&@(&=",+".0,&5*&05((%.%*+&A';%.*<%*+,1
Th ey h a ve t h er efor e n o su ch t h in g a s ba st a r ds wh er e polyga m y is per m it t ed;
t h is disgr a ce is kn own on ly in cou n t r ies in wh ich a m a n is a llowed t o m a r r y bu t
on e wife. H er e t h ey wer e obliged t o st a m p a m a r k of in fa m y u pon con cu bin a ge,
a n d con sequ en t ly t h ey wer e u n der a n ecessit y of st igm a t isin g t h e issu e of su ch
u n la wfu l con ju n ct ion s.
In r epu blics, wh er e it is n ecessa r y t h a t t h er e sh ou ld be t h e pu r est m or a ls,
ba st a r ds ou gh t t o be m or e degr a ded t h a n in m on a r ch ies.
Th e la ws m a de a ga in st t h em a t Rom e wer e per h a ps t oo sever e; bu t a s t h e
a n cien t in st it u t ion s la id a ll t h e cit izen s u n der a n ecessit y of m a r r yin g, a n d a s
m a r r ia ges wer e a lso soft en ed by t h e per m ission t o r epu dia t e or m a ke a divor ce,
n ot h in g bu t a n ext r em e cor r u pt ion of m a n n er s cou ld lea d t h em t o con cu bin a ge.
It is obser va ble t h a t a s t h e qu a lit y of a cit izen wa s a ver y con sider a ble t h in g
in a dem ocr a t ic gover n m en t , wh er e it ca r r ied wit h it t h e sover eign power , t h ey
fr equ en t ly m a de la ws in r espect t o t h e st a t e of ba st a r ds, wh ich h a d less r ela t ion
t o t h e t h in g it self a n d t o t h e h on est y of m a r r ia ge t h a n t o t h e pa r t icu la r
con st it u t ion of t h e r epu blic. Th u s t h e people h a ve som et im es a dm it t ed ba st a r ds
in t o t h e n u m ber of cit izen s, in or der t o in cr ea se t h eir power in opposit ion t o t h e
gr ea t . 8 Th u s t h e At h en ia n s exclu ded ba st a r ds fr om t h e pr ivilege of bein g
cit izen s, t h a t t h ey m igh t possess a gr ea t er sh a r e of t h e cor n sen t t h em by t h e
Kin g of E gypt . In fin e, Ar ist ot le in for m s u s t h a t in m a n y cit ies wh er e t h er e wa s
n ot a su fficien t n u m ber of cit izen s, t h eir ba st a r ds su cceeded t o t h eir
possession s; a n d t h a t wh en t h er e wa s a pr oper n u m ber , t h ey did n ot in h er it .9
P1&@(&+-%&Y"+-%.],&)'*,%*+&+'&K"..5"D%1
Th e con sen t of fa t h er s is fou n ded on t h eir a u t h or it y, t h a t is, on t h e r igh t of
pr oper t y. It is a lso fou n ded on t h eir love, on t h eir r ea son , a n d on t h e
u n cer t a in t y of t h a t of t h eir ch ildr en , wh om you t h con fin es in a st a t e of
ign or a n ce a n d pa ssion in a st a t e of ebr iet y.
In t h e sm a ll r epu blics, or sin gu la r in st it u t ion s a lr ea dy m en t ion ed, t h ey m igh t
h a ve la ws wh ich ga ve t o m a gist r a t es t h a t r igh t of in spect ion over t h e m a r r ia ges
of t h e ch ildr en of cit izen s wh ich n a t u r e h a d a lr ea dy given t o fa t h er s. Th e love
of t h e pu blic m igh t t h er e equ a l or su r pa ss a ll ot h er love. Th u s P la t o wou ld h a ve
m a r r ia ges r egu la t ed by t h e m a gist r a t es: t h is t h e La ceda em on ia n m a gist r a t es

per for m ed.
Bu t in com m on in st it u t ion s, fa t h er s h a ve t h e disposa l of t h eir ch ildr en in
m a r r ia ge: t h eir pr u den ce in t h is r espect is a lwa ys su pposed t o be su per ior t o
t h a t of a st r a n ger . Na t u r e gives t o fa t h er s a desir e of pr ocu r in g su ccessor s t o
t h eir ch ildr en , wh en t h ey h a ve a lm ost lost t h e desir e of en joym en t t h em selves.
In t h e sever a l degr ees of pr ogen it u r e, t h ey see t h em selves in sen sibly a dva n cin g
t o a kin d of im m or t a lit y. Bu t wh a t m u st be don e, if oppr ession a n d a va r ice a r ise
t o su ch a h eigh t a s t o u su r p a ll t h e a u t h or it y of fa t h er s? Let u s h ea r wh a t
Th om a s Ga ge sa ys in r ega r d t o t h e con du ct of t h e Spa n ia r ds in t h e West
In dies. 10
“Accor din g t o t h e n u m ber of t h e son s a n d da u gh t er s t h a t a r e m a r r ia gea ble,
t h e fa t h er ’s t r ibu t e is r a ised a n d in cr ea sed, u n t il t h ey pr ovide h u sba n ds a n d
wives for t h eir son s a n d da u gh t er s, wh o, a s soon a s t h ey a r e m a r r ied, a r e
ch a r ged wit h t r ibu t e; wh ich , t h a t it m a y in cr ea se, t h ey will su ffer n on e a bove
fift een yea r s of a ge t o live u n m a r r ied. Na y, t h e set t im e of m a r r ia ge a ppoin t ed
for t h e In dia n s is a t fou r t een yea r s for t h e m a n , a n d t h ir t een for t h e wom a n ;
a llegin g t h a t t h ey a r e soon er r ipe for t h e fr u it of wedlock , a n d soon er r ipe in
k n owledge a n d m a lice, a n d st r en gt h for wor k a n d ser vice, t h a n a n y ot h er
people. Na y, som et im es t h ey for ce t h ose t o m a r r y wh o a r e sca r cely t welve a n d
t h ir t een yea r s of a ge, if t h ey fin d t h em well-lim bed a n d st r on g in body,
expla in in g a poin t of on e of t h e ca n on s, wh ich a llowet h fou r t een a n d fift een
yea r s. Nisi m a lit ia su pplea t a et a t em .”
H e sa w a list of t h ese t a ken . It wa s, sa ys h e, a m ost sh a m efu l a ffa ir . Th u s in
a n a ct ion wh ich ou gh t t o be t h e m ost fr ee, t h e In dia n s a r e t h e gr ea t est sla ves.
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In E n gla n d t h e la w is fr equ en t ly a bu sed by t h e da u gh t er s m a r r yin g a ccor din g
t o t h eir own fa n cy wit h ou t con su lt in g t h eir pa r en t s. Th is cu st om is, I a m a pt t o
im a gin e, m or e t oler a t ed t h er e t h a n a n ywh er e else fr om a con sider a t ion t h a t a s
t h e la ws h a ve n ot est a blish ed a m on a st ic celiba cy, t h e da u gh t er s h a ve n o ot h er
st a t e t o ch oose bu t t h a t of m a r r ia ge, a n d t h is t h ey ca n n ot r efu se. In F r a n ce, on
t h e con t r a r y, you n g wom en h a ve a lwa ys t h e r esou r ce of celiba cy; a n d t h er efor e
t h e la w wh ich or da in s t h a t t h ey sh a ll wa it for t h e con sen t of t h eir fa t h er s m a y

be m or e a gr eea ble. In t h is ligh t t h e cu st om of It a ly a n d Spa in m u st be less
r a t ion a l; con ven t s a r e t h er e est a blish ed, a n d yet t h ey m a y m a r r y wit h ou t t h e
con sen t of t h eir fa t h er s.
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You n g wom en wh o a r e con du ct ed by m a r r ia ge a lon e t o liber t y a n d plea su r e,
wh o h a ve a m in d wh ich da r es n ot t h in k, a h ea r t wh ich da r es n ot feel, eyes
wh ich da r e n ot see, ea r s wh ich da r e n ot h ea r , wh o a ppea r on ly t o sh ow
t h em selves silly, con dem n ed wit h ou t in t er m ission t o t r ifles a n d pr ecept s, h a ve
su fficien t in du cem en t s t o lea d t h em on t o m a r r ia ge: it is t h e you n g m en t h a t
wa n t t o be en cou r a ged.
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Wh er ever a pla ce is fou n d in wh ich t wo per son s ca n live com m odiou sly, t h er e
t h ey en t er in t o m a r r ia ge. Na t u r e h a s a su fficien t pr open sit y t o it , wh en
u n r est r a in ed by t h e difficu lt y of su bsist en ce.
A r isin g people in cr ea se a n d m u lt iply ext r em ely. Th is is, beca u se wit h t h em
it wou ld be a gr ea t in con ven ien ce t o live in celiba cy; a n d n on e t o h a ve m a n y
ch ildr en . Th e con t r a r y of wh ich is t h e ca se wh en a n a t ion is for m ed.
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Men wh o h a ve a bsolu t ely n ot h in g, su ch a s begga r s, h a ve m a n y ch ildr en . Th is
pr oceeds fr om t h eir bein g in t h e ca se of a r isin g people: it cost s t h e fa t h er
n ot h in g t o give h is h ea r t t o h is offspr in g, wh o even in t h eir in fa n cy a r e t h e
in st r u m en t s of t h is a r t . Th ese people m u lt iply in a r ich or su per st it iou s cou n t r y,
beca u se t h ey do n ot su ppor t t h e bu r den of societ y, bu t a r e t h em selves t h e
bu r den . Bu t m en wh o a r e poor , on ly beca u se t h ey live u n der a sever e
gover n m en t ; wh o r ega r d t h eir fields less a s t h e sou r ce of t h eir su bsist en ce t h a n
a s a ca u se of vexa t ion ; t h ese m en , I sa y, h a ve few ch ildr en : t h ey h a ve n ot even
su bsist en ce for t h em selves. H ow t h en ca n t h ey t h in k of dividin g it ? Th ey a r e
u n a ble t o t a ke ca r e of t h eir own per son s wh en t h ey a r e sick. H ow t h en ca n t h ey
a t t en d t o t h e wa n t s of cr ea t u r es wh ose in fa n cy is a con t in u a l sickn ess?

It is pr et en ded by som e wh o a r e a pt t o t a lk of t h in gs wh ich t h ey h a ve n ever
exa m in ed t h a t t h e gr ea t er t h e pover t y of t h e su bject s, t h e m or e n u m er ou s t h eir
fa m ilies: t h a t t h e m or e t h ey a r e loa ded wit h t a xes, t h e m or e in du st r iou sly t h ey
en dea vou r t o pu t t h em selves in a st a t ion in wh ich t h ey will be a ble t o pa y t h em :
t wo soph ism s, wh ich h a ve a lwa ys dest r oyed a n d will for ever be t h e dest r u ct ion
of m on a r ch ies.
Th e sever it y of gover n m en t m a y be ca r r ied t o su ch a n ext r em e a s t o m a ke t h e
n a t u r a l sen t im en t s dest r u ct ive of t h e n a t u r a l sen t im en t s t h em selves. Wou ld t h e
wom en of Am er ica h a ve r efu sed t o bea r ch ildr en h a d t h eir m a st er s been less
cr u el?11
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I h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved t h a t t h er e a r e bor n in E u r ope r a t h er m or e boys t h a n
gir ls. 12 It h a s been r em a r ked t h a t in J a pa n t h er e a r e bor n r a t h er m or e gir ls
t h a n boys:13 a ll t h in gs com pa r ed, t h er e m u st be m or e fr u it fu l wom en in J a pa n
t h a n in E u r ope, a n d con sequ en t ly it m u st be m or e popu lou s.
We a r e in for m ed t h a t a t Ba n t a m t h er e a r e t en gir ls t o on e boy. 14 A
dispr opor t ion like t h is m u st ca u se t h e n u m ber of fa m ilies t h er e t o be t o t h e
n u m ber of t h ose of ot h er clim a t es a s 1 t o 5½ wh ich is a pr odigiou s differ en ce.
Th eir fa m ilies m a y be m u ch la r ger in deed; bu t t h er e m u st be few m en in
cir cu m st a n ces su fficien t t o pr ovide for so la r ge a fa m ily.
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In sea por t t own s, wh er e m en expose t h em selves t o a t h ou sa n d da n ger s, a n d
go a br oa d t o live or die in dist a n t clim a t es, t h er e a r e fewer m en t h a n wom en :
a n d yet we see m or e ch ildr en t h er e t h a n in ot h er pla ces. Th is pr oceeds fr om t h e
gr ea t er ea se wit h wh ich t h ey pr ocu r e t h e m ea n s of su bsist en ce. P er h a ps even
t h e oily pa r t s of fish a r e m or e pr oper t o fu r n ish t h a t m a t t er wh ich con t r ibu t es
t o gen er a t ion . Th is m a y be on e of t h e ca u ses of t h e in fin it e n u m ber of people in
J a pa n 15 a n d Ch in a , 16 wh er e t h ey live a lm ost wh olly on fish . 17 If t h is be t h e ca se,
cer t a in m on a st ic r u les, wh ich oblige t h e m on ks t o live on fish , m u st be con t r a r y
t o t h e spir it of t h e legisla t or h im self.
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2F<#%.&'(&K%*1
P a st u r e-la n ds a r e bu t lit t le peopled, beca u se t h ey fin d em ploym en t on ly for
a few. Cor n -la n ds em ploy a gr ea t m a n y m en , a n d vin eya r ds in fin it ely m or e.
It h a s been a fr equ en t com pla in t in E n gla n d 18 t h a t t h e in cr ea se of
pa st u r e-la n d dim in ish ed t h e in h a bit a n t s; a n d it h a s been obser ved in F r a n ce
t h a t t h e pr odigiou s n u m ber of vin eya r ds is on e of t h e gr ea t ca u ses of t h e
m u lt it u de of people.
Th ose cou n t r ies wh er e coa l-pit s fu r n ish a pr oper su bst a n ce for fu el h a ve t h is
a dva n t a ge over ot h er s, t h a t n ot h a vin g t h e sa m e occa sion for for est s, t h e la n ds
m a y be cu lt iva t ed.
In cou n t r ies pr odu ct ive of r ice, t h ey a r e a t va st pa in s in wa t er in g t h e la n d: a
gr ea t n u m ber of m en m u st t h er efor e be em ployed. Besides, t h er e is less la n d
r equ ir ed t o fu r n ish su bsist en ce for a fa m ily t h a n in t h ose wh ich pr odu ce ot h er
kin ds of gr a in . In fin e, t h e la n d wh ich is elsewh er e em ployed in r a isin g ca t t le
ser ves im m edia t ely for t h e su bsist en ce of m a n ; a n d t h e la bou r wh ich in ot h er
pla ces is per for m ed by ca t t le is t h er e per for m ed by m en ; so t h a t t h e cu lt u r e of
t h e soil becom es t o m a n a n im m en se m a n u fa ct u r e.
BL1&@(&+-%&2F<#%.&'(&?*-"#5+"*+,&75+-&.%$"+5'*&+'&+-%&:.+,1
Wh en t h er e is a n a gr a r ia n la w, a n d t h e la n ds a r e equ a lly divided, t h e cou n t r y
m a y be ext r em ely well peopled, t h ou gh t h er e a r e bu t few a r t s; beca u se ever y
cit izen r eceives fr om t h e cu lt iva t ion of h is la n d wh a t ever is n ecessa r y for h is
su bsist en ce, a n d a ll t h e cit izen s t oget h er con su m e a ll t h e fr u it s of t h e ea r t h .
Th u s it wa s in som e r epu blics.
In ou r pr esen t sit u a t ion , in wh ich la n ds a r e u n equ a lly dist r ibu t ed, t h ey
pr odu ce m u ch m or e t h a n t h ose wh o cu lt iva t e t h em a r e a ble t o con su m e; if t h e
a r t s, t h er efor e, sh ou ld be n eglect ed, a n d n ot h in g m in ded bu t a gr icu lt u r e, t h e
cou n t r y cou ld n ot be peopled. Th ose wh o cu lt iva t e, or em ploy ot h er s t o cu lt iva t e,
h a vin g cor n t o spa r e, n ot h in g wou ld en ga ge t h em t o wor k t h e followin g yea r ; t h e
fr u it s of t h e ea r t h wou ld n ot be con su m ed by t h e in dolen t ; for t h ese wou ld h a ve
n ot h in g wit h wh ich t h ey cou ld pu r ch a se t h em . It is n ecessa r y, t h en , t h a t t h e
a r t s sh ou ld be est a blish ed, in or der t h a t t h e pr odu ce of t h e la n d m a y be

con su m ed by t h e la bou r er a n d t h e a r t ificer . In a wor d, it is n ow pr oper t h a t
m a n y sh ou ld cu lt iva t e m u ch m or e t h a n is n ecessa r y for t h eir own u se. F or t h is
pu r pose t h ey m u st h a ve a desir e of en joyin g su per flu it ies; a n d t h ese t h ey ca n
r eceive on ly fr om t h e a r t ificer .
Th e m a ch in es design ed t o a br idge a r t a r e n ot a lwa ys u sefu l. If a piece of
wor km a n sh ip is of a m oder a t e pr ice, su ch a s is equ a lly a gr eea ble t o t h e m a ker
a n d t h e bu yer , t h ose m a ch in es wh ich wou ld r en der t h e m a n u fa ct u r e m or e
sim ple, or , in ot h er wor ds, dim in ish t h e n u m ber of wor km en , wou ld be
per n iciou s. An d if wa t er -m ills wer e n ot ever ywh er e est a blish ed, I sh ou ld n ot
h a ve believed t h em so u sefu l a s is pr et en ded, beca u se t h ey h a ve depr ived a n
in fin it e m u lt it u de of t h eir em ploym en t , a va st n u m ber of per son s of t h e u se of
wa t er , a n d gr ea t pa r t of t h e la n d of it s fer t ilit y.
BO1&!-%&)'*9%.*&'(&+-%&6%D5,$"+'.&5*&+-%&8.'4"D"+5'*&'(&+-%&34%95%,1
Regu la t ion s on t h e n u m ber of cit izen s depen d gr ea t ly on cir cu m st a n ces. Th er e
a r e cou n t r ies in wh ich n a t u r e does a ll; t h e legisla t or t h en h a s n ot h in g t o do.
Wh a t n eed is t h er e of in du cin g m en by la ws t o pr opa ga t ion wh en a fr u it fu l
clim a t e yields a su fficien t n u m ber of in h a bit a n t s? Som et im es t h e clim a t e is
m or e fa vou r a ble t h a n t h e soil; t h e people m u lt iply, a n d a r e dest r oyed by fa m in e:
t h is is t h e ca se of Ch in a . H en ce a fa t h er sells h is da u gh t er s a n d exposes h is
ch ildr en . In Ton qu in , 19 t h e sa m e ca u ses pr odu ce t h e sa m e effect s; so we n eed
n ot , like t h e Ar a bia n t r a veller s m en t ion ed by Ren a u dot , sea r ch for t h e or igin of
t h is in t h eir sen t im en t s on t h e m et em psych osis.20
F or t h e sa m e r ea son , t h e r eligion of t h e Isle of F or m osa does n ot su ffer t h e
wom en t o br in g t h eir ch ildr en in t o t h e wor ld t ill t h ey a r e t h ir t y-five yea r s of
a ge:21 Th e pr iest ess, befor e t h is a ge, by br u isin g t h e belly pr ocu r es a bor t ion .
BP1&@(&A.%%9%&"*0&+-%&2F<#%.&'(&5+,&?*-"#5+"*+,1
Th a t effect wh ich in cer t a in cou n t r ies of t h e E a st spr in gs fr om ph ysica l ca u ses
wa s pr odu ced in Gr eece by t h e n a t u r e of t h e gover n m en t . Th e Gr eeks wer e a
gr ea t n a t ion , com posed of cit ies, ea ch of wh ich h a d a dist in ct gover n m en t a n d
sepa r a t e la ws. Th ey h a d n o m or e t h e spir it of con qu est a n d a m bit ion t h a n t h ose
of Swit zer la n d, H olla n d, a n d Ger m a n y h a ve a t t h is da y. In ever y r epu blic t h e

legisla t or h a d in view t h e h a ppin ess of t h e cit izen s a t h om e, a n d t h eir power
a br oa d, lest it sh ou ld pr ove in fer ior t o t h a t of t h e n eigh bou r in g cit ies. 22 Th u s,
wit h t h e en joym en t of a sm a ll t er r it or y a n d gr ea t h a ppin ess, it wa s ea sy for t h e
n u m ber of t h e cit izen s t o in cr ea se t o su ch a degr ee a s t o becom e bu r den som e.
Th is obliged t h em in cessa n t ly t o sen d ou t colon ies,23 a n d, a s t h e Swiss do n ow,
t o let t h eir m en ou t t o wa r . Not h in g wa s n eglect ed t h a t cou ld h in der t h e t oo
gr ea t m u lt iplica t ion of ch ildr en .
Th ey h a d a m on g t h em r epu blics, wh ose con st it u t ion wa s ver y r em a r ka ble.
Th e n a t ion s t h ey h a d su bdu ed wer e obliged t o pr ovide su bsist en ce for t h e
cit izen s. Th e La ceda em on ia n s wer e fed by t h e H elot es, t h e Cr et a n s by t h e
P er iecia n s, a n d t h e Th essa lia n s by t h e P en est es. Th ey wer e obliged t o h a ve on ly
a cer t a in n u m ber of fr eem en , t h a t t h eir sla ves m igh t be a ble t o fu r n ish t h em
wit h su bsist en ce. It is a r eceived m a xim in ou r da ys, t h a t it is n ecessa r y t o lim it
t h e n u m ber of r egu la r t r oops: n ow t h e La ceda em on ia n s wer e a n a r m y
m a in t a in ed by t h e pea sa n t s: it wa s pr oper , t h er efor e, t h a t t h is a r m y sh ou ld be
lim it ed; wit h ou t t h is t h e fr eem en , wh o h a d a ll t h e a dva n t a ges of societ y, wou ld
in cr ea se beyon d n u m ber , a n d t h e la bou r er s be over loa ded.
Th e polit ics of t h e Gr eeks wer e pa r t icu la r ly em ployed in r egu la t in g t h e
n u m ber of cit izen s. P la t o fixes t h em a t five t h ou sa n d a n d for t y, 24 a n d h e wou ld
h a ve t h em st op or en cou r a ge pr opa ga t ion , a s wa s m ost con ven ien t , by h on ou r s,
sh a m e, a n d t h e a dvice of t h e old m en ; h e wou ld even r egu la t e t h e n u m ber of
m a r r ia ges in su ch a m a n n er t h a t t h e r epu blic m igh t be r ecr u it ed wit h ou t bein g
over ch a r ged.25
If t h e la ws of a cou n t r y, sa ys Ar ist ot le, for bid t h e exposin g of ch ildr en , t h e
n u m ber of t h ose br ou gh t for t h ou gh t t o be lim it ed. 26 If t h ey h a ve m or e t h a n t h e
n u m ber pr escr ibed by la w, h e a dvises t o m a ke t h e wom en m isca r r y befor e t h e
foet u s be for m ed.27
Th e sa m e a u t h or m en t ion s t h e in fa m ou s m ea n s m a de u se of by t h e Cr et a n s
t o pr even t t h eir h a vin g t oo gr ea t a n u m ber of ch ildr en — a pr oceedin g t oo
in decen t t o r epea t .
Th er e a r e pla ces, sa ys Ar ist ot le a ga in 28 wh er e t h e la ws give t h e pr ivilege of
bein g cit izen s t o st r a n ger s, or t o ba st a r ds, or t o t h ose wh ose m ot h er s on ly a r e
cit izen s; bu t a s soon a s t h ey h a ve a su fficien t n u m ber of people t h is pr ivilege

cea ses. Th e sa va ges of Ca n a da bu r n t h eir pr ison er s; bu t wh en t h ey h a ve em pt y
cot t a ges t o give t h em , t h ey r eceive t h em in t o t h eir n a t ion .
Sir Willia m P et t y, in h is ca lcu la t ion s, su pposes t h a t a m a n in E n gla n d is
wor t h wh a t h e wou ld sell for a t Algier s. 29 Th is ca n be t r u e on ly wit h r espect t o
E n gla n d. Th er e a r e cou n t r ies wh er e a m a n is wor t h n ot h in g; t h er e a r e ot h er s
wh er e h e is wor t h less t h a n n ot h in g.
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It a ly, Sicily, Asia Min or , Ga u l, a n d Ger m a n y wer e n ea r ly in t h e sa m e st a t e
a s Gr eece; fu ll of sm a ll n a t ion s t h a t a bou n ded wit h in h a bit a n t s, t h ey h a d n o
n eed of la ws t o in cr ea se t h eir n u m ber .
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All t h ese lit t le r epu blics wer e swa llowed u p in a la r ge on e, a n d t h e globe
in sen sibly beca m e depopu la t ed: in or der t o be con vin ced of t h is, we n eed on ly
con sider t h e st a t e of It a ly a n d Gr eece befor e a n d a ft er t h e vict or ies of t h e
Rom a n s.
“You will a sk m e,” sa ys Livy, 30 “wh er e t h e Volsci cou ld fin d soldier s t o su ppor t
t h e wa r , a ft er h a vin g been so oft en defea t ed. Th er e m u st h a ve been for m er ly a n
in fin it e n u m ber of people in t h ose cou n t r ies, wh ich a t pr esen t wou ld be lit t le
bet t er t h a n a deser t , wer e it n ot for a few soldier s a n d Rom a n sla ves.”
“Th e Or a cles h a ve cea sed,” sa ys P lu t a r ch , “beca u se t h e pla ces wh er e t h ey
spoke a r e dest r oyed. At pr esen t we ca n sca r cely fin d in Gr eece t h r ee t h ou sa n d
m en fit t o bea r a r m s.”
“I sh a ll n ot descr ibe,” sa ys St r a bo, 31 “E pir u s a n d t h e a dja cen t pla ces, beca u se
t h ese cou n t r ies a r e en t ir ely deser t ed. Th is depopu la t ion , wh ich bega n lon g a go,
st ill con t in u es; so t h a t t h e Rom a n soldier s en ca m p in t h e h ou ses t h ey h a ve
a ba n don ed.” We fin d t h e ca u se of t h is in P olybiu s, wh o sa ys t h a t P a u lu s
a em iliu s, a ft er h is vict or y, dest r oyed seven t y cit ies of E pir u s, a n d ca r r ied a wa y
a h u n dr ed a n d fift y t h ou sa n d sla ves.
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%*9'F."D%&+-%&8.'4"D"+5'*&'(&+-%&34%95%,1
Th e Rom a n s, by dest r oyin g ot h er s, wer e t h em selves dest r oyed: in cessa n t ly in
a ct ion , in t h e h ea t of ba t t le, a n d in t h e m ost violen t a t t em pt s, t h ey wor e ou t like
a wea pon kept con st a n t ly in u se.
I sh a ll n ot h er e spea k of t h e a t t en t ion wit h wh ich t h ey a pplied t h em selves t o
pr ocu r e cit izen s in t h e r oom of t h ose t h ey lost , 32 of t h e a ssocia t ion s t h ey en t er ed
in t o, t h e pr ivileges t h ey best owed, a n d of t h a t im m en se n u r ser y of cit izen s,
t h eir sla ves. I sh a ll m en t ion wh a t t h ey did t o r ecr u it t h e n u m ber , n ot of t h eir
cit izen s, bu t of t h eir m en ; a n d a s t h ese wer e t h e people in t h e wor ld wh o kn ew
best h ow t o a da pt t h eir la ws t o t h eir pr oject s, a n exa m in a t ion of t h eir con du ct
in t h is r espect ca n n ot be a m a t t er of in differ en ce.
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34%95%,1
Th e a n cien t la ws of Rom e en dea vou r ed gr ea t ly t o in cit e t h e cit izen s t o
m a r r ia ge. Th e sen a t e a n d t h e people m a de fr equ en t r egu la t ion s on t h is su bject ,
a s Au gu st u s sa ys in h is speech r ela t ed by Dio.33
Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s 34 ca n n ot believe t h a t a ft er t h e dea t h of t h r ee
h u n dr ed a n d five of t h e F a bii, ext er m in a t ed by t h e Veien t es, t h er e r em a in ed n o
m or e of t h is fa m ily t h a n on e sin gle ch ild; beca u se t h e a n cien t la w, wh ich obliged
ever y cit izen t o m a r r y a n d t o edu ca t e a ll h is ch ildr en , wa s st ill in for ce.35
In depen den t ly of t h e la ws, t h e cen sor s h a d a pa r t icu la r eye u pon m a r r ia ges,
a n d a ccor din g t o t h e exigen cies of t h e r epu blic en ga ged t h em t o it by sh a m e a n d
by pu n ish m en t s. 36
Th e cor r u pt ion of m a n n er s t h a t bega n t o t a ke pla ce con t r ibu t ed va st ly t o
disgu st t h e cit izen s wit h m a r r ia ge, wh ich wa s pa in fu l t o t h ose wh o h a d n o t a st e
for t h e plea su r es of in n ocen ce. Th is is t h e pu r por t of t h a t speech wh ich Met ellu s
Nu m idicu s, wh en h e wa s cen sor , m a de t o t h e people:37 “If it wer e possible for u s
t o do wit h ou t wives, we sh ou ld deliver ou r selves fr om t h is evil: bu t a s n a t u r e
h a s or da in ed t h a t we ca n n ot live ver y h a ppily wit h t h em , n or su bsist wit h ou t
t h em , we ou gh t t o h a ve m or e r ega r d t o ou r own pr eser va t ion t h a n t o t r a n sien t
gr a t ifica t ion s.”

Th e cor r u pt ion of m a n n er s dest r oyed t h e cen sor sh ip, wh ich wa s it self
est a blish ed t o dest r oy t h e cor r u pt ion of m a n n er s: for wh en t h is depr a va t ion
beca m e gen er a l, t h e cen sor lost h is power .38
Civil discor ds, t r iu m vir a t es, a n d pr oscr ipt ion s wea kened Rom e m or e t h a n a n y
wa r sh e h a d h it h er t o en ga ged in . Th ey left bu t few cit izen s, 39 a n d t h e gr ea t est
pa r t of t h em u n m a r r ied. To r em edy t h is la st evil, Ca esa r a n d Au gu st u s
r e-est a blish ed t h e cen sor sh ip, a n d wou ld even be cen sor s t h em selves.40 Ca esa r
ga ve r ewa r ds t o t h ose wh o h a d m a n y ch ildr en .41 All wom en u n der for t y-five
yea r s of a ge wh o h a d n eit h er h u sba n d n or ch ildr en wer e for bidden t o wea r
jewels or t o r ide in lit t er s;42 a n excellen t m et h od t h u s t o a t t a ck celiba cy by t h e
power of va n it y. Th e la ws of Au gu st u s wer e m or e pr essin g;43 h e im posed n ew
pen a lt ies on su ch a s wer e n ot m a r r ied, 44 a n d in cr ea sed t h e r ewa r ds bot h of
t h ose wh o wer e m a r r ied a n d of t h ose wh o h a d ch ildr en . Ta cit u s ca lls t h ese
J u lia n la ws;45 t o a ll a ppea r a n ce t h ey wer e fou n ded on t h e a n cien t r egu la t ion s
m a de by t h e sen a t e, t h e people, a n d t h e cen sor s.
Th e la w of Au gu st u s m et wit h in n u m er a ble obst a cles, a n d t h ir t y-fou r yea r s
a ft er it h a d been m a de t h e Rom a n kn igh t s in sist ed on it s bein g a bolish ed. 46 H e
pla ced on on e side su ch a s wer e m a r r ied, a n d on t h e ot h er side t h ose wh o wer e
n ot : t h ese la st a ppea r ed by fa r t h e gr ea t est n u m ber ; u pon wh ich t h e cit izen s
wer e a st on ish ed a n d con fou n ded. Au gu st u s, wit h t h e gr a vit y of t h e a n cien t
cen sor s, a ddr essed t h em in t h is m a n n er :47
“Wh ile sickn ess a n d wa r sn a t ch a wa y so m a n y cit izen s, wh a t m u st becom e of
t h is st a t e if m a r r ia ges a r e n o lon ger con t r a ct ed? Th e cit y does n ot con sist of
h ou ses, of por t icos, of pu blic pla ces, bu t of in h a bit a n t s. You do n ot see m en like
t h ose m en t ion ed in F a ble st a r t in g ou t of t h e ea r t h t o t a ke ca r e of you r a ffa ir s.
You r celiba cy is n ot owin g t o t h e desir e of livin g a lon e; for n on e of you ea t s or
sleeps by h im self. You on ly seek t o en joy you r ir r egu la r it ies u n dist u r bed. Do
you cit e t h e exa m ple of t h e Vest a l Vir gin s? If you pr eser ve n ot t h e la ws of
ch a st it y, you ou gh t t o be pu n ish ed like t h em . You a r e equ a lly ba d cit izen s,
wh et h er you r exa m ple h a s a n in flu en ce on t h e r est of t h e wor ld, or wh et h er it
be disr ega r ded. My on ly view is t h e per pet u it y of t h e r epu blic. I h a ve in cr ea sed
t h e pen a lt ies of t h ose wh o h a ve disobeyed; a n d wit h r espect t o r ewa r ds, t h ey a r e
su ch a s I do n ot kn ow wh et h er vir t u e h a s ever r eceived gr ea t er . F or less will a

t h ou sa n d m en expose life it self; a n d yet will n ot t h ese en ga ge you t o t a ke a wife
a n d pr ovide for ch ildr en ?”
H e m a de a la w, wh ich wa s ca lled a ft er h is n a m e, J u lia a n d P a pia P oppa ea ,
fr om t h e n a m es of t h e con su ls for pa r t of t h a t yea r . 48 Th e gr ea t n ess of t h e evil
a ppea r ed even in t h eir bein g elect ed: Dio t ells u s t h a t t h ey wer e n ot m a r r ied,
a n d t h a t t h ey h a d n o ch ildr en .49
Th is decr ee of Au gu st u s wa s pr oper ly a code of la ws, a n d a syst em a t ic body
of a ll t h e r egu la t ion s t h a t cou ld be m a de on t h is su bject . Th e J u lia n la ws wer e
in cor por a t ed in it , a n d r eceived gr ea t er st r en gt h . 50 It wa s so ext en sive in it s u se,
a n d h a d a n in flu en ce on so m a n y t h in gs, t h a t it for m ed t h e fin est pa r t of t h e
civil la w of t h e Rom a n s.
We fin d pa r t s of it disper sed in t h e pr eciou s fr a gm en t s of Ulpia n ,51 in t h e
La ws of t h e Digest , collect ed fr om a u t h or s wh o wr ot e on t h e P a pia n la ws, in t h e
h ist or ia n s a n d ot h er s wh o h a ve cit ed t h em , in t h e Th eodosia n code wh ich
a bolish ed t h em , a n d in t h e wor ks of t h e fa t h er s, wh o h a ve cen su r ed t h em ,
wit h ou t dou bt fr om a la u da ble zea l for t h e t h in gs of t h e ot h er life, bu t wit h ver y
lit t le kn owledge of t h e a ffa ir s of t h is.
Th ese la ws h a d m a n y h ea ds, 52 of wh ich we kn ow t h ir t y-five. Bu t t o r et u r n t o
m y su bject a s speedily a s possible, I sh a ll begin wit h t h a t h ea d wh ich Au lu s
Gelliu s in for m s u s wa s t h e seven t h , a n d r ela t es t o t h e h on ou r s a n d r ewa r ds
gr a n t ed by t h a t la w. 53
Th e Rom a n s, wh o for t h e m ost pa r t spr a n g fr om t h e cit ies of t h e La t in s, wh ich
wer e La ceda em on ia n colon ies,54 a n d h a d r eceived a pa r t of t h eir la ws even fr om
t h ose cit ies, 55 h a d, like t h e La ceda em on ia n s, su ch ven er a t ion for old a ge a s t o
give it a ll h on ou r a n d pr eceden ce. Wh en t h e r epu blic wa n t ed cit izen s, sh e
gr a n t ed t o m a r r ia ge a n d t o t h e n u m ber of ch ildr en t h e pr ivileges wh ich h a d
been given t o a ge. 56 Sh e gr a n t ed som e t o m a r r ia ge a lon e, in depen den t of t h e
ch ildr en wh ich m igh t spr in g fr om it : t h is wa s ca lled t h e r igh t of h u sba n ds. Sh e
ga ve ot h er s t o t h ose wh o h a d a n y ch ildr en , a n d la r ger st ill t o t h ose wh o h a d
t h r ee ch ildr en . Th ese t h r ee t h in gs m u st n ot be con fou n ded. Th ese la st h a d t h ose
pr ivileges wh ich m a r r ied m en con st a n t ly en joyed; a s, for exa m ple, a pa r t icu la r
pla ce in t h e t h ea t r e;57 t h ey h a d t h ose wh ich cou ld on ly be en joyed by m en wh o
h a d ch ildr en , a n d wh ich n on e cou ld depr ive t h em of bu t su ch a s h a d a gr ea t er

n u m ber .
Th ese pr ivileges wer e ver y ext en sive. Th e m a r r ied m en wh o h a d t h e m ost
ch ildr en wer e a lwa ys pr efer r ed, wh et h er in t h e pu r su it or in t h e exer cise of
h on ou r s, 58 Th e con su l wh o h a d t h e m ost n u m er ou s offspr in g wa s t h e fir st wh o
r eceived t h e fa sces;59 h e h a d h is ch oice of t h e pr ovin ces:60 t h e sen a t or wh o h a d
m ost ch ildr en h a d h is n a m e wr it t en fir st in t h e ca t a logu e of sen a t or s, a n d wa s
t h e fir st in givin g h is opin ion in t h e sen a t e.61 Th ey m igh t even st a n d soon er
t h a n or din a r y for a n office, beca u se ever y ch ild ga ve a dispen sa t ion of a yea r . 62
If a n in h a bit a n t of Rom e h a d t h r ee ch ildr en , h e wa s exem pt ed fr om a ll
t r ou blesom e offices. 63 Th e fr eebor n wom en wh o h a d t h r ee ch ildr en , a n d t h e
fr eed-wom en wh o h a d fou r , pa ssed ou t of t h a t per pet u a l t u t ela ge 64 in wh ich t h ey
h a d been h eld by t h e a n cien t la ws of Rom e.65
As t h ey h a d r ewa r ds, t h ey h a d a lso pen a lt ies. 66 Th ose wh o wer e n ot m a r r ied
cou ld r eceive n o a dva n t a ge fr om t h e will of a n y per son t h a t wa s n ot a r ela t ive;67
a n d t h ose wh o, bein g m a r r ied, h a d n o ch ildr en , cou ld r eceive on ly h a lf. 68 Th e
Rom a n s, sa ys P lu t a r ch , m a r r y on ly t o be h eir s, a n d n ot t o h a ve t h em . 69
Th e a dva n t a ges wh ich a m a n a n d h is wife m igh t r eceive fr om ea ch ot h er by
will wer e lim it ed by la w.70 If t h ey h a d ch ildr en of ea ch ot h er , t h ey m igh t r eceive
t h e wh ole; if n ot , t h ey cou ld r eceive on ly a t en t h pa r t of t h e su ccession on t h e
a ccou n t of m a r r ia ge; a n d if t h ey h a d a n y ch ildr en by a for m er ven t er , a s m a n y
t en t h s a s t h ey h a d ch ildr en .
If a h u sba n d a bsen t ed h im self fr om h is wife on a n y ot h er ca u se t h a n t h e
a ffa ir s of t h e r epu blic, h e cou ld n ot in h er it fr om h er .71
Th e la w ga ve t o a su r vivin g h u sba n d or wife t wo yea r s t o m a r r y a ga in , 72 a n d
a yea r a n d a h a lf in ca se of a divor ce. Th e fa t h er s wh o wou ld n ot su ffer t h eir
ch ildr en t o m a r r y, or r efu sed t o give t h eir da u gh t er s a por t ion , wer e obliged t o
do it by t h e m a gist r a t es. 73
Th ey wer e n ot a llowed t o bet r ot h wh en t h e m a r r ia ge wa s t o be defer r ed for
m or e t h a n t wo yea r s:74 a n d a s t h ey cou ld n ot m a r r y a gir l t ill sh e wa s t welve
yea r s old, t h ey cou ld n ot be bet r ot h ed t o h er t ill sh e wa s t en . Th e la w wou ld n ot
su ffer t h em t o t r ifle t o n o pu r pose;75 a n d u n der a pr et en ce of bein g bet r ot h ed,
t o en joy t h e pr ivileges of m a r r ied m en .
It wa s con t r a r y t o la w for a m a n of sixt y t o m a r r y a wom a n of fift y. 76 As t h ey

h a d given gr ea t pr ivileges t o m a r r ied m en , t h e la w wou ld n ot su ffer t h em t o
en t er in t o u seless m a r r ia ges. F or t h e sa m e r ea son , t h e Ca lvisia n Sen a t u s
Con su lt u m decla r ed t h e m a r r ia ge of a wom a n a bove fift y wit h a m a n less t h a n
sixt y t o be u n equ a l:77 so t h a t a wom a n of fift y yea r s of a ge cou ld n ot m a r r y
wit h ou t in cu r r in g t h e pen a lt ies of t h ese la ws. Tiber iu s a dded t o t h e r igou r of t h e
P a pia n la w,78 a n d pr oh ibit ed m en of sixt y fr om m a r r yin g wom en u n der fift y; so
t h a t a m a n of sixt y cou ld n ot m a r r y in a n y ca se wh a t soever , wit h ou t in cu r r in g
t h e pen a lt y. Bu t Cla u diu s a br oga t ed t h is la w m a de u n der Tiber iu s. 79
All t h ese r egu la t ion s wer e m or e con for m a ble t o t h e clim a t e of It a ly t h a n t o
t h a t of t h e N or t h , wh er e a m a n of sixt y yea r s of a ge h a s st ill a con sider a ble
degr ee of st r en gt h , a n d wh er e wom en of fift y a r e n ot a lwa ys pa st ch ild-bea r in g.
Th a t t h ey m igh t n ot be u n n ecessa r ily lim it ed in t h e ch oice t h ey wer e t o m a ke,
Au gu st u s per m it t ed a ll t h e fr eebor n cit izen s wh o wer e n ot sen a t or s 80 t o m a r r y
fr eed-wom en .81 Th e P a pia n la w for ba de t h e sen a t or s m a r r yin g fr eed-wom en ,82
or t h ose wh o h a d been br ou gh t u p t o t h e st a ge; a n d fr om t h e t im e of Ulpia n ,83
fr ee-bor n per son s wer e for bidden t o m a r r y wom en wh o h a d led a disor der ly life,
wh o h a d pla yed in t h e t h ea t r e, or wh o h a d been con dem n ed by a pu blic
sen t en ce. Th is m u st h a ve been est a blish ed by a decr ee of t h e sen a t e. Du r in g t h e
t im e of t h e r epu blic t h ey h a d n ever m a de la ws like t h ese, beca u se t h e cen sor s
cor r ect ed t h is kin d of disor der a s soon a s it a r ose, or else pr even t ed it s r isin g.
Con st a n t in e m a de a la w 84 in wh ich h e com pr eh en ded, in t h e pr oh ibit ion of t h e
P a pia n la w, n ot on ly t h e sen a t or s, bu t even su ch a s h a d a con sider a ble r a n k in
t h e st a t e, wit h ou t m en t ion in g per son s in a n in fer ior st a t ion : t h is con st it u t ed t h e
la w of t h ose t im es. Th ese m a r r ia ges wer e t h er efor e n o lon ger for bidden , except
t o t h e fr ee-bor n com pr eh en ded in t h e la w of Con st a n t in e. J u st in ia n , h owever ,
a br oga t ed t h e la w of Con st a n t in e, 85 a n d per m it t ed a ll sor t s of per son s t o
con t r a ct t h ese m a r r ia ges; a n d t h u s we h a ve a cqu ir ed so fa t a l a liber t y.
It is eviden t t h a t t h e pen a lt ies in flict ed on su ch a s m a r r ied con t r a r y t o t h e
pr oh ibit ion of t h e la w wer e t h e sa m e a s t h ose in flict ed on per son s wh o did n ot
m a r r y. Th ese m a r r ia ges did n ot give t h em a n y civil a dva n t a ge;86 for t h e dowr y 87
wa s con fisca t ed a ft er t h e dea t h of t h e wife. 88
Au gu st u s h a vin g a dju dged t h e su ccession a n d lega cies of t h ose wh om t h ese
la ws h a d decla r ed in ca pa ble, t o t h e pu blic t r ea su r y, 89 t h ey h a d t h e a ppea r a n ce

r a t h er of fisca l t h a n of polit ica l a n d civil la ws. Th e disgu st t h ey h a d a lr ea dy
con ceived a t a bu r den wh ich a ppea r ed t oo h ea vy wa s in cr ea sed by t h eir seein g
t h em selves a con t in u a l pr ey t o t h e a vidit y of t h e t r ea su r y. On t h is a ccou n t , it
beca m e n ecessa r y, u n der Tiber iu s, t h a t t h ese la ws sh ou ld be soft en ed;90 t h a t
Ner o sh ou ld lessen t h e r ewa r ds given ou t of t h e t r ea su r y t o t h e in for m er s;91 t h a t
Tr a ja n sh ou ld pu t a st op t o t h eir plu n der in g;92 t h a t Sever u s sh ou ld a lso
m oder a t e t h ese la ws;93 a n d t h a t t h e civilia n s sh ou ld con sider t h em a s odiou s,
a n d in a ll t h eir decision s devia t e fr om t h e lit er a l r igou r .
Besides, t h e em per or s en er va t ed t h ese la ws 94 by t h e pr ivileges t h ey gr a n t ed
of t h e r igh t s of h u sba n ds, of ch ildr en , a n d of t h r ee ch ildr en . Mor e t h a n t h is,
t h ey ga ve pa r t icu la r per son s a dispen sa t ion fr om t h e pen a lt ies of t h ese la ws. 95
Bu t t h e r egu la t ion s est a blish ed for t h e pu blic u t ilit y seem ed in ca pa ble of
a dm it t in g a n a llevia t ion .
It wa s h igh ly r ea son a ble t h a t t h ey sh ou ld gr a n t t h e r igh t s of ch ildr en t o t h e
vest a ls, 96 wh om r eligion r et a in ed in a n ecessa r y vir gin it y: t h ey ga ve, in t h e
sa m e m a n n er , t h e pr ivilege of m a r r ied m en t o soldier s,97 beca u se t h ey cou ld n ot
m a r r y. It wa s cu st om a r y t o exem pt t h e em per or s fr om t h e con st r a in t of cer t a in
civil la ws. Th u s Au gu st u s wa s fr eed fr om t h e con st r a in t of t h e la w wh ich
lim it ed t h e power of en fr a n ch isin g,98 a n d of t h a t wh ich set bou n ds t o t h e r igh t
of bequ ea t h in g by t est a m en t . 99 Th ese wer e on ly pa r t icu la r ca ses; bu t , a t la st ,
dispen sa t ion s wer e given wit h ou t discr et ion , a n d t h e r u le it self beca m e n o m or e
t h a n a n except ion .
Th e sect s of ph ilosoph er s h a d a lr ea dy in t r odu ced in t h e em pir e a disposit ion
t h a t est r a n ged t h em fr om bu sin ess — a disposit ion wh ich cou ld n ot ga in gr ou n d
in t h e t im e of t h e r epu blic, 100 wh en ever ybody wa s em ployed in t h e a r t s of wa r
a n d pea ce. H en ce a r ose a n idea of per fect ion , a s con n ect ed wit h a life of
specu la t ion ; h en ce a n est r a n gem en t fr om t h e ca r es a n d em ba r r a ssm en t s of a
fa m ily. Th e Ch r ist ia n r eligion com in g a ft er t h is ph ilosoph y fixed, if I m a y m a ke
u se of t h e expr ession , t h e idea s wh ich t h a t h a d on ly pr epa r ed.
Ch r ist ia n it y st a m ped it s ch a r a ct er on ju r ispr u den ce; for em pir e h a s ever a
con n ect ion wit h t h e pr iest h ood. Th is is visible fr om t h e Th eodosia n code, wh ich
is on ly a collect ion of t h e decr ees of t h e Ch r ist ia n em per or s.
A pa n egyr ist of Con st a n t in e 101 sa id t o t h a t em per or , “You r la ws wer e m a de

on ly t o cor r ect vice a n d t o r egu la t e m a n n er s: you h a ve st r ipped t h e a n cien t la ws
of t h a t a r t ifice wh ich seem ed t o h a ve n o ot h er a im t h a n t o la y sn a r es for
sim plicit y.”
It is cer t a in t h a t t h e a lt er a t ion s m a de by Con st a n t in e t ook t h eir r ise eit h er
fr om sen t im en t s r ela t in g t o t h e est a blish m en t of Ch r ist ia n it y, or fr om idea s
con ceived of it s per fect ion . F r om t h e fir st pr oceeded t h ose la ws wh ich ga ve su ch
a u t h or it y t o bish ops, a n d wh ich h a ve been t h e fou n da t ion of t h e ecclesia st ica l
ju r isdict ion ; h en ce t h ose la ws wh ich wea ken ed pa t er n a l a u t h or it y 102 by
depr ivin g t h e fa t h er of h is pr oper t y in t h e possession s of h is ch ildr en . To ext en d
a n ew r eligion , t h ey wer e obliged t o t a ke a wa y t h e depen den ce of ch ildr en , wh o
a r e a lwa ys lea st a t t a ch ed t o wh a t is a lr ea dy est a blish ed.
Th e la ws m a de wit h a view t o Ch r ist ia n per fect ion wer e m or e pa r t icu la r ly
t h ose by wh ich t h e pen a lt ies of t h e P a pia n la ws wer e a bolish ed; t h e u n m a r r ied
wer e equ a lly exem pt ed fr om t h em , wit h t h ose wh o, bein g m a r r ied, h a d n o
ch ildr en .
“Th ese la ws wer e est a blish ed,” sa ys a n ecclesia st ica l h ist or ia n , 103 “a s if t h e
m u lt iplica t ion of h u m a n species wa s a n effect of ou r ca r e; in st ea d of bein g
sen sible t h a t t h e n u m ber is in cr ea sed or dim in ish ed a ccor din g t o t h e or der of
P r oviden ce.”
P r in ciples of r eligion h a ve h a d a n ext r a or din a r y in flu en ce on t h e pr opa ga t ion
of t h e h u m a n species. Som et im es t h ey h a ve pr om ot ed it , a s a m on g t h e J ews, t h e
Ma h om et a n s, t h e Ga u r s, a n d t h e Ch in ese; a t ot h er s t h ey h a ve pu t a da m p t o it ,
a s wa s t h e ca se of t h e Rom a n s u pon t h eir con ver sion t o Ch r ist ia n it y.
Th ey ever ywh er e in cessa n t ly pr ea ch ed con t in en cy; a vir t u e t h e m or e per fect
beca u se in it s own n a t u r e it ca n be pr a ct ised bu t by ver y few.
Con st a n t in e h a d n ot t a ken a wa y t h e decim a l la ws wh ich gr a n t ed a gr ea t er
ext en t t o t h e don a t ion s bet ween m a n a n d wife, in pr opor t ion t o t h e n u m ber of
t h eir ch ildr en . Th eodosiu s, t h e you n ger , a br oga t ed even t h ese la ws.104
J u st in ia n decla r ed a ll t h ose m a r r ia ges va lid wh ich h a d been pr oh ibit ed by t h e
P a pia n la ws. 105 Th ese la ws r equ ir ed people t o m a r r y a ga in : J u st in ia n gr a n t ed
pr ivileges t o t h ose wh o did n ot m a r r y a ga in . 106
By t h e a n cien t in st it u t ion s, t h e n a t u r a l r igh t wh ich ever y on e h a d t o m a r r y
a n d beget ch ildr en cou ld n ot be t a ken a wa y. Th u s wh en t h ey r eceived a

lega cy, 107 on con dit ion of n ot m a r r yin g, or wh en a pa t r on m a de h is fr eedm a n
swea r 108 t h a t h e wou ld n eit h er m a r r y n or beget ch ildr en , t h e P a pia n la w
a n n u lled bot h t h e con dit ion a n d t h e oa t h . 109 Th e cla u ses on con t in u in g in
widowh ood est a blish ed a m on g u s con t r a dict t h e a n cien t la w, a n d descen d fr om
t h e con st it u t ion s of t h e em per or s, fou n ded on idea s of per fect ion .
Th er e is n o la w t h a t con t a in s a n expr ess a br oga t ion of t h e pr ivileges a n d
h on ou r s wh ich t h e Rom a n s h a d gr a n t ed t o m a r r ia ges, a n d t o a n u m ber of
ch ildr en . Bu t wh er e celiba cy h a d t h e pr e-em in en ce, m a r r ia ge cou ld n ot be h eld
in h on ou r ; a n d sin ce t h ey cou ld oblige t h e officer s of t h e pu blic r even u e t o
r en ou n ce so m a n y a dva n t a ges by t h e a bolit ion of t h e pen a lt ies, it is ea sy t o
per ceive t h a t wit h yet gr ea t er ea se t h ey m igh t pu t a st op t o t h e r ewa r ds.
Th e sa m e spir it u a l r ea son wh ich h a d per m it t ed celiba cy soon im posed it even
a s n ecessa r y. God for bid t h a t I sh ou ld h er e spea k a ga in st celiba cy a s a dopt ed
by r eligion ; bu t wh o ca n be silen t wh en it is bu ilt on liber t in ism ; wh en t h e t wo
sexes, cor r u pt in g ea ch ot h er even by t h e n a t u r a l sen sa t ion s t h em selves, fly fr om
a u n ion wh ich ou gh t t o m a ke t h em bet t er , t o live in t h a t wh ich a lwa ys r en der s
t h em wor se?
It is a r u le dr a wn fr om n a t u r e, t h a t t h e m or e t h e n u m ber of m a r r ia ges is
dim in ish ed, t h e m or e cor r u pt a r e t h ose wh o h a ve en t er ed in t o t h a t st a t e; t h e
fewer m a r r ied m en , t h e less fidelit y is t h er e in m a r r ia ge; a s wh en t h er e a r e
m or e t h ieves, m or e t h eft s a r e com m it t ed.
EE1&@(&+-%&UV4',5*D&'(&)-5$0.%*1
Th e Rom a n policy wa s ver y good in r espect t o t h e exposin g of ch ildr en .
Rom u lu s, sa ys Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, 110 la id t h e cit izen s u n der a n obliga t ion
t o edu ca t e a ll t h eir m a le ch ildr en , a n d t h e eldest of t h eir da u gh t er s. If t h e
in fa n t s wer e defor m ed a n d m on st r ou s, h e per m it t ed t h e exposin g t h em , a ft er
h a vin g sh own t h em t o five of t h eir n ea r est n eigh bou r s.
Rom u lu s did n ot su ffer t h em t o kill a n y in fa n t s u n der t h r ee yea r s old:111 by
wh ich m ea n s h e r econ ciled t h e la w t h a t ga ve t o fa t h er s t h e r igh t over t h eir
ch ildr en of life a n d dea t h wit h t h a t wh ich pr oh ibit ed t h eir bein g exposed.
We fin d a lso in Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s 112 t h a t t h e la w wh ich obliged t h e
cit izen s t o m a r r y, a n d t o edu ca t e a ll t h eir ch ildr en , wa s in for ce in t h e 277t h

yea r of Rom e; we see t h a t cu st om h a d r est r a in ed t h e la w of Rom u lu s wh ich
per m it t ed t h em t o expose t h eir you n ger da u gh t er s.
We h a ve n o kn owledge of wh a t t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles (m a de in t h e yea r
of Rom e 301) a ppoin t ed wit h r espect t o t h e exposin g of ch ildr en , except fr om a
pa ssa ge of Cicer o, 113 wh o, spea kin g of t h e office of t r ibu n e of t h e people, sa ys
t h a t soon a ft er it s bir t h , like t h e m on st r ou s in fa n t of t h e la w of t h e Twelve
Ta bles, it wa s st ifled; t h e in fa n t t h a t wa s n ot m on st r ou s wa s t h er efor e
pr eser ved, a n d t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles m a de n o a lt er a t ion in t h e pr ecedin g
in st it u t ion s.
“Th e Ger m a n s,” sa ys Ta cit u s,114 “n ever expose t h eir ch ildr en ; a m on g t h em t h e
best m a n n er s h a ve m or e for ce t h a n in ot h er pla ces t h e best la ws.” Th e Rom a n s
h a d t h er efor e la ws a ga in st t h is cu st om , a n d yet t h ey did n ot follow t h em . We
fin d n o Rom a n la w t h a t per m it t ed t h e exposin g of ch ildr en ;115 t h is wa s, wit h ou t
dou bt , a n a bu se in t r odu ced t owa r ds t h e declin e of t h e r epu blic, wh en lu xu r y
r obbed t h em of t h eir fr eedom , wh en wea lt h divided wa s ca lled pover t y, wh en
t h e fa t h er believed t h a t a ll wa s lost wh ich h e ga ve t o h is fa m ily, a n d wh en t h is
fa m ily wa s dist in ct fr om h is pr oper t y.
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Th e r egu la t ion s m a de by t h e Rom a n s t o in cr ea se t h e n u m ber of t h eir cit izen s
h a d t h eir effect wh ile t h e r epu blic, in t h e fu ll vigou r of h er con st it u t ion , h a d
n ot h in g t o r epa ir bu t t h e losses sh e su st a in ed by h er cou r a ge, by h er in t r epidit y,
by h er fir m n ess, h er love of glor y a n d of vir t u e. Bu t soon t h e wisest la ws cou ld
n ot r e-est a blish wh a t a dyin g r epu blic, wh a t a gen er a l a n a r ch y, wh a t a m ilit a r y
gover n m en t , wh a t a r igid em pir e, wh a t a pr ou d despot ic power , wh a t a feeble
m on a r ch y, wh a t a st u pid, wea k, a n d su per st it iou s cou r t h a d su ccessively pu lled
down . It m igh t , in deed, be sa id t h a t t h ey con qu er ed t h e wor ld on ly t o wea ken
it , a n d t o deliver it u p defen celess t o ba r ba r ia n s. Th e Got h ic n a t ion s, t h e Get es,
t h e Sa r a cen s a n d Ta r t a r s by t u r n s h a r a ssed t h em ; a n d soon t h e ba r ba r ia n s h a d
n on e t o dest r oy bu t ba r ba r ia n s. Th u s, in fa bu lou s t im es, a ft er t h e in u n da t ion s
a n d t h e delu ge, t h er e a r ose ou t of t h e ea r t h a r m ed m en , wh o ext er m in a t ed on e
a n ot h er .
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2F<#%.&'(&+-%&?*-"#5+"*+,1
In t h e st a t e E u r ope wa s in on e wou ld n ot im a gin e it possible for it t o be
r et r ieved, especia lly wh en u n der Ch a r lem a gn e it for m ed on ly on e va st em pir e.
Bu t by t h e n a t u r e of gover n m en t a t t h a t t im e it beca m e divided in t o a n in fin it e
n u m ber of pet t y sover eign t ies, a n d a s t h e lor d or sover eign , wh o r esided in h is
villa ge or cit y, wa s n eit h er gr ea t , r ich , power fu l, n or even sa fe bu t by t h e
n u m ber of h is su bject s, ever y on e em ployed h im self wit h a sin gu la r a t t en t ion
t o m a k e h is lit t le cou n t r y flou r ish . Th is su cceeded in su ch a m a n n er t h a t
n ot wit h st a n din g t h e ir r egu la r it ies of gover n m en t , t h e wa n t of t h a t kn owledge
wh ich h a s sin ce been a cqu ir ed in com m er ce, a n d t h e n u m er ou s wa r s a n d
disor der s in cessa n t ly a r isin g, m ost cou n t r ies of E u r ope wer e bet t er peopled in
t h ose cla ys t h a n t h ey a r e even a t pr esen t .
I h a ve n ot t im e t o t r ea t fu lly of t h is su bject , bu t I sh a ll cit e t h e pr odigiou s
a r m ies en ga ged in t h e Cr u sa des, com posed of m en of a ll cou n t r ies. P u ffen dor f
sa ys t h a t in t h e r eign of Ch a r les IX t h er e wer e in F r a n ce t wen t y m illion s of
m en .
It is t h e per pet u a l r eu n ion of m a n y lit t le st a t es t h a t h a s pr odu ced t h is
dim in u t ion . F or m er ly, ever y villa ge of F r a n ce wa s a ca pit a l; t h er e is a t pr esen t
on ly on e la r ge on e. E ver y pa r t of t h e st a t e wa s a cen t r e of power ; a t pr esen t a ll
h a s a r ela t ion t o on e cen t r e, a n d t h is cen t r e is in som e m ea su r e t h e st a t e it self.
EL1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
E u r ope, it is t r u e, h a s for t h ese t wo a ges pa st gr ea t ly in cr ea sed it s n a viga t ion ;
t h is h a s bot h pr ocu r ed a n d depr ived it of in h a bit a n t s. H olla n d sen ds ever y yea r
a gr ea t n u m ber of m a r in er s t o t h e In dies, of wh om n ot a bove t wo-t h ir ds r et u r n ;
t h e r est eit h er per ish or set t le in t h e In dies. Th e sa m e t h in g m u st h a ppen t o
ever y ot h er n a t ion con cer n ed in t h a t t r a de.
We m u st n ot ju dge of E u r ope a s of a pa r t icu la r st a t e en ga ged a lon e in a n
ext en sive n a viga t ion . Th is st a t e wou ld in cr ea se in people, beca u se a ll t h e
n eigh bou r in g n a t ion s wou ld en dea vou r t o h a ve a sh a r e in t h is com m er ce, a n d
m a r in er s wou ld a r r ive fr om a ll pa r t s. E u r ope, sepa r a t ed fr om t h e r est of t h e
wor ld by r eligion , 116 by va st sea s a n d deser t s, ca n n ot be r epa ir ed in t h is

m a n n er .
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F r om a ll t h is we m a y con clu de t h a t E u r ope is a t pr esen t in a con dit ion t o
r equ ir e la ws t o be m a de in fa vou r of t h e pr opa ga t ion of t h e h u m a n species. Th e
polit ics of t h e a n cien t Gr eeks in cessa n t ly com pla in of t h e in con ven ien ces
a t t en din g a r epu blic, fr om t h e excessive n u m ber of cit izen s; bu t t h e polit ics of
t h is a ge ca ll u pon u s t o t a ke pr oper m ea n s t o in cr ea se ou r s.
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Lou is XIV a ppoin t ed pa r t icu la r pen sion s t o t h ose wh o h a d t en ch ildr en , a n d
m u ch la r ger t o su ch a s h a d t welve. 117 Bu t it is n ot su fficien t t o r ewa r d pr odigies.
In or der t o com m u n ica t e a gen er a l spir it , wh ich lea ds t o t h e pr opa ga t ion of t h e
species, it is n ecessa r y for u s t o est a blish , like t h e Rom a n s, gen er a l r ewa r ds, or
gen er a l pen a lt ies.
EQ1&=H&7-"+&<%"*,&7%&<"H&.%<%0H&"&C%4'4F$"+5'*1
Wh en a st a t e is depopu la t ed by pa r t icu la r a cciden t s, by wa r s, pest ilen ce, or
fa m in e, t h er e a r e st ill r esou r ces left . Th e m en wh o r em a in m a y pr eser ve t h e
spir it of in du st r y; t h ey m a y seek t o r epa ir t h eir m isfor t u n es, a n d ca la m it y it self
m a y m a ke t h em becom e m or e in du st r iou s. Th is evil is a lm ost in cu r a ble wh en
t h e depopu la t ion is pr epa r ed befor eh a n d by in t er ior vice a n d a ba d gover n m en t .
Wh en t h is is t h e ca se, m en per ish wit h a n in sen sible a n d h a bit u a l disea se; bor n
in m iser y a n d wea kn ess, in violen ce or u n der t h e in flu en ce of a wicked
a dm in ist r a t ion , t h ey see t h em selves dest r oyed, a n d fr equ en t ly wit h ou t
per ceivin g t h e ca u se of t h eir dest r u ct ion . Of t h is we h a ve a m ela n ch oly pr oof in
t h e cou n t r ies desola t ed by despot ic power , or by t h e excessive a dva n t a ges of t h e
cler gy over t h e la it y.
In va in sh a ll we wa it for t h e su ccou r of ch ildr en yet u n bor n t o r e-est a blish a
st a t e t h u s depopu la t ed. Th er e is n ot t im e for t h is; m en in t h eir solit u de a r e
wit h ou t cou r a ge or in du st r y. Wit h la n d su fficien t t o n ou r ish a n a t ion , t h ey h a ve

sca r cely en ou gh t o n ou r ish a fa m ily. Th e com m on people h a ve n ot even a
pr oper t y in t h e m iser ies of t h e cou n t r y, t h a t is, in t h e fa llows wit h wh ich it
a bou n ds. Th e cler gy, t h e pr in ce, t h e cit ies, t h e gr ea t m en , a n d som e of t h e
pr in cipa l cit izen s in sen sibly becom e pr opr iet or s of a ll t h e la n d wh ich lies
u n cu lt iva t ed; t h e fa m ilies wh o a r e r u in ed h a ve left t h eir fields, a n d t h e
la bou r in g m a n is dest it u t e.
In t h is sit u a t ion t h ey sh ou ld t a ke t h e sa m e m ea su r es t h r ou gh ou t t h e wh ole
ext en t of t h e em pir e wh ich t h e Rom a n s t ook in a pa r t of t h eir s; t h ey sh ou ld
pr a ct ise in t h eir dist r ess wh a t t h ese obser ved in t h e m idst of plen t y; t h a t is,
t h ey sh ou ld dist r ibu t e la n d t o a ll t h e fa m ilies wh o a r e in wa n t , a n d pr ocu r e
t h em m a t er ia ls for clea r in g a n d cu lt iva t in g it . Th is dist r ibu t ion ou gh t t o be
con t in u ed so lon g a s t h er e is a m a n t o r eceive it , a n d in su ch a m a n n er a s n ot
t o lose a m om en t t h a t ca n be in du st r iou sly em ployed.
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A m a n is n ot poor beca u se h e h a s n ot h in g, bu t beca u se h e does n ot wor k. Th e
m a n wh o wit h ou t a n y degr ee of wea lt h h a s a n em ploym en t is a s m u ch a t h is
ea se a s h e wh o wit h ou t la bou r h a s a n in com e of a h u n dr ed cr own s a yea r . H e
wh o h a s n o su bst a n ce, a n d yet h a s a t r a de, is n ot poor er t h a n h e wh o,
possessin g t en a cr es of la n d, is obliged t o cu lt iva t e it for h is su bsist en ce. Th e
m ech a n ic wh o gives h is a r t a s a n in h er it a n ce t o h is ch ildr en h a s left t h em a
for t u n e, wh ich is m u lt iplied in pr opor t ion t o t h eir n u m ber . It is n ot so wit h h im
wh o, h a vin g t en a cr es of la n d, divides it a m on g h is ch ildr en .
In t r a din g cou n t r ies, wh er e m a n y m en h a ve n o ot h er su bsist en ce bu t fr om t h e
a r t s, t h e st a t e is fr equ en t ly obliged t o su pply t h e n ecessit ies of t h e a ged, t h e
sick, a n d t h e or ph a n . A well-r egu la t ed gover n m en t dr a ws t h is su ppor t fr om t h e
a r t s t h em selves. It gives t o som e su ch em ploym en t a s t h ey a r e ca pa ble of
per for m in g; ot h er s a r e t a u gh t t o wor k, a n d t h is t ea ch in g of it self becom es a n
em ploym en t .
Th e a lm s given t o a n a ked m a n in t h e st r eet do n ot fu lfil t h e obliga t ion s of t h e
st a t e, wh ich owes t o ever y cit izen a cer t a in su bsist en ce, a pr oper n ou r ish m en t ,
con ven ien t clot h in g, a n d a kin d of life n ot in com pa t ible wit h h ea lt h .
Au r u n gzebe, bein g a sked wh y h e did n ot bu ild h ospit a ls, sa id, “I will m a ke m y

em pir e so r ich t h a t t h er e sh a ll be n o n eed of h ospit a ls.”118 H e ou gh t t o h a ve sa id,
“I will begin by r en der in g m y em pir e r ich , a n d t h en I will bu ild h ospit a ls.”
Th e r ich es of t h e st a t e su ppose gr ea t in du st r y. Am idst t h e n u m er ou s br a n ch es
of t r a de it is im possible bu t t h a t som e m u st su ffer , a n d con sequ en t ly t h e
m ech a n ics m u st be in a m om en t a r y n ecessit y.
Wh en ever t h is h a ppen s, t h e st a t e is obliged t o len d t h em a r ea dy a ssist a n ce,
wh et h er it be t o pr even t t h e su ffer in gs of t h e people, or t o a void a r ebellion . In
t h is ca se h ospit a ls, or som e equ iva len t r egu la t ion s, a r e n ecessa r y t o pr even t
t h is m iser y.
Bu t wh en t h e n a t ion is poor , pr iva t e pover t y spr in gs fr om t h e gen er a l
ca la m it y, a n d is, if I m a y so expr ess m yself, t h e gen er a l ca la m it y it self. All t h e
h ospit a ls in t h e wor ld ca n n ot cu r e t h is pr iva t e pover t y; on t h e con t r a r y, t h e
spir it of in dolen ce, wh ich it con st a n t ly in spir es, in cr ea ses t h e gen er a l, a n d
con sequ en t ly t h e pr iva t e, m iser y.
H en r y VIII, 119 r esolvin g t o r efor m t h e Ch u r ch of E n gla n d, r u in ed t h e m on ks,
of t h em selves a la zy set of people, t h a t en cou r a ged la zin ess in ot h er s, beca u se,
a s t h ey pr a ct ised h ospit a lit y, a n in fin it e n u m ber of idle per son s, gen t lem en a n d
cit izen s, spen t t h eir lives in r u n n in g fr om con ven t t o con ven t . H e dem olish ed
even t h e h ospit a ls, in wh ich t h e lower people fou n d su bsist en ce, a s t h e
gen t lem en did t h eir s in t h e m on a st er ies. Sin ce t h ese ch a n ges, t h e spir it of t r a de
a n d in du st r y h a s been est a blish ed in E n gla n d.
At Rom e, t h e h ospit a ls pla ce ever y on e a t h is ea se except t h ose wh o la bou r ,
except t h ose wh o a r e in du st r iou s, except t h ose wh o h a ve la n d, except t h ose wh o
a r e en ga ged in t r a de. I h a ve obser ved t h a t wea lt h y n a t ion s h a ve n eed of
h ospit a ls, beca u se for t u n e su bject s t h em t o a t h ou sa n d a cciden t s; bu t it is pla in
t h a t t r a n sien t a ssist a n ces a r e m u ch bet t er t h a n per pet u a l fou n da t ion s. Th e evil
is m om en t a r y; it is n ecessa r y, t h er efor e, t h a t t h e su ccou r sh ou ld be of t h e sa m e
n a t u r e, a n d t h a t it be a pplied t o pa r t icu la r a cciden t s.
2'+%,1
1. Dr yden , L u cr.
2. Th e Ga r a m a n t es.
3. Book i. 8.
4. P a t er est qu em n u pt ia e dem on st r a n t .
5. F or t h is r ea son , a m on g n a t ion s t h a t h a ve sla ves, t h e ch ild a lm ost a lwa ys
follows t h e st a t ion or con dit ion of t h e m ot h er .
7. Ibid, ii, p. 121.
8. Ar ist ot le, Politics, vi. 4.
9. Ibid., iii. 5.
10. Th om a s Ga ge, A New Su r vey of t h e West In dies, p. 345, 3r d ed.
11. Ibid., p. 97, 3r d ed.
12. Book xvi. 4.
13. See Kem pfer , wh o gives a com pu t a t ion of t h e people of Mea co.
15. J a pa n is com posed of a n u m ber of isles, wh er e t h er e a r e m a n y ba n ks, a n d
t h e sea is t h er e ext r em ely fu ll of fish .
16. Ch in a a bou n ds in r iver s.
17. See F a t h er Du H a lde, ii, pp. 139, 142. ff.
18. Th e gr ea t est n u m ber of t h e pr opr iet or s of la n d, sa ys Bish op Bu r n et , fin din g
m or e pr ofit in sellin g t h eir wool t h a n t h eir cor n , in closed t h eir est a t es; t h e
com m on s, r ea dy t o per ish wit h h u n ger , r ose u p in a r m s; t h ey in sist ed on a
division of t h e la n ds; t h e you n g kin g even wr ot e on t h is su bject . An d
pr ocla m a t ion s wer e m a de a ga in st t h ose wh o in closed t h eir la n ds. —
Abr idgm en t of t h e H ist or y of t h e Refor m a t ion , pp. 44. 83.
19. Da m pier , Voyages, ii, p. 41.
20. Ibid., p. 167.
21. See t h e Collect ion of Voya ges t h a t Con t r ibu t ed t o t h e E st a blish m en t of t h e
E a st In dia Com pa n y, v, pa r t I, pp. 182, 188.
22. In va lou r , disciplin e, a n d m ilit a r y exer cises.
23. Th e Ga u ls, wh o wer e in t h e sa m e cir cu m st a n ces, a ct ed in t h e sa m e m a n n er .
24. L aw s, v.
25. R epu blic, v.
26. Politics, vii. 16.
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid., iii. 5.
29. Sixt y pou n ds st er lin g.
30. Book vi. 12.
31. Book vii, p. 496.
32. I h a ve t r ea t ed of t h is in t h e Con sider a t ion s on t h e Ca u ses of t h e Rise a n d
Declen sion of t h e Rom a n Gr a n deu r , 13.
33. Book lvi.
34. Book ii.
36. See wh a t wa s don e in t h is r espect in Livy, xlv; t h e E pit om e of Livy, lix;
Au lu s Gelliu s, i. 6; Va ler iu s Ma xim u s, ii. 9.
37. It is in Au lu s Gelliu s, i. 6.
38. See wh a t I h a ve sa id in Book v. 19.
39. Ca esa r , a ft er t h e Civil Wa r , h a vin g m a de a su r vey of t h e Rom a n cit izen s,
fou n d t h er e wer e n o m or e t h a n on e h u n dr ed a n d fift y t h ou sa n d h ea ds of
fa m ilies. — F lor u s, E pit om e of Livy, dec. 12.
40. See Dio, xliii., a n d Xiph ilin u s in Au gu st .
41. Dio, lib. xliii.; Su et on iu s, Life of Ca esa r , 22; Appia n , On t h e Civil Wa r , ii.
42. E u sebiu s, Ch r on icle.
43. Dio, liv. 16.
45. J u lia s r oga t ion es. — An n a ls, iii. 25.
46. In t h e yea r of Rom e 762. — Dio, lvi. i.
47. I h a ve a br idged t h is speech , wh ich is of t ediou s len gt h ; it is t o be fou n d in
Dio, lvi.
48. Ma r cu s P a piu s Mu t ilu s a n d Q. P oppa eu s Sa bin u s. — Dio, lvi.
49. Ibid.
50. Ulpia n , F r a gm en t , t it . 14, dist in gu ish es ver y r igh t ly bet ween t h e J u lia n a n d
t h e P a pia n la w.
51. J a m es Godfr ey h a s m a de a collect ion of t h ese.

52. Th e 35t h is cit ed in Leg. 19, ff. de r it u n u pt ia r u m .
53. Book ii. 15.
54. Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s.
55. Th e depu t ies of Rom e, wh o wer e sen t t o sea r ch in t o t h e la ws of Gr eece, wen t
t o At h en s, a n d t o t h e cit ies of It a ly.
56. Au lu s Gelliu s, ii. 15.
57. Su et on iu s, Life of Au gu st u s, 44.
58. Ta cit u s, ii. 51: Ut n u m er u s liber or u m in ca n dida t is pr a epoller et , qu od lex
ju beba t .
59. Au lu s Gelliu s, ii. 15.
60. Ta cit u s, An n a ls, xv. 19.
61. See Leg. 6, § 5, De Decu r ion .
62. See Leg. 2, ff. de m in or ib.
63. Leg. i, § 3, Leg. 2, ff. de va ca t ion e et excu sa t . m u n er u m .
64. Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., t it . 29, § 3.
65. P lu t a r ch , Nu m a .
66. See t h e Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., t it . 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, wh ich com pose on e of t h e
m ost va lu a ble pieces of t h e a n cien t civil la w of t h e Rom a n s.
67. Sozom en u s, i. 9. Th ey cou ld r eceive fr om t h eir r ela t ives. — Ulpia n ,
F r a gm en t ., t it . 16, § i.
68. Sozom en u s, i. 9; a n d Leg. u n ic., Cod. Th eod. de in fir m , poen is ca elib. et
or bit .
69. Of t h e Love of F a t h er s t owa r ds t h eir Ch ildr en .
70. See a m or e pa r t icu la r a ccou n t of t h is in Ulpia n . F r a gm en t ., t it . 15, 16.
71. Ibid., t it . 16, § 1.
72. Ibid., t it . 14. It seem s t h e fir st J u lia n la ws a llowed t h r ee yea r s. — Speech
of Au gu st u s, in Dio, lvi; Su et on iu s, L ife of Au gu stu s, 34. Ot h er J u lia n la ws
gr a n t ed bu t on e yea r : t h e P a pia n la w ga ve t wo. — Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., t it .
14. Th ese la ws wer e n ot a gr eea ble t o t h e people; Au gu st u s, t h er efor e,
soft en ed or st r en gt h en ed t h em a s t h ey wer e m or e or less disposed t o com ply
wit h t h em .
73. Th is wa s t h e 35t h h ea d of t h e P a pia n la w. — Leg. 19, ff.de r it u n u pt ia r u m .
74. See Dio, liv, yea r 736; Su et on iu s, in Oct a vio, 34.

75. Dio, liv; a n d in t h e sa m e Dio, t h e speech of Au gu st u s, lvi.
76. Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., t it . 16, a n d Leg. 27, Cod. de n u pt iis.
78. See Su et on iu s, Life of Cla u diu s, 23.
79. Ibid., 23, a n d Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., t it . 16, § 3.
80. Dio, liv; Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., t it . 13.
81. Au gu st u s’s speech , in Dio, lvi.
82. Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., 13, a n d t h e Leg. 44. ff. de r it u n u pt ia r u m .
83. Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., t it . 13 a n d 16.
84. See Leg. 1, Cod. de n a t . lib.
85. Nov. 117.
86. Leg. 37. § 7, ff. de oper ib. liber t or u m , § 7; Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., t it . 16, § 2.
88. See book xxvi. 13.
89. E xcept in cer t a in ca ses. See t h e Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., t it . 18, a n d t h e on ly la w
in Cod. de Ca du c. t ollen d.
90. Rela t u m de m oder a n da P a pia P oppa ea . — Ta cit u s, An n a ls, iii. 25.
91. H e r edu ced t h em t o t h e fou r t h pa r t . — Su et on iu s, Life of Ner o, 10.
92. See P lin y, P a n egyr ic.
93. Sever u s ext en ded even t o t wen t y-five yea r s for t h e m a les, a n d t o t wen t y for
t h e fem a les, t h e t im e fixed by t h e P a pia n la w, a s we see by com pa r in g
Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., t it . 16, wit h wh a t Ter t u llia n sa ys, Apol., 4.
94. P . Scipio, t h e cen sor , com pla in s, in h is speech t o t h e people, of t h e a bu ses
wh ich wer e a lr ea dy in t r odu ced, t h a t t h ey r eceived t h e sa m e pr ivileges for
a dopt ed a s for n a t u r a l ch ildr en . — Au lu s Gelliu s, v. 19.
95. See t h e Leg. 31, ff. de r it u n u pt ia r u m .
96. Au gu st u s in t h e P a pia n la w ga ve t h em t h e pr ivilege of m ot h er s. See Dio, lvi.
Nu m a h a d gr a n t ed t h em t h e a n cien t pr ivilege of wom en wh o h a d t h r ee
ch ildr en , t h a t is, of h a vin g n o gu a r dia n . — P lu t a r ch , Nu m a .
97. Th is wa s gr a n t ed t h em by Cla u diu s. — Dio, lx.
98. Leg. a pu d eu m , ff. de m a n u m ission ib. § 1.
99. Dio, lvi.
100. See, in Cicer o, Offices, i, h is sen t im en t s on t h e spir it of specu la t ion .

101. Na za r iu s, in pa n egyr ico Con st a n t in i, 321.
102. See Leg. 1, 2, 3, Cod. Th eod. de bon is m a t er n is, m a t er n iqu e gen er is, &c.,
a n d Leg. u n ic., Cod. Th eod. de bon is qu a e filiis fa m il. a cqu ir u n t u r .
103. Sozom en u s, i. 9.
104. Leg. 2, 3, Cod. Th eod. de ju r . liber .
105. Leg. Sa n cim u s, Cod. de n u pt iis.
106. Nov. 127, ca p. iii; Nov. 118, ca p. v.
107. Leg. 54 ff. de con dit . et dem on st .
108. Leg. 5, § 4, de ju r e pa t r on a t u s.
109. P a u lu s, Sen t en ces, iii. t it . 4, § 15.
110. An t iqu it ies of Rom e, ii.
111. Ibid.
112. Book ix.
113. De L eg., iii. 19.
114. De M oribu s Germ an oru m , 19.
115. Th er e is n o t it le on t h is su bject in t h e Digest ; t h e t it le of t h e Code sa ys
n ot h in g of it , a n y m or e t h a n t h e Novels.
116. Ma h om et a n cou n t r ies su r r ou n d it a lm ost on ever y side.
117. Th e edict of 1666 in fa vou r of m a r r ia ges.
118. See Sir J oh n Ch a r din , T ravels th rou gh Persia, viii.
119. See Bu r n et , H istory of th e R eform ation .
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As a m idst sever a l degr ees of da r kn ess we m a y for m a ju dgm en t of t h ose wh ich
a r e t h e lea st t h ick, a n d a m on g pr ecipices wh ich a r e t h e lea st deep, so we m a y
sea r ch a m on g fa lse r eligion s for t h ose t h a t a r e m ost con for m a ble t o t h e welfa r e
of societ y; for t h ose wh ich , t h ou gh t h ey h a ve n ot t h e effect of lea din g m en t o t h e
felicit y of a n ot h er life, m a y con t r ibu t e m ost t o t h eir h a ppin ess in t h is.
I sh a ll exa m in e, t h er efor e, t h e sever a l r eligion s of t h e wor ld, in r ela t ion on ly
t o t h e good t h ey pr odu ce in civil societ y, wh et h er I spea k of t h a t wh ich h a s it s
r oot in h ea ven , or of t h ose wh ich spr in g fr om t h e ea r t h .
As in t h is wor k I a m n ot a divin e bu t a polit ica l wr it er , I m a y h er e a dva n ce
t h in gs wh ich a r e n ot ot h er wise t r u e t h a n a s t h ey cor r espon d wit h a wor ldly
m a n n er of t h in k in g, n ot a s con sider ed in t h eir r ela t ion t o t r u t h s of a m or e
su blim e n a t u r e.
Wit h r ega r d t o t h e t r u e r eligion , a per son of t h e lea st degr ee of im pa r t ia lit y
m u st see t h a t I h a ve n ever pr et en ded t o m a k e it s in t er est s su bm it t o t h ose of
a polit ica l n a t u r e, bu t r a t h er t o u n it e t h em ; n ow, in or der t o u n it e, it is
n ecessa r y t h a t we sh ou ld kn ow t h em .
Th e Ch r ist ia n r eligion , wh ich or da in s t h a t m en sh ou ld love ea ch ot h er , wou ld,
wit h ou t dou bt , h a ve ever y n a t ion blest wit h t h e best civil, t h e best polit ica l
la ws; beca u se t h ese, n ext t o t h is r eligion , a r e t h e gr ea t est good t h a t m en ca n
give a n d r eceive.
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M. Ba yle h a s pr et en ded t o pr ove 1 t h a t it is bet t er t o be a n At h eist t h a n a n
Idola t er ; t h a t is, in ot h er wor ds, t h a t it is less da n ger ou s t o h a ve n o r eligion a t
a ll t h a n a ba d on e. “I h a d r a t h er ,” sa id h e, “it sh ou ld be sa id of m e t h a t I h a d n o
exist en ce t h a n t h a t I a m a villa in .” Th is is on ly a soph ism fou n ded on t h is, t h a t
it is of n o im por t a n ce t o t h e h u m a n r a ce t o believe t h a t a cer t a in m a n exist s,
wh er ea s it is ext r em ely u sefu l for t h em t o believe t h e exist en ce of a God. F r om
t h e idea of h is n on -exist en ce im m edia t ely follows t h a t of ou r in depen den ce; or ,
if we ca n n ot con ceive t h is idea , t h a t of disobedien ce. To sa y t h a t r eligion is n ot
a r est r a in in g m ot ive, beca u se it does n ot a lwa ys r est r a in , is equ a lly a bsu r d a s
t o sa y t h a t t h e civil la ws a r e n ot a r est r a in in g m ot ive. It is a fa lse wa y of
r ea son in g a ga in st r eligion t o collect , in a la r ge wor k, a lon g det a il of t h e evils
it h a s pr odu ced if we do n ot give a t t h e sa m e t im e a n en u m er a t ion of t h e
a dva n t a ges wh ich h a ve flowed fr om it . Wer e I t o r ela t e a ll t h e evils t h a t h a ve
a r isen in t h e wor ld fr om civil la ws, fr om m on a r ch y, a n d fr om r epu blica n
gover n m en t , I m igh t t ell of fr igh t fu l t h in gs. Wer e it of n o a dva n t a ge for su bject s
t o h a ve r eligion , it wou ld st ill be of som e, if pr in ces h a d it , a n d if t h ey wh it en ed
wit h foa m t h e on ly r ein wh ich ca n r est r a in t h ose wh o fea r n ot h u m a n la ws.
A pr in ce wh o loves a n d fea r s r eligion is a lion , wh o st oops t o t h e h a n d t h a t
st r okes, or t o t h e voice t h a t a ppea ses h im . H e wh o fea r s a n d h a t es r eligion is
like t h e sa va ge bea st t h a t gr owls a n d bit es t h e ch a in wh ich pr even t s h is flyin g
on t h e pa ssen ger . H e wh o h a s n o r eligion a t a ll is t h a t t er r ible a n im a l wh o
per ceives h is liber t y on ly wh en h e t ea r s in pieces a n d wh en h e devou r s.
Th e qu est ion is n ot t o kn ow wh et h er it wou ld be bet t er t h a t a cer t a in m a n or
a cer t a in people h a d n o r eligion t h a n t o a bu se wh a t t h ey h a ve, bu t t o kn ow wh a t
is t h e lea st evil, t h a t r eligion be som et im es a bu sed, or t h a t t h er e be n o su ch
r est r a in t a s r eligion on m a n kin d.
To dim in ish t h e h or r or of At h eism , t h ey la y t oo m u ch t o t h e ch a r ge of idola t r y.
It is fa r fr om bein g t r u e t h a t wh en t h e a n cien t s r a ised a lt a r s t o a pa r t icu la r
vice, t h ey in t en ded t o sh ow t h a t t h ey loved t h e vice; t h is sign ified, on t h e
con t r a r y, t h a t t h ey h a t ed it . Wh en t h e La ceda em on ia n s er ect ed a t em ple t o
F ea r , it wa s n ot t o sh ow t h a t t h is wa r like n a t ion desir ed t h a t h e wou ld in t h e
m idst of ba t t le possess t h e h ea r t s of t h e La ceda em on ia n s. Th ey h a d deit ies t o
wh om t h ey pr a yed n ot t o in spir e t h em wit h gu ilt ; a n d ot h er s wh om t h ey
besou gh t t o sh ield t h em fr om it .
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Th e Ch r ist ia n r eligion is a st r a n ger t o m er e despot ic power . Th e m ildn ess so
fr equ en t ly r ecom m en ded in t h e Gospel is in com pa t ible wit h t h e despot ic r a ge
wit h wh ich a pr in ce pu n ish es h is su bject s, a n d exer cises h im self in cr u elt y.
As t h is r eligion for bids t h e plu r a lit y of wives, it s pr in ces a r e less con fin ed, less
con cea led fr om t h eir su bject s, a n d con sequ en t ly h a ve m or e h u m a n it y: t h ey a r e
m or e disposed t o be dir ect ed by la ws, a n d m or e ca pa ble of per ceivin g t h a t t h ey
ca n n ot do wh a t ever t h ey plea se.
Wh ile t h e Ma h om et a n pr in ces in cessa n t ly give or r eceive dea t h , t h e r eligion
of t h e Ch r ist ia n s r en der s t h eir pr in ces less t im id, a n d con sequ en t ly less cr u el.
Th e pr in ce con fides in h is su bject s, a n d t h e su bject s in t h e pr in ce. H ow
a dm ir a ble t h e r eligion wh ich , wh ile it on ly seem s t o h a ve in view t h e felicit y of
t h e ot h er life, con t in u es t h e h a ppin ess of t h is!
It is t h e Ch r ist ia n r eligion t h a t , in spit e of t h e ext en t of t h e em pir e a n d t h e
in flu en ce of t h e clim a t e, h a s h in der ed despot ic power fr om bein g est a blish ed in
E t h iopia , a n d h a s ca r r ied in t o t h e h ea r t of Afr ica t h e m a n n er s a n d la ws of
E u r ope.
Th e h eir t o t h e em pir e of E t h iopia 2 en joys a pr in cipa lit y a n d gives t o ot h er
su bject s a n exa m ple of love a n d obedien ce. Not fa r t h en ce m a y we see t h e
Ma h om et a n sh u t t in g u p t h e ch ildr en of t h e Kin g of Sen n a r , a t wh ose dea t h t h e
cou n cil sen ds t o m u r der t h em , in fa vou r of t h e pr in ce wh o m ou n t s t h e t h r on e.
Let u s set befor e ou r eyes, on t h e on e h a n d, t h e con t in u a l m a ssa cr es of t h e
kin gs a n d gen er a ls of t h e Gr eeks a n d Rom a n s, a n d, on t h e ot h er , t h e
dest r u ct ion of people a n d cit ies by t h ose fa m ou s con qu er or s Tim u r Beg a n d
J en gh iz Kh a n , wh o r a va ged Asia , a n d we sh a ll see t h a t we owe t o Ch r ist ia n it y,
in gover n m en t , a cer t a in polit ica l la w; a n d in wa r , a cer t a in la w of n a t ion s —
ben efit s wh ich h u m a n n a t u r e ca n n ever su fficien t ly a ckn owledge.
It is owin g t o t h is la w of n a t ion s t h a t a m on g u s vict or y lea ves t h ese gr ea t
a dva n t a ges t o t h e con qu er ed, life, liber t y, la ws, wea lt h , a n d a lwa ys r eligion ,
wh en t h e con qu er or is n ot blin d t o h is own in t er est .
We m a y t r u ly sa y t h a t t h e people of E u r ope a r e n ot a t pr esen t m or e disu n it ed
t h a n t h e people a n d t h e a r m ies, or even t h e a r m ies a m on g t h em selves wer e,
u n der t h e Rom a n em pir e wh en it h a d becom e a despot ic a n d m ilit a r y

gover n m en t . On t h e on e h a n d, t h e a r m ies en ga ged in wa r a ga in st ea ch ot h er ,
a n d, on t h e ot h er , t h ey pilla ged t h e cit ies, a n d divided or con fisca t ed t h e la n ds.
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F r om t h e ch a r a ct er s of t h e Ch r ist ia n a n d Ma h om et a n r eligion s, we ou gh t ,
wit h ou t a n y fu r t h er exa m in a t ion , t o em br a ce t h e on e a n d r eject t h e ot h er : for
it is m u ch ea sier t o pr ove t h a t r eligion ou gh t t o h u m a n ise t h e m a n n er s of m en
t h a n t h a t a n y pa r t icu la r r eligion is t r u e.
It is a m isfor t u n e t o h u m a n n a t u r e wh en r eligion is given by a con qu er or . Th e
Ma h om et a n r eligion , wh ich spea ks on ly by t h e swor d, a ct s st ill u pon m en wit h
t h a t dest r u ct ive spir it wit h wh ich it wa s fou n ded.
Th e h ist or y of Sa bba co, 3 on e of t h e pa st or a l kin gs of E gypt , is ver y
ext r a or din a r y. Th e t u t ela r god of Th ebes, a ppea r in g t o h im in a dr ea m , or der ed
h im t o pu t t o dea t h a ll t h e pr iest s of E gypt . H e ju dged t h a t t h e gods wer e
displea sed a t h is bein g on t h e t h r on e, sin ce t h ey com m a n ded h im t o com m it a n
a ct ion con t r a r y t o t h eir or din a r y plea su r e; a n d t h er efor e h e r et ir ed in t o
E t h iopia .
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Wh en a r eligion is in t r odu ced a n d fixed in a st a t e, it is com m on ly su ch a s is
m ost su it a ble t o t h e pla n of gover n m en t t h er e est a blish ed; for t h ose wh o r eceive
it , a n d t h ose wh o a r e t h e ca u se of it s bein g r eceived, h a ve sca r cely a n y ot h er
idea of policy t h a n t h a t of t h e st a t e in wh ich t h ey wer e bor n .
Wh en t h e Ch r ist ia n r eligion , t wo cen t u r ies a go, beca m e u n h a ppily divided in t o
Ca t h olic a n d P r ot est a n t , t h e people of t h e n or t h em br a ced t h e P r ot est a n t , a n d
t h ose of t h e sou t h a dh er ed st ill t o t h e Ca t h olic.
Th e r ea son is pla in : t h e people of t h e n or t h h a ve, a n d will for ever h a ve, a
spir it of liber t y a n d in depen den ce, wh ich t h e people of t h e sou t h h a ve n ot ; a n d
t h er efor e a r eligion wh ich h a s n o visible h ea d is m or e a gr eea ble t o t h e
in depen den ce of t h e clim a t e t h a n t h a t wh ich h a s on e.

In t h e cou n t r ies t h em selves wh er e t h e P r otesta nt religion beca m e est a blish ed,
t h e r evolu t ion s wer e m a de pu r su a n t t o t h e sever a l pla n s of polit ica l
gover n m en t . Lu t h er h a vin g gr ea t pr in ces on h is side wou ld n ever h a ve been
a ble t o m a ke t h em r elish a n ecclesia st ica l a u t h or it y t h a t h a d n o ext er ior
pr e-em in en ce; wh ile Ca lvin , h a vin g t o do wit h people wh o lived u n der
r epu blica n gover n m en t s, or wit h obscu r e cit izen s in m on a r ch ies, m igh t ver y
well a void est a blish in g dign it ies a n d pr efer m en t s.
E a ch of t h ese t wo r eligion s wa s believed t o be per fect ; t h e Ca lvin ist ju dgin g
h is m ost con for m a ble t o wh a t Ch r ist h a d sa id, a n d t h e Lu t h er a n t o wh a t t h e
Apost les h a d pr a ct ised.
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M. Ba yle, a ft er h a vin g a bu sed a ll r eligion s, en dea vou r s t o su lly Ch r ist ia n it y:
h e boldly a sser t s t h a t t r u e Ch r ist ia n s ca n n ot for m a gover n m en t of a n y
du r a t ion . Wh y n ot ? Cit izen s of t h is pr ofession bein g in fin it ely en ligh t en ed wit h
r espect t o t h e va r iou s du t ies of life, a n d h a vin g t h e wa r m est zea l t o fu lfil t h em ,
m u st be per fect ly sen sible of t h e r igh t s of n a t u r a l defen ce. Th e m or e t h ey
believe t h em selves in debt ed t o r eligion , t h e m or e t h ey wou ld t h in k du e t o t h eir
cou n t r y. Th e pr in ciples of Ch r ist ia n it y, deeply en gr a ved on t h e h ea r t , wou ld be
in fin it ely m or e power fu l t h a n t h e fa lse h on ou r of m on a r ch ies, t h a n t h e h u m a n e
vir t u es of r epu blics, or t h e ser vile fea r of despot ic st a t es.
It is a st on ish in g t h a t t h is gr ea t m a n sh ou ld n ot be a ble t o dist in gu ish bet ween
t h e or der s for t h e est a blish m en t of Ch r ist ia n it y a n d Ch r ist ia n it y it self; a n d t h a t
h e sh ou ld be lia ble t o be ch a r ged wit h n ot kn owin g t h e spir it of h is own r eligion .
Wh en t h e legisla t or , in st ea d of la ws, h a s given cou n sels, t h is is beca u se h e kn ew
t h a t if t h ese cou n sels wer e or da in ed a s la ws t h ey wou ld be con t r a r y t o t h e spir it
of t h e la ws t h em selves.
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H u m a n la ws, m a de t o dir ect t h e will, ou gh t t o give pr ecept s, a n d n ot cou n sels;
r eligion , m a de t o in flu en ce t h e h ea r t , sh ou ld give m a n y cou n sels, a n d few
pr ecept s.
Wh en , for in st a n ce, it gives r u les, n ot for wh a t is good, bu t for wh a t is bet t er ;

n ot t o dir ect t o wh a t is r igh t , bu t t o wh a t is per fect , it is expedien t t h a t t h ese
sh ou ld be cou n sels, a n d n ot la ws: for per fect ion ca n h a ve n o r ela t ion t o t h e
u n iver sa lit y of m en or t h in gs. Besides, if t h ese wer e la ws, t h er e wou ld be a
n ecessit y for a n in fin it e n u m ber of ot h er s, t o m a ke people obser ve t h e fir st .
Celiba cy wa s a dvised by Ch r ist ia n it y; wh en t h ey m a de it a la w in r espect t o a
cer t a in or der of m en , it beca m e n ecessa r y t o m a ke n ew on es ever y da y, in or der
t o oblige t h ose m en t o obser ve it . 4 Th e legisla t or wea r ied h im self, a n d h e
wea r ied societ y, t o m a ke m en execu t e by pr ecept wh a t t h ose wh o love per fect ion
wou ld h a ve execu t ed a s cou n sel.
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In a cou n t r y so u n for t u n a t e a s t o h a ve a r eligion t h a t God h a s n ot r evea led,
it is n ecessa r y for it t o be a gr eea ble t o m or a lit y; beca u se even a fa lse r eligion is
t h e best secu r it y we ca n h a ve of t h e pr obit y of m en .
Th e pr in cipa l poin t s of r eligion of t h e in h a bit a n t s of P egu 5 a r e, n ot t o com m it
m u r der , n ot t o st ea l, t o a void u n clea n lin ess, n ot t o give t h e lea st u n ea sin ess t o
t h eir n eigh bou r , bu t t o do h im , on t h e con t r a r y, a ll t h e good in t h eir power . Wit h
t h ese r u les t h ey t h in k t h ey sh ou ld be sa ved in a n y r eligion wh a t soever . H en ce
it pr oceeds t h a t t h ose people, t h ou gh poor a n d pr ou d, beh a ve wit h gen t len ess
a n d com pa ssion t o t h e u n h a ppy.
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Th e E ssen es 6 m a de a vow t o obser ve ju st ice t o m a n kin d, t o do n o ill t o a n y
per son , u pon wh a t soever a ccou n t , t o keep fa it h wit h a ll t h e wor ld, t o h a t e
in ju st ice, t o com m a n d wit h m odest y, a lwa ys t o side wit h t r u t h , a n d t o fly fr om
a ll u n la wfu l ga in .
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Th e sever a l sect s of ph ilosoph y a m on g t h e a n cien t s wer e a species of r eligion .
Never wer e a n y pr in ciples m or e wor t h y of h u m a n n a t u r e, a n d m or e pr oper t o
for m t h e good m a n , t h a n t h ose of t h e St oics; a n d if I cou ld for a m om en t cea se
t o t h in k t h a t I a m a Ch r ist ia n , I sh ou ld n ot be a ble t o h in der m yself fr om

r a n kin g t h e dest r u ct ion of t h e sect of Zen o a m on g t h e m isfor t u n es t h a t h a ve
befa llen t h e h u m a n r a ce.
It ca r r ied t o excess on ly t h ose t h in gs in wh ich t h er e is t r u e gr ea t n ess — t h e
con t em pt of plea su r e a n d of pa in .
It wa s t h is sect a lon e t h a t m a de cit izen s; t h is a lon e t h a t m a de gr ea t m en ; t h is
a lon e gr ea t em per or s.
La yin g a side for a m om en t r evea led t r u t h s, let u s sea r ch t h r ou gh a ll n a t u r e,
a n d we sh a ll n ot fin d a n obler object t h a n t h e An t on in u ses; even J u lia n h im self
— J u lia n (a com m en da t ion t h u s wr est ed fr om m e will n ot r en der m e a n
a ccom plice of h is a post a sy) — n o, t h er e h a s n ot been a pr in ce sin ce h is r eign
m or e wor t h y t o gover n m a n kin d.
Wh ile t h e St oics looked u pon r ich es, h u m a n gr a n deu r , gr ief, disqu iet u des, a n d
plea su r es a s va n it y, t h ey wer e en t ir ely em ployed in la bou r in g for t h e h a ppin ess
of m a n kin d, a n d in exer cisin g t h e du t ies of societ y. It seem s a s if t h ey r ega r ded
t h a t sa cr ed spir it , wh ich t h ey believed t o dwell wit h in t h em , a s a kin d of
fa vou r a ble pr oviden ce wa t ch fu l over t h e h u m a n r a ce.
Bor n for societ y, t h ey a ll believed t h a t it wa s t h eir dest in y t o la bou r for it ;
wit h so m u ch t h e less fa t igu e, t h eir r ewa r ds wer e a ll wit h in t h em selves. H a ppy
by t h eir ph ilosoph y a lon e, it seem ed a s if on ly t h e h a ppin ess of ot h er s cou ld
in cr ea se t h eir s.
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Men bein g m a de t o pr eser ve, t o n ou r ish , t o clot h e t h em selves, a n d do a ll t h e
a ct ion s of societ y, r eligion ou gh t n ot t o give t h em t oo con t em pla t ive a life.7
Th e Ma h om et a n s becom e specu la t ive by h a bit ; t h ey pr a y five t im es a da y, a n d
ea ch t im e t h ey a r e obliged t o ca st beh in d t h em ever yt h in g wh ich h a s a n y
con cer n wit h t h is wor ld: t h is for m s t h em for specu la t ion . Add t o t h is t h a t
in differ en ce for a ll t h in gs wh ich is in spir ed by t h e doct r in e of u n a lt er a ble fa t e.
If ot h er ca u ses besides t h ese con cu r t o disen ga ge t h eir a ffect ion s; for in st a n ce,
if t h e sever it y of t h e gover n m en t , if t h e la ws con cer n in g t h e pr oper t y of la n d,
give t h em a pr eca r iou s spir it — a ll is lost .
Th e r eligion of t h e Ga u r s for m er ly r en der ed P er sia a flou r ish in g kin gdom ; it
cor r ect ed t h e ba d effect s of despot ic power . Th e sa m e em pir e is n ow dest r oyed

by t h e Ma h om et a n r eligion .
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P en a n ces ou gh t t o be join ed wit h t h e idea of la bou r , n ot wit h t h a t of idlen ess;
wit h t h e idea of good, n ot wit h t h a t of su per em in en ce; wit h t h e idea of fr u ga lit y,
n ot wit h t h a t of a va r ice.
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It a ppea r s fr om a . pa ssa ge of t h e books of t h e pon t iffs, qu ot ed by Cicer o, 8 t h a t
t h ey h a d a m on g t h e Rom a n s in expia ble cr im es:9 a n d it is on t h is t h a t Zozym u s
fou n ds t h e n a r r a t ion so pr oper t o bla cken t h e m ot ives of Con st a n t in e’s
con ver sion ; a n d J u lia n , t h a t bit t er r a iller y on t h is con ver sion in h is Ca esa r s.
Th e P a ga n r eligion in deed, wh ich pr oh ibit ed on ly som e of t h e gr osser cr im es,
a n d wh ich st opped t h e h a n d bu t m eddled n ot wit h t h e h ea r t , m igh t h a ve cr im es
t h a t wer e in expia ble; bu t a r eligion wh ich br idles a ll t h e pa ssion s; wh ich is n ot
m or e jea lou s of a ct ion s t h a n of t h ou gh t s a n d desir es; wh ich h olds u s n ot by a
few ch a in s bu t by a n in fin it e n u m ber of t h r ea ds; wh ich , lea vin g h u m a n ju st ice
a side, est a blish es a n ot h er k in d of ju st ice; wh ich is so or der ed a s t o lea d u s
con t in u a lly fr om r epen t a n ce t o love, a n d fr om love t o r epen t a n ce; wh ich pu t s
bet ween t h e ju dge a n d t h e cr im in a l a gr ea t er m edia t or , bet ween t h e ju st a n d
t h e m edia t or a gr ea t ju dge — a r eligion like t h is ou gh t n ot t o h a ve in expia ble
cr im es. Bu t wh ile it gives fea r a n d h ope t o a ll, it m a kes u s su fficien t ly sen sible
t h a t t h ou gh t h er e is n o cr im e in it s own n a t u r e in expia ble, yet a wh ole cr im in a l
life m a y be so; t h a t it is ext r em ely da n ger ou s t o a ffr on t m er cy by n ew cr im es
a n d n ew expia t ion s; t h a t a n u n ea sin ess on a ccou n t of a n cien t debt s, fr om wh ich
we a r e n ever en t ir ely fr ee, ou gh t t o m a ke u s a fr a id of con t r a ct in g n ew on es, of
fillin g u p t h e m ea su r e, a n d goin g even t o t h a t poin t wh er e pa t er n a l goodn ess
is lim it ed.
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As bot h r eligion a n d t h e civil la ws ou gh t t o h a ve a pecu lia r t en den cy t o r en der
m en good cit izen s, it is eviden t t h a t wh en on e of t h ese devia t es fr om t h is en d,
t h e t en den cy of t h e ot h er ou gh t t o be st r en gt h en ed. Th e less sever it y t h er e is in
r eligion , t h e m or e t h er e ou gh t t o be in t h e civil la ws.
Th u s t h e r eign in g r eligion of J a pa n h a vin g few doct r in es, a n d pr oposin g
n eit h er fu t u r e r ewa r ds n or pu n ish m en t s, t h e la ws t o su pply t h ese defect s h a ve
been m a de wit h t h e spir it of sever it y, a n d a r e execu t ed wit h a n ext r a or din a r y
pu n ct u a lit y.
Wh en t h e doct r in e of n ecessit y is est a blish ed by r eligion , t h e pen a lt ies of t h e
la ws ou gh t t o be m or e sever e, a n d t h e m a gist r a t e m or e vigila n t ; t o t h e en d t h a t
m en wh o wou ld ot h er wise becom e a ba n don ed m igh t be det er m in ed by t h ese
m ot ives; bu t it is qu it e ot h er wise wh er e r eligion h a s est a blish ed t h e doct r in e of
liber t y.
F r om t h e in a ct ivit y of t h e sou l spr in gs t h e Ma h om et a n doct r in e of
pr edest in a t ion , a n d fr om t h is doct r in e of pr edest in a t ion spr in gs t h e in a ct ivit y
of t h e sou l. Th is, t h ey sa y, is in t h e decr ees of God; t h ey m u st t h er efor e in du lge
t h eir r epose. In a ca se like t h is, t h e m a gist r a t e ou gh t t o wa ken by t h e la ws
t h ose wh o a r e lu lled a sleep by r eligion .
Wh en r eligion con dem n s t h in gs wh ich t h e civil la ws ou gh t t o per m it , t h er e is
da n ger lest t h e civil la ws, on t h e ot h er h a n d, sh ou ld per m it wh a t r eligion ou gh t
t o con dem n . E it h er of t h ese is a con st a n t pr oof of a wa n t of t r u e idea s of t h a t
h a r m on y a n d pr opor t ion wh ich ou gh t t o su bsist bet ween bot h .
Th u s t h e Ta r t a r s u n der J en gh iz Kh a n , 10 a m on g wh om it wa s a sin a n d even
a ca pit a l cr im e t o pu t a kn ife in t h e fir e, t o lea n a ga in st a wh ip, t o st r ike a h or se
wit h h is br idle, t o br ea k on e bon e wit h a n ot h er , did n ot believe it t o be a n y sin
t o br ea k t h eir wor d, t o seize u pon a n ot h er m a n ’s goods, t o do a n in ju r y t o a
per son , or t o com m it m u r der . In a wor d, la ws wh ich r en der t h a t n ecessa r y
wh ich is on ly in differ en t h a ve t h is in con ven ien ce, t h a t t h ey m a ke t h ose t h in gs
in differ en t wh ich a r e a bsolu t ely n ecessa r y.
Th e people of F or m osa believe 11 t h a t t h er e is a kin d of h ell, bu t it is t o pu n ish
t h ose wh o a t cer t a in sea son s h a ve n ot gon e n a ked, wh o h a ve dr essed in ca lico
a n d n ot in silk, wh o h a ve pr esu m ed t o look for oyst er s, or wh o h a ve u n der t a ken
a n y bu sin ess wit h ou t con su lt in g t h e son g of bir ds; wh ile dr u n ken n ess a n d
deba u ch er y a r e n ot r ega r ded a s cr im es. Th ey believe even t h a t t h e deba u ch es
of t h eir ch ildr en a r e a gr eea ble t o t h eir gods.
Wh en r eligion a bsolves t h e m in d by a t h in g m er ely a cciden t a l, it loses it s
gr ea t est in flu en ce on m a n kin d. Th e people of In dia believe t h a t t h e wa t er s of
t h e Ga n ges h a ve a sa n ct ifyin g vir t u e. 12 Th ose wh o die on it s ba n ks a r e im a gin ed
t o be exem pt ed fr om t h e t or m en t s of t h e ot h er life, a n d t o be en t it led t o dwell
in a r egion fu ll of deligh t s; a n d for t h is r ea son t h e a sh es of t h e dea d a r e sen t
fr om t h e m ost dist a n t pla ces t o be t h r own in t o t h is r iver . Lit t le t h en does it
sign ify wh et h er t h ey h a d lived vir t u ou sly or n ot , so t h ey be bu t t h r own in t o t h e
Ga n ges.
Th e idea of a pla ce of r ewa r ds h a s a n ecessa r y con n ect ion wit h t h e idea of t h e
a bodes of m iser y; a n d wh en t h ey h ope for t h e for m er wit h ou t fea r in g t h e la t t er ,
t h e civil la ws h a ve n o lon ger a n y in flu en ce. Men wh o t h in k t h em selves su r e of
t h e r ewa r ds of t h e ot h er life a r e a bove t h e power of t h e legisla t or ; t h ey look
u pon dea t h wit h t oo m u ch con t em pt . H ow sh a ll t h e m a n be r est r a in ed by la ws
wh o believes t h a t t h e gr ea t est pa in t h e m a gist r a t e ca n in flict will en d in a
m om en t t o begin h is h a ppin ess?
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Sim plicit y, su per st it ion , or a r espect for a n t iqu it y h a ve som et im es est a blish ed
m yst er ies or cer em on ies sh ockin g t o m odest y: of t h is t h e wor ld h a s fu r n ish ed
n u m er ou s exa m ples. Ar ist ot le sa ys 13 t h a t in t h is ca se t h e la w per m it s t h e
fa t h er s of fa m ilies t o r epa ir t o t h e t em ple t o celebr a t e t h ese m yst er ies for t h eir
wives a n d ch ildr en . H ow a dm ir a ble t h e civil la w wh ich in spit e of r eligion
pr eser ves t h e m a n n er s u n t a in t ed!
Au gu st u s 14 exclu ded t h e you t h of eit h er sex fr om a ssist in g a t a n y n oct u r n a l
cer em on y, u n less a ccom pa n ied by a m or e a ged r ela t ive; a n d wh en h e r evived t h e
Lu per ca lia , 15 h e wou ld n ot a llow t h e you n g m en t o r u n n a ked.
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On t h e ot h er h a n d, r eligion m a y su ppor t a st a t e wh en t h e la ws t h em selves a r e
in ca pa ble of doin g it .
Th u s wh en a kin gdom is fr equ en t ly a git a t ed by civil wa r s, r eligion m a y do
m u ch by obligin g on e pa r t of t h e st a t e t o r em a in a lwa ys qu iet . Am on g t h e
Gr eeks, t h e E lea n s, a s pr iest s of Apollo, lived a lwa ys in pea ce. In J a pa n , 16 t h e
cit y of Mea co en joys a con st a n t pea ce, a s bein g a h oly cit y. Religion su ppor t s
t h is r egu la t ion , a n d t h a t em pir e, wh ich seem s t o be a lon e u pon ea r t h , a n d
wh ich n eit h er h a s n or will h a ve a n y depen den ce on for eign er s, h a s a lwa ys in it s
own bosom a t r a de wh ich wa r ca n n ot r u in .
In kin gdom s wh er e wa r s a r e n ot en t er ed u pon by a gen er a l con sen t , a n d
wh er e t h e la ws h a ve n ot poin t ed ou t a n y m ea n s eit h er of t er m in a t in g or
pr even t in g t h em , r eligion est a blish es t im es of pea ce, or cessa t ion fr om
h ost ilit ies, t h a t t h e people m a y be a ble t o sow t h eir cor n a n d per for m t h ose
ot h er la bou r s wh ich a r e a bsolu t ely n ecessa r y for t h e su bsist en ce of t h e st a t e.
E ver y yea r a ll h ost ilit y cea ses bet ween t h e Ar a bia n t r ibes for fou r m on t h s: t h e
lea st dist u r ba n ce wou ld t h en be a n im piet y. 17 In for m er t im es, wh en ever y lor d
in F r a n ce decla r ed wa r or pea ce, r eligion gr a n t ed a t r u ce, wh ich wa s t o t a ke
pla ce a t cer t a in sea son s.
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Wh en a st a t e h a s m a n y ca u ses for h a t r ed, r eligion ou gh t t o pr odu ce m a n y
wa ys of r econ cilia t ion . Th e Ar a bs, a people a ddict ed t o r obber y, a r e fr equ en t ly
gu ilt y of doin g in ju r y a n d in ju st ice. Ma h om et en a ct ed t h is la w:18 “If a n y on e
for gives t h e blood of h is br ot h er ,19 h e m a y pu r su e t h e m a lefa ct or for da m a ges
a n d in t er est ; bu t h e wh o sh a ll in ju r e t h e wicked, a ft er h a vin g r eceived
sa t isfa ct ion , sh a ll, in t h e da y of ju dgm en t , su ffer t h e m ost gr ievou s t or m en t s.”
Th e Ger m a n s in h er it ed t h e h a t r ed a n d en m it y of t h eir n ea r r ela t ives: bu t
t h ese wer e n ot et er n a l. H om icide wa s expia t ed by givin g a cer t a in n u m ber of
ca t t le, a n d a ll t h e fa m ily r eceived sa t isfa ct ion : a t h in g ext r em ely u sefu l, sa ys
Ta cit u s, beca u se en m it ies a r e m ost da n ger ou s a m on g a fr ee people. 20 I believe,
in deed, t h a t t h eir m in ist er s of r eligion , wh o wer e h eld by t h em in so m u ch

cr edit , wer e con cer n ed in t h ese r econ cilia t ion s.
Am on g t h e in h a bit a n t s of Ma la cca , 21 wh er e n o for m of r econ cilia t ion is
est a blish ed, h e wh o h a s com m it t ed m u r der , cer t a in of bein g a ssa ssin a t ed by t h e
r ela t ives or fr ien ds of t h e decea sed, a ba n don s h im self t o fu r y, a n d wou n ds or
kills a ll h e m eet s.
BQ1&R'7&+-%&6"7,&'(&/%$5D5'*&-";%&+-%&U((%9+&'(&)5;5$&6"7,1
Th e fir st Gr eeks wer e sm a ll n a t ion s, fr equ en t ly disper sed, pir a t es a t sea ,
u n ju st on la n d, wit h ou t gover n m en t a n d wit h ou t la ws. Th e m igh t y a ct ion s of
H er cu les a n d Th eseu s let u s see t h e st a t e of t h a t r isin g people. Wh a t cou ld
r eligion do m or e t o in spir e t h em wit h h or r or a ga in st m u r der ? It decla r ed t h a t
t h e m a n wh o h a d been m u r der ed wa s en r a ged a ga in st t h e a ssa ssin , t h a t h e
wou ld possess h is m in d wit h t er r or a n d t r ou ble, a n d oblige h im t o yield t o h im
t h e pla ces h e h a d fr equ en t ed wh en a live. 22 Th ey cou ld n ot t ou ch t h e cr im in a l,
n or con ver se wit h h im , wit h ou t bein g defiled:23 t h e m u r der er wa s t o be expelled
fr om t h e cit y, a n d a n expia t ion m a de for t h e cr im e.24
BS1&!-"+&5+&5,&*'+&,'&<F9-&+-%&!.F+-&'.&Y"$,5+H&'(&"&C'9+.5*%&7-59-
.%*0%.,&5+&F,%(F$&'.&4%.*595'F,&+'&K%*&5*&95;5$&A';%.*<%*+I&",&+-%&^,%
'.&:#F,%&'(&5+1
Th e m ost t r u e a n d h oly doct r in es m a y be a t t en ded wit h t h e ver y wor st
con sequ en ces wh en t h ey a r e n ot con n ect ed wit h t h e pr in ciples of societ y: a n d
on t h e con t r a r y, doct r in es t h e m ost fa lse m a y be a t t en ded wit h excellen t
con sequ en ces wh en con t r ived so a s t o be con n ect ed wit h t h ese pr in ciples.
Th e r eligion of Con fu ciu s disown s t h e im m or t a lit y of t h e sou l: a n d t h e sect of
Zen o did n ot believe it . Th ese t wo sect s h a ve dr a wn fr om t h eir ba d pr in ciples
con sequ en ces, n ot ju st in deed, bu t m ost a dm ir a ble a s t o t h eir in flu en ce on
societ y. Th ose of t h e r eligion of Ta o, a n d of F oe, 25 believe t h e im m or t a lit y of t h e
sou l; bu t fr om t h is sa cr ed doct r in e t h ey dr a w t h e m ost fr igh t fu l con sequ en ces.
Th e doct r in e of t h e im m or t a lit y of t h e sou l fa lsely u n der st ood h a s, a lm ost in
ever y pa r t of t h e globe a n d in ever y a ge, en ga ged wom en , sla ves, su bject s,
fr ien ds, t o m u r der t h em selves, t h a t t h ey m igh t go a n d ser ve in t h e ot h er wor ld

t h e object of t h eir r espect or love in t h is. Th u s it wa s in t h e West In dies; t h u s
it wa s a m on g t h e Da n es;26 t h u s it is a t pr esen t in J a pa n , 27 in Ma ca ssa r , 28 a n d
m a n y ot h er pla ces.
Th ese cu st om s do n ot so dir ect ly pr oceed fr om t h e doct r in e of t h e im m or t a lit y
of t h e sou l a s fr om t h a t of t h e r esu r r ect ion of t h e body, wh en ce t h ey h a ve dr a wn
t h is con sequ en ce, t h a t a ft er dea t h t h e sa m e in dividu a l will h a ve t h e sa m e
wa n t s, t h e sa m e sen t im en t s, t h e sa m e pa ssion s. In t h is poin t of view, t h e
doct r in e of t h e im m or t a lit y of t h e sou l h a s a pr odigiou s effect on m a n kin d;
beca u se t h e idea of on ly a sim ple ch a n ge of h a bit a t ion is m or e wit h in t h e r ea ch
of t h e h u m a n u n der st a n din g, a n d m or e a da pt ed t o fla t t er t h e h ea r t , t h a n t h e
idea of a n ew m odifica t ion .
It is n ot en ou gh for r eligion t o est a blish a doct r in e; it m u st a lso dir ect it s
in flu en ce. Th is t h e Ch r ist ia n r eligion per for m s in t h e m ost a dm ir a ble m a n n er ,
pa r t icu la r ly wit h r ega r d t o t h e doct r in es of wh ich we h a ve been spea kin g. It
m a kes u s h ope for a st a t e wh ich is t h e object of ou r belief; n ot for a st a t e wh ich
we h a ve a lr ea dy exper ien ced or kn own : t h u s ever y a r t icle, even t h e r esu r r ect ion
of t h e body, lea ds u s t o spir it u a l idea s.
ET1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Th e sa cr ed books 29 of t h e a n cien t P er sia n s sa y, “If you wou ld be h oly in st r u ct
you r ch ildr en , beca u se a ll t h e good a ct ion s wh ich t h ey per for m will be im pu t ed
t o you .” Th ey a dvise t h em t o m a r r y bet im es, beca u se ch ildr en a t t h e da y of
ju dgm en t will be a s a br idge, over wh ich t h ose wh o h a ve n on e ca n n ot pa ss.
Th ese doct r in es wer e fa lse, bu t ext r em ely u sefu l.
EB1&@(&+-%&K%+%<4,H9-',5,1
Th e doct r in e of t h e im m or t a lit y of t h e sou l is divided in t o t h r ee br a n ch es —
t h a t of pu r e im m or t a lit y, t h a t of a sim ple ch a n ge of h a bit a t ion , a n d t h a t of a
m et em psych osis, t h a t is, t h e syst em of t h e Ch r ist ia n s, t h a t of t h e Scyt h ia n s,
a n d t h a t of t h e In dia n s. We h a ve ju st been spea kin g of t h e fir st t wo, a n d I sh a ll
sa y of t h e la st t h a t a s it h a s been well or ill expla in ed, it h a s h a d good or ba d
effect s. As it in spir es m en wit h a cer t a in h or r or a ga in st bloodsh ed, ver y few
m u r der s a r e com m it t ed in t h e In dies; a n d t h ou gh t h ey seldom pu n ish wit h

dea t h , yet t h ey en joy a per fect t r a n qu illit y.
On t h e ot h er h a n d, wom en bu r n t h em selves a t t h e dea t h of t h eir h u sba n ds;
t h u s it is on ly t h e in n ocen t wh o su ffer a violen t dea t h .
EE1&!-"+&5+&5,&0"*D%.'F,&('.&/%$5D5'*&+'&5*,45.%&"*&:;%.,5'*&('.&!-5*D,
5*&+-%<,%$;%,&5*05((%.%*+1
A kin d of h on ou r est a blish ed in t h e In dies by t h e pr eju dices of r eligion h a s
m a de t h e sever a l t r ibes con ceive a n a ver sion a ga in st ea ch ot h er . Th is h on ou r
is fou n ded en t ir ely on r eligion ; t h ese fa m ily dist in ct ion s for m n o civil
dist in ct ion s; t h er e a r e In dia n s wh o wou ld t h in k t h em selves dish on ou r ed by
ea t in g wit h t h eir kin g.
Th ese sor t s of dist in ct ion s a r e con n ect ed wit h a cer t a in a ver sion for ot h er
m en , ver y differ en t fr om t h ose sen t im en t s wh ich n a t u r a lly a r ise fr om differ en ce
of r a n k; wh ich a m on g u s com pr eh en ds a love for in fer ior s.
Th e la ws of r eligion sh ou ld n ever in spir e a n a ver sion t o a n yt h in g bu t vice, a n d
a bove a ll t h ey sh ou ld n ever est r a n ge m a n fr om a love a n d t en der n ess for h is
own species.
Th e Ma h om et a n a n d In dia n r eligion s em br a ce a n in fin it e n u m ber of people;
t h e In dia n s h a t e t h e Ma h om et a n s, beca u se t h ey ea t cows; t h e Ma h om et a n s
det est t h e In dia n s beca u se t h ey ea t h ogs.
EG1&@(&Y%,+5;"$,1
Wh en r eligion a ppoin t s a cessa t ion fr om la bou r it ou gh t t o h a ve a gr ea t er
r ega r d t o t h e n ecessit ies of m a n kin d t h a n t o t h e gr a n deu r of t h e bein g it design s
t o h on ou r .
At h en s wa s su bject t o gr ea t in con ven ien ces fr om t h e excessive n u m ber of it s
fest iva ls. 30 Th ese power fu l people, t o wh ose decision a ll t h e cit ies of Gr eece
ca m e t o su bm it t h eir qu a r r els, cou ld n ot h a ve t im e t o despa t ch su ch a
m u lt iplicit y of a ffa ir s.
Wh en Con st a n t in e or da in ed t h a t t h e people sh ou ld r est on t h e Sa bba t h , h e
m a de t h is decr ee for t h e cit ies, 31 a n d n ot for t h e in h a bit a n t s of t h e open cou n t r y;
h e wa s sen sible t h a t la bou r in t h e cit ies wa s u sefu l, bu t in t h e fields n ecessa r y.

F or t h e sa m e r ea son , in a cou n t r y su ppor t ed by com m er ce, t h e n u m ber of
fest iva ls ou gh t t o be r ela t ive t o t h is ver y com m er ce. P r ot est a n t a n d Ca t h olic
cou n t r ies a r e sit u a t ed in su ch a m a n n er t h a t t h er e is m or e n eed of la bou r in t h e
for m er t h a n in t h e la t t er ;32 t h e su ppr ession of fest iva ls is t h er efor e m or e
su it a ble t o P r ot est a n t t h a n t o Ca t h olic cou n t r ies.
Da m pier obser ves t h a t t h e diver sion s of differ en t n a t ion s va r y gr ea t ly,
a ccor din g t o t h e clim a t e. 33 As h ot clim a t es pr odu ce a qu a n t it y of delica t e fr u it s,
t h e ba r ba r ia n s ea sily fin d n ecessa r ies, a n d t h er efor e spen d m u ch t im e in
diver sion s. Th e In dia n s of colder cou n t r ies h a ve n ot so m u ch leisu r e, bein g
obliged t o fish a n d h u n t con t in u a lly; h en ce t h ey h a ve less m u sic, da n cin g a n d
fest iva ls. If a n ew r eligion sh ou ld be est a blish ed a m on g t h ese people, it ou gh t
t o h a ve r ega r d t o t h is in t h e in st it u t ion of fest iva ls.
EJ1&@(&+-%&$'9"$&6"7,&'(&/%$5D5'*1
Th er e a r e m a n y loca l la ws in va r iou s r eligion s; a n d wh en Mon t ezu m a wit h so
m u ch obst in a cy in sist ed t h a t t h e r eligion of t h e Spa n ia r ds wa s good for t h eir
cou n t r y, a n d h is for Mexico, h e did n ot a sser t a n a bsu r dit y; beca u se, in fa ct ,
legisla t or s cou ld n ever h elp h a vin g a r ega r d t o wh a t n a t u r e h a d est a blish ed
befor e t h em .
Th e opin ion of t h e m et em psych osis is a da pt ed t o t h e clim a t e of t h e In dies. An
excessive h ea t bu r n s u p a ll t h e cou n t r y:34 t h ey ca n br eed bu t ver y few ca t t le;
t h ey a r e a lwa ys in da n ger of wa n t in g t h em for t illa ge; t h eir bla ck ca t t le
m u lt iply bu t in differ en t ly;35 a n d t h ey a r e su bject t o m a n y dist em per s. A la w of
r eligion wh ich pr eser ves t h em is t h er efor e m or e su it a ble t o t h e policy of t h e
cou n t r y.
Wh ile t h e m ea dows a r e scor ch ed, r ice a n d pu lse, by t h e a ssist a n ce of wa t er ,
a r e br ou gh t t o per fect ion ; a la w of r eligion wh ich per m it s on ly t h is kin d of
n ou r ish m en t m u st t h er efor e be ext r em ely u sefu l t o m en in t h ose clim a t es.
Th e flesh of ca t t le in t h a t cou n t r y is in sipid36 bu t t h e m ilk a n d bu t t er wh ich
t h ey r eceive fr om t h em ser ve for a pa r t of t h eir su bsist en ce; t h er efor e t h e la w
wh ich pr oh ibit s t h e ea t in g a n d killin g of cows is in t h e In dies n ot u n r ea son a ble.
At h en s con t a in ed a pr odigiou s m u lt it u de of people, bu t it s t er r it or y wa s
ba r r en . It wa s t h er efor e a r eligiou s m a xim wit h t h is people t h a t t h ose wh o

offer ed som e sm a ll pr esen t s t o t h e gods h on ou r ed t h em m or e t h a n t h ose wh o
sa cr ificed a n ox.37
EL1&!-%&?*9'*;%*5%*9%&'(&+."*,4$"*+5*D&"&/%$5D5'*&(.'<&'*%&)'F*+.H
+'&"*'+-%.1
It follows h en ce t h a t t h er e a r e fr equ en t ly m a n y in con ven ien ces a t t en din g t h e
t r a n spla n t in g a r eligion fr om on e cou n t r y t o a n y ot h er .
“Th e h og,” sa ys M. de Bou la in villier s,38 “m u st be ver y sca r ce in Ar a bia , wh er e
t h er e a r e a lm ost n o woods, a n d h a r dly a n yt h in g fit for t h e n ou r ish m en t of t h ese
a n im a ls; besides, t h e sa lt n ess of t h e wa t er a n d food r en der s t h e people m ost
su scept ible of cu t a n eou s disor der s.” Th is loca l la w cou ld n ot be good in ot h er
cou n t r ies,39 wh er e t h e h og is a lm ost a u n iver sa l, a n d in som e sor t a n ecessa r y,
n ou r ish m en t .
I sh a ll h er e m a ke a r eflect ion . Sa n ct or iu s h a s obser ved t h a t por k t r a n spir es
bu t lit t le, 40 a n d t h a t t h is kin d of m ea t gr ea t ly bin der s t h e t r a n spir a t ion of ot h er
food; h e h a s fou n d t h a t t h is dim in u t ion a m ou n t s t o a t h ir d. 41 Besides, it is
k n own t h a t t h e wa n t of t r a n spir a t ion for m s or in cr ea ses t h e disor der s of t h e
skin . Th e feedin g on por k ou gh t r a t h er t o be pr oh ibit ed in clim a t es wh er e t h e
people a r e su bject t o t h ese disor der s, a s in P a lest in e, Ar a bia , E gypt , a n d Libya .
EO1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Sir J oh n Ch a r din sa ys 42 t h a t t h er e is n ot a n a viga ble r iver in P er sia , except
t h e Ku r , wh ich is a t t h e ext r em it y of t h e em pir e. Th e a n cien t la w of t h e Ga u r s
wh ich pr oh ibit ed sa ilin g on r iver s wa s n ot t h er efor e a t t en ded wit h a n y
in con ven ien ce in t h is cou n t r y, t h ou gh it wou ld h a ve r u in ed t h e t r a de of a n ot h er .
F r equ en t ba t h in gs a r e ext r em ely u sefu l in h ot clim a t es. On t h is a ccou n t t h ey
a r e or da in ed in t h e Ma h om et a n la w a n d in t h e In dia n r eligion . In t h e In dies it
is a m ost m er it or iou s a ct t o pr a y t o God in t h e r u n n in g st r ea m ;43 bu t h ow cou ld
t h ese t h in gs be per for m ed in ot h er clim a t es?
Wh en a r eligion a da pt ed t o t h e clim a t e of on e cou n t r y cla sh es t oo m u ch wit h
t h e clim a t e of a n ot h er it ca n n ot be t h er e est a blish ed; a n d wh en ever it h a s been
in t r odu ced it h a s been a ft er wa r ds disca r ded, it seem s t o a ll h u m a n a ppea r a n ce

a s if t h e clim a t e h a d pr escr ibed t h e bou n ds of t h e Ch r ist ia n a n d t h e Ma h om et a n
r eligion s.
It follows h en ce, t h a t it is a lm ost a lwa ys pr oper for a r eligion t o h a ve
pa r t icu la r doct r in es, a n d a gen er a l wor sh ip. In la ws con cer n in g t h e pr a ct ice of
r eligiou s wor sh ip t h er e ou gh t t o be bu t few pa r t icu la r s; for in st a n ce, t h ey sh ou ld
com m a n d m or t ifica t ion in gen er a l a n d n ot a cer t a in kin d of m or t ifica t ion .
Ch r ist ia n it y is fu ll of good sen se; a bst in en ce is of divin e in st it u t ion ; bu t a
pa r t icu la r kin d of a bst in en ce is or da in ed by h u m a n a u t h or it y a n d t h er efor e m a y
be ch a n ged.
2'+%,1
1. T h ou gh ts on th e Com et, Con tin u ation of T h ou gh ts on th e Com et, ii.
2. Description of E th iopia, by M. P on ce, P h ysicia n . E d ifyin g L etters, coll. iv, p.
290.
3. See Diodor u s, i. 18.
4. Du pin , E cclesiastical L ibrary of th e S ixth Cen tu ry, v.
5. Collect ion of Voya ges t h a t Con t r ibu t ed t o t h e E st a blish m en t of t h e E a st In dia
Com pa n y, iii, pa r t I, p. 63.
6. P r idea u x, H istory of th e J ew s.
7. Th is is t h e in con ven ien ce of t h e doct r in e of F oe a n d La ockiu m .
8. De Leg., ii. 22.
9. Sa cr u m com m issu m , qu od n equ e expia r i pot en t , im pie com m issu m est ; qu od
expia r i pot en t pu blici sa cer dot es expia n t o.
10. See t h e a ccou n t of J oh n Du pla n Ca r pin , sen t t o Ta r t a r y by P ope In n ocen t
IV in t h e yea r 1246.
In dia Com pa n y, v, pa r t I, p. 192.
12. E d ifyin g L etters, coll. xv.
13. Politics, vii. 17.
14. Su et on iu s, L ife of Au gu stu s, 31.
15. Ibid.
In dia Com pa n y, iv, pa r t I p. 127.

17. See P r idea u x, L ife of M ah om et, p. 64.
18. Kor a n , i, ch a pt er “Of t h e Cow.”
19. On r en ou n cin g t h e la w of r et a lia t ion .
In dia Com pa n y, vii, p. 303. See a lso Mem oir s of t h e Cou n t de F or bin , a n d
wh a t h e sa ys of t h e people of Ma ca ssa r .
22. P la t o, La ws, ix.
23. Tr a gedy of Oedipu s a t Colon u s.
24. P la t o, La ws, ix.
25. A Ch in ese ph ilosoph er r ea son s t h u s a ga in st t h e doct r in e of F oe: “It is sa id
in a book of t h a t sect , t h a t t h e body is ou r dwellin g-pla ce a n d t h e sou l t h e
im m or t a l gu est wh ich lodges t h er e; bu t if t h e bodies of ou r r ela t ives a r e on ly
a lodgin g, it is n a t u r a l t o r ega r d t h em wit h t h e sa m e con t em pt we sh ou ld
feel for a st r u ct u r e of ea r t h a n d dir t . Is n ot t h is en dea vou r in g t o t ea r fr om
t h e h ea r t t h e vir t u e of love t o on e’s own pa r en t s? Th is lea ds u s even t o
n eglect t h e ca r e of t h e body, a n d t o r efu se it t h e com pa ssion a n d a ffect ion so
n ecessa r y for it s pr eser va t ion ; h en ce t h e disciples of F oe kill t h em selves by
t h ou sa n ds.” — Wor k of a n a n cien t Ch in ese ph ilosoph er , in t h e Collect ion of
F a t h er Du H a lde, iii, p. 52.
26. See Th o. Ba r t h olin , An t iqu it ies of t h e Da n es.
27. An Accou n t of J a pa n , in t h e Collect ion of Voya ges t h a t Con t r ibu t ed t o t h e
E st a blish m en t of t h e E a st In dia com pa n y.
28. F or bin , M em oirs.
29. H yde, R eligion of th e Persian s.
30. Xen oph on , On t h e Repu blic of At h en s, 3, § 8.
31. Leg. 3. Cod. de fer iis. Th is la w wa s dou bt less m a de on ly for t h e P a ga n s.
32. Th e Ca t h olics lie m or e t owa r d t h e sou t h , a n d t h e P r ot est a n t s t owa r ds t h e
n or t h .
33. Da m pier , Voyages, ii.
34. See Ber n ier , T ravels, ii, p. 137.
35. E d ifyin g L etters, coll. xii, p. 95.
36. Ber n ier , T ravels, ii, p. 137.

37. E u r ipides, in At h en a eu s, ii, p. 40.
38. L ife of M ah om et.
39. As in Ch in a .
40. M ed icin a S tatica, § 3, a ph or . 22.
41. Ibid., a ph or . 23.
42. Tr a vels in t o P er sia , ii.
43. Ber n ier , Tr a vels, ii.
=''>&\\N1&@(&6"7,&5*&/%$"+5'*&+'&+-%&U,+"#$5,-<%*+&'(&/%$5D5'*
"*0&5+,&UV+%.*"$&8'$5+H1
B1&@(&/%$5D5'F,&3%*+5<%*+,1
Th e piou s m a n a n d t h e a t h eist a lwa ys t a lk of r eligion ; t h e on e spea ks of wh a t
h e loves, a n d t h e ot h er of wh a t h e fea r s.
E1&@(&+-%&K'+5;%,&'(&:++"9-<%*+&+'&05((%.%*+&/%$5D5'*,1
Th e differ en t r eligion s of t h e wor ld do n ot give t o t h ose wh o pr ofess t h em
equ a l m ot ives of a t t a ch m en t ; t h is depen ds gr ea t ly on t h e m a n n er in wh ich t h ey
a gr ee wit h t h e t u r n of t h ou gh t a n d per cept ion s of m a n kin d.
We a r e ext r em ely a ddict ed t o idola t r y, a n d yet h a ve n o gr ea t in clin a t ion for
t h e r eligion of idola t er s; we a r e n ot ver y fon d of spir it u a l idea s, a n d yet a r e m ost
a t t a ch ed t o t h ose r eligion s wh ich t ea ch u s t o a dor e a spir it u a l bein g. Th is
pr oceeds fr om t h e sa t isfa ct ion we fin d in ou r selves a t h a vin g been so in t elligen t
a s t o ch oose a r eligion wh ich r a ises t h e deit y fr om t h a t ba sen ess in wh ich h e
h a d been pla ced by ot h er s. We look u pon idola t r y a s t h e r eligion of a n ign or a n t
people, a n d t h e r eligion wh ich h a s a spir it u a l bein g for it s object a s t h a t of t h e
m ost en ligh t en ed n a t ion s.
Wh en wit h a doct r in e t h a t gives u s t h e idea of a spir it u a l su pr em e bein g we
ca n st ill join t h ose of a sen sible n a t u r e a n d a dm it t h em in t o ou r wor sh ip, we
con t r a ct a gr ea t er a t t a ch m en t t o r eligion ; beca u se t h ose m ot ives wh ich we h a ve
ju st m en t ion ed a r e a dded t o ou r n a t u r a l in clin a t ion s for t h e object s of sen se.
Th u s t h e Ca t h olics, wh o h a ve m or e of t h is kin d of wor sh ip t h a n t h e P r ot est a n t s,
a r e m or e a t t a ch ed t o t h eir r eligion t h a n t h e P r ot est a n t s a r e t o t h eir s, a n d m or e
zea lou s for it s pr opa ga t ion .
Wh en t h e people of E ph esu s wer e in for m ed t h a t t h e fa t h er s of t h e cou n cil h a d
decla r ed t h ey m igh t ca ll t h e Vir gin Ma r y t h e Mot h er of God, t h ey wer e
t r a n spor t ed wit h joy, t h ey kissed t h e h a n ds of t h e bish ops, t h ey em br a ced t h eir

kn ees, a n d t h e wh ole cit y r esou n ded wit h a ccla m a t ion s.1
Wh en a n in t ellect u a l r eligion su per a dds a ch oice m a de by t h e deit y, a n d a
pr efer en ce for t h ose wh o pr ofess it over t h ose wh o do n ot , t h is gr ea t ly a t t a ch es
u s t o r eligion . Th e Ma h om et a n s wou ld n ot be su ch good Mu ssu lm a n s if, on t h e
on e h a n d, t h er e wer e n ot idola t r ou s n a t ion s wh o m a ke t h em im a gin e
t h em selves t h e ch a m pion s of t h e u n it y of God; a n d on t h e ot h er Ch r ist ia n s, t o
m a ke t h em believe t h a t t h ey a r e t h e object s of h is pr efer en ce.
A r eligion bu r den ed wit h m a n y cer em on ies 2 a t t a ch es u s t o it m or e st r on gly
t h a n t h a t wh ich h a s a fewer n u m ber . We h a ve a n ext r em e pr open sit y t o t h in gs
in wh ich we a r e con t in u a lly em ployed: wit n ess t h e obst in a t e pr eju dices of t h e
Ma h om et a n s a n d t h e J ews, 3 a n d t h e r ea din ess wit h wh ich ba r ba r ou s a n d
sa va ge n a t ion s ch a n ge t h eir r eligion , wh o, a s t h ey a r e em ployed en t ir ely in
h u n t in g or wa r , h a ve bu t few r eligiou s cer em on ies.
Men a r e ext r em ely in clin ed t o t h e pa ssion s of h ope a n d fea r ; a r eligion ,
t h er efor e, t h a t h a d n eit h er a h ea ven n or a h ell cou ld h a r dly plea se t h em . Th is
is pr oved by t h e ea se wit h wh ich for eign r eligion s h a ve been est a blish ed in
J a pa n , a n d t h e zea l a n d fon dn ess wit h wh ich t h ey wer e r eceived.4
In or der t o r a ise a n a t t a ch m en t t o r eligion it is n ecessa r y t h a t it sh ou ld
in cu lca t e pu r e m or a ls. Men wh o a r e kn a ves by r et a il a r e ext r em ely h on est in
t h e gr oss; t h ey love m or a lit y. An d wer e I n ot t r ea t in g of so gr a ve a su bject I
sh ou ld sa y t h a t t h is a ppea r s r em a r ka bly eviden t in ou r t h ea t r es: we a r e su r e
of plea sin g t h e people by sen t im en t s a vowed by m or a lit y; we a r e su r e of
sh ockin g t h em by t h ose it disa ppr oves.
Wh en ext er n a l wor sh ip is a t t en ded wit h gr ea t m a gn ificen ce, it fla t t er s ou r
m in ds a n d st r on gly a t t a ch es u s t o r eligion . Th e r ich es of t em ples a n d t h ose of
t h e cler gy gr ea t ly a ffect u s. Th u s even t h e m iser y of t h e people is a m ot ive t h a t
r en der s t h em fon d of a r eligion wh ich h a s ser ved a s a pr et ext t o t h ose wh o wer e
t h e ca u se of t h eir m iser y.
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Alm ost a ll civilised n a t ion s dwell in h ou ses; h en ce n a t u r a lly a r ose t h e idea of
bu ildin g a h ou se for God in wh ich t h ey m igh t a dor e a n d seek h im , a m idst a ll
t h eir h opes a n d fea r s.

An d, in deed, n ot h in g is m or e com for t a ble t o m a n kin d t h a n a pla ce in wh ich
t h ey m a y fin d t h e deit y pecu lia r ly pr esen t , a n d wh er e t h ey m a y a ssem ble
t oget h er t o con fess t h eir wea kn ess a n d t ell t h eir gr iefs.
Bu t t h is n a t u r a l idea n ever occu r r ed t o a n y bu t su ch a s cu lt iva t ed t h e la n d;
t h ose wh o h a ve n o h ou ses for t h em selves wer e n ever kn own t o bu ild t em ples.
Th is wa s t h e ca u se t h a t m a de J en gh iz Kh a n discover su ch a pr odigiou s
con t em pt for m osqu es. 5 Th is pr in ce exa m in ed t h e Ma h om et a n s;6 h e a ppr oved
of a ll t h eir doct r in es, except t h a t of t h e n ecessit y of goin g t o Mecca ; h e cou ld n ot
com pr eh en d wh y God m igh t n ot be ever ywh er e a dor ed. As t h e Ta r t a r s did n ot
dwell in h ou ses, t h ey cou ld h a ve n o idea of t em ples.
Th ose people wh o h a ve n o t em ples h a ve bu t a sm a ll a t t a ch m en t t o t h eir own
r eligion . Th is is t h e r ea son wh y t h e Ta r t a r s h a ve in a ll t im es given so gr ea t a
t oler a t ion ;7 wh y t h e ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s, wh o con qu er ed t h e Rom a n em pir e did
n ot h esit a t e a m om en t t o em br a ce Ch r ist ia n it y; wh y t h e sa va ges of Am er ica
h a ve so lit t le fon dn ess for t h eir own r eligion ; wh y, sin ce ou r m ission a r ies h a ve
bu ilt ch u r ch es in P a r a gu a y, t h e n a t ives of t h a t cou n t r y h a ve becom e so zea lou s
for ou r s.
As t h e deit y is t h e r efu ge of t h e u n h a ppy, a n d n on e a r e m or e u n h a ppy t h a n
cr im in a ls, m en h a ve been n a t u r a lly led t o t h in k t em ples a n a sylu m for t h ose
wr et ch es. Th is idea a ppea r ed st ill m or e n a t u r a l t o t h e Gr eeks, wh er e
m u r der er s, ch a sed fr om t h eir cit y a n d t h e pr esen ce of m en , seem ed t o h a ve n o
h ou ses bu t t h e t em ples, n or ot h er pr ot ect or s t h a n t h e gods.
At fir st t h ese wer e on ly design ed for in volu n t a r y h om icides; bu t wh en t h e
people m a de t h em a sa n ct u a r y for t h ose wh o h a d com m it t ed gr ea t cr im es t h ey
fell in t o a gr oss con t r a dict ion . If t h ey h a d offen ded m en , t h ey h a d m u ch gr ea t er
r ea son t o believe t h ey h a d offen ded t h e gods.
Th ese a sylu m s m u lt iplied in Gr eece. Th e t em ples, sa ys Ta cit u s,8 wer e filled
wit h in solven t debt or s a n d wicked sla ves; t h e m a gist r a t e fou n d it difficu lt t o
exer cise h is office; t h e people pr ot ect ed t h e cr im es of m en a s t h e cer em on ies of
t h e gods; a t len gt h t h e sen a t e wa s obliged t o r et r en ch a gr ea t n u m ber of t h em .
Th e la ws of Moses wer e per fect ly wise. Th e m a n wh o in volu n t a r ily killed
a n ot h er wa s in n ocen t ; bu t h e wa s obliged t o be t a ken a wa y fr om befor e t h e eyes
of t h e r ela t ives of t h e decea sed. Moses t h er efor e a ppoin t ed a n a sylu m for su ch

u n for t u n a t e people. 9 Th e per pet r a t or s of gr ea t cr im es deser ved n ot a pla ce of
sa fet y, a n d t h ey h a d n on e:10 t h e J ews h a d on ly a por t a ble t a ber n a cle, wh ich
con t in u a lly ch a n ged it s pla ce; t h is exclu ded t h e idea of a sa n ct u a r y. It is t r u e
t h a t t h ey h a d a ft er wa r ds a t em ple; bu t t h e cr im in a ls wh o wou ld r esor t t h it h er
fr om a ll pa r t s m igh t dist u r b t h e divin e ser vice. If per son s wh o h a d com m it t ed
m a n sla u gh t er h a d been dr iven ou t of t h e cou n t r y, a s wa s cu st om a r y a m on g t h e
Gr eeks, t h ey h a d r ea son t o fea r t h a t t h ey wou ld wor sh ip st r a n ge gods. All t h ese
con sider a t ion s m a de t h em est a blish cit ies of sa fet y, wh er e t h ey m igh t st a y t ill
t h e dea t h of t h e h igh -pr iest .
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Th e fir st m en , sa ys P or ph yr y,11 sa cr ificed on ly veget a bles. In a wor sh ip so
sim ple, ever y on e m igh t be pr iest in h is own fa m ily.
Th e n a t u r a l desir e of plea sin g t h e deit y m u lt iplied cer em on ies. H en ce it
followed, t h a t m en em ployed in a gr icu lt u r e beca m e in ca pa ble of obser vin g t h em
a ll a n d of fillin g u p t h e n u m ber .
P a r t icu la r pla ces wer e con secr a t ed t o t h e gods; it t h en beca m e n ecessa r y t h a t
t h ey sh ou ld h a ve m in ist er s t o t a ke ca r e of t h em ; in t h e sa m e m a n n er a s ever y
cit izen t ook ca r e of h is h ou se a n d dom est ic a ffa ir s. H en ce t h e people wh o h a ve
n o pr iest s a r e com m on ly ba r ba r ia n s; su ch wer e for m er ly t h e P eda lia n s, 12 a n d
su ch a r e st ill t h e Wolgu sky. 13
Men con secr a t ed t o t h e deit y ou gh t t o be h on ou r ed, especia lly a m on g people
wh o h a ve for m ed a n idea of a per son a l pu r it y n ecessa r y t o a ppr oa ch t h e pla ces
m ost a gr eea ble t o t h e gods, a n d for t h e per for m a n ce of pa r t icu la r cer em on ies.
Th e wor sh ip of t h e gods r equ ir in g a con t in u a l a pplica t ion , m ost n a t ion s wer e
led t o con sider t h e cler gy a s a sepa r a t e body. Th u s, a m on g t h e E gypt ia n s, t h e
J ews, a n d t h e P er sia n s, 14 t h ey con secr a t ed t o t h e deit y cer t a in fa m ilies wh o
per for m ed a n d per pet u a t ed t h e ser vice. Th er e h a ve been even r eligion s wh ich
h a ve n ot on ly est r a n ged ecclesia st ics fr om bu sin ess, bu t h a ve a lso t a ken a wa y
t h e em ba r r a ssm en t s of a fa m ily; a n d t h is is t h e pr a ct ice of t h e pr in cipa l br a n ch
of Ch r ist ia n it y.
I sh a ll n ot h er e t r ea t of t h e con sequ en ces of t h e la w of celiba cy: it is eviden t
t h a t it m a y becom e h u r t fu l in pr opor t ion a s t h e body of t h e cler gy m a y be t oo

n u m er ou s; a n d, in con sequ en ce of t h is, t h a t of t h e la it y t oo sm a ll.
By t h e n a t u r e of t h e h u m a n u n der st a n din g we love in r eligion ever yt h in g
wh ich ca r r ies t h e idea of difficu lt y; a s in poin t of m or a lit y we h a ve a specu la t ive
fon dn ess for ever yt h in g wh ich bea r s t h e ch a r a ct er of sever it y. Celiba cy h a s been
m ost a gr eea ble t o t h ose n a t ion s t o wh om it seem ed lea st a da pt ed, a n d wit h
wh om it m igh t be a t t en ded wit h t h e m ost fa t a l con sequ en ces. In t h e sou t h er n
cou n t r ies of E u r ope, wh er e, by t h e n a t u r e of t h e clim a t e, t h e la w of celiba cy is
m or e difficu lt t o obser ve, it h a s been r et a in ed; in t h ose of t h e n or t h , wh er e t h e
pa ssion s a r e less lively, it h a s been ba n ish ed. F u r t h er , in cou n t r ies wh er e t h er e
a r e bu t few in h a bit a n t s it h a s been a dm it t ed; in t h ose t h a t a r e va st ly popu lou s
it h a s been r eject ed. It is obviou s t h a t t h ese r eflect ion s r ela t e on ly t o t h e t oo
gr ea t ext en sion of celiba cy, a n d n ot t o celiba cy it self.
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As pa r t icu la r fa m ilies m a y be ext in ct , t h eir wea lt h ca n n ot be a per pet u a l
in h er it a n ce. Th e cler gy is a fa m ily wh ich ca n n ot be ext in ct ; wea lt h is t h er efor e
fixed t o it for ever , a n d ca n n ot go ou t of it .
P a r t icu la r fa m ilies m a y in cr ea se; it is n ecessa r y t h en t h a t t h eir wea lt h sh ou ld
a lso in cr ea se. Th e cler gy is a fa m ily wh ich ou gh t n ot t o in cr ea se; t h eir wea lt h
ou gh t t h en t o be lim it ed.
We h a ve r et a in ed t h e r egu la t ion s of t h e Levit ica l la ws a s t o t h e possession s
of t h e cler gy, except t h ose r ela t in g t o t h e bou n ds of t h ese possession s; in deed,
a m on g u s we m u st ever be ign or a n t of t h e lim it beyon d wh ich a n y r eligiou s
com m u n it y ca n n o lon ger be per m it t ed t o a cqu ir e.
Th ese en dless a cqu isit ion s a ppea r t o t h e people so u n r ea son a ble t h a t h e wh o
sh ou ld spea k in t h eir defen ce wou ld be r ega r ded a s a n idiot .
Th e civil la ws fin d som et im es m a n y difficu lt ies in a lt er in g est a blish ed a bu ses,
beca u se t h ey a r e con n ect ed wit h t h in gs wor t h y of r espect ; in t h is ca se a n
in dir ect pr oceedin g wou ld be a gr ea t er pr oof of t h e wisdom of t h e legisla t or t h a n
a n ot h er wh ich st r u ck dir ect ly a t t h e t h in g it self. In st ea d of pr oh ibit in g t h e
a cqu isit ion s of t h e cler gy, we sh ou ld seek t o give t h em a dist a st e for t h em ; t o
lea ve t h em t h e r igh t a n d t o t a ke a wa y t h e deed.

In som e cou n t r ies of E u r ope, a r espect for t h e pr ivileges of t h e n obilit y h a s
est a blish ed in t h eir fa vou r a r igh t of in dem n it y over im m ova ble goods a cqu ir ed
in m or t m a in . Th e in t er est of t h e pr in ce h a s in t h e sa m e ca se m a de h im exa ct a
r igh t of a m or t isa t ion . In Ca st ile, wh er e n o su ch r igh t pr eva ils, t h e cler gy h a ve
seized u pon ever yt h in g. In Ar a gon , wh er e t h er e is som e r igh t of a m or t isa t ion ,
t h ey h a ve obt a in ed less; in F r a n ce, wh er e t h is r igh t a n d t h a t of in dem n it y a r e
est a blish ed, t h ey h a ve a cqu ir ed less st ill; a n d it m a y be sa id t h a t t h e pr osper it y
of t h is kin gdom is in a gr ea t m ea su r e owin g t o t h e exer cise of t h ese t wo r igh t s.
If possible, t h en , in cr ea se t h ese r igh t s, a n d pu t a st op t o t h e m or t m a in .
Ren der t h e a n cien t a n d n ecessa r y pa t r im on y of t h e cler gy sa cr ed a n d
in viola ble, let it be fixed a n d et er n a l like t h a t body it self, bu t let n ew
in h er it a n ces be ou t of t h eir power .
P er m it t h em t o br ea k t h e r u le wh en t h e r u le h a s becom e a n a bu se; su ffer t h e
a bu se wh en it en t er s in t o t h e r u le.
Th ey st ill r em em ber in Rom e a cer t a in m em or ia l sen t t h it h er on som e
dispu t es wit h t h e cler gy, in wh ich wa s t h is m a xim : “Th e cler gy ou gh t t o
con t r ibu t e t o t h e expen ses of t h e st a t e, let t h e Old Test a m en t sa y wh a t it will.”
Th ey con clu ded fr om t h is pa ssa ge t h a t t h e a u t h or of t h is m em or ia l wa s bet t er
ver sed in t h e la n gu a ge of t h e t a x-ga t h er er s t h a n in t h a t of r eligion .
O1&@(&K'*",+%.5%,1
Th e lea st degr ee of com m on sen se will let u s see t h a t bodies design ed for a
per pet u a l con t in u a n ce sh ou ld n ot be a llowed t o sell t h eir fu n ds for life, n or t o
bor r ow for life; u n less we wa n t t h em t o be h eir s t o a ll t h ose wh o h a ve n o
r ela t ives a n d t o t h ose wh o do n ot ch oose t o h a ve a n y. Th ese m en pla y a ga in st
t h e people, bu t t h ey h old t h e ba n k t h em selves.
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“Th ose a r e gu ilt y of im piet y t owa r ds t h e gods,” sa ys P la t o, 15 “wh o den y t h eir
exist en ce; or wh o, wh ile t h ey believe it , m a in t a in t h a t t h ey do n ot in t er fer e wit h
wh a t is don e below; or , in fin e, wh o t h in k t h a t t h ey ca n ea sily a ppea se t h em by
sa cr ifices: t h r ee opin ion s equ a lly per n iciou s.” P la t o h a s h er e sa id a ll t h a t t h e
clea r est ligh t of n a t u r e h a s ever been a ble t o sa y in poin t of r eligion . Th e

m a gn ificen ce of ext er n a l wor sh ip h a s a pr in cipa l con n ect ion wit h t h e in st it u t ion
of t h e st a t e. In good r epu blics, t h ey h a ve cu r bed n ot on ly t h e lu xu r y of va n it y,
bu t even t h a t of su per st it ion . Th ey h a ve in t r odu ced fr u ga l la ws in t o r eligion . Of
t h is n u m ber a r e m a n y of t h e la ws of Solon ; m a n y of t h ose of P la t o on fu n er a ls,
a dopt ed by Cicer o; a n d, in fin e, som e of t h e la ws of Nu m a on sa cr ifices.16
Bir ds, sa ys Cicer o, 17 a n d pa in t in gs begu n a n d fin ish ed in a da y a r e gift s t h e
m ost divin e. We offer com m on t h in gs, sa ys a Spa r t a n , t h a t we m a y a lwa ys h a ve
it in ou r power t o h on ou r t h e gods.
Th e desir e of m a n t o pa y h is wor sh ip t o t h e deit y is ver y differ en t fr om t h e
m a gn ificen ce of t h is wor sh ip. Let u s n ot offer ou r t r ea su r es t o h im if we a r e n ot
pr ou d of sh owin g t h a t we est eem wh a t h e wou ld h a ve u s despise.
“Wh a t m u st t h e gods t h in k of t h e gift s of t h e im piou s,” sa id t h e a dm ir a ble
P la t o, “wh en a good m a n wou ld blu sh t o r eceive pr esen t s fr om a villa in ?”
Religion ou gh t n ot , u n der t h e pr et en ce of gift s, t o dr a w fr om t h e people wh a t
t h e n ecessit y of t h e st a t e h a s left t h em ; bu t a s P la t o sa ys, 18 “Th e ch a st e a n d t h e
piou s ou gh t t o offer gift s wh ich r esem ble t h em selves.”
Nor is it pr oper for r eligion t o en cou r a ge expen sive fu n er a ls. Wh a t is t h er e
m or e n a t u r a l t h a n t o t a ke a wa y t h e differ en ce of for t u n e in a cir cu m st a n ce a n d
in t h e ver y m om en t wh ich equ a ls a ll for t u n es?
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Wh en r eligion h a s m a n y m in ist er s it is n a t u r a l for t h em t o h a ve a ch ief a n d
for a sover eign pon t iff t o be est a blish ed. In m on a r ch ies, wh er e t h e sever a l
or der s of t h e st a t e ca n n ot be kept t oo dist in ct , a n d wh er e a ll power s ou gh t n ot
t o be lodged in t h e sa m e per son , it is pr oper t h a t t h e pon t ifica t e be dist in ct fr om
t h e em pir e. Th e sa m e n ecessit y is n ot t o be m et wit h in a despot ic gover n m en t ,
t h e n a t u r e of wh ich is t o u n it e a ll t h e differ en t power s in t h e sa m e per son . Bu t
in t h is ca se it m a y h a ppen t h a t t h e pr in ce m a y r ega r d r eligion a s h e does t h e
la ws t h em selves, a s depen den t on h is own will. To pr even t t h is in con ven ien ce,
t h er e ou gh t t o be m on u m en t s of r eligion , for in st a n ce, sa cr ed books wh ich fix
a n d est a blish it . Th e Kin g of P er sia is t h e ch ief of t h e r eligion ; bu t t h is r eligion
is r egu la t ed by t h e Kor a n . Th e E m per or of Ch in a is t h e sover eign pon t iff; bu t
t h er e a r e books in t h e h a n ds of ever ybody t o wh ich h e h im self m u st con for m . In

va in a cer t a in em per or a t t em pt ed t o a bolish t h em ; t h ey t r iu m ph ed over
t yr a n n y.
S1&@(&!'$%."+5'*&5*&4'5*+&'(&/%$5D5'*1
We a r e h er e polit icia n s, a n d n ot divin es; bu t t h e divin es t h em selves m u st
a llow, t h a t t h er e is a gr ea t differ en ce bet ween t oler a t in g a n d a ppr ovin g a
r eligion .
Wh en t h e legisla t or h a s believed it a du t y t o per m it t h e exer cise of m a n y
r eligion s, it is n ecessa r y t h a t h e sh ou ld en for ce a lso a t oler a t ion a m on g t h ese
r eligion s t h em selves. It is a pr in ciple t h a t ever y r eligion wh ich is per secu t ed
becom es it self per secu t in g; for a s soon a s by som e a cciden t a l t u r n it a r ises fr om
per secu t ion , it a t t a cks t h e r eligion wh ich per secu t ed it ; n ot a s r eligion , bu t a s
t yr a n n y.
It is n ecessa r y, t h en , t h a t t h e la ws r equ ir e fr om t h e sever a l r eligion s, n ot on ly
t h a t t h ey sh a ll n ot em br oil t h e st a t e, bu t t h a t t h ey sh a ll n ot r a ise dist u r ba n ces
a m on g t h em selves. A cit izen does n ot fu lfil t h e la ws by n ot dist u r bin g t h e
gover n m en t ; it is r equ isit e t h a t h e sh ou ld n ot t r ou ble a n y cit izen wh om soever .
BT1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
As t h er e a r e sca r cely a n y bu t per secu t in g r eligion s t h a t h a ve a n ext r a or din a r y
zea l for bein g est a blish ed in ot h er pla ces (beca u se a r eligion t h a t ca n t oler a t e
ot h er s seldom t h in ks of it s own pr opa ga t ion ), it m u st t h er efor e be a ver y good
civil la w, wh en t h e st a t e is a lr ea dy sa t isfied wit h t h e est a blish ed r eligion , n ot
t o su ffer t h e est a blish m en t of a n ot h er .19
Th is is t h en a fu n da m en t a l pr in ciple of t h e polit ica l la ws in r ega r d t o r eligion ;
t h a t wh en t h e st a t e is a t liber t y t o r eceive or t o r eject a n ew r eligion it ou gh t t o
be r eject ed; wh en it is r eceived it ou gh t t o be t oler a t ed.
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A pr in ce wh o u n der t a kes t o dest r oy or t o ch a n ge t h e est a blish ed r eligion of h is
kin gdom m u st gr ea t ly expose h im self. If h is gover n m en t be despot ic, h e r u n s a
m u ch gr ea t er r isk of seein g a r evolu t ion a r ise fr om su ch a pr oceedin g, t h a n fr om

a n y t yr a n n y wh a t soever , a n d a r evolu t ion is n ot a n u n com m on t h in g in su ch
st a t es. Th e r ea son of t h is is t h a t a st a t e ca n n ot ch a n ge it s r eligion , m a n n er s a n d
cu st om s in a n in st a n t , a n d wit h t h e sa m e r a pidit y a s t h e pr in ce pu blish es t h e
or din a n ce wh ich est a blish es a n ew r eligion .
Besides, t h e a n cien t r eligion is con n ect ed wit h t h e con st it u t ion of t h e kin gdom
a n d t h e n ew on e is n ot ; t h e for m er a gr ees wit h t h e clim a t e a n d ver y oft en t h e
n ew on e is opposed t o it . Mor eover , t h e cit izen s becom e disgu st ed wit h t h eir
la ws, a n d look u pon t h e gover n m en t a lr ea dy est a blish ed wit h con t em pt ; t h ey
con ceive a jea lou sy a ga in st t h e t wo r eligion s, in st ea d of a fir m belief in on e; in
a wor d, t h ese in n ova t ion s give t o t h e st a t e, a t lea st for som e t im e, bot h ba d
cit izen s a n d ba d believer s.
BE1&@(&4%*"$&6"7,1
P en a l la ws ou gh t t o be a voided in r espect t o r eligion : t h ey im pr in t fea r , it is
t r u e; bu t a s r eligion h a s a lso pen a l la ws wh ich in spir e t h e sa m e pa ssion , t h e on e
is effa ced by t h e ot h er , a n d bet ween t h ese t wo differ en t kin ds of fea r t h e m in d
becom es h a r den ed.
Th e t h r ea t en in gs of r eligion a r e so t er r ible, a n d it s pr om ises so gr ea t , t h a t
wh en t h ey a ct u a t e t h e m in d, wh a t ever effor t s t h e m a gist r a t e m a y u se t o oblige
u s t o r en ou n ce it , h e seem s t o lea ve u s n ot h in g wh en h e depr ives u s of t h e
exer cise of ou r r eligion , a n d t o ber ea ve u s of n ot h in g wh en we a r e a llowed t o
pr ofess it .
It is n ot , t h er efor e, by fillin g t h e sou l wit h t h e idea of t h is gr ea t object , by
h a st en in g h er a ppr oa ch t o t h a t cr it ica l m om en t in wh ich it ou gh t t o be of t h e
h igh est im por t a n ce, t h a t r eligion ca n be m ost su ccessfu lly a t t a cked: a m or e
cer t a in wa y is t o t em pt h er by fa vou r s, by t h e con ven ien ces of life, by h opes of
for t u n e; n ot by t h a t wh ich r evives, bu t by t h a t wh ich ext in gu ish es t h e sen se of
h er du t y; n ot by t h a t wh ich sh ocks h er , bu t by t h a t wh ich t h r ows h er in t o
in differ en ce a t t h e t im e wh en ot h er pa ssion s a ct u a t e t h e m in d, a n d t h ose wh ich
r eligion in spir es a r e h u sh ed in t o silen ce. As a gen er a l r u le in ch a n gin g a
r eligion t h e in vit a t ion s sh ou ld be m u ch st r on ger t h a n t h e pen a lt ies.
Th e t em per of t h e h u m a n m in d h a s a ppea r ed even in t h e n a t u r e of
pu n ish m en t s. If we t a ke a su r vey of t h e per secu t ion s in J a pa n , 20 we sh a ll fin d

t h a t t h ey wer e m or e sh ocked a t cr u el t or m en t s t h a n a t lon g su ffer in gs, wh ich
r a t h er wea r y t h a n a ffr igh t , wh ich a r e t h e m or e difficu lt t o su r m ou n t , fr om t h eir
a ppea r in g less difficu lt .
In a wor d, h ist or y su fficien t ly in for m s u s t h a t pen a l la ws h a ve n ever h a d a n y
ot h er effect t h a n t o dest r oy.
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A J ewess of t en yea r s of a ge, wh o wa s bu r n ed a t Lisbon a t t h e la st a u t o-da -fé,
ga ve occa sion t o t h e followin g lit t le piece, t h e m ost idle, I believe, t h a t ever wa s
wr it t en . Wh en we a t t em pt t o pr ove t h in gs so eviden t we a r e su r e n ever t o
con vin ce.
Th e a u t h or decla r es, t h a t t h ou gh a J ew h e h a s a r espect for t h e Ch r ist ia n
r eligion ; a n d t h a t h e sh ou ld be gla d t o t a ke a wa y fr om t h e pr in ces wh o a r e n ot
Ch r ist ia n s, a pla u sible pr et en ce for per secu t in g t h is r eligion .
“You com pla in ,” sa ys h e t o t h e In qu isit or s, “t h a t t h e E m per or of J a pa n ca u sed
a ll t h e Ch r ist ia n s in h is dom in ion s t o be bu r n ed by a slow fir e. Bu t h e will
a n swer , we t r ea t you wh o do n ot believe like u s, a s you you r selves t r ea t t h ose
wh o do n ot believe like you ; you ca n on ly com pla in of you r wea kn ess, wh ich h a s
h in der ed you fr om ext er m in a t in g u s, a n d wh ich h a s en a bled u s t o ext er m in a t e
you .
“Bu t it m u st be con fessed t h a t you a r e m u ch m or e cr u el t h a n t h is em per or .
You pu t u s t o dea t h wh o believe on ly wh a t you believe, beca u se we do n ot
believe a ll t h a t you believe. We follow a r eligion wh ich you you r selves kn ow t o
h a ve been for m er ly dea r t o God. We t h in k t h a t God loves it st ill, a n d you t h in k
t h a t h e loves it n o m or e: a n d beca u se you ju dge t h u s, you m a ke t h ose su ffer by
swor d a n d fir e wh o h old a n er r or so pa r don a ble a s t o believe t h a t God st ill loves
wh a t h e on ce loved.21
“If you a r e cr u el t o u s, you a r e m u ch m or e so t o ou r ch ildr en ; you ca u se t h em
t o be bu r n ed beca u se t h ey follow t h e in spir a t ion s given t h em by t h ose wh om t h e
la w of n a t u r e a n d t h e la ws of a ll n a t ion s t ea ch t h em t o r ega r d a s gods.
“You depr ive you r selves of t h e a dva n t a ge you h a ve over t h e Ma h om et a n s,
wit h r espect t o t h e m a n n er in wh ich t h eir r eligion wa s est a blish ed. Wh en t h ey

boa st of t h e n u m ber of t h eir believer s, you t ell t h em t h a t t h ey h a ve obt a in ed
t h em by violen ce, a n d t h a t t h ey h a ve ext en ded t h eir r eligion by t h e swor d; wh y
t h en do you est a blish you r s by fir e?
“Wh en you wou ld br in g u s over t o you , we object t o a sou r ce fr om wh ich you
glor y t o h a ve descen ded. You r eply t o u s, t h a t t h ou gh you r r eligion is n ew, it is
divin e; a n d you pr ove it fr om it s gr owin g a m idst t h e per secu t ion s of P a ga n s,
a n d wh en wa t er ed by t h e blood of you r m a r t yr s; bu t a t pr esen t you pla y t h e
pa r t of t h e Dioclet ia n s, a n d m a ke u s t a ke you r s.
“We con ju r e you , n ot by t h e m igh t y God wh om bot h you a n d we ser ve, bu t by
t h a t Ch r ist , wh o, you t ell u s, t ook u pon h im a h u m a n for m , t o pr opose h im self
a s a n exa m ple for you t o follow; we con ju r e you t o beh a ve t o u s a s h e h im self
wou ld beh a ve wer e h e u pon ea r t h . You wou ld h a ve u s becom e Ch r ist ia n s, a n d
you will n ot be so you r selves.
“Bu t if you will n ot be Ch r ist ia n s, be a t lea st m en ; t r ea t u s a s you wou ld, if
h a vin g on ly t h e wea k ligh t of ju st ice wh ich n a t u r e best ows, you h a d n ot a
r eligion t o con du ct , a n d a r evela t ion t o en ligh t en you .
“If h ea ven h a s h a d so gr ea t a love for you a s t o m a ke you see t h e t r u t h , you
h a ve r eceived a sin gu la r fa vou r ; bu t is it for ch ildr en wh o h a ve r eceived t h e
in h er it a n ce of t h eir fa t h er , t o h a t e t h ose wh o h a ve n ot ?
“If you h a ve t h is t r u t h , h ide it n ot fr om u s by t h e m a n n er in wh ich you
pr opose it . Th e ch a r a ct er ist ic of t r u t h is it s t r iu m ph over h ea r t s a n d m in ds, a n d
n ot t h a t im pot en cy wh ich you con fess wh en you wou ld for ce u s t o r eceive it by
t or t u r es.
“If you wer e wise, you wou ld n ot pu t u s t o dea t h for n o ot h er r ea son t h a n
beca u se we a r e u n willin g t o deceive you . If you r Ch r ist is t h e son of God, we
h ope h e will r ewa r d u s for bein g so u n willin g t o pr ofa n e h is m yst er ies; a n d we
believe t h a t t h e God wh om bot h you a n d we ser ve will n ot pu n ish u s for h a vin g
su ffer ed dea t h for a r eligion wh ich h e for m er ly ga ve u s, on ly beca u se we believe
t h a t h e st ill con t in u es t o give it .
“You live in a n a ge in wh ich t h e ligh t of n a t u r e sh in es m or e br igh t ly t h a n it
h a s ever don e; in wh ich ph ilosoph y h a s en ligh t en ed h u m a n u n der st a n din g; in
wh ich t h e m or a lit y of you r gospel h a s been bet t er kn own ; in wh ich t h e
r espect ive r igh t s of m a n kin d wit h r ega r d t o ea ch ot h er a n d t h e em pir e wh ich

on e con scien ce h a s over a n ot h er a r e best u n der st ood. If you do n ot t h er efor e
sh a ke off you r a n cien t pr eju dices, wh ich , wh ilst u n r ega r ded, m in gle wit h you r
pa ssion s, it m u st be con fessed t h a t you a r e in cor r igible, in ca pa ble of a n y degr ee
of ligh t or in st r u ct ion ; a n d a n a t ion m u st be ver y u n h a ppy t h a t gives a u t h or it y
t o su ch m en .
“Wou ld you h a ve u s fr a n kly t ell you ou r t h ou gh t s? You con sider u s r a t h er a s
you r en em ies t h a n a s t h e en em ies of you r r eligion ; for if you loved you r r eligion
you wou ld n ot su ffer it t o be cor r u pt ed by su ch gr oss ign or a n ce.
“It is n ecessa r y t h a t we sh ou ld wa r n you of on e t h in g; t h a t is, if a n y on e in
t im es t o com e sh a ll da r e t o a sser t t h a t in t h e a ge in wh ich we live, t h e people
of E u r ope wer e civilised, you will be cit ed t o pr ove t h a t t h ey wer e ba r ba r ia n s;
a n d t h e idea t h ey will h a ve of you will be su ch a s will dish on ou r you r a ge a n d
spr ea d h a t r ed over a ll you r con t em por a r ies.”
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We h a ve a lr ea dy m en t ion ed t h e per ver se t em per of t h e people of J a pa n . 22 Th e
m a gist r a t es con sider ed t h e fir m n ess wh ich Ch r ist ia n it y in spir es, wh en t h ey
a t t em pt ed t o m a ke t h e people r en ou n ce t h eir fa it h , a s in it self m ost da n ger ou s;
t h ey fa n cied t h a t it in cr ea sed t h eir obst in a cy. Th e la w of J a pa n pu n ish es
sever ely t h e lea st disobedien ce. Th e people wer e or der ed t o r en ou n ce t h e
Ch r ist ia n r eligion ; t h ey did n ot r en ou n ce it ; t h is wa s disobedien ce; t h e
m a gist r a t es pu n ish ed t h is cr im e; a n d t h e con t in u a n ce in disobedien ce seem ed
t o deser ve a n ot h er pu n ish m en t .
P u n ish m en t s a m on g t h e J a pa n ese a r e con sider ed a s t h e r even ge of a n in su lt
don e t o t h e pr in ce; t h e son gs of t r iu m ph su n g by ou r m a r t yr s a ppea r ed a s a n
ou t r a ge a ga in st h im : t h e t it le of m a r t yr pr ovoked t h e m a gist r a t es; in t h eir
opin ion it sign ified r ebel; t h ey did a ll in t h eir power t o pr even t t h eir obt a in in g
it . Th en it wa s t h a t t h eir m in ds wer e exa sper a t ed, a n d a h or r id st r u ggle wa s
seen bet ween t h e t r ibu n a ls t h a t con dem n ed a n d t h e a ccu sed wh o su ffer ed;
bet ween t h e civil la ws a n d t h ose of r eligion .
BL1&@(&+-%&8.'4"D"+5'*&'(&/%$5D5'*1
All t h e people of t h e E a st , except t h e Ma h om et a n s, believe a ll r eligion s in
t h em selves in differ en t . Th ey fea r t h e est a blish m en t of a n ot h er r eligion n o
ot h er wise t h a n a s a ch a n ge in gover n m en t . Am on g t h e J a pa n ese, wh er e t h er e
a r e m a n y sect s, a n d wh er e t h e st a t e h a s h a d for so lon g a t im e a n ecclesia st ica l
su per ior , t h ey n ever dispu t e on r eligion . 23 It is t h e sa m e wit h t h e people of
Sia m . 24 Th e Ca lm u cks 25 do m or e; t h ey m a ke it a poin t of con scien ce t o t oler a t e
ever y species of r eligion ; a t Ca licu t it is a m a xim of t h e st a t e t h a t ever y r eligion
is good.26
Bu t it does n ot follow h en ce, t h a t a r eligion br ou gh t fr om a fa r dist a n t
cou n t r y, a n d qu it e differ en t in clim a t e, la ws, m a n n er s, a n d cu st om s, will h a ve
a ll t h e su ccess t o wh ich it s h olin ess m igh t en t it le it . Th is is m or e pa r t icu la r ly
t r u e in gr ea t despot ic em pir es: h er e st r a n ger s a r e t oler a t ed a t fir st , beca u se
t h er e is n o a t t en t ion given t o wh a t does n ot seem t o st r ike a t t h e a u t h or it y of
t h e pr in ce. As t h ey a r e ext r em ely ign or a n t , a E u r opea n m a y r en der h im self
a gr eea ble by t h e kn owledge h e com m u n ica t es: t h is is ver y well in t h e begin n in g.
Bu t a s soon a s h e h a s a n y su ccess, wh en dispu t es a r ise a n d wh en m en wh o h a ve
som e in t er est becom e in for m ed of it , a s t h eir em pir e, by it s ver y n a t u r e, a bove
a ll t h in gs r equ ir es t r a n qu illit y, a n d a s t h e lea st dist u r ba n ce m a y over t u r n it ,
t h ey pr oscr ibe t h e n ew r eligion a n d t h ose wh o pr ea ch , it : dispu t es bet ween t h e
pr ea ch er s br ea kin g ou t , t h ey begin t o en t er t a in a dist a st e for a r eligion on
wh ich even t h ose wh o pr opose it a r e n ot a gr eed.
2'+%,1
1. St . Cyr il’s Let t er .
2. Th is does n ot con t r a dict wh a t I h a ve sa id in t h e la st ch a pt er of t h e pr ecedin g
book: I h er e spea k of t h e m ot ives of a t t a ch m en t of r eligion , a n d t h er e of t h e
m ea n s of r en der in g it m or e gen er a l.
3. Th is h a s been r em a r ked over a ll t h e wor ld. See, a s t o t h e Tu r ks, t h e Mission s
of t h e Leva n t ; t h e Collect ion of Voya ges t h a t Con t r ibu t ed t o t h e
E st a blish m en t of t h e E a st In dia Com pa n y, iii, pa r t I, p. 201 on t h e Moor s of
Ba t a via ; a n d F a t h er La ba t on t h e Ma h om et a n Negr oes, &c.
4. Th e Ch r ist ia n a n d t h e In dia n r eligion s: t h ese h a ve a h ell a n d a pa r a dise,
wh ich t h e r eligion of Sin t os h a s n ot .

5. E n t er in g t h e m osqu e of Boch a r a , h e t ook t h e Kor a n , a n d t h r ew it u n der h is
h or se’s feet . — H istory of th e T artars, pa r t III, p. 273.
6. Ibid., p. 342.
7. Th is disposit ion of m in d h a s been com m u n ica t ed t o t h e J a pa n ese, wh o, a s it
m a y be ea sily pr oved, der ive t h eir or igin fr om t h e Ta r t a r s.
8. An n als, iii. 60.
9. Nu m b., 35, 14.
10. Ibid., 16, ff.
11. De Abst in en t ia a n im a l, ii, § 5.
12. Liliu s Gir a ldu s, p. 726.
13. A people of Siber ia . See t h e a ccou n t given by Mr . E ver a r d Ysbr a n t Ides, in
t h e Collect ion of Tr a vels t o t h e Nor t h , viii.
14. Mr . H yde.
15. La ws, x.
16. Rogu m vin o n e r esper git o — La w of t h e Twelve Ta bles.
17. Cicer o der ives t h ese a ppr opr ia t e wor ds fr om P la t o, La ws, xii. — E D.
18. La ws, iv.
19. I do n ot m ea n t o spea k in t h is ch a pt er of t h e Ch r ist ia n r eligion ; for , a s I
h a ve elsewh er e obser ved, t h e Ch r ist ia n r eligion is ou r ch ief blessin g. See t h e
en d of t h e pr ecedin g ch a pt er , a n d t h e Defen ce of t h e Spir it of La ws, pa r t II.
20. In t h e Collect ion of Voya ges t h a t Con t r ibu t ed t o t h e E st a blish m en t of t h e
E a st In dia Com pa n y, v, pa r t 1, p. 192.
21. Th e sou r ce of t h e blin dn ess of t h e J ews is t h eir n ot per ceivin g t h a t t h e
econ om y of t h e Gospel is in t h e or der of t h e decr ees of God a n d t h a t it is in
t h is ligh t a con sequ en ce of h is im m u t a bilit y.
22. Book vi. 13.
23. See Kem pfer .
24. F or bin , M em oirs.
25. H istory of th e T artars, pa r t V.
26. P ir a r d, T ravels, 27.
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Men a r e gover n ed by sever a l kin ds of la ws; by t h e la w of n a t u r e; by t h e divin e
la w, wh ich is t h a t of r eligion ; by ecclesia st ica l, ot h er wise ca lled ca n on la w,
wh ich is t h a t of r eligiou s polit y; by t h e la w of n a t ion s, wh ich m a y be con sider ed
a s t h e civil la w of t h e wh ole globe, in wh ich sen se ever y n a t ion is a cit izen ; by
t h e gen er a l polit ica l la w, wh ich r ela t es t o t h a t h u m a n wisdom wh en ce a ll
societ ies der ive t h eir or igin ; by t h e pa r t icu la r polit ica l la w, t h e object of wh ich
is ea ch societ y; by t h e la w of con qu est fou n ded on t h is, t h a t on e n a t ion h a s been
willin g a n d a ble, or h a s h a d a r igh t t o offer violen ce t o a n ot h er ; by t h e civil la w
of ever y societ y, by wh ich a cit izen m a y defen d h is possession s a n d h is life
a ga in st t h e a t t a cks of a n y ot h er cit izen ; in fin e, by dom est ic la w, wh ich pr oceeds
fr om a societ y’s bein g divided in t o sever a l fa m ilies, a ll wh ich h a ve n eed of a
pa r t icu la r gover n m en t .
Th er e a r e t h er efor e differ en t or der s of la ws, a n d t h e su blim it y of h u m a n
r ea son con sist s in per fect ly kn owin g t o wh ich of t h ese or der s t h e t h in gs t h a t a r e
t o be det er m in ed ou gh t t o h a ve a pr in cipa l r ela t ion , a n d n ot t o t h r ow in t o
con fu sion t h ose pr in ciples wh ich sh ou ld gover n m a n kin d.
E1&@(&6"7,&05;5*%&"*0&-F<"*1
We ou gh t n ot t o decide by divin e la ws wh a t sh ou ld be decided by h u m a n la ws;
n or det er m in e by h u m a n wh a t sh ou ld be det er m in ed by divin e la ws.
Th ese t wo sor t s of la ws differ in t h eir or igin , in t h eir object , a n d in t h eir
n a t u r e.
It is u n iver sa lly a ckn owledged, t h a t h u m a n la ws a r e, in t h eir own n a t u r e,
differ en t fr om t h ose of r eligion ; t h is is a n im por t a n t pr in ciple: bu t t h is pr in ciple
is it self su bject t o ot h er s, wh ich m u st be in qu ir ed in t o.
1. It is in t h e n a t u r e of h u m a n la ws t o be su bject t o a ll t h e a cciden t s wh ich ca n

h a ppen , a n d t o va r y in pr opor t ion a s t h e will of m a n ch a n ges; on t h e con t r a r y,
by t h e n a t u r e of t h e la ws of r eligion , t h ey a r e n ever t o va r y. H u m a n la ws
a ppoin t for som e good; t h ose of r eligion for t h e best : good m a y h a ve a n ot h er
object , beca u se t h er e a r e m a n y kin ds of good; bu t t h e best is bu t on e; it ca n n ot
t h er efor e ch a n ge. We m a y a lt er la ws, beca u se t h ey a r e r epu t ed n o m or e t h a n
good; bu t t h e in st it u t ion s of r eligion a r e a lwa ys su pposed t o be t h e best .
2. Th er e a r e kin gdom s in wh ich t h e la ws a r e of n o va lu e a s t h ey depen d on ly
on t h e ca pr iciou s a n d fickle h u m ou r of t h e sover eign . If in t h ese kin gdom s t h e
la ws of r eligion wer e of t h e sa m e n a t u r e a s t h e h u m a n in st it u t ion s, t h e la ws of
r eligion t oo wou ld be of n o va lu e. It is h owever , n ecessa r y t o t h e societ y t h a t it
sh ou ld h a ve som et h in g fixed; a n d it is r eligion t h a t h a s t h is st a bilit y.
3. Th e in flu en ce of r eligion pr oceeds fr om it s bein g believed; t h a t of h u m a n
la ws fr om t h eir bein g fea r ed. An t iqu it y a ccor ds wit h r eligion , beca u se we h a ve
fr equ en t ly a fir m er belief in t h in gs in pr opor t ion t o t h eir dist a n ce; for we h a ve
n o idea s a n n exed t o t h em dr a wn fr om t h ose t im es wh ich ca n con t r a dict t h em .
H u m a n la ws, on t h e con t r a r y, r eceive a dva n t a ge fr om t h eir n ovelt y, wh ich
im plies t h e a ct u a l a n d pa r t icu la r a t t en t ion of t h e legisla t or t o pu t t h em in
execu t ion .
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If a sla ve, sa ys P la t o, defen ds h im self, a n d kills a fr eem a n , h e ou gh t t o be
t r ea t ed a s a pa r r icide. 1 Th is is a civil la w wh ich pu n ish es self-defen ce, t h ou gh
dict a t ed by n a t u r e.
Th e la w of H en r y VIII wh ich con dem n ed a m a n wit h ou t bein g con fr on t ed by
wit n esses wa s con t r a r y t o self-defen ce. In or der t o pa ss sen t en ce of
con dem n a t ion , it is n ecessa r y t h a t t h e wit n esses sh ou ld kn ow wh et h er t h e m a n
a ga in st wh om t h ey m a ke t h eir deposit ion is h e wh om t h ey a ccu se, a n d t h a t t h is
m a n be a t liber t y t o sa y, “I a m n ot t h e per son you m ea n .”
Th e la w pa ssed du r in g t h e sa m e r eign , wh ich con dem n ed ever y wom a n , wh o,
h a vin g ca r r ied on a cr im in a l com m er ce did n ot decla r e it t o t h e kin g befor e sh e
m a r r ied h im , viola t ed t h e r ega r d du e t o n a t u r a l m odest y. It is a s u n r ea son a ble
t o oblige a wom a n t o m a ke t h is decla r a t ion , a s t o oblige a m a n n ot t o a t t em pt
t h e defen ce of h is own life.

Th e la w of H en r y II wh ich con dem n ed t h e wom a n t o dea t h wh o lost h er ch ild,
in ca se sh e did n ot m a ke kn own h er pr egn a n cy t o t h e m a gist r a t e, wa s n ot less
con t r a r y t o self-defen ce. It wou ld h a ve been su fficien t t o oblige h er t o in for m on e
of h er n ea r est r ela t ives, wh o m igh t wa t ch over t h e pr eser va t ion of t h e in fa n t .
Wh a t ot h er in for m a t ion cou ld sh e give in t h is sit u a t ion , so t or t u r in g t o
n a t u r a l m odest y? E du ca t ion h a s h eigh t en ed t h e n ot ion of pr eser vin g t h a t
m odest y; a n d in t h ose cr it ica l m om en t s sca r cely h a s sh e a n y idea r em a in in g of
t h e loss of life.
Th er e h a s been m u ch t a lk of a la w in E n gla n d wh ich per m it t ed gir ls seven
yea r s old t o ch oose a h u sba n d. 2 Th is la w wa s sh ockin g in t wo wa ys; it h a d n o
r ega r d t o t h e t im e wh en n a t u r e gives m a t u r it y t o t h e u n der st a n din g, n or t o t h a t
in wh ich sh e gives m a t u r it y t o t h e body.
Am on g t h e Rom a n s, a fa t h er m igh t oblige h is da u gh t er t o r epu dia t e h er
h u sba n d, t h ou gh h e h im self h a d con sen t ed t o t h e m a r r ia ge. 3 Bu t it is con t r a r y
t o n a t u r e for a divor ce t o be in t h e power of a t h ir d per son .
A divor ce ca n be a gr eea ble t o n a t u r e on ly wh en it is by con sen t of t h e t wo
pa r t ies, or a t lea st of on e of t h em ; bu t wh en n eit h er con sen t s it is a m on st r ou s
sepa r a t ion . In sh or t , t h e power of divor ce ca n be given on ly t o t h ose wh o feel t h e
in con ven ien ces of m a r r ia ge, a n d wh o a r e sen sible of t h e m om en t wh en it is for
t h eir in t er est t o m a ke t h em cea se.
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Gu n deba ld, Kin g of Bu r gu n dy, decr eed t h a t if t h e wife or son of a per son
gu ilt y of r obber y did n ot r evea l t h e cr im e, t h ey wer e t o becom e sla ves. 4 Th is wa s
con t r a r y t o n a t u r e: a wife t o in for m a ga in st h er h u sba n d! a son t o a ccu se h is
fa t h er ! To a ven ge on e cr im in a l a ct ion , t h ey or da in ed a n ot h er st ill m or e cr im in a l.
Th e la w of Recessu in t h u s per m it s t h e ch ildr en of t h e a du lt er ess, or t h ose of
h er h u sba n d, t o a ccu se h er , a n d t o pu t t h e sla ves of t h e h ou se t o t h e t or t u r e. 5
H ow in iqu it ou s t h e la w wh ich , t o pr eser ve a pu r it y of m or a ls over t u r n s n a t u r e,
t h e or igin , t h e sou r ce of a ll m or a lit y!
Wit h plea su r e we beh old in ou r t h ea t r es a you n g h er o expr ess a s m u ch h or r or
a ga in st t h e discover y of h is m ot h er -in -la w’s gu ilt , a s a ga in st t h e gu ilt it self. In
h is su r pr ise, t h ou gh a ccu sed, ju dged, con dem n ed, pr oscr ibed, a n d cover ed wit h
in fa m y, h e sca r cely da r es t o r eflect on t h e a bom in a ble blood wh en ce P h a edr a
spr a n g; h e a ba n don s t h e m ost t en der object , a ll t h a t is m ost dea r , a ll t h a t lies
n ea r est h is h ea r t , a ll t h a t ca n fill h im wit h r a ge, t o deliver h im self u p t o t h e
u n m er it ed ven gea n ce of t h e gods. It is n a t u r e’s voice, t h e sweet est of a ll sou n ds,
t h a t in spir es u s wit h t h is plea su r e.
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An At h en ia n la w obliged ch ildr en t o pr ovide for t h eir fa t h er s wh en fa llen in t o
pover t y;6 it except ed t h ose wh o wer e bor n of a cou r t esa n , 7 t h ose wh ose ch a st it y
h a d been in fa m ou sly pr ost it u t ed by t h eir fa t h er , a n d t h ose t o wh om h e h a d n ot
given a n y m ea n s of ga in in g a livelih ood. 8
Th e la w con sider ed t h a t , in t h e fir st ca se, t h e fa t h er bein g u n cer t a in , h e h a d
r en der ed t h e n a t u r a l obliga t ion pr eca r iou s; t h a t in t h e secon d, h e h a d su llied
t h e life h e h a d given , a n d don e t h e gr ea t est in ju r y h e cou ld do t o h is ch ildr en in
depr ivin g t h em of t h eir r epu t a t ion ; t h a t in t h e t h ir d, h e h a d r en der ed
in su ppor t a ble a life wh ich h a d n o m ea n s of su bsist en ce. Th e la w su spen ded t h e
n a t u r a l obliga t ion of ch ildr en beca u se t h e fa t h er h a d viola t ed h is; it looked u pon
t h e fa t h er a n d t h e son a s n o m or e t h a n t wo cit izen s, a n d det er m in ed in r espect
t o t h em on ly fr om civil a n d polit ica l views; ever con sider in g t h a t a good r epu blic
ou gh t t o h a ve a pa r t icu la r r ega r d t o m a n n er s. I a m a pt t o t h in k t h a t Solon ’s la w
wa s a wise r egu la t ion in t h e fir st t wo ca ses, wh et h er t h a t in wh ich n a t u r e h a s
left t h e son in ign or a n ce wit h r ega r d t o h is fa t h er , or t h a t in wh ich sh e even
seem s t o or da in h e sh ou ld n ot own h im ; bu t it ca n n ot be a ppr oved wit h r espect
t o t h e t h ir d, wh er e t h e fa t h er h a d on ly viola t ed a civil in st it u t ion .
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Th e Vocon ia n la w or da in ed t h a t n o wom a n sh ou ld be left h eir ess t o a n est a t e,
n ot even if sh e h a d a n on ly ch ild. Never wa s t h er e a la w, sa ys St . Au gu st in e,
m or e u n ju st . 9 A for m u la of Ma r cu lfu s t r ea t s t h a t cu st om a s im piou s wh ich

depr ives da u gh t er s of t h e r igh t of su cceedin g t o t h e est a t e of t h eir fa t h er s.10
J u st in ia n gives t h e a ppella t ion of ba r ba r ou s t o t h e r igh t wh ich t h e m a les h a d
for m er ly of su cceedin g in pr eju dice t o t h e da u gh t er s. 11 Th ese n ot ion s pr oceeded
fr om t h eir h a vin g con sider ed t h e r igh t of ch ildr en t o su cceed t o t h eir fa t h er ’s
possession s a s a con sequ en ce of t h e la w of n a t u r e; wh ich it is n ot .
Th e la w of n a t u r e or da in s t h a t fa t h er s sh a ll pr ovide for t h eir ch ildr en ; bu t it
does n ot oblige t h em t o m a ke t h em t h eir h eir s. Th e division of pr oper t y, t h e
la ws of t h is division , a n d t h e su ccession a ft er t h e dea t h of t h e per son wh o h a s
h a d t h is division ca n be r egu la t ed on ly by t h e com m u n it y, a n d con sequ en t ly by
polit ica l or civil la ws.
Tr u e it is t h a t a polit ica l or civil or der fr equ en t ly dem a n ds t h a t ch ildr en
sh ou ld su cceed t o t h eir fa t h er ’s est a t e; bu t it does n ot a lwa ys m a ke t h is
n ecessa r y.
Th er e m a y be som e r ea son s given wh y t h e la ws of ou r fiefs a ppoin t t h a t t h e
eldest of t h e m a les, or t h e n ea r est r ela t ives of t h e m a le side, sh ou ld h a ve a ll,
a n d t h e fem a les n ot h in g, a n d wh y, by t h e la ws of t h e Lom ba r ds, 12 t h e sist er s,
t h e n a t u r a l ch ildr en , t h e ot h er r ela t ives; a n d, in t h eir defa u lt , t h e t r ea su r y
m igh t sh a r e t h e in h er it a n ce wit h t h e da u gh t er s.
It wa s r egu la t ed in som e of t h e dyn a st ies of Ch in a t h a t t h e br ot h er s of t h e
em per or sh ou ld su cceed t o t h e t h r on e, a n d t h a t t h e ch ildr en sh ou ld n ot . If t h ey
wer e willin g t h a t t h e pr in ce sh ou ld h a ve a cer t a in degr ee of exper ien ce, if t h ey
fea r ed h is bein g t oo you n g, a n d if it h a d becom e n ecessa r y t o pr even t eu n u ch s
fr om pla cin g ch ildr en su ccessively on t h e t h r on e, t h ey m igh t ver y ju st ly
est a blish a like or der of su ccession , a n d wh en som e wr it er s h a ve t r ea t ed t h ese
br ot h er s a s u su r per s, t h ey h a ve ju dged on ly by idea s r eceived fr om t h e la ws of
t h eir own cou n t r ies.13
Accor din g t o t h e cu st om of Nu m idia , 14 Desa lces, br ot h er of Ga la , su cceeded t o
t h e kin gdom ; n ot Ma ssin issa , h is son . An d even t o t h is da y, a m on g t h e Ar a bs
in Ba r ba r y, wh er e ea ch villa ge h a s it s ch ief, t h ey a dh er e t o t h is a n cien t cu st om ,
by ch oosin g t h e u n cle, or som e ot h er r ela t ive t o su cceed.15
Th er e a r e m on a r ch ies m er ely elect ive; a n d sin ce it is eviden t t h a t t h e or der
of su ccession ou gh t t o be der ived fr om t h e polit ica l or civil la ws, it is for t h ese
t o decide in wh a t ca ses it is a gr eea ble t o r ea son t h a t t h e su ccession be gr a n t ed

t o ch ildr en , a n d in wh a t ca ses it ou gh t t o be given t o ot h er s.
In cou n t r ies wh er e polygam y is est a blish ed, t h e pr in ce h a s m a n y ch ildr en ; a n d
t h e n u m ber of t h em is m u ch gr ea t er in som e of t h ese cou n t r ies t h a n in ot h er s.
Th er e a r e st a t es 16 wh er e it is im possible for t h e people t o m a in t a in t h e ch ildr en
of t h e kin g; t h ey m igh t t h er efor e m a ke it a la w t h a t t h e cr own sh a ll devolve, n ot
on t h e kin g’s ch ildr en , bu t on t h ose of h is sist er .
A pr odigiou s n u m ber of ch ildr en wou ld expose t h e st a t e t o t h e m ost dr ea dfu l
civil wa r s. Th e or der of su ccession wh ich gives t h e cr own t o t h e ch ildr en of t h e
sist er , t h e n u m ber of wh om is n ot la r ger t h a n t h ose of a pr in ce wh o h a s on ly on e
wife, m u st pr even t t h ese in con ven ien ces.
Th er e a r e people a m on g wh om r ea son s of st a t e, or som e m a xim s of r eligion ,
h a ve m a de it n ecessa r y t h a t t h e cr own sh ou ld be a lwa ys fixed in a cer t a in
fa m ily: h en ce, in In dia , pr oceeds t h e jea lou sy of t h eir t r ibes, 17 a n d t h e fea r of
losin g t h e descen t ; t h ey h a ve t h er e con ceived t h a t n ever t o wa n t pr in ces of t h e
blood r oya l, t h ey ou gh t t o t a ke t h e ch ildr en of t h e eldest sist er of t h e kin g.
A gen er a l m a xim : it is a n obliga t ion of t h e la w of n a t u r e t o pr ovide for ou r
ch ildr en ; bu t t o m a ke t h em ou r su ccessor s is a n obliga t ion of t h e civil or
polit ica l la w. H en ce a r e der ived t h e differ en t r egu la t ion s wit h r espect t o
ba st a r ds in t h e differ en t cou n t r ies of t h e wor ld; t h ese a r e a ccor din g t o t h e civil
or polit ica l la ws of ea ch cou n t r y.
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Th e Aba ssin es h a ve a m ost sever e len t of fift y da ys, wh ich wea ken s t h em t o
su ch a degr ee t h a t for a lon g t im e t h ey a r e in ca pa ble of bu sin ess: t h e Tu r ks do
n ot fa il t o a t t a ck t h em a ft er t h eir len t . 18 Religion ou gh t , in fa vou r of t h e n a t u r a l
r igh t of self-defen ce, t o set bou n ds t o t h ese cu st om s.
Th e J ews wer e obliged t o keep t h e Sa bba t h ; bu t it wa s a n in st a n ce of gr ea t
st u pidit y in t h is n a t ion n ot t o defen d t h em selves wh en t h eir en em ies ch ose t o
a t t a ck t h em on t h is da y.19
Ca m byses, la yin g siege t o P elu siu m , set in t h e fir st r a n k a gr ea t n u m ber of
t h ose a n im a ls wh ich t h e E gypt ia n s r ega r ded a s sa cr ed; t h e con sequ en ce wa s
t h a t t h e soldier s of t h e ga r r ison du r st n ot m olest t h em . Wh o does n ot see t h a t

self-defen ce is a du t y su per ior t o ever y pr ecept ?
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By t h e civil la w of t h e Rom a n s, 20 h e wh o t ook a t h in g pr iva t ely fr om a sa cr ed
pla ce wa s pu n ish ed on ly for t h e gu ilt of t h eft ; by t h e ca n on la w, h e wa s
pu n ish ed for t h e cr im e of sa cr ilege. 21 Th e ca n on la w t a kes cogn iza n ce of t h e
pla ce; t h e civil la ws of t h e fa ct . Bu t t o a t t en d on ly t o t h e pla ce is n eit h er t o
r eflect on t h e n a t u r e a n d defin it ion of a t h eft , n or on t h e n a t u r e a n d defin it ion
of sa cr ilege.
As t h e h u sba n d m a y dem a n d a sepa r a t ion by r ea son of t h e in fidelit y of h is
wife, t h e wife m igh t for m er ly dem a n d it on a ccou n t of t h e in fidelit y of t h e
h u sba n d. 22 Th is cu st om , con t r a r y t o a r egu la t ion m a de in t h e Rom a n la ws, 23 wa s
in t r odu ced in t o t h e ecclesia st ic cou r t , 24 wh er e n ot h in g wa s r ega r ded bu t t h e
m a xim s of ca n on la w; a n d in deed, if we con sider m a r r ia ge a s a t h in g m er ely
spir it u a l, a n d a s r ela t in g on ly t o t h e t h in gs of a n ot h er life, t h e viola t ion is in
bot h ca ses t h e sa m e, bu t t h e polit ica l a n d civil la ws of a lm ost a ll n a t ion s h a ve,
wit h r ea son , m a de a dist in ct ion bet ween t h em . Th ey h a ve r equ ir ed fr om t h e
wom en a degr ee of r eser ve a n d con t in en cy wh ich t h ey h a ve n ot exa ct ed fr om t h e
m en , beca u se in wom en , a viola t ion of ch a st it y su pposes a r en u n cia t ion of a ll
vir t u e; beca u se wom en , by viola t in g t h e la ws of m a r r ia ge, qu it t h e st a t e of t h eir
n a t u r a l depen den ce; beca u se n a t u r e h a s m a r ked t h e in fidelit y of wom en wit h
cer t a in sign s; a n d, in fin e, beca u se t h e ch ildr en of t h e wife bor n in a du lt er y
n ecessa r ily belon g a n d a r e a n expen se t o t h e h u sba n d, wh ile t h e ch ildr en
pr odu ced by t h e a du lt er y of t h e h u sba n d a r e n ot t h e wife’s, n or a r e a n expen se
t o t h e wife.
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Th e la ws of r eligion h a ve a gr ea t er su blim it y; t h e civil la ws a gr ea t er ext en t .
Th e la ws of per fect ion dr a wn fr om r eligion h a ve m or e in view t h e goodn ess of
t h e per son t h a t obser ves t h em t h a n of t h e societ y in wh ich t h ey a r e obser ved;

t h e civil la ws, on t h e con t r a r y, h a ve m or e in view t h e m or a l goodn ess of m en in
gen er a l t h a n t h a t of in dividu a ls.
Th u s, ven er a ble a s t h ose idea s a r e wh ich im m edia t ely spr in g fr om r eligion ,
t h ey ou gh t n ot a lwa ys t o ser ve a s a fir st pr in ciple t o t h e civil la ws; beca u se
t h ese h a ve a n ot h er , t h e gen er a l welfa r e of societ y.
Th e Rom a n s m a de r egu la t ion s a m on g t h em selves t o pr eser ve t h e m or a ls of
t h eir wom en ; t h ese wer e polit ica l in st it u t ion s. Upon t h e est a blish m en t of
m on a r ch y, t h ey m a de civil la ws on t h is h ea d, a n d for m ed t h em on t h e pr in ciples
of t h eir civil gover n m en t . Wh en t h e Ch r ist ia n r eligion beca m e pr edom in a n t , t h e
n ew la ws t h a t wer e t h en m a de h a d less r ela t ion t o t h e gen er a l r ect it u de of
m or a ls t h a n t o t h e h olin ess of m a r r ia ge; t h ey h a d less r ega r d t o t h e u n ion of t h e
t wo sexes in a civil t h a n in a spir it u a l st a t e.
At fir st , by t h e Rom a n la w, a h u sba n d, wh o br ou gh t ba ck h is wife in t o h is
h ou se a ft er sh e h a d been fou n d gu ilt y of a du lt er y, wa s pu n ish ed a s a n
a ccom plice in h er deba u ch . 25 J u st in ia n , fr om ot h er pr in ciples, or da in ed t h a t
du r in g t h e spa ce of t wo yea r s h e m igh t go a n d t a ke h er a ga in ou t of t h e
m on a st er y. 26
F or m er ly, wh en a wom a n , wh ose h u sba n d wa s gon e t o wa r , h ea r d n o lon ger
a n y t idin gs of h im , sh e m igh t ea sily m a r r y a ga in , beca u se sh e h a d in h er h a n ds
t h e power of m a kin g a divor ce. Th e la w of Con st a n t in e obliged t h e wom a n t o
wa it fou r yea r s, a ft er wh ich sh e m igh t sen d t h e bill of divor ce t o t h e gen er a l;
a n d, if h er h u sba n d r et u r n ed, h e cou ld n ot t h en ch a r ge h er wit h a du lt er y. 27 Bu t
J u st in ia n decr eed t h a t , let t h e t im e be n ever so lon g a ft er t h e depa r t u r e of h er
h u sba n d, sh e sh ou ld n ot m a r r y u n less, by t h e deposit ion a n d oa t h of t h e
gen er a l, sh e cou ld pr ove t h e dea t h of h er h u sba n d. 28 J u st in ia n h a d in view t h e
in dissolu bilit y of m a r r ia ge; bu t we m a y sa fely sa y t h a t h e h a d it t oo m u ch in
view. H e dem a n ded a posit ive pr oof wh en a n ega t ive on e wa s su fficien t ; h e
r equ ir ed a t h in g ext r em ely difficu lt t o give, a n a ccou n t of t h e fa t e of a m a n a t
a gr ea t dist a n ce, a n d exposed t o so m a n y a cciden t s; h e pr esu m ed a cr im e, t h a t
is, a deser t ion of t h e h u sba n d, wh en it wa s so n a t u r a l t o pr esu m e h is dea t h . H e
in ju r ed t h e com m on wea lt h by obligin g wom en t o live ou t of m a r r ia ge; h e in ju r ed
in dividu a ls by exposin g t h em t o a t h ou sa n d da n ger s.
Th e la w of J u st in ia n , wh ich r a n ked a m on g t h e ca u ses of divor ce t h e con sen t

of t h e h u sba n d a n d wife t o en t er in t o a m on a st er y, wa s en t ir ely opposit e t o t h e
pr in ciples of t h e civil la ws. 29 It is n a t u r a l t h a t t h e ca u ses of divor ce sh ou ld h a ve
t h eir or igin in cer t a in im pedim en t s wh ich cou ld n ot be for eseen befor e
m a r r ia ge; bu t t h is desir e of pr eser vin g ch a st it y m igh t be for eseen , sin ce it is in
ou r selves. Th is la w fa vou r s in con st a n cy in a st a t e wh ich is by it s ver y n a t u r e
per pet u a l; it sh ook t h e fu n da m en t a l pr in ciple of divor ce, wh ich per m it s t h e
dissolu t ion of on e m a r r ia ge on ly fr om t h e h ope of a n ot h er . In sh or t , if we view
it in a r eligiou s ligh t , it is n o m or e t h a n givin g vict im s t o God wit h ou t a
sa cr ifice.
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Wh en a r eligion wh ich pr oh ibit s polyga m y is in t r odu ced in t o a cou n t r y wh er e
it is per m it t ed, we ca n n ot believe (spea kin g on ly a s a polit icia n ) t h a t t h e la ws
of t h e cou n t r y ou gh t t o su ffer a m a n wh o h a s m a n y wives t o em br a ce t h is
r eligion ; u n less t h e m a gist r a t e or t h e h u sba n d sh ou ld in dem n ify t h em , by
r est or in g t h em in som e wa y or ot h er t o t h eir civil st a t e. Wit h ou t t h is t h eir
con dit ion wou ld be deplor a ble; n o soon er wou ld t h ey obey t h e la ws t h a n t h ey
wou ld fin d t h em selves depr ived of t h e gr ea t est a dva n t a ges of societ y.
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Th e t r ibu n a l of t h e in qu isit ion , for m ed by t h e Ch r ist ia n m on ks on t h e idea of
t h e t r ibu n a l of pen it en ce, is con t r a r y t o a ll good policy. It h a s ever ywh er e m et
wit h a gen er a l dislike, a n d m u st h a ve su n k u n der t h e opposit ion s it m et wit h ,
if t h ose wh o wer e r esolved t o est a blish it h a d n ot dr a wn a dva n t a ges even fr om
t h ese opposit ion s.
Th is t r ibu n a l is in su ppor t a ble in a ll gover n m en t s. In m on a r ch ies, it on ly
m a k es in for m er s a n d t r a it or s; in r epu blics, it on ly for m s dish on est m en ; in a
despot ic st a t e, it is a s dest r u ct ive a s t h e gover n m en t it self.
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It is on e a bu se of t h is t r ibu n a l t h a t , of t wo per son s a ccu sed of t h e sa m e cr im e,
h e wh o den ies is con dem n ed t o die; a n d h e wh o con fesses a voids t h e
pu n ish m en t . Th is h a s it s sou r ce in m on a st ic idea s, wh er e h e wh o den ies seem s
in a st a t e of im pen it en ce a n d da m n a t ion ; a n d h e wh o con fesses, in a st a t e of
r epen t a n ce a n d sa lva t ion . Bu t a dist in ct ion of t h is kin d ca n h a ve n o r ela t ion t o
h u m a n t r ibu n a ls. H u m a n ju st ice, wh ich sees on ly t h e a ct ion s, h a s bu t on e
com pa ct wit h m en , n a m ely, t h a t of in n ocen ce; divin e ju st ice, wh ich sees t h e
t h ou gh t s, h a s t wo, t h a t of in n ocen ce a n d r epen t a n ce.
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It h a s h a ppen ed in a ll a ges a n d cou n t r ies, t h a t r eligion h a s been blen ded wit h
m a r r ia ges. Wh en cer t a in t h in gs h a ve been con sider ed a s im pu r e or u n la wfu l,
a n d h a d n ever t h eless becom e n ecessa r y, t h ey wer e obliged t o ca ll in r eligion t o
legit im a t e in t h e on e ca se, a n d t o r epr ove in ot h er s.
On t h e ot h er h a n d, a s m a r r ia ge is of a ll h u m a n a ct ion s t h a t in wh ich societ y
is m ost in t er est ed, it beca m e pr oper t h a t t h is sh ou ld be r egu la t ed by t h e civil
la ws.
E ver yt h in g wh ich r ela t es t o t h e n a t u r e of m a r r ia ge, it s for m , t h e m a n n er of
con t r a ct in g it , t h e fr u it fu ln ess it occa sion s, wh ich h a s m a de a ll n a t ion s con sider
it a s t h e object of a pa r t icu la r ben edict ion , a ben edict ion wh ich , n ot bein g
a lwa ys a n n exed t o it , is su pposed t o depen d on cer t a in su per ior gr a ces; a ll t h is
is wit h in t h e r esor t of r eligion .
Th e con sequ en ces of t h is u n ion wit h r ega r d t o pr oper t y, t h e r ecipr oca l
a dva n t a ges, ever yt h in g wh ich h a s a r ela t ion t o t h e n ew fa m ily, t o t h a t fr om
wh ich it spr a n g, a n d t o t h a t wh ich is expect ed t o a r ise; a ll t h is r ela t es t o t h e
civil la ws.
As on e of t h e gr ea t object s of m a r r ia ge is t o t a ke a wa y t h a t u n cer t a in t y wh ich
a t t en ds u n la wfu l con ju n ct ion s, r eligion h er e st a m ps it s sea l, a n d t h e civil la ws
join t h eir s t o it , t o t h e en d t h a t it m a y be a s a u t h en t ic a s possible. Th u s, besides
t h e con dit ion s r equ ir ed by r eligion t o m a ke a m a r r ia ge va lid, t h e civil la ws m a y
st ill exa ct ot h er s.
Th e civil la ws r eceive t h is power fr om t h eir bein g a ddit ion a l obliga t ion s, a n d
n ot con t r a dict or y on es. Th e la w of r eligion in sist s u pon cer t a in cer em on ies, t h e
civil la ws on t h e con sen t of fa t h er s; in t h is ca se, t h ey dem a n d som et h in g m or e
t h a n t h a t of r eligion , bu t t h ey dem a n d n ot h in g con t r a r y t o it .
It follows h en ce, t h a t t h e r eligiou s la w m u st decide wh et h er t h e bon d be
in dissolu ble or n ot ; for if t h e la ws of r eligion h a d m a de t h e bon d in dissolu ble,
a n d t h e civil la ws h a d decla r ed it m igh t be br oken , t h ey wou ld be con t r a dict or y
t o ea ch ot h er .
Som et im es t h e r egu la t ion s m a de by t h e civil la ws wit h r espect t o m a r r ia ge a r e
n ot a bsolu t ely n ecessa r y; su ch a r e t h ose est a blish ed by t h e la ws, wh ich , in st ea d
of a n n u llin g t h e m a r r ia ge, on ly pu n ish t h ose wh o con t r a ct it .
Am on g t h e Rom a n s, t h e P a pia n la w decla r ed t h ose m a r r ia ges illega l wh ich
h a d been pr oh ibit ed, a n d yet on ly su bject ed t h em t o a pen a lt y;30 bu t a Sen a t u s
Con su lt u m , m a de a t t h e in st a n ce of t h e E m per or Ma r cu s An t on in u s, decla r ed
t h em void; t h er e t h en n o lon ger su bsist ed a n y su ch t h in g a s a m a r r ia ge, wife,
dowr y, or h u sba n d. 31 Th e civil la ws det er m in e a ccor din g t o cir cu m st a n ces:
som et im es t h ey a r e m ost a t t en t ive t o r epa ir t h e evil; a t ot h er s, t o pr even t it .
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Wit h r ega r d t o t h e pr oh ibit ion of m a r r ia ge bet ween r ela t ives, it is a t h in g
ext r em ely delica t e t o fix exa ct ly t h e poin t a t wh ich t h e la ws of n a t u r e st op a n d
wh er e t h e civil la ws begin . F or t h is pu r pose we m u st est a blish som e pr in ciples.
Th e m a r r ia ge of t h e son wit h t h e m ot h er con fou n ds t h e st a t e of t h in gs: t h e son
ou gh t t o h a ve a n u n lim it ed r espect for h is m ot h er , t h e wife a n u n lim it ed r espect
for h er h u sba n d; t h er efor e t h e m a r r ia ge of t h e m ot h er t o h er son wou ld su bver t
t h e n a t u r a l st a t e of bot h .
Besides, n a t u r e h a s for wa r ded in wom en t h e t im e in wh ich t h ey a r e a ble t o
h a ve ch ildr en , bu t h a s r et a r ded it in m en ; a n d, for t h e sa m e r ea son , wom en
soon er lose t h is a bilit y a n d m en la t er . If t h e m a r r ia ge bet ween t h e m ot h er a n d
t h e son wer e per m it t ed, it wou ld a lm ost a lwa ys be t h e ca se t h a t wh en t h e
h u sba n d wa s ca pa ble of en t er in g in t o t h e views of n a t u r e, t h e wife wou ld be
in ca pa ble.
Th e m a r r ia ge bet ween t h e fa t h er a n d t h e da u gh t er is con t r a r y t o n a t u r e, a s
well a s t h e ot h er ; bu t it is n ot less con t r a r y, beca u se it h a s n ot t h ese t wo
obst a cles. Th u s t h e Ta r t a r s, wh o m a y m a r r y t h eir da u gh t er s, 32 n ever m a r r y
t h eir m ot h er s, a s we see in t h e a ccou n t s we h a ve of t h a t n a t ion .33
It h a s ever been t h e n a t u r a l du t y of fa t h er s t o wa t ch over t h e ch a st it y of t h eir
ch ildr en . E n t r u st ed wit h t h e ca r e of t h eir edu ca t ion , t h ey a r e obliged t o
pr eser ve t h e body in t h e gr ea t est per fect ion , a n d t h e m in d fr om t h e lea st
cor r u pt ion ; t o en cou r a ge wh a t ever h a s a t en den cy t o in spir e t h em wit h vir t u ou s
desir es, a n d t o n ou r ish a becom in g t en der n ess. F a t h er s, a lwa ys em ployed in
pr eser vin g t h e m or a ls of t h eir ch ildr en , m u st h a ve a n a t u r a l a ver sion t o
ever yt h in g t h a t ca n r en der t h em cor r u pt . Ma r r ia ge, you will sa y, is n ot a
cor r u pt ion ; bu t befor e m a r r ia ge t h ey m u st spea k, t h ey m u st m a ke t h eir per son s
beloved, t h ey m u st sedu ce; it is t h is sedu ct ion wh ich ou gh t t o in spir e u s wit h
h or r or .
Th er e sh ou ld be t h er efor e a n in su r m ou n t a ble ba r r ier bet ween t h ose wh o
ou gh t t o give t h e edu ca t ion , a n d t h ose wh o a r e t o r eceive it , in or der t o pr even t
ever y kin d of cor r u pt ion , even t h ou gh t h e m ot ive be la wfu l. Wh y do fa t h er s so
ca r efu lly depr ive t h ose wh o a r e t o m a r r y t h eir da u gh t er s of t h eir com pa n y a n d
fa m ilia r it y?
Th e h or r or t h a t a r ises a ga in st t h e in cest of t h e br ot h er wit h t h e sist er sh ou ld
pr oceed fr om t h e sa m e sou r ce. Th e desir e of fa t h er s a n d m ot h er s t o pr eser ve t h e
m or a ls of t h eir ch ildr en a n d fa m ilies u n t a in t ed is su fficien t t o in spir e t h eir
offspr in g wit h a det est a t ion of ever yt h in g t h a t ca n lea d t o t h e u n ion of t h e t wo
sexes.
Th e pr oh ibit ion of m a r r ia ge bet ween cou sin s-ger m a n h a s t h e sa m e or igin . In
t h e ea r ly a ges, t h a t is, in t h e t im es of in n ocen ce, in t h e a ges wh en lu xu r y wa s
u n kn own , it wa s cu st om a r y for ch ildr en 34 u pon t h eir m a r r ia ge n ot t o r em ove
fr om t h eir pa r en t s, bu t set t le in t h e sa m e h ou se; a s a sm a ll h a bit a t ion wa s a t
t h a t t im e su fficien t for a la r ge fa m ily; t h e ch ildr en of t wo br ot h er s, or
cou sin s-ger m a n , 35 wer e con sider ed bot h by ot h er s a n d t h em selves a s br ot h er s.
Th e est r a n gem en t t h en bet ween t h e br ot h er s a n d sist er s a s t o m a r r ia ge
su bsist ed a lso bet ween t h e cou sin s-ger m a n . 36 Th ese pr in ciples a r e so st r on g a n d
n o n a t u r a l t h a t t h ey h a ve h a d t h eir in flu en ce a lm ost over a ll t h e ea r t h ,

in depen den t ly of a n y com m u n ica t ion . It wa s n ot t h e Rom a n s wh o t a u gh t t h e
in h a bit a n t s of F or m osa 37 t h a t t h e m a r r ia ge of r ela t ives of t h e fou r t h degr ee wa s
in cest u ou s; it wa s n ot t h e Rom a n s t h a t com m u n ica t ed t h is sen t im en t t o t h e
Ar a bs;38 it wa s n ot t h ey wh o t a u gh t it t o t h e in h a bit a n t s of t h e Ma ldivia n
isla n ds. 39
Bu t if som e n a t ion s h a ve n ot r eject ed m a r r ia ges bet ween fa t h er s a n d ch ildr en ,
sist er s a n d br ot h er s, we h a ve seen in t h e fir st book, t h a t in t elligen t bein gs do
n ot a lwa ys follow t h e la w of n a t u r e. Wh o cou ld h a ve im a gin ed it ! Religiou s idea s
h a ve fr equ en t ly m a de m en fa ll in t o t h ese m ist a k es. If t h e Assyr ia n s a n d t h e
P er sia n s m a r r ied t h eir m ot h er s, t h e fir st wer e in flu en ced by a r eligiou s r espect
for Sem ir a m is, a n d t h e secon d did it beca u se t h e r eligion of Zor oa st er ga ve a
pr efer en ce t o t h ese m a r r ia ges. 40 If t h e E gypt ia n s m a r r ied t h eir sist er s, it
pr oceeded fr om t h e wildn ess of t h e E gypt ia n r eligion , wh ich con secr a t ed t h ese
m a r r ia ges in h on ou r of Isis. As t h e spir it of r eligion lea ds u s t o a t t em pt
wh a t ever is gr ea t a n d difficu lt , we ca n n ot in fer t h a t a t h in g is n a t u r a l fr om it s
bein g con secr a t ed by a fa lse r eligion .
Th e pr in ciple wh ich in for m s u s t h a t m a r r ia ges bet ween fa t h er s a n d ch ildr en ,
bet ween br ot h er s a n d sist er s, a r e pr oh ibit ed in or der t o pr eser ve n a t u r a l
m odest y in fa m ilies will h elp u s t o t h e discover y of t h ose m a r r ia ges t h a t a r e
for bidden by t h e la w of n a t u r e, a n d of t h ose wh ich ca n be so on ly by t h e civil
la w.
As ch ildr en dwell, or a r e su pposed t o dwell in t h eir fa t h er ’s h ou se, a n d
con sequ en t ly t h e son -in -la w wit h t h e m ot h er -in -la w, t h e fa t h er -in -la w wit h t h e
da u gh t er -in -la w, or wife’s da u gh t er , t h e m a r r ia ge bet ween t h em is for bidden by
t h e la w of n a t u r e, in t h is ca se t h e r esem bla n ce h a s t h e sa m e effect a s t h e
r ea lit y, beca u se it spr in gs fr om t h e sa m e ca u se; t h e civil la w n eit h er ca n , n or
ou gh t t o per m it t h ese m a r r ia ges.
Th er e a r e n a t ion s, a s we h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved, a m on g wh om cou sin s-ger m a n
a r e con sider ed a s br ot h er s, beca u se t h ey com m on ly dwell in t h e sa m e h ou se;
t h er e a r e ot h er s wh er e t h is cu st om is n ot kn own . Am on g t h e fir st t h e m a r r ia ge
of cou sin s-ger m a n ou gh t t o be r ega r ded a s con t r a r y t o n a t u r e; n ot so a m on g t h e
ot h er s.
Bu t t h e la ws of n a t u r e ca n n ot be loca l. Th er efor e, wh en t h ese m a r r ia ges a r e

for bidden or per m it t ed, t h ey a r e, a ccor din g t o t h e cir cu m st a n ces, per m it t ed or
for bidden by a civil la w.
It is n ot a n ecessa r y cu st om for t h e br ot h er -in -la w a n d t h e sist er -in -la w t o
dwell in t h e sa m e h ou se. Th e m a r r ia ge bet ween t h em is n ot t h en pr oh ibit ed t o
pr eser ve ch a st it y in t h e fa m ily; a n d t h e la w wh ich for bids or per m it s it is n ot
a la w of n a t u r e, bu t a civil la w, r egu la t ed by cir cu m st a n ces a n d depen den t on
t h e cu st om s of ea ch cou n t r y: t h ese a r e ca ses in wh ich t h e la ws depen d on t h e
m or a ls, or cu st om s of t h e in h a bit a n t s.
Th e civil la ws for bid m a r r ia ges wh en by t h e cu st om s r eceived in a cer t a in
cou n t r y t h ey a r e fou n d t o be in t h e sa m e cir cu m st a n ces a s t h ose for bidden by
t h e la w of n a t u r e; a n d t h ey per m it t h em wh en t h is is n ot t h e ca se. Th e
pr oh ibit ion s of t h e la ws of n a t u r e a r e in va r ia ble, beca u se t h e t h in g on wh ich
t h ey depen d is in va r ia ble; t h e fa t h er , t h e m ot h er a n d t h e ch ildr en n ecessa r ily
dwell in t h e sa m e h ou se. Bu t t h e pr oh ibit ion s of t h e civil la ws a r e a cciden t a l
beca u se t h ey depen d on a n a cciden t a l cir cu m st a n ce, cou sin s-ger m a n a n d ot h er s
dwellin g in t h e h ou se by a cciden t .
Th is expla in s wh y t h e la ws of Moses, t h ose of t h e E gypt ia n s, 41 a n d of m a n y
ot h er n a t ion s per m it t ed t h e m a r r ia ge of t h e br ot h er -in -la w wit h t h e
sist er -in -la w; wh ilst t h ese ver y m a r r ia ges wer e disa llowed by ot h er n a t ion s.
In t h e In dies t h ey h a ve a ver y n a t u r a l r ea son for a dm it t in g t h is sor t of
m a r r ia ges. Th e u n cle is t h er e con sider ed a s t h e fa t h er a n d is obliged t o
m a in t a in a n d edu ca t e h is n eph ew a s if h e wer e h is own ch ild; t h is pr oceeds
fr om t h e disposit ion of t h is people, wh ich is good-n a t u r ed a n d fu ll of h u m a n it y.
Th is la w or t h is cu st om h a s pr odu ced a n ot h er ; if a h u sba n d h a s lost h is wife, h e
does n ot fa il t o m a r r y h er sist er :42 wh ich is ext r em ely n a t u r a l, for h is n ew
con sor t becom es t h e m ot h er of h er sist er ’s ch ildr en , a n d n ot a cr u el st epm ot h er .
BL1&!-"+&7%&,-'F$0&*'+&.%DF$"+%&#H&+-%&8.5*954$%,&'(&4'$5+59"$&6"7
+-',%&!-5*D,&7-59-&0%4%*0&'*&+-%&8.5*954$%,&'(&95;5$&6"71
As m en h a ve given u p t h eir n a t u r a l in depen den ce t o live u n der polit ica l la ws,
t h ey h a ve given u p t h e n a t u r a l com m u n it y of goods t o live u n der civil la ws.
By t h e fir st , t h ey a cqu ir ed liber t y; by t h e secon d, pr oper t y. We sh ou ld n ot
decide by t h e la ws of liber t y, wh ich , a s we h a ve a lr ea dy sa id, is on ly t h e

gover n m en t of t h e com m u n it y, wh a t ou gh t t o be decided by t h e la ws con cer n in g
pr oper t y. It is a pa r a logism t o sa y t h a t t h e good of t h e in dividu a l sh ou ld give
wa y t o t h a t of t h e pu blic; t h is ca n n ever t a ke pla ce, except wh en t h e gover n m en t
of t h e com m u n it y, or , in ot h er wor ds, t h e liber t y of t h e su bject is con cer n ed; t h is
does n ot a ffect su ch ca ses a s r ela t e t o pr iva t e pr oper t y, beca u se t h e pu blic good
con sist s in ever y on e’s h a vin g h is pr oper t y, wh ich wa s given h im by t h e civil
la ws, in va r ia bly pr eser ved.
Cicer o m a in t a in s t h a t t h e Agr a r ia n la ws wer e u n ju st ; beca u se t h e com m u n it y
wa s est a blish ed wit h n o ot h er view t h a n t h a t ever y on e m igh t be a ble t o
pr eser ve h is pr oper t y.
Let u s, t h er efor e, la y down a cer t a in m a xim , t h a t wh en ever t h e pu blic good
h a ppen s t o be t h e m a t t er in qu est ion , it is n ot for t h e a dva n t a ge of t h e pu blic
t o depr ive a n in dividu a l of h is pr oper t y, or even t o r et r en ch t h e lea st pa r t of it
by a la w, or a polit ica l r egu la t ion . In t h is ca se we sh ou ld follow t h e r igou r of t h e
civil la w, wh ich is t h e P a lla diu m of pr oper t y.
Th u s wh en t h e pu blic h a s occa sion for t h e est a t e of a n in dividu a l, it ou gh t
n ever t o a ct by t h e r igou r of polit ica l la w; it is h er e t h a t t h e civil la w ou gh t t o
t r iu m ph , wh ich , wit h t h e eyes of a m ot h er , r ega r ds ever y in dividu a l a s t h e
wh ole com m u n it y.
If t h e polit ica l m a gist r a t e wou ld er ect a pu blic edifice, or m a ke a n ew r oa d, h e
m u st in dem n ify t h ose wh o a r e in ju r ed by it ; t h e pu blic is in t h is r espect like a n
in dividu a l wh o t r ea t s wit h a n in dividu a l. It is fu lly en ou gh t h a t it ca n oblige a
cit izen t o sell h is in h er it a n ce, a n d t h a t it ca n st r ip h im of t h is gr ea t pr ivilege
wh ich h e h olds fr om t h e civil la w, t h e n ot bein g for ced t o a lien a t e h is
possession s.
Aft er t h e n a t ion s wh ich su bver t ed t h e Rom a n em pir e h a d a bu sed t h eir ver y
con qu est s, t h e spir it of liber t y ca lled t h em ba ck t o t h a t of equ it y. Th ey exer cised
t h e m ost ba r ba r ou s la ws wit h m oder a t ion : a n d if a n y on e sh ou ld dou bt t h e t r u t h
of t h is, h e n eed on ly r ea d Bea u m a n oir ’s a dm ir a ble wor k on ju r ispr u den ce,
wr it t en in t h e t welft h cen t u r y.
Th ey m en ded t h e h igh wa ys in h is t im e a s we do a t pr esen t . H e sa ys, t h a t
wh en a h igh wa y cou ld n ot be r epa ir ed, t h ey m a de a n ew on e a s n ea r t h e old a s
possible; bu t in dem n ified t h e pr opr iet or s a t t h e expen se of t h ose wh o r ea ped

a n y a dva n t a ge fr om t h e r oa d. 43 Th ey det er m in ed a t t h a t t im e by t h e civil la w;
in ou r da ys, we det er m in e by t h e la w of polit ics.
BO1&!-"+&7%&'FD-+&*'+&+'&0%950%&#H&+-%&/F$%,&'(&+-%&95;5$&6"7&7-%*&5+
5,&4.'4%.&+'&0%950%&#H&+-',%&'(&+-%&4'$5+59"$&6"71
Most difficu lt ies on t h is su bject m a y be ea sily solved by n ot con fou n din g t h e
r u les der ived fr om pr oper t y wit h t h ose wh ich spr in g fr om liber t y.
Is t h e dem esn e of a st a t e or gover n m en t a lien a ble, or is it n ot ? Th is qu est ion
ou gh t t o be decided by t h e polit ica l la w, a n d n ot by t h e civil. It ou gh t n ot t o be
decided by t h e civil la w, beca u se it is a s n ecessa r y t h a t t h er e sh ou ld be
dem esn es for t h e su bsist en ce of a st a t e, a s t h a t t h e st a t e sh ou ld h a ve civil la ws
t o r egu la t e t h e disposa l of pr oper t y.
If t h en t h ey a lien a t e t h e dem esn e, t h e st a t e will be for ced t o m a ke a n ew fu n d
for a n ot h er . Bu t t h is expedien t over t u r n s t h e polit ica l gover n m en t , beca u se, by
t h e n a t u r e of t h e t h in g, for ever y dem esn e t h a t sh a ll be est a blish ed, t h e su bject
will a lwa ys be obliged t o pa y m or e, a n d t h e sover eign t o r eceive less; in a wor d,
t h e dem esn e is n ecessa r y, a n d t h e a lien a t ion is n ot .
Th e or der of su ccession is, in m on a r ch ies, fou n ded on t h e welfa r e of t h e st a t e;
t h is m a kes it n ecessa r y t h a t su ch a n or der sh ou ld be fixed t o a void t h e
m isfor t u n es, wh ich I h a ve sa id m u st a r ise in a despot ic kin gdom , wh er e a ll is
u n cer t a in , beca u se a ll is a r bit r a r y.
Th e or der of su ccession is n ot fixed for t h e sa ke of t h e r eign in g fa m ily; bu t
beca u se it is t h e in t er est of t h e st a t e t h a t it sh ou ld h a ve a r eign in g fa m ily. Th e
la w wh ich r egu la t es t h e su ccession of in dividu a ls is a civil la w, wh ose view is
t h e in t er est of in dividu a ls; t h a t wh ich r egu la t es t h e su ccession t o m on a r ch y is
a polit ica l la w, wh ich h a s in view t h e welfa r e a n d pr eser va t ion of t h e kin gdom .
It follows h en ce, t h a t wh en t h e polit ica l la w h a s est a blish ed a n or der of
su ccession in gover n m en t , a n d t h is or der is a t a n en d, it is a bsu r d t o r ecla im t h e
su ccession in vir t u e of t h e civil la w of a n y n a t ion wh a t soever . On e pa r t icu la r
societ y does n ot m a ke la ws for a n ot h er societ y. Th e civil la ws of t h e Rom a n s a r e
n o m or e a pplica ble t h a n a n y ot h er civil la ws. Th ey t h em selves did n ot m a ke u se
of t h em wh en t h ey pr oceeded a ga in st kin gs; a n d t h e m a xim s by wh ich t h ey
ju dged kin gs a r e so a bom in a ble t h a t t h ey ou gh t n ever t o be r evived.

It follows a lso h en ce, t h a t wh en t h e polit ica l la w h a s obliged a fa m ily t o
r en ou n ce t h e su ccession , it is a bsu r d t o in sist u pon t h e r est it u t ion s dr a wn fr om
t h e civil la w. Rest it u t ion s a r e in t h e la w, a n d m a y be good a ga in st t h ose wh o
live in t h e la w: bu t t h ey a r e n ot pr oper for su ch a s h a ve been r a ised u p for t h e
la w, a n d wh o live for t h e la w.
It is r idicu lou s t o pr et en d t o decide t h e r igh t s of kin gdom s, of n a t ion s, a n d of
t h e wh ole globe by t h e sa m e m a xim s on wh ich (t o m a ke u se of a n expr ession of
Cicer o)44 we sh ou ld det er m in e t h e r igh t of a gu t t er bet ween in dividu a ls.
BP1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Ost r a cism ou gh t t o be exa m in ed by t h e r u les of polit ics, a n d n ot by t h ose of
t h e civil la w; a n d so fa r is t h is cu st om fr om r en der in g a popu la r gover n m en t
odiou s, t h a t it is, on t h e con t r a r y, ext r em ely well a da pt ed t o pr ove it s len it y. We
sh ou ld be sen sible of t h is ou r selves, if, wh ile ba n ish m en t is a lwa ys con sider ed
a m on g u s a s a pen a lt y, we a r e a ble t o sepa r a t e t h e idea of ost r a cism fr om t h a t
of pu n ish m en t .
Ar ist ot le 45 t ells u s, it is u n iver sa lly a llowed, t h a t t h is pr a ct ice h a s som et h in g
in it bot h h u m a n e a n d popu la r . If in t h ose t im es a n d pla ces wh er e t h is sen t en ce
wa s execu t ed t h ey fou n d n ot h in g in it t h a t a ppea r ed odiou s; is it for u s wh o see
t h in gs a t su ch a dist a n ce t o t h in k ot h er wise t h a n t h e a ccu ser , t h e ju dges a n d
t h e a ccu sed t h em selves?
An d if we con sider t h a t t h is ju dgm en t of t h e people loa ded t h e per son wit h
glor y on wh om it wa s pa ssed; t h a t wh en a t At h en s it fell u pon a m a n wit h ou t
m er it , 46 fr om t h a t ver y m om en t t h ey cea sed t o u se it ;47 we sh a ll fin d t h a t
n u m ber s of people h a ve obt a in ed a fa lse idea of it ; for it wa s a n a dm ir a ble la w
t h a t cou ld pr even t t h e ill con sequ en ces wh ich t h e glor y of a cit izen m igh t
pr odu ce by loa din g h im wit h n ew glor y.
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9'*+."059+'.H&".%&'(&+-%&,"<%&)$",,1
At Rom e t h e h u sba n d wa s per m it t ed t o len d h is wife t o a n ot h er . P lu t a r ch t ells
u s t h is in expr ess t er m s. 48 We kn ow t h a t Ca t o len t h is wife t o H or t en siu s, 49 a n d

Ca t o wa s n ot a m a n t o viola t e t h e la ws of h is cou n t r y.
On t h e ot h er h a n d, a h u sba n d wh o su ffer ed h is wife t o be deba u ch ed, wh o did
n ot br in g h er t o ju st ice, or wh o t ook h er a ga in a ft er h er con dem n a t ion wa s
pu n ish ed. 50 Th ese la ws seem t o con t r a dict ea ch ot h er , a n d yet a r e n ot
con t r a dict or y. Th e la w wh ich per m it t ed a Rom a n t o len d h is wife wa s visibly a
La ceda em on ia n in st it u t ion , est a blish ed wit h a view of givin g t h e r epu blic
ch ildr en of a good species, if I m a y be a llowed t h e t er m ; t h e ot h er h a d in view
t h e pr eser va t ion of m or a ls. Th e fir st wa s a la w of polit ics, t h e secon d a civil la w.
BS1&!-"+&7%&,-'F$0&*'+&0%950%&+-',%&!-5*D,&#H&+-%&95;5$&6"7&7-59-
'FD-+&+'&#%&0%950%0&#H&0'<%,+59&6"7,1
Th e la w of t h e Visigot h s en join s t h a t t h e sla ves of t h e h ou se sh a ll be obliged
t o bin d t h e m a n a n d wom a n t h ey su r pr ise in a du lt er y, a n d t o pr esen t t h em t o
t h e h u sba n d a n d t o t h e ju dge:51 a t er r ible la w, wh ich pu t s in t o t h e h a n ds of su ch
m ea n per son s, t h e ca r e of pu blic, dom est ic, a n d pr iva t e ven gea n ce!
Th is la w ca n be n owh er e pr oper bu t in t h e ser a glios of t h e E a st , wh er e t h e
sla ve wh o h a s t h e ch a r ge of t h e en closu r e is deem ed a n a ccom plice u pon t h e
discover y of t h e lea st in fidelit y. H e seizes t h e cr im in a ls, n ot so m u ch wit h a
view t o br in g t h em t o ju st ice, a s t o do ju st ice t o h im self, a n d t o obt a in a scr u t in y
in t o t h e cir cu m st a n ces of t h e a ct ion , in or der t o r em ove t h e su spicion of h is
n egligen ce.
Bu t , in cou n t r ies wh er e wom en a r e n ot gu a r ded, it is r idicu lou s t o su bject
t h ose wh o gover n t h e fa m ily t o t h e in qu isit ion of t h eir sla ves.
Th is in qu isit ion m a y, in cer t a in ca ses, be a t t h e m ost a pa r t icu la r dom est ic
r egu la t ion , bu t n ever a civil la w.
ET1&!-"+&7%&'FD-+&*'+&+'&0%950%&#H&+-%&8.5*954$%,&'(&+-%&95;5$&6"7,
+-',%&!-5*D,&7-59-&#%$'*D&+'&+-%&6"7&'(&2"+5'*,1
Liber t y con sist s pr in cipa lly in n ot bein g for ced t o do a t h in g, wh er e t h e la ws
do n ot oblige: people a r e in t h is st a t e on ly a s t h ey a r e gover n ed by civil la ws;
a n d beca u se t h ey live u n der t h ose civil la ws, t h ey a r e fr ee.
It follows h en ce, t h a t pr in ces wh o live n ot a m on g t h em selves u n der civil la ws

a r e n ot fr ee; t h ey a r e gover n ed by for ce; t h ey m a y con t in u a lly for ce, or be for ced.
H en ce it follows t h a t t r ea t ies m a de by for ce a r e a s obliga t or y a s t h ose m a de by
fr ee con sen t . Wh en we, wh o live u n der civil la ws, a r e, con t r a r y t o la w,
con st r a in ed t o en t er in t o a con t r a ct , we m a y, by t h e a ssist a n ce of t h e la w,
r ecover fr om t h e effect s of violen ce: bu t a pr in ce, wh o is a lwa ys in t h a t st a t e in
wh ich h e for ces, or is for ced, ca n n ot com pla in of a t r ea t y wh ich h e h a s been
com pelled t o sign . Th is wou ld be t o com pla in of h is n a t u r a l st a t e; it wou ld seem
a s if h e wou ld be a pr in ce wit h r espect t o ot h er pr in ces, a n d a s if ot h er pr in ces
sh ou ld be su bject s wit h r espect t o h im ; t h a t is, it wou ld be con t r a r y t o t h e
n a t u r e of t h in gs.
EB1&!-"+&7%&,-'F$0&*'+&0%950%&#H&4'$5+59"$&6"7,&!-5*D,&7-59-&#%$'*D
+'&+-%&6"7&'(&2"+5'*,1
P olit ica l la ws dem a n d t h a t ever y m a n be su bject t o t h e n a t u r a l a n d civil
cou r t s of t h e cou n t r y wh er e h e r esides, a n d t o t h e cen su r e of t h e sover eign .
Th e la w of n a t ion s r equ ir es t h a t pr in ces sh a ll sen d a m ba ssa dor s; a n d a r ea son
dr a wn fr om t h e n a t u r e of t h in gs does n ot per m it t h ese a m ba ssa dor s t o depen d
eit h er on t h e sover eign t o wh om t h ey a r e sen t , or on h is t r ibu n a ls. Th ey a r e t h e
voice of t h e pr in ce wh o sen ds t h em , a n d t h is voice ou gh t t o be fr ee; n o obst a cle
sh ou ld h in der t h e execu t ion of t h eir office: t h ey m a y fr equ en t ly offen d, beca u se
t h ey spea k for a m a n en t ir ely in depen den t ; t h ey m igh t be wr on gfu lly a ccu sed,
if t h ey wer e lia ble t o be pu n ish ed for cr im es: if t h ey cou ld be a r r est ed for debt s,
t h ese m igh t be for ged. Th u s a pr in ce, wh o h a s n a t u r a lly a bold a n d en t er pr isin g
spir it , wou ld spea k by t h e m ou t h of a m a n wh o h a d ever yt h in g t o fea r . We m u st
t h en be gu ided, wit h r espect t o a m ba ssa dor s, by r ea son s dr a wn fr om t h e la w of
n a t ion s, a n d n ot by t h ose der ived fr om polit ica l la w. Bu t if t h ey m a ke a n ill u se
of t h eir r epr esen t a t ive ch a r a ct er , a st op m a y be pu t t o it by sen din g t h em ba ck.
Th ey m a y even be a ccu sed befor e t h eir m a st er , wh o becom es eit h er t h eir ju dge
or t h eir a ccom plice.
EE1&!-%&F*-"44H&3+"+%&'(&+-%&?*9"&:+-F"$4"1
Th e pr in ciples we h a ve ju st been est a blish in g wer e cr u elly viola t ed by t h e
Spa n ia r ds. Th e In ca At h u a lpa 52 cou ld n ot be t r ied by t h e la w of n a t ion s: t h ey
t r ied h im by polit ica l a n d civil la ws; t h ey a ccu sed h im for pu t t in g t o dea t h som e
of h is own su bject s, for h a vin g m a n y wives &c., a n d t o fill u p t h e m ea su r e of
t h eir st u pidit y, t h ey con dem n ed h im , n ot by t h e polit ica l a n d civil la ws of h is
own cou n t r y, bu t by t h e polit ica l a n d civil la ws of t h eir s.
EG1&!-"+&7-%*I&#H&,'<%&)5.9F<,+"*9%I&+-%&4'$5+59"$&6"7&#%9'<%,
0%,+.F9+5;%&+'&+-%&3+"+%I&7%&'FD-+&+'&0%950%&#H&,F9-&"&4'$5+59"$&6"7&",
75$$&4.%,%.;%&5+I&7-59-&,'<%+5<%,&#%9'<%,&"&6"7&'(&2"+5'*,1
Wh en t h a t polit ica l la w wh ich h a s est a blish ed in t h e kin gdom a cer t a in or der
of su ccession becom es dest r u ct ive t o t h e body polit ic for wh ose sa ke it wa s
est a blish ed, t h er e is n ot t h e lea st r oom t o dou bt bu t a n ot h er polit ica l la w m a y
be m a de t o ch a n ge t h is or der ; a n d so fa r wou ld t h is la w be fr om opposin g t h e
fir st t h a t it wou ld in t h e m a in be en t ir ely con for m a ble t o it , sin ce bot h wou ld
depen d on t h is pr in ciple, t h a t TH E SAF E TY OF TH E P E OP LE IS TH E SUP RE ME LAW .
I h a ve sa id 53 t h a t a gr ea t st a t e becom in g a ccessor y t o a n ot h er is it self
wea ken ed, a n d even wea ken s t h e pr in cipa l. We kn ow t h a t it is for t h e in t er est
of t h e st a t e t o h a ve t h e su pr em e m a gist r a t e wit h in it self, t h a t t h e pu blic
r even u es be well a dm in ist er ed, a n d t h a t it s specie be n ot sen t a br oa d t o en r ich
a n ot h er cou n t r y. It is of im por t a n ce t h a t h e wh o is t o gover n h a s n ot im bibed
for eign m a xim s; t h ese a r e less a gr eea ble t h a n t h ose a lr ea dy est a blish ed.
Besides, m en h a ve a n ext r a va ga n t fon dn ess for t h eir own la ws a n d cu st om s:
t h ese con st it u t e t h e h a ppin ess of ever y com m u n it y; a n d, a s we lea r n fr om t h e
h ist or ies of a ll n a t ion s, a r e r a r ely ch a n ged wit h ou t violen t com m ot ion s a n d a
gr ea t effu sion of blood.
It follows h en ce, t h a t if a gr ea t st a t e h a s for it s h eir t h e possessor of a gr ea t
st a t e, t h e for m er m a y r ea son a bly exclu de h im , beca u se a ch a n ge in t h e or der of
su ccession m u st be of ser vice t o bot h cou n t r ies. Th u s a la w of Ru ssia , m a de in
t h e begin n in g of t h e r eign of E liza bet h , m ost wisely exclu ded fr om t h e
possession of t h e cr own ever y h eir wh o possessed a n ot h er m on a r ch y; t h u s t h e
la w of P or t u ga l disqu a lifies ever y st r a n ger wh o la ys cla im t o t h e cr own by r igh t

of blood.
Bu t if a n a t ion m a y exclu de, it m a y wit h gr ea t er r ea son be a llowed a r igh t t o
oblige a pr in ce t o r en ou n ce. If t h e people fea r t h a t a cer t a in m a r r ia ge will be
a t t en ded wit h su ch con sequ en ces a s sh a ll r ob t h e n a t ion of it s in depen den ce, or
dism em ber som e of it s pr ovin ces, it m a y ver y ju st ly oblige t h e con t r a ct or s a n d
t h eir descen da n t s t o r en ou n ce a ll r igh t over t h em ; wh ile h e wh o r en ou n ces, a n d
t h ose t o wh ose pr eju dice h e r en ou n ces, h a ve t h e less r ea son t o com pla in , a s t h e
st a t e m igh t or igin a lly h a ve m a de a la w t o exclu de t h em .
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'+-%.&95;5$&6"7,1
Th er e a r e cr im in a ls wh om t h e m a gist r a t e pu n ish es, t h er e a r e ot h er s wh om
h e r epr oves. Th e for m er a r e su bject t o t h e power of t h e la w, t h e la t t er t o h is
a u t h or it y: t h ose a r e cu t off fr om societ y; t h ese t h ey oblige t o live a ccor din g t o
t h e r u les of societ y.
In t h e exer cise of t h e P olice, it is r a t h er t h e m a gist r a t e wh o pu n ish es, t h a n
t h e la w; in t h e sen t en ce pa ssed on cr im es, it is r a t h er t h e la w wh ich pu n ish es,
t h a n t h e m a gist r a t e. Th e bu sin ess of t h e P olice con sist s in a ffa ir s wh ich a r ise
ever y in st a n t , a n d a r e com m on ly of a t r iflin g n a t u r e: t h er e is t h en bu t lit t le
n eed of for m a lit ies. Th e a ct ion s of t h e P olice a r e qu ick; t h ey a r e exer cised over
t h in gs wh ich r et u r n ever y da y: it wou ld be t h er efor e im pr oper for it t o in flict
sever e pu n ish m en t s. It is con t in u a lly em ployed a bou t m in u t e pa r t icu la r s; gr ea t
exa m ples a r e t h er efor e n ot design ed for it s pu r pose. It is gover n ed r a t h er by
r egu la t ion s t h a n la ws; t h ose wh o a r e su bject t o it s ju r isdict ion a r e in cessa n t ly
u n der t h e eye of t h e m a gist r a t e: it is t h er efor e h is fa u lt if t h ey fa ll in t o excess.
Th u s we ou gh t n ot t o con fou n d a fla gr a n t viola t ion of t h e la ws, wit h a sim ple
br ea ch of t h e P olice; t h ese t h in gs a r e of a differ en t or der .
H en ce it follows, t h a t t h e la ws of a n It a lia n r epu blic, 54 wh er e bea r in g
fir e-a r m s is pu n ish ed a s a ca pit a l cr im e a n d wh er e it is n ot m or e fa t a l t o m a ke
a n ill u se of t h em t h a n t o ca r r y t h em , is n ot a gr eea ble t o t h e n a t u r e of t h in gs.
It follows, m or eover , t h a t t h e a ppla u ded a ct ion of t h a t em per or wh o ca u sed
a ba ker t o be im pa led wh om h e fou n d gu ilt y of a fr a u d, wa s t h e a ct ion of a
su lt a n wh o kn ew n ot h ow t o be ju st wit h ou t com m it t in g a n ou t r a ge on ju st ice.
EL1&!-"+&7%&,-'F$0&*'+&('$$'7&+-%&D%*%."$&C5,4',5+5'*&'(&+-%&95;5$
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(.'<&+-%5.&'7*&2"+F.%1
Is it a good la w t h a t a ll civil obliga t ion s pa ssed bet ween sa ilor s in a sh ip in t h e
cou r se of a voya ge sh ou ld be n u ll? F r a n cis P ir a r d t ells u s 55 t h a t , in h is t im e, it
wa s n ot obser ved by t h e P or t u gu ese, t h ou gh it wa s by t h e F r en ch . Men wh o a r e
t oget h er on ly for a sh or t t im e, wh o h a ve n o wa n t s, sin ce t h ey a r e pr ovided for
by t h e pr in ce; wh o h a ve on ly on e object in view, t h a t of t h eir voya ge; wh o a r e n o
lon ger in societ y, bu t a r e on ly t h e in h a bit a n t s of a sh ip, ou gh t n ot t o con t r a ct
obliga t ion s t h a t wer e n ever in t r odu ced bu t t o su ppor t t h e bu r den of civil societ y.
In t h e sa m e spir it wa s t h e la w of t h e Rh odia n s, m a de a t a t im e wh en t h ey
a lwa ys followed t h e coa st s; it or da in ed t h a t t h ose wh o du r in g a t em pest st a yed
in a vessel sh ou ld h a ve sh ip a n d ca r go, a n d t h ose wh o qu it t ed it sh ou ld h a ve
n ot h in g.
2'+%,1
1. L aw s, ix.
2. M. Ba yle, in h is Criticism on th e H istory of Calvin ism , spea ks of t h is la w, p.
263.
3. See Leg. 5. Cod. de r epu diis et ju dicio de m or ibu s su bla t o.
4. La w of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, t it . 47.
5. In t h e Code of t h e Visigot h s, iii, t it . 4, § 13.
6. Un der pa in of in fa m y, a n ot h er u n der pa in of im pr ison m en t .
7. P lu t a r ch . Solon .
8. Ibid., a n d Ga llien , in E xh or t . a d Ar t ., 8.
9. Cit y of God, iii. 21.
10. Book ii. 12.
11. Nov. 21.
12. Book ii, t it . 14, § 6, 7, a n d 8.
13. F a t h er Du H a lde on t h e Secon d Dyn a st y.
14. Livy, xxix. 29.

15. Sh a w, Tr a vels, i, p. 402.
16. See t h e Collect ion of Voya ges t h a t Con t r ibu t ed t o t h e E st a blish m en t of t h e
E a st In dia Com pa n y, iv, pa r t I, p. 114. An d Mr . Sm it h , Voya ge t o Gu in ea ,
pa r t II, p. 150, con cer n in g t h e kin gdom of J u ida .
17. See E difyin g Let t er s, coll. xiv, a n d t h e Voya ges t h a t Con t r ibu t ed t o t h e
E st a blish m en t of t h e E a st In dia Com pa n y, iii, pa r t II, p. 644.
In dia Com pa n y, iv, pa r t I, pp. 35, 103.
19. As t h ey did wh en P om pey besieged t h e Tem ple. Dio, xxxvii, 16.
20. Leg., 5, ff. a d. leg. J u lia m pecu la t u s.
21. Ca p. qu isqu is 17, qu a est ion e 4. Cu ja s, Obser va t ., xiii. 19, t om . iii.
22. Bea u m a n oir , An cien t Cu st om s of Bea u voisis, 18, § 6.
23. Leg. 1. Cod. a d. leg. J u l. de a du lt er iis.
24. At pr esen t t h ey do n ot t a ke cogn iza n ce of t h ese t h in gs in F r a n ce.
25. Leg. ii, § u lt ., ff. a d. leg. J u l. de a du lt en is.
26. Nov. 134. Col. 9, ca p. x, t it . 170.
27. Leg. 7, Cod. de r epu diis, et ju r icio de m or ib. su bla t o.
28. Au t h . H odie qu a n t iscu m qu e. Cod. de r epu diis.
29. Au t h . Qu od h odie. Cod. de r epu diis.
30. See wh a t h a s been sa id on t h is su bject , in book xxiii. 21, in t h e r ela t ion t h ey
bea r t o t h e n u m ber of in h a bit a n t s.
31. See Leg. 16, ff. de r it u n u pt ia r u m , a n d Leg. 3, § 1; a lso Dig. de don a t ion ibu s
in t er vir u m et u xor em .
32. Th is la w is ver y a n cien t a m on g t h em . At t ila , sa ys P r iscu s, in h is em ba ssy
st opped in a cer t a in pla ce t o m a r r y E sca h is da u gh t er . “A t h in g per m it t ed,”
h e a dds, “by t h e la ws of t h e Scyt h ia n s,” p. 22.
33. H istory of th e T artars, pa r t III, p. 256.
34. It wa s t h u s a m on g t h e a n cien t Rom a n s.
35. Am on g t h e Rom a n s t h ey h a d t h e sa m e n a m e; t h e cou sin s-ger m a n wer e
ca lled br ot h er s.
36. It wa s t h u s a t Rom e in t h e fir st a ges, t ill t h e people m a de a la w t o per m it
t h em ; t h ey wer e willin g t o fa vou r a m a n ext r em ely popu la r , wh o h a d
m a r r ied h is cou sin -ger m a n . P lu t a r ch ’s t r ea t ise en t it led Qu est ion s

Con cer n in g t h e Affa ir s of t h e Rom a n s.
37. Collect ion of Voya ges t o t h e In dies, v, pa r t 1. An a ccou n t of t h e st a t e of t h e
isle of F or m osa .
38. Kor a n , ch a pt er “On Wom en .”
39. See F r a n cis P ir a r d.
40. Th ey wer e con sider ed a s m or e h on ou r a ble. See P h ilo, De Specia libu s legib.
qu a e per t in et a d pr a ecept a deca logi, p. 778, P a r is, 1640.
41. See Leg. 8, Cod. de in cest is et in u t ilibu s n u pt iis.
42. E difyin g Let t er s, coll. xiv, p. 403.
43. “Th e lor d a ppoin t ed collect or s t o r eceive t h e t oll fr om t h e pea sa n t , t h e
gen t lem en wer e obliged t o con t r ibu t e by t h e cou n t , a n d t h e cler gy t o t h e
bish op.” — Bea u m a n oir , 25, §§ 13, 17.
44. De Leg., i.
45. P olit ics, iii. 13.
46. H yper bolu s. See P lu t a r ch , Ar ist ides.
47. It wa s fou n d opposit e t o t h e spir it of t h e legisla t or . See below, xxix. 7.
48. P lu t a r ch in h is com pa r ison bet ween Lycu r gu s a n d Nu m a .
49. P lu t a r ch , Ca t o t h e You n ger .
50. Leg. 11 § u lt ., ff. a d. leg. J u l. de a du lt er iis.
51. La w of t h e Visigot h s, iii, t it . 4, § 6.
52. See Ga r cila sso de la Vega , p. 108.
53. See v. 14; viii. 16-20; ix. 4-7; a n d x. 9, 10.
54. Ven ice.
55. Ch a pt er 14, pa r t XII.
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B1&@(&+-%&@.5D5*&"*0&/%;'$F+5'*,&'(&+-%&/'<"*&6"7,&'*&3F99%,,5'*,1
Th is a ffa ir der ives it s est a blish m en t fr om t h e m ost dist a n t a n t iqu it y, a n d t o
pen et r a t e t o it s fou n da t ion , per m it m e t o sea r ch a m on g t h e fir st la ws of t h e
Rom a n s for wh a t , I believe, n obody yet h a s been so h a ppy a s t o discover .
We kn ow t h a t Rom u lu s 1 divided t h e la n d of h is lit t le kin gdom a m on g h is
su bject s; it seem s t o m e t h a t h en ce t h e la ws of Rom e on su ccession s wer e
der ived.
Th e la w of t h e division of la n ds m a de it n ecessa r y t h a t t h e pr oper t y of on e
fa m ily sh ou ld n ot pa ss in t o a n ot h er : h en ce it followed t h a t t h er e wer e bu t t wo
or der s of h eir s est a blish ed by la w, t h e ch ildr en a n d a ll t h e descen da n t s t h a t
lived u n der t h e power of t h e fa t h er , wh om t h ey ca lled su i h a er edes, or h is
n a t u r a l h eir s; a n d, in t h eir defa u lt , t h e n ea r est r ela t ives on t h e m a le side,
wh om t h ey ca lled a gn a t i.2
It followed likewise, t h a t t h e r ela t ives on t h e fem a le side, wh om t h ey ca lled
cogn a t i, ou gh t n ot t o su cceed; t h ey wou ld h a ve con veyed t h e est a t e in t o a n ot h er
fa m ily, wh ich wa s n ot a llowed.
Th en ce a lso it followed t h a t t h e ch ildr en ou gh t n ot t o su cceed t o t h e m ot h er ,
n or t h e m ot h er t o h er ch ildr en ; for t h is m igh t ca r r y t h e est a t e of on e fa m ily in t o
a n ot h er . Th u s we see t h em exclu ded by t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles:3 it ca lled
n on e t o t h e su ccession bu t t h e a gn a t i, a n d t h er e wa s n o a gn a t ion bet ween t h e
son a n d t h e m ot h er .
Bu t it wa s in differ en t wh et h er t h e su u s h aeres, or , in defa u lt of su ch , t h e
n ea r est by a gn a t ion , wa s m a le or fem a le; beca u se, a s t h e r ela t ives on t h e
m ot h er ’s side cou ld n ot su cceed, t h ou gh a wom a n wh o wa s a n h eir ess sh ou ld
h a ppen t o m a r r y, yet t h e est a t e a lwa ys r et u r n ed in t o t h e fa m ily wh en ce it ca m e.
On t h is a ccou n t , t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles does n ot dist in gu ish , wh et h er t h e
per son wh o su cceeded wa s m a le or fem a le.4
Th is wa s t h e ca u se t h a t , t h ou gh t h e gr a n dch ildr en by t h e son su cceeded t o t h e

gr a n dfa t h er , t h e gr a n dch ildr en by t h e da u gh t er did n ot su cceed; for , t o pr even t
t h e est a t e fr om pa ssin g in t o a n ot h er fa m ily, t h e a gn a t i wer e pr efer r ed t o t h em .
H en ce t h e da u gh t er , a n d n ot h er ch ildr en , su cceeded t o t h e fa t h er .5
Th u s a m on g t h e pr im it ive Rom a n s, t h e wom en su cceeded, wh en t h is wa s
a gr eea ble t o t h e la w of t h e division of la n ds, a n d t h ey did n ot su cceed, wh en t h is
m igh t su ffer by it .
Su ch wer e t h e la ws of su ccession a m on g t h e pr im it ive Rom a n s; a n d a s t h ese
h a d a n a t u r a l depen den ce on t h e con st it u t ion , a n d wer e der ived fr om t h e
division of la n ds, it is ea sy t o per ceive t h a t t h ey h a d n ot a for eign or igin , a n d
wer e n ot of t h e n u m ber of t h ose br ou gh t in t o t h e r epu blic by t h e depu t ies sen t
in t o t h e cit ies of Gr eece.
Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s t ells u s 6 t h a t Ser viu s Tu lliu s, fin din g t h e la ws of
Rom u lu s a n d Nu m a on t h e division of la n ds a bolish ed, r est or ed t h em , a n d m a de
n ew on es t o give t h e old a gr ea t er weigh t . We ca n n ot t h er efor e dou bt bu t t h a t
t h e la ws we h a ve been spea kin g of, m a de in con sequ en ce of t h is division , wer e
t h e wor k of t h ese t h r ee Rom a n legisla t or s.
Th e or der of su ccession h a vin g been est a blish ed in con sequ en ce of a polit ica l
la w, n o cit izen wa s a llowed t o br ea k in u pon it by h is pr iva t e will; t h a t is, in t h e
fir st a ges of Rom e h e h a d n ot t h e power of m a kin g a t est a m en t . Yet it wou ld
h a ve been h a r d t o depr ive h im , in h is la st m om en t s, of t h e fr ien dly com m er ce
of kin d a n d ben eficen t a ct ion s.
Th ey t h er efor e fou n d a m et h od of r econ cilin g, in t h is r espect ; t h e la ws wit h
t h e desir es of t h e in dividu a l. H e wa s per m it t ed t o dispose of h is su bst a n ce in a n
a ssem bly of t h e people; a n d t h u s ever y t est a m en t wa s; in som e sor t ; a n a ct of
t h e legisla t ive power .
Th e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles per m it t ed t h e per son wh o m a de h is will t o
ch oose wh ich cit izen h e plea sed for h is h eir . Th e r ea son t h a t in du ced t h e Rom a n
la ws so st r ict ly t o r est r a in t h e n u m ber of t h ose wh o m igh t su cceed ab in testato
wa s t h e la w of t h e division of la n ds; a n d t h e r ea son wh y t h ey ext en ded so widely
t h e power of t h e t est a t or wa s t h a t , a s t h e fa t h er m igh t sell h is ch ildr en ,7 h e
m igh t wit h gr ea t er r ea son depr ive t h em of h is su bst a n ce. Th ese wer e t h er efor e
differ en t effect s, sin ce t h ey flowed fr om differ en t pr in ciples; a n d su ch is, in t h is
r espect , t h e spir it of t h e Rom a n la ws.

Th e a n cien t la ws of At h en s did n ot su ffer a cit izen t o m a ke a will. Solon
per m it t ed it , wit h a n except ion t o t h ose wh o h a d ch ildr en ;8 a n d t h e legisla t or s
of Rom e, filled wit h t h e idea of pa t er n a l power , a llowed t h e m a kin g a will even
t o t h e pr eju dice of t h eir ch ildr en . It m u st be con fessed t h a t t h e a n cien t la ws of
At h en s wer e m or e con sist en t t h a n t h ose of Rom e. Th e in defin it e per m ission of
m a kin g a will wh ich h a d been gr a n t ed t o t h e Rom a n s, r u in ed lit t le by lit t le t h e
polit ica l r egu la t ion on t h e division of la n ds; it wa s t h e pr in cipa l t h in g t h a t
in t r odu ced t h e fa t a l differ en ce bet ween r ich es a n d pover t y: m a n y sh a r es wer e
u n it ed in t h e sa m e per son ; som e cit izen s h a d t oo m u ch , a n d a m u lt it u de of
ot h er s h a d n ot h in g. Th u s t h e people bein g con t in u a lly depr ived of t h eir sh a r es
wer e in cessa n t ly ca llin g ou t for a n ew dist r ibu t ion of la n ds. Th ey dem a n ded it
in a n a ge wh en t h e fr u ga lit y, t h e pa r sim on y a n d t h e pover t y of t h e Rom a n s
wer e t h eir dist in gu ish in g ch a r a ct er ist ics; a s well a s a t a t im e wh en t h eir lu xu r y
h a d becom e st ill m or e a st on ish in g.
Test a m en t s bein g pr oper ly a la w m a de in t h e a ssem bly of t h e people, t h ose
wh o wer e in t h e a r m y wer e t h er eby depr ived of a t est a m en t a r y power . Th e
people t h er efor e ga ve t h e soldier s t h e pr ivilege of m a kin g befor e t h eir
com pa n ion s 9 t h e disposit ion s wh ich sh ou ld h a ve been m a de befor e t h em .10
Th e gr ea t a ssem bly of t h e people m et bu t t wice a yea r ; besides, bot h t h e
people a n d t h e a ffa ir s br ou gh t befor e t h em wer e in cr ea sed; t h ey t h er efor e
ju dged it con ven ien t t o per m it a ll t h e cit izen s t o m a ke t h eir will befor e som e
Rom a n cit izen s of r ipe a ge, wh o wer e t o r epr esen t t h e body of t h e people;11 t h ey
t ook five cit izen s, 12 in wh ose pr esen ce t h e in h er it or pu r ch a sed h is fa m ily, t h a t
is, h is in h er it a n ce, of t h e t est a t or ;13 a n ot h er cit izen br ou gh t a pa ir of sca les t o
weigh t h e va lu e; for t h e Rom a n s, a s yet , h a d n o m on ey. 14
To a ll a ppea r a n ce t h ese five cit izen s wer e t o r epr esen t t h e five cla sses of t h e
people; a n d t h ey set n o va lu e on t h e sixt h , a s bein g com posed of m en wh o h a d
n o pr oper t y.
We ou gh t n ot t o sa y, wit h J u st in ia n , t h a t t h ese sca les wer e m er ely im a gin a r y;
t h ey beca m e, in deed, im a gin a r y in t im e, bu t wer e n ot so or igin a lly. Most of t h e
la ws, wh ich a ft er wa r ds r egu la t ed wills, wer e bu ilt on t h e r ea lit y of t h ese sca les:
we fin d su fficien t pr oof of t h is in t h e fr a gm en t s of Ulpia n . 15 Th e dea f, t h e du m b,
t h e pr odiga l, cou ld n ot m a ke a will: t h e dea f, beca u se h e cou ld n ot h ea r t h e

wor ds of t h e bu yer of t h e in h er it a n ce; t h e du m b, beca u se h e cou ld n ot pr on ou n ce
t h e t er m s of n om in a t ion ; t h e pr odiga l, beca u se a s h e wa s exclu ded fr om t h e
m a n a gem en t of a ll a ffa ir s, h e cou ld n ot sell h is in h er it a n ce. I om it a n y fu r t h er
exa m ples.
Wills bein g m a de in t h e a ssem bly of t h e people wer e r a t h er t h e a ct s of
polit ica l t h a n of civil la ws, a pu blic r a t h er t h a n a pr iva t e r igh t ; wh en ce it
followed t h a t t h e fa t h er , wh ile h is son wa s u n der h is a u t h or it y, cou ld n ot give
h im lea ve t o m a ke a will.
Am on g m ost n a t ion s, wills a r e n ot su bject t o gr ea t er for m a lit ies t h a n or din a r y
con t r a ct s; beca u se bot h t h e on e a n d t h e ot h er a r e on ly expr ession s of t h e will of
h im wh o m a kes t h e con t r a ct , a n d bot h a r e equ a lly a pr iva t e r igh t . Bu t a m on g
t h e Rom a n s, wh er e t est a m en t s wer e der ived fr om t h e pu blic la w, t h ey wer e
a t t en ded wit h m u ch gr ea t er for m a lit ies t h a n ot h er a ffa ir s;16 a n d t h is is st ill t h e
ca se in t h ose pr ovin ces of F r a n ce wh ich a r e gover n ed by t h e Rom a n la w.
Test a m en t s bein g, a s I h a ve sa id, a la w of t h e people, t h ey ou gh t t o be m a de
wit h t h e for ce of a com m a n d, a n d in su ch t er m s a s a r e ca lled dir ect a n d
im per a t ive. 17 H en ce a r u le wa s for m ed, t h a t t h ey cou ld n eit h er give n or
t r a n sm it a n in h er it a n ce wit h ou t m a kin g u se of t h e im per a t ive wor ds: wh en ce
it followed, t h a t t h ey m igh t ver y ju st ly in cer t a in ca ses m a ke a su bst it u t ion ;18
a n d or da in , t h a t t h e in h er it a n ce sh ou ld pa ss t o a n ot h er h eir ; bu t t h a t t h ey cou ld
n ever m a ke a fidu cia r y bequ est , 19 t h a t is, ch a r ge a n y on e in t er m s of en t r ea t y
t o r est or e a n in h er it a n ce, or a pa r t of it , t o a n ot h er .
Wh en t h e fa t h er n eit h er in st it u t ed h is son h is h eir , n or disin h er it ed h im , t h e
will wa s a n n u lled; bu t it wa s va lid, t h ou gh h e did n ot disin h er it h is da u gh t er ,
n or in st it u t e h er h is h eir ess. Th e r ea son is pla in : wh en h e n eit h er in st it u t ed n or
disin h er it ed h is son , h e did a n in ju r y t o h is gr a n dson , wh o m igh t h a ve
su cceeded ab in testato t o h is fa t h er ; bu t in n eit h er in st it u t in g n or disin h er it in g
h is da u gh t er , h e did n o in ju r y t o h is da u gh t er ’s ch ildr en , wh o cou ld n ot su cceed
ab in testato t o t h eir m ot h er , beca u se t h ey wer e n eit h er su i h aered es, n or
a gn a t i. 20
Th e la ws of t h e a n cien t Rom a n s con cer ning succession s, bein g for m ed wit h t h e
sa m e spir it wh ich dict a t ed t h e division of la n ds, did n ot su fficien t ly r est r a in t h e
r ich es of wom en ; t h u s a door wa s left open t o lu xu r y, wh ich is a lwa ys

in sepa r a ble fr om t h is sor t of opu len ce. Bet ween t h e secon d a n d t h ir d P u n ic wa r ,
t h ey bega n t o per ceive t h e evil a n d m a de t h e Vocon ia n la w;21 bu t a s t h ey wer e
in du ced t o t h is by t h e m ost im por t a n t con sider a t ion s; a s bu t few m on u m en t s
h a ve r ea ch ed u s t h a t t a ke n ot ice of t h is la w, a n d a s it h a s h it h er t o been spoken
of in a m ost con fu sed m a n n er , I sh a ll en dea vou r t o clea r it u p.
Cicer o h a s pr eser ved a fr a gm en t , wh ich for bids t h e in st it u t in g a wom a n a n
h eir ess, wh et h er sh e wa s m a r r ied or u n m a r r ied.22
Th e E pit om e of Livy, wh er e h e spea ks of t h is la w, sa ys n o m or e:23 it a ppea r s
fr om Cicer o24 a n d St . Au gu st in e 25 t h a t t h e da u gh t er , t h ou gh a n on ly ch ild, wa s
com pr eh en ded in t h e pr oh ibit ion .
Ca t o, t h e elder , con t r ibu t ed a ll in h is power t o get t h is la w pa ssed. 26 Au lu s
Gelliu s cit es a fr a gm en t of a speech , 27 wh ich h e m a de on t h is occa sion . By
pr even t in g t h e su ccession of wom en , h is in t en t wa s t o t a ke a wa y t h e sou r ce of
lu xu r y; a s by u n der t a kin g t h e defen ce of t h e Oppia n la w, h e in t en ded t o pu t a
st op t o lu xu r y it self.
In t h e In st it u t es of J u st in ia n 28 a n d Th eoph ilu s,29 m en t ion is m a de of a ch a pt er
of t h e Vocon ia n la w wh ich lim it s t h e power of bequ ea t h in g. In r ea din g t h ese
a u t h or s, ever ybody wou ld im a gin e t h a t t h is ch a pt er wa s m a de t o pr even t t h e
in h er it a n ce fr om bein g so exh a u st ed by lega cies a s t o r en der it u n wor t h y of t h e
h eir ’s a ccept a n ce. Bu t t h is wa s n ot t h e spir it of t h e Vocon ia n la w. We h a ve ju st
seen t h a t t h ey h a d in view t h e h in der in g wom en fr om in h er it in g a n est a t e. Th e
a r t icle of t h is la w, wh ich set bou n ds t o t h e power of bequ ea t h in g en t er ed in t o
t h is view: for if people h a d been possessed of t h e liber t y t o bequ ea t h a s m u ch
a s t h ey plea sed, t h e wom en m igh t h a ve r eceived a s lega cies wh a t t h ey cou ld n ot
r eceive by su ccession .
Th e Vocon ia n la w wa s m a de t o h in der t h e wom en fr om gr owin g t oo wea lt h y;
for t h is en d it wa s n ecessa r y t o depr ive t h em of la r ge in h er it a n ces, a n d n ot of
su ch a s wer e in ca pa ble of su ppor t in g lu xu r y. Th e la w fixed a cer t a in su m t o be
given t o t h e wom en wh om it depr ived of t h e su ccession . Cicer o, 30 fr om wh om we
h a ve t h is pa r t icu la r , does n ot t ell u s wh a t wa s t h e su m ; bu t by Dio we a r e
in for m ed it wa s a h u n dr ed t h ou sa n d sest er ces.31
Th e Vocon ia n la w wa s m a de t o r egu la t e opu len ce, n ot t o la y a r est r a in t u pon
pover t y; h en ce Cicer o32 in for m s u s t h a t it r ela t ed on ly t o t h ose wh ose n a m es

wer e r egist er ed in t h e cen sor s’ books.
Th is fu r n ish ed a pr et en ce for elu din g t h e la w: it is well kn own t h a t t h e
Rom a n s wer e ext r em ely fon d of set for m s; a n d we h a ve a lr ea dy t a ken n ot ice
t h a t it wa s t h e spir it of t h e r epu blic t o follow t h e let t er of t h e la w. Th er e wer e
fa t h er s wh o wou ld n ot give in t h eir n a m es t o be en r olled by t h e cen sor s, beca u se
t h ey wou ld h a ve it in t h eir power t o lea ve t h e su ccession t o a da u gh t er : a n d t h e
pr a et or s det er m in ed t h a t t h is wa s n o viola t ion of t h e Vocon ia n la w sin ce it wa s
n ot con t r a r y t o t h e let t er of it .
On e An iu s Asellu s h a d a ppoin t ed h is da u gh t er h is sole h eir a n d execu t r ix. H e
h a d a r igh t t o m a ke t h is disposit ion , sa ys Cicer o;33 h e wa s n ot r est r a in ed by t h e
Vocon ia n la w, sin ce h e wa s n ot in clu ded in t h e cen su s. Ver r es, du r in g t h e t im e
of h is pr a et or sh ip, h a d depr ived An iu s’ da u gh t er of t h e su ccession ; a n d Cicer o
m a in t a in s t h a t Ver r es h a d been br ibed, ot h er wise h e wou ld n ot h a ve a n n u lled
a disposit ion wh ich a ll t h e ot h er pr a et or s h a d con fir m ed.
Wh a t kin d of cit izen s t h en m u st t h ose h a ve been , wh o wer e n ot r egist er ed in
t h e cen su s in wh ich a ll t h e fr eem en of Rom e wer e in clu ded? Accor din g t o t h e
in st it u t ion of Ser viu s Tu lliu s, m en t ion ed by Dion ysiu s of H a lica r n a ssu s, 34 ever y
cit izen n ot en r olled in t h e cen su s beca m e a sla ve; even Cicer o h im self obser ves 35
t h a t su ch a m a n for feit ed h is liber t y, a n d t h e sa m e t h in g is a ffir m ed by Zon a r a s.
Th er e m u st h a ve been t h er efor e a differ en ce bet ween n ot bein g in t h e cen su s
a ccor din g t o t h e spir it of t h e Vocon ia n la w, a n d n ot bein g in it a ccor din g t o t h e
spir it of Ser viu s Tu lliu s’ in st it u t ion s.
Th ey wh ose n a m es wer e n ot r egist er ed in t h e fir st five cla sses,36 in wh ich t h e
in h a bit a n t s r a n ked in pr opor t ion t o t h eir for t u n es, wer e n ot com pr ised in t h e
cen su s a ccor din g t o t h e spir it of t h e Vocon ia n la w: t h ey wh o wer e n ot en r olled
in on e of t h ese six cla sses, or wh o wer e n ot r a n ked by t h e cen sor s a m on g su ch
a s wer e ca lled a er a r ii, wer e n ot in clu ded in t h e cen su s a ccor din g t o t h e spir it of
Ser viu s’ in st it u t ion s. Su ch wa s t h e for ce of n a t u r e, t h a t t o elu de t h e Vocon ia n
la w fa t h er s su bm it t ed t o t h e disgr a ce of bein g con fou n ded in t h e sixt h cla ss wit h
t h e pr olet a r ii a n d ca pit e cen si, or per h a ps t o h a ve t h eir n a m es en t er ed in t h e
Ca er it es t a bu la e. 37
We h a ve elsewh er e obser ved t h a t t h e Rom a n la ws did n ot a dm it of fidu cia r y
bequ est s. Th e h opes of eva din g t h e Vocon ia n la w wer e t h e ca u se of t h eir bein g

in t r odu ced: t h ey in st it u t ed a n h eir qu a lified by t h e la w, a n d t h ey begged h e
wou ld r esign t h e su ccession t o a per son wh om t h e la w h a d exclu ded; t h is n ew
m et h od of disposit ion wa s pr oduct ive of ver y differ en t effect s. Som e r esign ed t h e
in h er it a n ce; a n d t h e con du ct of Sext u s P edu ccu s on a n occa sion of t h is n a t u r e
wa s ver y r em a r ka ble. 38 A con sider a ble su ccession wa s left h im , a n d n obody
livin g kn ew t h a t h e wa s desir ed t o r esign it t o a n ot h er , wh en h e wa it ed u pon
t h e widow of t h e t est a t or a n d m a de over t o h er t h e wh ole for t u n e belon gin g t o
h er la t e h u sba n d.
Ot h er s kept possession of t h e in h er it a n ce; a n d h er e t h e exa m ple of P .
Sext iliu s Ru fu s is a lso fa m ou s, h a vin g been m a de u se of by Cicer o in h is
dispu t a t ion s a ga in st t h e E picu r ea n s. 39 “In m y you n ger da ys,” sa ys h e, “I wa s
desir ed by Sext iliu s t o a ccom pa n y h im t o h is fr ien ds, in or der t o kn ow wh et h er
h e ou gh t t o r est or e t h e in h er it a n ce of Qu in t u s F a diu s Ga llu s t o h is da u gh t er
F a dia . Th er e wer e sever a l you n g people pr esen t , wit h ot h er s of m or e m a t u r it y
a n d ju dgm en t ; a n d n ot on e of t h em wa s of opin ion t h a t h e sh ou ld give m or e t o
F a dia t h a n t h e la dy wa s en t it led t o by t h e Vocon ia n la w. In con sequ en ce of t h is,
Sext iliu s kept possession of a fin e est a t e, of wh ich h e wou ld n ot h a ve r et a in ed
a sin gle sest er t iu s h a d h e pr efer r ed ju st ice t o u t ilit y. It is possible, a dded h e,
t h a t you wou ld h a ve r esign ed t h e in h er it a n ce; n a y it is possible t h a t E picu r u s
h im self wou ld h a ve r esign ed it ; bu t you wou ld n ot h a ve a ct ed a ccor din g t o you r
own pr in ciples.” H er e I sh a ll pa u se a lit t le t o r eflect .
It is a m isfor t u n e in h er en t in h u m a n it y t h a t legisla t or s sh ou ld be som et im es
obliged t o en a ct la ws r epu gn a n t t o t h e dict a t es of n a t u r e: su ch wa s t h e Vocon ia n
la w. Th e r ea son is, t h e legisla t u r e con sider s t h e societ y r a t h er t h a n t h e cit izen ,
a n d t h e cit izen r a t h er t h a n t h e m a n . Th e la w sa cr ificed bot h t h e cit izen a n d t h e
m a n , a n d dir ect ed it s views t o t h e pr osper it y of t h e r epu blic. Su ppose a per son
m a de a fidu cia r y bequ est in fa vou r of h is da u gh t er ; t h e la w pa id n o r ega r d t o
t h e sen t im en t s of n a t u r e in t h e fa t h er , n or t o t h e filia l piet y of t h e da u gh t er ; a ll
it h a d a n eye t o wa s t h e per son t o wh om t h e bequ est wa s m a de in t r u st , a n d
wh o on su ch occa sion fou n d h im self in a t er r ible dilem m a . If h e r est or ed t h e
est a t e, h e wa s a ba d cit izen ; if h e kept it , h e wa s a ba d m a n . Non e bu t
good-n a t u r ed people t h ou gh t of elu din g t h e la w; a n d t h ey cou ld pit ch u pon n on e
bu t h on est m en t o h elp t h em t o elu de it ; for a t r u st of t h is kin d r equ ir es a

t r iu m ph over a va r ice a n d in or din a t e plea su r e, wh ich n on e bu t h on est m en a r e
likely t o obt a in . P er h a ps in t h is ligh t t o look u pon t h em a s ba d cit izen s wou ld
h a ve sa vou r ed t oo m u ch of sever it y. It is n ot im possible bu t t h a t t h e legisla t or
ca r r ied h is poin t in a gr ea t m ea su r e, sin ce h is la w wa s of su ch a n a t u r e a s
obliged n on e bu t h on est m en t o elu de it .
At t h e t im e wh en t h e Vocon ia n la w wa s pa ssed, t h e Rom a n s st ill pr eser ved
som e r em a in s of t h eir a n cien t pu r it y of m a n n er s. Th eir con scien ce wa s
som et im es en ga ged in fa vou r of t h e la w; a n d t h ey wer e m a de t o swea r t h ey
wou ld obser ve it :40 so t h a t h on est y in som e m ea su r e wa s set in opposit ion
a ga in st it self. Bu t la t t er ly t h eir m or a ls wer e cor r u pt ed t o su ch a degr ee t h a t t h e
fidu cia r y bequ est s m u st h a ve h a d less effica cy t o elu de t h e Vocon ia n la w, t h a n
t h a t ver y legisla t or h a d t o en for ce it s obser va n ce.
Th e civil wa r s wer e t h e dest r u ct ion of a n in fin it e n u m ber of cit izen s. Un der
Au gu st u s, Rom e wa s a lm ost deser t ed; it wa s n ecessa r y t o r e-people it . Th ey
m a de t h e P a pia n la ws, wh ich om it t ed n ot h in g t h a t cou ld en cou r a ge t h e cit izen s
t o m a r r y a n d pr ocr ea t e ch ildr en . 41 On e of t h e pr in cipa l m ea n s wa s t o in cr ea se,
in fa vou r of t h ose wh o ga ve in t o t h e views of t h e la w, t h e h opes of bein g h eir s,
a n d t o dim in ish t h e expect a t ion s of t h ose wh o r efu sed; a n d a s t h e Vocon ia n la w
h a d r en der ed wom en in ca pa ble of su cceedin g, t h e P a pia n la w, in cer t a in ca ses,
dispen sed wit h t h is pr oh ibit ion .42
Wom en , 43 especia lly t h ose wh o h a d ch ildr en , wer e r en der ed ca pa ble of
r eceivin g in vir t u e of t h e will of t h eir h u sba n ds; t h ey even m igh t , wh en t h ey h a d
ch ildr en , r eceive in vir t u e of t h e will of st r a n ger s. All t h is wa s in dir ect
opposit ion t o t h e r egu la t ion s of t h e Vocon ia n la w: a n d yet it is r em a r ka ble t h a t
t h e spir it of t h is la w wa s n ot en t ir ely a ba n don ed. F or exa m ple, t h e P a pia n la w,
wh ich per m it t ed a m a n wh o h a d on e ch ild 44 t o r eceive a n en t ir e in h er it a n ce by
t h e will of a st r a n ger , gr a n t ed t h e sa m e fa vou r t o t h e wife on ly wh en sh e h a d
t h r ee ch ildr en . 45
It m u st be r em a r ked t h a t t h e P a pia n la w did n ot r en der t h e wom en wh o h a d
t h r ee ch ildr en ca pa ble of su cceedin g except in vir t u e of t h e will of st r a n ger s;
a n d t h a t wit h r espect t o t h e su ccession of r ela t ives, it left t h e a n cien t la ws, a n d
pa r t icu la r ly t h e Vocon ia n , in a ll t h eir for ce.46 Bu t t h is did n ot lon g su bsist .
Rom e, cor r u pt ed by t h e r ich es of ever y n a t ion , h a d ch a n ged h er m a n n er s; t h e

pu t t in g a st op t o t h e lu xu r y of wom en wa s n o lon ger m in ded. Au lu s Gelliu s, wh o
lived u n der Adr ia n , 47 t ells u s, t h a t in h is t im e t h e Vocon ia n la w wa s a lm ost
a bolish ed; it wa s bu r ied u n der t h e opu len ce of t h e cit y. Th u s we fin d in t h e
sen t en ces of P a u lu s, 48 wh o lived u n der Niger , a n d in t h e fr a gm en t s of Ulpia n , 49
wh o wa s in t h e t im e of Alexa n der Sever u s, t h a t t h e sist er s on t h e fa t h er ’s side
m igh t su cceed, a n d t h a t n on e bu t t h e r ela t ives of a m or e dist a n t degr ee wer e in
t h e ca se of t h ose pr oh ibit ed by t h e Vocon ia n la w.
Th e a n cien t la ws of Rom e bega n t o be t h ou gh t sever e. Th e pr a et or s wer e n o
lon ger m oved except by r ea son s of equ it y, m oder a t ion , a n d decor u m .
We h a ve seen , t h a t by t h e a n cien t la ws of Rom e m ot h er s h a d n o sh a r e in t h e
in h er it a n ce of t h eir ch ildr en . Th e Vocon ia n la w a ffor ded a n ew r ea son for t h eir
exclu sion . Bu t t h e E m per or Cla u diu s ga ve t h e m ot h er t h e su ccession of h er
ch ildr en a s a con sola t ion for h er loss. Th e Ter t u llia n sen a t u s con su lt u m , m a de
u n der Adr ia n , 50 ga ve it t h em wh en t h ey h a d t h r ee ch ildr en if fr ee wom en , or
fou r if t h ey wer e fr eed-wom en . It is eviden t , t h a t t h is decr ee of t h e sen a t e wa s
on ly a n ext en sion of t h e P a pia n la w, wh ich in t h e sa m e ca se h a d gr a n t ed t o
wom en t h e in h er it a n ce left t h em by st r a n ger s. At len gt h J u st in ia n fa vou r ed
t h em wit h t h e su ccession in depen den t ly of t h e n u m ber of t h eir ch ildr en .51
Th e sa m e ca u ses wh ich h a d debilit a t ed t h e la w a ga in st t h e su ccession of
wom en su bver t ed t h a t , by degr ees, wh ich h a d lim it ed t h e su ccession of t h e
r ela t ives on t h e wom a n ’s side.
Th ese la ws wer e ext r em ely con for m a ble t o t h e spir it of a good r epu blic, wh er e
t h ey ou gh t t o h a ve su ch a n in flu en ce a s t o pr even t t h is sex fr om r en der in g
eit h er t h e possession , or t h e expect a t ion of wea lt h , a n in st r u m en t of lu xu r y. On
t h e con t r a r y, t h e lu xu r y of a m on a r ch y r en der in g m a r r ia ge expen sive a n d
cost ly, it ou gh t t o be t h er e en cou r a ged, bot h by t h e r ich es wh ich wom en m a y
best ow, a n d by t h e h ope of t h e in h er it a n ces it is in t h eir power t o pr ocu r e. Th u s
wh en m on a r ch y wa s est a blish ed a t Rom e, t h e wh ole syst em of su ccession s wa s
ch a n ged. Th e pr a et or s ca lled t h e r ela t ives of t h e wom a n ’s side in defa u lt of
t h ose of t h e m a le side; t h ou gh by t h e a n cien t la ws, t h e r ela t ives on t h e wom a n ’s
side wer e n ever ca lled. Th e Or ph it ia n sen a t u s con su lt u m ca lled ch ildr en t o t h e
su ccession of t h eir m ot h er ; a n d t h e E m per or s Va len t in ia n , Th eodosiu s, a n d
Ar ca diu s ca lled t h e gr a n dch ildr en by t h e da u gh t er t o t h e su ccession of t h e

gr a n dfa t h er .52 In sh or t , t h e E m per or J u st in ia n 53 left n ot t h e lea st vest ige of t h e
a n cien t r igh t of su ccession s: h e est a blish ed t h r ee or der s of h eir s, t h e
descen da n t s, t h e a scen da n t s, a n d t h e colla t er a ls, wit h ou t a n y dist in ct ion
bet ween t h e m a les a n d fem a les; bet ween t h e r ela t ives on t h e wom a n ’s side, a n d
t h ose on t h e m a le side; a n d a br oga t ed a ll la ws of t h is kin d, wh ich wer e st ill in
for ce: h e believed t h a t h e followed n a t u r e, even in devia t in g fr om wh a t h e ca lled
t h e em ba r r a ssm en t s of t h e a n cien t ju r ispr u den ce.
2'+%,1
1. Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s, ii. 3. P lu t a r ch ’s com pa r ison bet ween Nu m a a n d
Lycu r gu s.
2. Ast si in t est a t o m or it u r cu i su u s h a er es n ec exh a bit , a gn a t u s pr oxim u s
fa m ilia m h a bet o. F r a gm en t of t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles in Ulpia n , t h e
la st t it le.
3. See Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., § 8, t it . 26. In st it u t es, t it . 3, In pr a em io a d S.C.
Ter t u llia n u m .
4. P a u l, Sen t en ces, t it . 8, § 3.
5. In st it u t es, iii, t it . 1, § 15.
6. Book iv, p. 276.
7. Dion ysiu s H a lica r n a ssu s pr oves, by a la w of Nu m a , t h a t t h e la w wh ich
per m it t ed a fa t h er t o sell h is son t h r ee t im es wa s m a de by Rom u lu s, a n d n ot
by t h e Decem vir s. — Book ii.
8. See P lu t a r ch , Solon .
9. Th is t est a m en t , ca lled in pr ocin ct u , wa s differ en t fr om t h a t wh ich t h ey st yled
m ilit a r y, wh ich wa s est a blish ed on ly by t h e con st it u t ion s of t h e em per or s.
Leg. 1, ff. de m ilit a r i t est a m en t o. Th is wa s on e of t h e a r t ifices by wh ich t h ey
ca joled t h e soldier s.
10. Th is t est a m en t wa s n ot in wr it in g, a n d it wa s wit h ou t for m a lit y, sin e libr !
et t a bu lis, a s Cicer o sa ys, De Or a t ., i.
11. In st it u t es, ii, t it . 10, § 1. Au lu s Gelliu s, xv. 27. Th ey ca lled t h is for m of
t est a m en t per a es et libr a m .
12. Ulpia n , t it . 10, § 2.
13. Th eoph ilu s, In st it u t es, ii, t it . 10.

14. Livy, iv, Non du m a r gen t u m sign a t u m er a t . H e spea ks of t h e t im e of t h e
siege of Veii.
15. Tit . 20, § 13.
16. In st it u t es, ii, t it . 10, § 1.
17. Let Tit u s be m y h eir .
18. Vu lga r , pu pilla r y, a n d exem pla r y.
19. Au gu st u s, for pa r t icu la r r ea son s, fir st bega n t o a u t h or ise t h e fidu cia r y
bequ est , wh ich , in t h e Rom a n la w, wa s ca lled fidei com m issu m . In st it u t es,
ii, t it . 23, § 1.
20. Ad liber os m a t r is in t est a t a e h a er edit a s, leg. 12 Ta b., n on per t in eba t , qu ia ,
fa em in a e su os h a er edes n on h a ben t . Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., t it . 26, § 7.
21. It wa s pr oposed by Qu in t u s Vocon iu s, t r ibu n e of t h e people, in t h e yea r 585
of Rom e, 169 B.C. See Cicer o, Secon d Or a t ion a ga in st Ver r es. In t h e
E pit om e of Livy, xli we sh ou ld r ea d Vocon iu s, in st ea d of Volu m in u s.
22. Sa n xit . . . . . n e qu is h a er edem vir gin er n n eve m u lier em fa cer et . — Cicer o,
Secon d Or a t ion a ga in st Ver r es, 107.
23. Legem t u lit , n e qu is h a er edem m u lier em in st it u er et — Book xli.
24. Secon d Or a t ion a ga in st Ver r es.
25. City of God , iii. 21.
26. E pit om e of Livy, xli.
27. Book xvii, 6.
28. In stitu tes, ii, t it . 22
29. Ibid.
30. Nem o cen su it plu s F a dia e da n du m , qu a m posset a d ca m lege Vocon ia
per ven ir e. De F in ib. bon i et m a li, ii. 55.
31. Cu m lege Vocon ia m u lier ibu s pr oh iber et u r , n e qu a m a jor em cen t u m
m illibu s n u m m u m h a er edit a t em posset a dir e. Book lvi.
32. Qu i cen su s esset . Secon d Or a t ion a ga in st Ver r es.
33. Cen su s n on er a t . Ibid.
34. Book iv.
35. Or a t io pr o Ca ecin n a .
36. Th ese five cla sses wer e so con sider a ble, t h a t a u t h or s som et im es m en t ion n o
m or e t h a n five.
37. In Ca er it u m t a bu la s r efer r i; a er a r iu s fier i.
38. Cicer o, De F in ib. bon i et m a li, ii. 58.
39. Ibid.
40. Sext iliu s sa id h e h a d swor n t o obser ve it . — Cicer o, De F in ib. bon i et m a li,
ii. 55.
41. See wh a t h a s been sa id in xxiii. 21.
42. Th e sa m e differ en ce occu r s in sever a l r egu la t ion s of t h e P a pia n la w. See
Ulpia n , F r a gm en t . t it . u lt ., §§ 4, 5, 6.
43. See Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., t it . 15, § 16.
44. Qu od t ibi filiolu s, vel filia n a scit u r ex m e, J u r a P a r en t is h a bes; pr opt er m e
scr iber is h a er es. — J u ven a l, Sa t . ix. 5, 83, 87.
45. See Leg. 9, Cod. Th eod. De bon is pr oscr ipt or u m , a n d Dio, lv. See Ulpia n ,
F r a gm en t ., t it . u lt ., § 6, a n d t it . 29, § 3.
46. Ulpia n , F r a gm en t ., t it . 16, § 1. Sozom en u s, i. 29.
47. Book xx. 1.
48. Book iv, t it . 8, § 3.
49. Tit . 26, § 6.
50. Th a t is, t h e E m per or P iu s wh o ch a n ged h is n a m e t o t h a t of Adr ia n by
a dopt ion .
51. Leg. 2, Cod. de ju r e liber or u m . In st it u t es, t it . 3, § 4, de sen a t u s con su lt .
Ter t u l.
52. Leg. 9, Cod. de su is et legit im is liber is.
53. Leg. 12, ibid., a n d Nov. 118, 127.
=''>&\\N???1&@(&+-%&@.5D5*&"*0&/%;'$F+5'*,&'(&+-%&)5;5$&6"7,
"<'*D&+-%&Y.%*9-1
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Aft er t h e F r a n ks h a d qu it t ed t h eir own cou n t r y, t h ey m a de a com pila t ion of
t h e Sa lic la ws wit h t h e a ssist a n ce of t h e sa ges of t h eir own n a t ion . 1 Th e t r ibe
of t h e Ripu a r ia n F r a n ks h a vin g join ed it self u n der Clovis 2 t o t h a t of t h e Sa lia n s
pr eser ved it s own cu st om s; a n d Th eodor ic, 3 Kin g of Au st r a sia , or der ed t h em t o
be r edu ced t o wr it in g. H e collect ed likewise t h e cu st om s of t h ose Ba va r ia n s a n d
Ger m a n s, wh o wer e depen den t on h is kin gdom . 4 F or Ger m a n y h a vin g been
wea ken ed by t h e m igr a t ion of su ch a m u lt it u de of people, t h e F r a n ks, a ft er
con qu er in g a ll befor e t h em , m a de a r et r ogr a de m a r ch a n d ext en ded t h eir
dom in ion in t o t h e for est s of t h eir a n cest or s. Ver y likely t h e Th u r in gia n code wa s
given by t h e sa m e Th eodor ic, sin ce t h e Th u r in gia n s wer e a lso h is su bject s. 5 As
t h e F r isia n s wer e su bdu ed by Ch a r les Ma r t el a n d P epin , t h eir la w ca n n ot be
pr ior t o t h ose pr in ces. 6 Ch a r lem a gn e, t h e fir st t h a t r edu ced t h e Sa xon s, ga ve
t h em t h e la w st ill ext a n t ; a n d we n eed on ly r ea d t h ese la st t wo codes t o be
con vin ced t h ey ca m e fr om t h e h a n ds of con qu er or s. As soon a s t h e Visigot h s, t h e
Bu r gu n dia n s, a n d t h e Lom ba r ds h a d fou n ded t h eir r espect ive kin gdom s, t h ey
r edu ced t h eir la ws t o wr it in g, n ot wit h a n in t en t of obligin g t h e va n qu ish ed
n a t ion s t o con for m t o t h eir cu st om s, bu t wit h a design of followin g t h em
t h em selves.
Th er e is a n a dm ir a ble sim plicit y in t h e Sa lic a n d Ripu a r ia n la ws, a s well a s
in t h ose of t h e Alem a n s, Ba va r ia n s, Th u r in gia n s, a n d F r isia n s. Th ey br ea t h e
a n or igin a l coa r sen ess a n d a spir it wh ich n o ch a n ge or cor r u pt ion of m a n n er s
h a d wea ken ed. Th ey r eceived bu t ver y few a lt er a t ion s, beca u se a ll t h ose people,
except t h e F r a n ks, r em a in ed in Ger m a n y. E ven t h e F r a n ks t h em selves la id
t h er e t h e fou n da t ion of a gr ea t pa r t of t h eir em pir e, so t h a t t h ey h a d n on e bu t
Ger m a n la ws. Th e sa m e ca n n ot be sa id of t h e la ws of t h e Visigot h s, of t h e

Lom ba r ds a n d Bu r gu n dia n s; t h eir ch a r a ct er consider ably alt er ed fr om t h e gr ea t
ch a n ge wh ich h a ppen ed in t h e ch a r a ct er of t h ose people a ft er t h ey h a d set t led
in t h eir n ew h a bit a t ion s.
Th e kin gdom of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s did n ot la st lon g en ou gh t o a dm it of gr ea t
ch a n ges in t h e la ws of t h e con qu er in g n a t ion . Gu n deba ld a n d Sigism on d, wh o
collect ed t h eir cu st om s, wer e a lm ost t h e la st of t h eir kin gs. Th e la ws of t h e
Lom ba r ds r eceived a ddit ion s r a t h er t h a n ch a n ges. Th e la ws of Rot h a r is wer e
followed by t h ose of Gr im oa ldu s, Lu it pr a n du s, Ra ch is, a n d Ast u lph u s, bu t did
n ot a ssu m e a n ew for m . It wa s n ot so wit h t h e la ws of t h e Visigot h s;7 t h eir kin gs
n ew-m ou lded t h em , a n d h a d t h em a lso n ew-m ou lded by t h e cler gy.
Th e kin gs in deed of t h e fir st r a ce st r u ck ou t of t h e Sa lic a n d Ripu a r ia n la ws
wh a t ever wa s a bsolu t ely in con sist en t wit h Ch r ist ia n it y, bu t left t h e m a in pa r t
u n t ou ch ed.8 Th is ca n n ot be sa id of t h e la ws of t h e Visigot h s.
Th e la ws of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, a n d especia lly t h ose of t h e Visigot h s, a dm it t ed
of cor por a l pu n ish m en t s; t h ese wer e n ot t oler a t ed by t h e Sa lic a n d Ripu a r ia n
la ws;9 t h ey pr eser ved t h eir ch a r a ct er m u ch bet t er .
Th e Bu r gu n dia n s a n d Visigot h s, wh ose pr ovin ces wer e gr ea t ly exposed,
en dea vou r ed t o con cilia t e t h e a ffect ion s of t h e a n cien t in h a bit a n t s, a n d t o give
t h em t h e m ost im pa r t ia l civil la ws;10 bu t a s t h e Kin gs of t h e F r a n ks h a d
est a blish ed t h eir power , t h ey h a d n o su ch con sider a t ion s.11
Th e Sa xon s, wh o lived u n der t h e dom in ion of t h e F r a n ks, wer e of a n
in t r a ct a ble t em per , a n d pr on e t o r evolt . H en ce we fin d in t h eir la ws t h e
sever it ies of a con qu er or , 12 wh ich a r e n ot t o be m et wit h in t h e ot h er codes of t h e
la ws of t h e ba r ba r ia n s.
We see t h e spir it of t h e Ger m a n la ws in t h e pecu n ia r y pu n ish m en t s, a n d t h e
spir it of a con qu er or in t h ose of a n a fflict ive n a t u r e.
Th e cr im es t h ey com m it in t h eir own cou n t r y a r e su bject t o cor por a l
pu n ish m en t ; a n d t h e spir it of t h e Ger m a n la ws is followed on ly in t h e
pu n ish m en t of cr im es com m it t ed beyon d t h e ext en t of t h eir own t er r it or y.
Th ey a r e pla in ly t old t h a t t h eir cr im es sh a ll m eet wit h n o m er cy, a n d t h ey a r e
r efu sed even t h e a sylu m of ch u r ch es.
Th e bish ops h a d a n im m en se a u t h or it y a t t h e cou r t of t h e Visigot h Kin gs, t h e
m ost im por t a n t a ffa ir s bein g deba t ed in cou n cils. All t h e m a xim s, pr in ciples a n d
views of t h e pr esen t in qu isit ion a r e owin g t o t h e code of t h e Visigot h s; a n d t h e
m on ks h a ve on ly copied a ga in st t h e J ews t h e la ws for m er ly en a ct ed by bish ops.
In ot h er r espect s t h e la ws of Gu n deba ld for t h e Bu r gu n dia n s seem pr et t y
ju diciou s; a n d t h ose of Rot h a r is, a n d of t h e ot h er Lom ba r d pr in ces, a r e st ill
m or e so. Bu t t h e la ws of t h e Visigot h s, t h ose for in st a n ce of Recessu in t h u s,
Ch a in da su in t h u s, a n d E giga s a r e pu er ile, r idicu lou s a n d foolish ; t h ey a t t a in n ot
t h eir en d; t h ey a r e st u ffed wit h r h et or ic a n d void of sen se, fr ivolou s in t h e
su bst a n ce a n d bom ba st ic in t h e st yle.
E1&!-"+&+-%&6"7,&'(&+-%&=".#".5"*,&7%.%&"$$&4%.,'*"$1
It is a dist in gu ish in g ch a r a ct er of t h ese la ws of t h e ba r ba r ia n s t h a t t h ey wer e
n ot con fin ed t o a cer t a in dist r ict ; t h e F r a n k wa s t r ied by t h e la w of t h e F r a n ks,
t h e Alem a n by t h a t of t h e Alem a n s, t h e Bu r gu n dia n by t h a t of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s,
a n d t h e Rom a n by t h e Rom a n la w; n a y, so fa r wer e t h e con qu er or s in t h ose da ys
fr om r edu cin g t h eir la ws t o a u n ifor m syst em or body, t h a t t h ey did n ot even
t h in k of becom in g legisla t or s t o t h e people t h ey h a d con qu er ed.
Th e or igin a l of t h is I fin d in t h e m a n n er s of t h e Ger m a n s. Th ese people wer e
pa r t ed a su n der by m a r sh es, la kes, a n d for est s; a n d Ca esa r obser ves 13 t h ey wer e
fon d of su ch sepa r a t ion s. Th eir dr ea d of t h e Rom a n s br ou gh t a bou t t h eir
r eu n ion ; a n d yet ea ch in dividu a l a m on g t h ese m ixed people wa s st ill t o be t r ied
by t h e est a blish ed cu st om s of h is own n a t ion . E a ch t r ibe a pa r t wa s fr ee a n d
in depen den t ; a n d wh en t h ey ca m e t o be in t er m ixed, t h e in depen den ce st ill
con t in u ed; t h e cou n t r y wa s com m on , t h e gover n m en t pecu lia r ; t h e t er r it or y t h e
sa m e, a n d t h e n a t ion s differ en t . Th e spir it of per son a l la ws pr eva iled t h er efor e
a m on g t h ose people befor e ever t h ey set ou t fr om t h eir own h om es, a n d t h ey
ca r r ied it wit h t h em in t o t h e con qu er ed pr ovin ces.
We fin d t h is cu st om est a blish ed in t h e for m u la s of Ma r cu lfu s,14 in t h e codes
of t h e la ws of t h e ba r ba r ia n s, bu t ch iefly in t h e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s 15 a n d t h e
decr ees of t h e kin gs of t h e fir st r a ce, 16 wh en ce t h e ca pit u la r ies on t h a t su bject
in t h e secon d r a ce wer e der ived. 17 Th e ch ildr en followed t h e la ws of t h eir
fa t h er , 18 t h e wife t h a t of h er h u sba n d, 19 t h e widow ca m e ba ck t o h er own
or igin a l la w,20 a n d t h e fr eedm a n wa s u n der t h a t of h is pa t r on . 21 Besides, ever y
m a n cou ld m a ke ch oice of wh a t la ws h e plea sed; bu t t h e con st it u t ion of

Lot h a r iu s I 22 r equ ir ed t h a t t h is ch oice sh ou ld be m a de pu blic.
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N5,5D'+-,&"*0&=F.DF*05"*,1
We h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved t h a t t h e la ws of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s a n d Visigot h s
wer e im pa r t ia l; bu t it wa s ot h er wise wit h r ega r d t o t h e Sa lic la w, for it
est a blish ed bet ween t h e F r a n ks a n d Rom a n s t h e m ost m or t ifyin g dist in ct ion s.
Wh en a F r a n k, a ba r ba r ia n , or on e livin g u n der t h e Sa lic la w h a ppen ed t o be
killed, a com posit ion of 200 sols wa s t o be pa id t o h is r ela t ives;23 on ly 100 u pon
t h e killin g of a Rom a n pr opr iet or , 24 a n d n o m or e t h a n for t y-five for a Rom a n
t r ibu t a r y. Th e com posit ion for t h e m u r der of on e of t h e kin g’s va ssa ls, if a
F r a n k, wa s 600 sols;25 if a Rom a n , t h ou gh t h e k in g’s gu est , 26 on ly 300. 27 Th e
Sa lic la w m a de t h er efor e a cr u el dist in ct ion bet ween t h e F r a n k a n d Rom a n lor d,
a n d t h e F r a n k a n d Rom a n com m on er .
F u r t h er , if a n u m ber of people wer e got t oget h er t o a ssa u lt a F r a n k in h is
h ou se, 28 a n d h e h a ppen ed t o be killed, t h e Sa lic la w or da in ed a com posit ion of
600 sols; bu t if a Rom a n or a fr eedm a n wa s a ssa u lt ed, on ly on e-h a lf t h a t
com posit ion . 29 By t h e sa m e la w,30 if a Rom a n pu t a F r a n k in ir on s, h e wa s lia ble
t o a com posit ion of 30 sols; bu t if a F r a n k h a d t h u s u sed a Rom a n , h e pa id on ly
15. A F r a n k, st r ipped by a Rom a n , wa s en t it led t o t h e com posit ion of 62½ sols,
a n d a Rom a n st r ipped by a F r a n k r eceived on ly 30. Su ch u n equ a l t r ea t m en t
m u st n eeds h a ve been ver y gr ievou s t o a Rom a n .
An d yet a celebr a t ed a u t h or 31 for m s a syst em of t h e est a blish m en t of t h e
F r a n ks in Ga u l, on a su pposit ion t h a t t h ey wer e t h e best fr ien ds of t h e Rom a n s.
Th e F r a n ks t h en , t h e best fr ien ds of t h e Rom a n s, t h ey wh o did, a n d t h ey wh o
su ffer ed fr om t h e Rom a n s su ch a n in fin it e dea l of m isch ief!32 Th e F r a n ks, t h e
fr ien ds of t h e Rom a n s, t h ey wh o, a ft er su bdu in g t h em by t h eir a r m s, oppr essed
t h em in cold blood by t h eir la ws! Th ey wer e exa ct ly t h e fr ien ds of t h e Rom a n s
a s t h e Ta r t a r s wh o con qu er ed Ch in a wer e t h e fr ien ds of t h e Ch in ese. If som e
Ca t h olic bish ops t h ou gh t fit t o m a ke u se of t h e F r a n ks in dest r oyin g t h e Ar ia n
Kin gs, does it follow t h a t t h ey h a d a desir e of livin g u n der t h ose ba r ba r ou s
people? An d ca n we h en ce con clu de t h a t t h e F r a n ks h a d a n y pa r t icu la r r ega r d
for t h e Rom a n s? I sh ou ld dr a w qu it e differ en t con sequ en ces; t h e less t h e F r a n ks

h a d t o fea r fr om t h e Rom a n s, t h e less in du lgen ce t h ey sh owed t h em .
Th e Abbé du Bos h a s con su lt ed bu t in differ en t a u t h or it ies for h is h ist or y, su ch
a s poet s a n d or a t or s; wor ks of pa r a de a n d ost en t a t ion a r e im pr oper fou n da t ion s
for bu ildin g syst em s.
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,F#Z%9+&+'&+-%&Y."*>,I&"*0&4.%,%.;%0&5*&+-"+&,F#Z%9+&+'&+-%&A'+-,&"*0
=F.DF*05"*,1
Wh a t h a s been a bove sa id will t h r ow som e ligh t u pon ot h er t h in gs, wh ich h a ve
h it h er t o been in volved in gr ea t obscu r it y.
Th e cou n t r y a t t h is da y ca lled F r a n ce wa s u n der t h e fir st r a ce gover n ed by t h e
Rom a n la w, or t h e Th eodosia n code, a n d by t h e differ en t la ws of t h e
Ba r ba r ia n s, 33 wh o set t led in t h ose pa r t s.
In t h e cou n t r y su bject t o t h e F r a n ks, t h e Sa lic la w wa s est a blish ed for t h e
F r a n ks, a n d t h e Th eodosia n code 34 for t h e Rom a n s. In t h a t su bject t o t h e
Visigot h s, a com pila t ion of t h e Th eodosia n code, m a de by or der of Ala r ic,35
r egu la t ed dispu t es a m on g t h e Rom a n s; a n d t h e n a t ion a l cu st om s, wh ich E u r ic
ca u sed t o be r edu ced t o wr it in g, 36 det er m in ed t h ose a m on g t h e Visigot h s. Bu t
h ow com es it , som e will sa y, t h a t t h e Sa lic la ws ga in ed a lm ost a gen er a l
a u t h or it y in t h e cou n t r y of t h e F r a n ks, a n d t h e Rom a n la w gr a du a lly declin ed;
wh ilst in t h e ju r isdict ion of t h e Visigot h s t h e Rom a n la w spr ea d it self, a n d
obt a in ed a t la st a gen er a l swa y?
My a n swer is t h a t t h e Rom a n la w ca m e t o be disu sed a m on g t h e F r a n ks
beca u se of t h e gr ea t a dva n t a ges a ccr u in g fr om bein g a F r a n k, a Ba r ba r ia n , 37 or
a per son livin g u n der t h e Sa lic la w; ever y on e, in t h a t ca se, r ea dily qu it t in g t h e
Rom a n t o live u n der t h e Sa lic la w.
Th e cler gy a lon e r et a in ed it , 38 a s a ch a n ge wou ld be of n o a dva n t a ge t o t h em .
Th e differ en ce of con dit ion s a n d r a n ks con sist ed on ly in t h e la r gen ess of t h e
com posit ion , a s I sh a ll sh ow in a n ot h er pla ce. Now pa r t icu la r la ws 39 a llowed t h e
cler gy a s fa vou r a ble com posit ion s a s t h ose of t h e F r a n ks, for wh ich r ea son t h ey
r et a in ed t h e Rom a n la w. Th is la w br ou gh t n o h a r dsh ips u pon t h em ; a n d in
ot h er r espect s it wa s m ost pr oper for t h em , a s it wa s t h e wor k of Ch r ist ia n

em per or s.
On t h e ot h er h a n d, in t h e pa t r im on y of t h e Visigot h s, a s t h e Visigot h la w 40
ga ve n o civil a dva n t a ges t o t h e Visigot h s over t h e Rom a n s, t h e la t t er h a d n o
r ea son t o discon t in u e livin g u n der t h eir own la w in or der t o em br a ce a n ot h er .
Th ey r et a in ed t h er efor e t h eir own la ws wit h ou t a dopt in g t h ose of t h e Visigot h s.
Th is is st ill fu r t h er con fir m ed in pr opor t ion a s we pr oceed in ou r in qu ir y. Th e
la w of Gu n deba ld wa s ext r em ely im pa r t ial, not favour ing t h e Bu r gu n dia n s m or e
t h a n t h e Rom a n s. It a ppea r s by t h e pr ea m ble t o t h a t la w t h a t it wa s m a de for
t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, a n d t o r egu la t e t h e dispu t es wh ich m igh t a r ise bet ween t h em
a n d t h e Rom a n s; a n d in t h e la t t er ca se t h e ju dges wer e equ a lly divided of a side.
Th is wa s n ecessa r y for pa r t icu la r r ea son s, dr a wn fr om t h e polit ica l r egu la t ion s
of t h ose t im es. 41 Th e Rom a n la w wa s con t in u ed in Bu r gu n dy, in or der t o
r egu la t e t h e dispu t es of Rom a n s a m on g t h em selves. Th e la t t er h a d n o
in du cem en t t o qu it t h eir own la w, a s in t h e cou n t r y of t h e F r a n ks; a n d r a t h er
a s t h e Sa lic la w wa s n ot est a blish ed in Bu r gu n dy, a s a ppea r s by t h e fa m ou s
let t er wh ich Agoba r d wr ot e t o Lou is t h e P iou s.
Agoba r d 42 desir ed t h a t pr in ce t o est a blish t h e Sa lic la w in Bu r gu n dy;
con sequ en t ly it h a d n ot been est a blish ed t h er e a t t h a t t im e. Th u s t h e Rom a n
la w did, a n d st ill does su bsist in so m a n y pr ovin ces, wh ich for m er ly depen ded
on t h is kin gdom .
Th e Rom a n a n d Got h ic la ws con t in u ed likewise in t h e cou n t r y of t h e
est a blish m en t of t h e Got h s, wh er e t h e Sa lic la w wa s n ever r eceived. Wh en
P epin a n d Ch a r les Ma r t el expelled t h e Sa r a cens, t h e t own s a n d pr ovin ces wh ich
su bm it t ed t o t h ese pr in ces pet it ion ed for a con t in u a n ce of t h eir own la ws a n d
obt a in ed it ;43 t h is, in spit e of t h e u sa ges of t h ose t im es, wh en a ll la ws wer e
per son a l, soon m a de t h e Rom a n la w t o be con sider ed a s a r ea l a n d t er r it or ia l
la w in t h ose cou n t r ies.
Th is a ppea r s by t h e edict of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, given a t P ist es in t h e yea r 864,
wh ich dist in gu ish es t h e cou n t r ies wh er e ca u ses wer e decided by t h e Rom a n la w
fr om wh er e it wa s ot h er wise.44
Th e edict of P ist es sh ows t wo t h in gs; on e, t h a t t h er e wer e cou n t r ies wh er e
ca u ses wer e decided by t h e Rom a n la w, a n d ot h er s wh er e t h ey wer e n ot ; a n d
t h e ot h er , t h a t t h ose cou n t r ies wh er e t h e Rom a n la w obt a in ed wer e pr ecisely

t h e sa m e wh er e it is st ill followed a t t h is ver y da y, a s a ppea r s by t h e sa id
edict :45 t h u s t h e dist in ct ion of t h e pr ovin ces of F r a n ce u n der cu st om a n d t h ose
u n der wr it t en la w wa s a lr ea dy est a blish ed a t t h e t im e of t h e edict of P ist es.
I h a ve obser ved t h a t in t h e begin n in g of t h e m on a r ch y a ll la ws wer e per son a l;
a n d t h u s wh en t h e edict of P ist es dist in gu ish es t h e cou n t r ies of t h e Rom a n la w
fr om t h ose wh ich wer e ot h er wise, t h e m ea n in g is t h a t , in cou n t r ies wh ich wer e
n ot of t h e Rom a n la w, su ch a m u lt it u de of people h a d ch osen t o live u n der som e
or ot h er of t h e la ws of t h e Ba r ba r ia n s t h a t t h er e wer e sca r cely a n y wh o wou ld
be su bject t o t h e Rom a n la w; a n d t h a t in t h e cou n t r ies of t h e Rom a n la w t h er e
wer e few wh o wou ld ch oose t o live u n der t h e la ws of t h e Ba r ba r ia n s.
I a m n ot ign or a n t t h a t wh a t is h er e a dva n ced will be r eckon ed n ew; bu t if t h e
t h in gs wh ich I a sser t be t r u e, su r ely t h ey a r e ver y a n cien t . Aft er a ll, wh a t gr ea t
m a t t er is it , wh et h er t h ey com e fr om m e, fr om t h e Va lesiu ses, or fr om t h e
Bign on s?
L1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Th e la w of Gu n deba ld su bsist ed a lon g t im e a m on g t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, in
con ju n ct ion wit h t h e Rom a n la w; it wa s st ill in u se u n der Lou is t h e P iou s, a s
Agoba r d’s let t er pla in ly evin ces. In like m a n n er , t h ou gh t h e edict of P ist es ca lls
t h e cou n t r y occu pied by t h e Visigot h s t h e cou n t r y of t h e Rom a n la w, yet t h e la w
of t h e Visigot h s wa s a lwa ys in for ce t h er e; a s a ppea r s by t h e syn od of Tr oyes
h eld u n der Lou is t h e St a m m er er , in t h e yea r 878, t h a t is, fou r t een yea r s a ft er
t h e edict of P ist es.
In pr ocess of t im e t h e Got h ic a n d Bu r gu n dia n la ws fell in t o disu se even in
t h eir own cou n t r y, wh ich wa s owin g t o t h ose gen er a l ca u ses t h a t ever ywh er e
su ppr essed t h e per son a l la ws of t h e Ba r ba r ia n s.
O1&R'7&+-%&/'<"*&6"7&>%4+&5+,&A.'F*0&5*&+-%&C%<%,*%&'(&+-%
6'<#".0,1
Th e fa ct s a ll coin cide wit h m y pr in ciples. Th e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds wa s
im pa r t ia l, a n d t h e Rom a n s wer e u n der n o t em pt a t ion t o qu it t h eir own for it .
Th e m ot ive wh ich pr eva iled wit h t h e Rom a n s u n der t h e F r a n ks t o m a ke ch oice

of t h e Sa lic la w did n ot t a ke pla ce in It a ly; h en ce t h e Rom a n la w m a in t a in ed
it self t h er e, t oget h er wit h t h a t of t h e Lom ba r ds.
It even fell ou t t h a t t h e la t t er ga ve wa y t o t h e Rom a n in st it u t es, a n d cea sed
t o be t h e la w of t h e r u lin g n a t ion ; a n d t h ou gh it con t in u ed t o be t h a t of t h e
pr in cipa l n obilit y, yet t h e gr ea t est pa r t of t h e cit ies for m ed t h em selves in t o
r epu blics, a n d t h e n obilit y m ou lder ed a wa y of t h em selves, or wer e dest r oyed. 46
Th e cit izen s of t h e n ew r epu blics h a d n o in clin a t ion t o a dopt a la w wh ich
est a blish ed t h e cu st om of ju dicia r y com ba t s, a n d wh ose in st it u t ion s r et a in ed
m u ch of t h e cu st om s a n d u sa ges of ch iva lr y. As t h e cler gy of t h ose da ys, a cler gy
even t h en so power fu l in It a ly, lived a lm ost a ll u n der t h e Rom a n la w, t h e
n u m ber of t h ose wh o followed t h e in st it u t ion s of t h e Lom ba r ds m u st h a ve da ily
dim in ish ed.
Besides, t h e in st it u t ion s of t h e Lom ba r ds h a d n ot t h a t ext en t , t h a t m a jest y of
t h e Rom a n la w, by wh ich It a ly wa s r em in ded of h er u n iver sa l dom in ion . Th e
in st it u t ion s of t h e Lom ba r ds a n d t h e Rom a n la w cou ld be t h en of n o ot h er u se
t h a n t o fu r n ish ou t st a t u t es for t h ose cit ies t h a t wer e er ect ed in t o r epu blics.
Now wh ich cou ld bet t er fu r n ish t h em , t h e in st it u t ion s of t h e Lom ba r ds t h a t
det er m in ed on som e pa r t icu la r ca ses, or t h e Rom a n la w wh ich em br a ced t h em
a ll?
P1&R'7&+-%&/'<"*&6"7&9"<%&+'&#%&$',+&5*&34"5*1
Th in gs h a ppen ed ot h er wise in Spa in . Th e la w of t h e Visigot h s pr eva iled, a n d
t h e Rom a n la w wa s lost . Ch a in da su in t h u s 47 a n d Recessu in t h u s pr oscr ibed t h e
Rom a n la ws, 48 a n d even for ba de cit in g t h em in t h eir cou r t s of ju dica t u r e.
Recessu in t h u s wa s likewise a u t h or of t h e la w wh ich t ook off t h e pr oh ibit ion of
m a r r ia ge bet ween t h e Got h s a n d Rom a n s. 49 It is eviden t t h a t t h ese t wo la ws
h a d t h e sa m e spir it ; t h is kin g wa n t ed t o r em ove t h e pr in cipa l ca u ses of
sepa r a t ion wh ich su bsist ed bet ween t h e Got h s a n d t h e Rom a n s. Now it wa s
t h ou gh t t h a t n ot h in g m a de a wider sepa r a t ion t h a n t h e pr oh ibit ion of
in t er m a r r ia ges, a n d t h e liber t y of livin g u n der differ en t in st it u t ion s.
Bu t t h ou gh t h e kin gs of t h e Visigot h s h a d pr oscr ibed t h e Rom a n la w, it st ill
su bsist ed in t h e dem esn es t h ey possessed in Sou t h Ga u l. 50 Th ese cou n t r ies
bein g dist a n t fr om t h e cen t r e of t h e m on a r ch y lived in a st a t e of gr ea t

in depen den ce. We see fr om t h e h ist or y of Va m ba , wh o a scen ded t h e t h r on e in
672, t h a t t h e n a t ives of t h e cou n t r y h a d becom e t h e pr eva ilin g pa r t y.51 H en ce
t h e Rom a n la w h a d gr ea t er a u t h or it y a n d t h e Got h ic less. Th e Spa n ish la ws
n eit h er su it ed t h eir m a n n er s n or t h eir a ct u a l sit u a t ion ; t h e people m igh t
likewise be obst in a t ely a t t a ch ed t o t h e Rom a n la w, beca u se t h ey h a d a n n exed
t o it t h e idea of liber t y. Besides, t h e la ws of Ch a in da su in t h u s a n d of
Recessu in t h u s con t a in ed m ost sever e r egu la t ion s a ga in st t h e J ews; bu t t h ese
J ews h a d a va st dea l of power in Sou t h Ga u l. Th e a u t h or of t h e h ist or y of Kin g
Va m ba ca lls t h ese pr ovin ces t h e br ot h el of t h e J ews. Wh en t h e Sa r a cen s
in va ded t h ese pr ovin ces, it wa s by in vit a t ion ; a n d wh o cou ld h a ve in vit ed t h em
bu t t h e J ews or t h e Rom a n s? Th e Got h s wer e t h e fir st t h a t wer e oppr essed,
beca u se t h ey wer e t h e r u lin g n a t ion . We see in P r ocopiu s, t h a t du r in g t h eir
ca la m it ies t h ey wit h dr ew ou t of Na r bon n e Ga u l in t o Spa in . 52 Dou bt less, u n der
t h is m isfor t u n e; t h ey t ook r efu ge in t h ose pr ovin ces of Spa in wh ich st ill h eld
ou t ; a n d t h e n u m ber of t h ose wh o in Sou t h Ga u l lived u n der t h e la w of t h e
Visigot h s wa s t h er eby gr ea t ly dim in ish ed.
Q1&:&("$,%&)"45+F$".H1
Did n ot t h a t wr et ch ed com piler Ben edict u s Levit a a t t em pt t o t r a n sfor m t h is
Visigot h est a blish m en t , wh ich pr oh ibit ed t h e u se of Rom a n la w, in t o a
ca pit u la r y 53 a scr ibed sin ce t o Ch a r lem a gn e? H e m a de of t h is pa r t icu la r
in st it u t ion a gen er a l on e, a s if h e in t en ded t o ext er m in a t e t h e Rom a n la w
t h r ou gh ou t t h e u n iver se.
S1&?*&7-"+&<"**%.&+-%&)'0%,&'(&=".#".5"*&6"7,&"*0&+-%&)"45+F$".5%,
9"<%&+'&#%&$',+1
Th e Sa lic, t h e Ripu a r ia n , Bu r gu n dia n , a n d Visigot h la ws ca m e, by degr ees, t o
be disu sed a m on g t h e F r en ch in t h e followin g m a n n er :
As fiefs beca m e h er edit a r y, a n d a r r ièr e-fiefs ext en ded, m a n y u sa ges wer e
in t r odu ced, t o wh ich t h ese la ws wer e n o lon ger a pplica ble. Th eir spir it in deed
wa s con t in u ed, wh ich wa s t o r egu la t e m ost dispu t es by fin es. Bu t a s t h e va lu e
of m on ey wa s, dou bt less, su bject t o ch a n ge, t h e fin es wer e a lso ch a n ged; a n d we

see sever a l ch a r t er s, 54 wh er e t h e lor ds fixed t h e fin es, t h a t wer e pa ya ble in t h eir
pet t y cou r t s. Th u s t h e spir it of t h e la w wa s followed, wit h ou t a dh er in g t o t h e
la w it self.
Besides, a s F r a n ce wa s divided in t o a n u m ber of pet t y lor dsh ips, wh ich
a ckn owledged r a t h er a feu da l t h a n a polit ica l depen den ce, it wa s ver y difficu lt
for on ly on e la w t o be a u t h or ised. An d, in deed, it wou ld be im possible t o see it
obser ved. Th e cu st om n o lon ger pr eva iled of sen din g ext r a or din a r y officer s 55
in t o t h e pr ovin ces t o in spect t h e a dm in ist r a t ion of ju st ice a n d polit ica l a ffa ir s;
it a ppea r s, even by t h e ch a r t er s, t h a t wh en n ew fiefs wer e est a blish ed ou r kin gs
divest ed t h em selves of t h e r igh t of sen din g t h ose officer s. Th u s, wh en a lm ost
ever yt h in g h a d becom e a fief, t h ese officer s cou ld n ot be em ployed; t h er e wa s n o
lon ger a com m on la w beca u se n o on e cou ld en for ce t h e obser va n ce of it .
Th e Sa lic, Bu r gu n dia n, and Visigot h laws wer e, t her efor e, ext r em ely n eglect ed
a t t h e en d of t h e secon d r a ce; a n d a t t h e begin n in g of t h e t h ir d, t h ey wer e
sca r cely ever m en t ion ed.
Un der t h e fir st a n d secon d r a ce, t h e n a t ion wa s oft en a ssem bled; t h a t is, t h e
lor ds a n d bish ops; t h e com m on s wer e n ot yet t h ou gh t of. In t h ese a ssem blies,
a t t em pt s wer e m a de t o r egu la t e t h e cler gy, a body wh ich for m ed it self, if I m a y
so spea k, u n der t h e con qu er or s, a n d est a blish ed it s pr ivileges. Th e la ws m a de
in t h ese a ssem blies a r e wh a t we ca ll t h e Ca pit u la r ies. H en ce fou r t h in gs
en su ed: t h e feu da l la ws wer e est a blish ed a n d a gr ea t pa r t of t h e ch u r ch
r even u es wa s a dm in ist er ed by t h ose la ws; t h e cler gy effect ed a wider
sepa r a t ion , a n d n eglect ed t h ose decr ees of r efor m a t ion wh er e t h ey t h em selves
wer e n ot t h e on ly r efor m er s;56 a collect ion wa s m a de of t h e ca n on s of cou n cils
a n d of t h e decr et a ls of popes;57 a n d t h ese t h e cler gy r eceived, a s com in g fr om a
pu r er sou r ce. E ver sin ce t h e er ect ion of t h e gr a n d fiefs, ou r kin gs, a s we h a ve
a lr ea dy obser ved, h a d n o lon ger a n y depu t ies in t h e pr ovin ces t o en for ce t h e
obser va n ce of t h eir la ws; a n d h en ce it is t h a t , u n der t h e t h ir d r a ce, we fin d n o
m or e m en t ion m a de of Ca pit u la r ies.
BT1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Sever a l ca pit u la r ies wer e a dded t o t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, a s well a s t o t h e
Sa lic a n d Ba va r ia n la ws. Th e r ea son of t h is h a s been a m a t t er of in qu ir y; bu t
it m u st be sou gh t for in t h e t h in g it self. Th er e wer e sever a l sor t s of ca pit u la r ies.
Som e h a d r ela t ion t o polit ica l gover n m en t , ot h er s t o econ om ica l, m ost of t h em
t o ecclesia st ica l polit y, a n d som e few t o civil gover n m en t . Th ose of t h e la st
species wer e a dded t o t h e civil la w, t h a t is, t o t h e per son a l la ws of ea ch n a t ion ;
for wh ich r ea son it is sa id in t h e Ca pit u la r ies t h a t t h er e is n ot h in g st ipu la t ed
t h er ein con t r a r y t o t h e Rom a n la w.58 In effect , t h ose ca pit u la r ies r ega r din g
econ om ica l, ecclesia st ica l, or polit ica l gover n m en t h a d n o r ela t ion t o t h a t la w;
a n d t h ose con cer n in g civil gover n m en t h a d r efer en ce on ly t o t h e la ws of t h e
ba r ba r ou s people, wh ich wer e expla in ed, a m en ded, en la r ged, or a br idged. Bu t
t h e a ddin g of t h ese ca pit u la r ies t o t h e per son a l la ws occa sion ed, I im a gin e, t h e
n eglect of t h e ver y body of t h e Ca pit u la r ies t h em selves; in t im es of ign or a n ce,
t h e a br idgm en t of a wor k oft en ca u ses t h e loss of t h e wor k it self.
BB1&@+-%.&)"F,%,&'(&+-%&C5,F,%&'(&+-%&)'0%,&'(&=".#".5"*&6"7,I&",
7%$$&",&'(&+-%&/'<"*&6"7I&"*0&'(&+-%&)"45+F$".5%,1
Wh en t h e Ger m a n n a t ion s su bdu ed t h e Rom a n em pir e, t h ey lea r n ed t h e u se
of wr it in g; a n d, in im it a t ion of t h e Rom a n s, t h ey wr ot e down t h eir own u sa ges,
a n d digest ed t h em in t o codes. 59 Th e u n h a ppy r eign s wh ich followed t h a t of
Ch a r lem a gn e, t h e in va sion s of t h e Nor m a n s a n d t h e civil wa r s, plu n ged t h e
con qu er in g n a t ion s a ga in in t o t h e da r kn ess ou t of wh ich t h ey h a d em er ged, so
t h a t r ea din g a n d wr it in g wer e qu it e n eglect ed. H en ce it is, t h a t in F r a n ce a n d
Ger m a n y t h e wr it t en la ws of t h e Ba r ba r ia n s, a s well a s t h e Rom a n la w a n d t h e
Ca pit u la r ies fell in t o oblivion . Th e u se of wr it in g wa s bet t er pr eser ved in It a ly,
wh er e r eign ed t h e P opes a n d t h e Gr eek E m per or s, a n d wh er e t h er e wer e
flou r ish in g cit ies, wh ich en joyed a lm ost t h e on ly com m er ce in t h ose da ys. To
t h is n eigh bou r h ood of It a ly it wa s owin g t h a t t h e Rom a n la w wa s pr eser ved in
t h e pr ovin ces of Ga u l, for m er ly su bject t o t h e Got h s a n d Bu r gu n dia n s; a n d so
m u ch t h e m or e, a s t h is la w wa s t h er e a t er r it or ia l in st it u t ion , a n d a kin d of
pr ivilege. It is pr oba ble t h a t t h e disu se of t h e Visigot h la ws in Spa in pr oceeded
fr om t h e wa n t of wr it in g, a n d by t h e loss of so m a n y la ws, cu st om s wer e

ever ywh er e est a blish ed.
P er son a l la ws fell t o t h e gr ou n d. Com posit ion s, a n d wh a t t h ey ca ll F r eda , 60
wer e r egu la t ed m or e by cu st om t h a n by t h e t ext of t h ese la ws. Th u s, a s in t h e
est a blish m en t of t h e m on a r ch y, t h ey h a d pa ssed fr om Ger m a n cu st om s t o
wr it t en la ws; som e a ges a ft er , t h ey ca m e ba ck fr om wr it t en la ws t o u n wr it t en
cu st om s.
BE1&@(&$'9"$&)F,+'<,1
Revolu t ion of t h e La ws of ba r ba r ou s Na t ion s, a s well a s of t h e Rom a n La w. By
sever a l m em or ia ls it a ppea r s, t h a t t h er e wer e loca l cu st om s, a s ea r ly a s t h e fir st
a n d secon d r a ce. We fin d m en t ion m a de of t h e “cu st om of t h e pla ce,”61 of t h e
“a n cien t u sa ge,”62 of “cu st om ,”63 of “la ws,”64 a n d of “cu st om s.” It h a s been t h e
opin ion of som e a u t h or s t h a t wh a t wen t by t h e n a m e of cu st om s wer e t h e la ws
of t h e ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s, a n d wh a t h a d t h e a ppella t ion of la w wer e t h e Rom a n
in st it u t es. Th is ca n n ot possibly be. Kin g P epin or da in ed 65 t h a t wh er ever t h er e
sh ou ld h a ppen t o be n o la w, cu st om sh ou ld be com plied wit h ; bu t t h a t it sh ou ld
n ever be pr efer r ed t o t h e la w. Now, t o pr et en d t h a t t h e Rom a n la w wa s
pr efer r ed t o t h e codes of t h e la ws of t h e Ba r ba r ia n s is su bver t in g a ll m em or ia ls
of a n t iqu it y, a n d especia lly t h ose codes of Ba r ba r ia n la ws, wh ich con st a n t ly
a ffir m t h e con t r a r y.
So fa r wer e t h e la ws of t h e ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s fr om bein g t h ose cu st om s, t h a t
it wa s t h ese ver y la ws, a s per son a l in st it u t ion s, wh ich in t r odu ced t h em . Th e
Sa lic la w, for in st a n ce, wa s a per son a l la w; bu t gen er a lly, or a lm ost gen er a lly,
in pla ces in h a bit ed by t h e Sa lia n F r a n ks, t h is Sa lic la w, h ow per son a l soever ,
beca m e, in r espect t o t h ose Sa lia n F r a n ks, a t er r it or ia l in st it u t ion , a n d wa s
per son a l on ly in r ega r d t o t h ose F r a n ks wh o lived elsewh er e. Now if sever a l
Bu r gu n dia n s, Alem a n s, or even Rom a n s sh ou ld h a ppen t o h a ve fr equ en t
dispu t es, in a pla ce wh er e t h e Sa lic la w wa s t er r it or ia l, t h ey m u st h a ve been
det er m in ed by t h e la ws of t h ose people; a n d a gr ea t n u m ber of decision s
a gr eea ble t o som e of t h ose la ws m u st h a ve in t r odu ced n ew cu st om s in t o t h e
cou n t r y. Th is expla in s t h e con st it u t ion of P epin . It wa s n a t u r a l t h a t t h ose
cu st om s sh ou ld a ffect even t h e F r a n ks wh o lived on t h e spot , in ca ses n ot
decided by t h e Sa lic la w; bu t it wa s n ot n a t u r a l t h a t t h ey sh ou ld pr eva il over

t h e Sa lic la w it self.
Th u s t h er e wer e in ea ch pla ce a n est a blish ed la w a n d r eceived cu st om s wh ich
ser ved a s a su pplem en t t o t h a t la w wh en t h ey did n ot con t r a dict it .
Th ey m igh t even h a ppen t o su pply a la w t h a t wa s in n o wa y t er r it or ia l; a n d
t o con t in u e t h e sa m e exa m ple, if a Bu r gu n dia n wa s ju dged by t h e la w of h is own
n a t ion , in a pla ce wh er e t h e Sa lic la w wa s t er r it or ia l, a n d t h e ca se h a ppen ed n ot
t o be explicit ly m en t ion ed in t h e ver y t ext of t h is la w, t h er e is n o m a n n er of
dou bt bu t t h a t ju dgm en t wou ld h a ve been pa ssed u pon h im a ccor din g t o t h e
cu st om of t h e pla ce.
In t h e r eign of Kin g P epin , t h e cu st om s t h en est a blish ed h a d n ot t h e sa m e
for ce a s t h e la ws; bu t it wa s n ot lon g befor e t h e la ws ga ve wa y t o t h e cu st om s.
An d a s n ew r egu la t ion s a r e gen er a lly r em edies t h a t im ply a pr esen t evil, it m a y
well be im a gin ed t h a t a s ea r ly a s P epin ’s t im e, t h ey bega n t o pr efer t h e cu st om s
t o t h e est a blish ed la ws.
Wh a t h a s been sa id su fficien t ly expla in s t h e m a n n er in wh ich t h e Rom a n la w
bega n so ver y ea r ly t o becom e t er r it or ia l, a s m a y be seen in t h e edict of P ist es;
a n d h ow t h e Got h ic la w con t in u ed st ill in for ce, a s a ppea r s by t h e syn od of
Tr oyes a bove-m en t ion ed.66 Th e Rom a n h a d becom e t h e gen er a l per son a l la w,
a n d t h e Got h ic t h e pa r t icu la r per son a l la w; con sequ en t ly t h e Rom a n la w wa s
t er r it or ia l. Bu t h ow ca m e it , som e will a sk, t h a t t h e per son a l la ws of t h e
Ba r ba r ia n s fell ever ywh er e in t o disu se, wh ile t h e Rom a n la w wa s con t in u ed a s
a t er r it or ia l in st it u t ion in t h e Visigot h a n d Bu r gu n dia n pr ovin ces? I a n swer
t h a t even t h e Rom a n la w h a d ver y n ea r ly t h e sa m e fa t e a s t h e ot h er per son a l
in st it u t ion s; ot h er wise we wou ld st ill h a ve t h e Th eodosia n code in t h ose
pr ovin ces wh er e t h e Rom a n la w wa s t er r it or ia l, wh er ea s we h a ve t h e in st it u t es
of J u st in ia n . Th ose pr ovin ces r et a in ed sca r cely a n yt h in g m or e t h a n t h e n a m e
of t h e cou n t r y u n der t h e Rom a n , or wr it t en la w, t h a n t h e n a t u r a l a ffect ion
wh ich people h a ve for t h eir own in st it u t ion s, especia lly wh en t h ey con sider
t h em a s pr ivileges, a n d a few r egu la t ion s of t h e Rom a n la w wh ich wer e n ot yet
for got t en . Th is wa s, h owever , su fficien t t o pr odu ce su ch a n effect t h a t , wh en
J u st in ia n ’s com pila t ion a ppea r ed, it wa s r eceived in t h e pr ovin ces of t h e Got h ic
a n d Bu r gu n dia n dem esn e a s a wr it t en la w, wh er ea s it wa s a dm it t ed on ly a s
wr it t en r ea son in t h e a n cien t dem esn e of t h e F r a n ks.
BG1&C5((%.%*9%&#%+7%%*&+-%&3"$59&$"7I&'.&+-"+&'(&+-%&3"$5"*&Y."*>,I
"*0&+-"+&'(&+-%&/54F".5"*&Y."*>,&"*0&'+-%.&#".#".'F,&2"+5'*,1
Th e Sa lic la w did n ot a llow of t h e cu st om of n ega t ive pr oofs; t h a t is, if a
per son br ou gh t a dem a n d or ch a r ge a ga in st a n ot h er , h e wa s obliged by t h e Sa lic
la w t o pr ove it , a n d it wa s n ot su fficien t for t h e secon d t o den y it , wh ich is
a gr eea ble t o t h e la ws of a lm ost a ll n a t ion s.
Th e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n F r a n ks h a d qu it e a differ en t spir it ;67 it wa s
con t en t ed wit h n ega t ive pr oofs, a n d t h e per son ) a ga in st wh om a dem a n d or
a ccu sa t ion wa s br ou gh t , m igh t clea r h im self, in m ost ca ses, by swea r in g, in
con ju n ct ion wit h a cer t a in n u m ber of wit n esses, t h a t h e h a d n ot com m it t ed t h e
cr im e la id t o h is ch a r ge. Th e n u m ber of wit n esses wh o wer e obliged t o swea r 68
in cr ea sed in pr opor t ion t o t h e im por t a n ce of t h e a ffa ir ; som et im es it a m ou n t ed
t o seven t y-t wo. 69 Th e la ws of t h e Alem a n s, Ba va r ia n s, Th u r in gia n s, F r isia n s,
Sa xon s, Lom ba r ds, a n d Bu r gu n dia n s wer e for m ed on t h e sa m e pla n a s t h ose of
t h e Ripu a r ia n .
I obser ved t h a t t h e Sa lic la w did n ot a llow of n ega t ive pr oofs. Th er e wa s on e
ca se, h owever , in wh ich t h ey wer e a llowed:70 bu t even t h en t h ey wer e n ot
a dm it t ed a lon e, a n d wit h ou t t h e con cu r r en ce of posit ive pr oofs. Th e pla in t iff
ca u sed wit n esses t o be h ea r d, 71 in or der t o gr ou n d h is a ct ion , t h e defen da n t
pr odu ced a lso wit n esses on h is side, a n d t h e ju dge wa s t o com e a t t h e t r u t h by
com pa r in g t h ose t est im on ies. 72 Th is pr a ct ice wa s va st ly differ en t fr om t h a t of
t h e Ripu a r ia n , a n d ot h er ba r ba r ou s la ws, wh er e it wa s cu st om a r y for t h e pa r t y
a ccu sed t o clea r h im self by swea r in g h e wa s n ot gu ilt y, a n d by m a kin g h is
r ela t ives a lso swea r t h a t h e h a d t old t h e t r u t h . Th ese la ws cou ld be su it a ble
on ly t o a people r em a r ka ble for t h eir n a t u r a l sim plicit y a n d ca n dou r ; we sh a ll
see pr esen t ly t h a t t h e legisla t or s wer e obliged t o t a k e pr oper m et h ods t o
pr even t t h eir bein g a bu sed.
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Th e Sa lic la w did n ot a dm it of t h e t r ia l by com ba t , t h ou gh it h a d been r eceived
by t h e la ws of t h e Ripu a r ia n s 73 a n d of a lm ost a ll t h e ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s. 74 To m e
it seem s t h a t t h e la w of com ba t wa s a n a t u r a l con sequ en ce a n d a r em edy of t h e
la w wh ich est a blish ed n ega t ive pr oofs. Wh en a n a ct ion wa s br ou gh t , a n d it
a ppea r ed t h a t t h e defen da n t wa s goin g t o elu de it by a n oa t h , wh a t ot h er
r em edy wa s left t o a m ilit a r y m a n , 75 wh o sa w h im self u pon t h e poin t of bein g
con fou n ded, t h a n t o dem a n d sa t isfa ct ion for t h e in ju r y don e t o h im : a n d even
for t h e a t t em pt of per ju r y? Th e Sa lic la w, wh ich did n ot a llow t h e cu st om of
n ega t ive pr oofs, n eit h er a dm it t ed n or h a d a n y n eed of t h e t r ia l by com ba t ; bu t
t h e la ws of t h e Ripu a r ia n s 76 a n d of t h e ot h er ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s 77 wh o h a d
a dopt ed t h e pr a ct ice of n ega t ive pr oofs, wer e obliged t o est a blish t h e t r ia l by
com ba t .
Wh oever will plea se t o exa m in e t h e t wo fa m ou s r egu la t ion s of Gu n deba ld,
Kin g of Bu r gu n dy, con cer n in g t h is su bject will fin d t h ey a r e der ived fr om t h e
ver y n a t u r e of t h e t h in g. 78 It wa s n ecessa r y, a ccor din g t o t h e la n gu a ge of t h e
Ba r ba r ia n la ws, t o r escu e t h e oa t h ou t of t h e h a n ds of a per son wh o wa s goin g
t o a bu se it .
Am on g t h e Lom ba r ds, t h e la w of Rot h a r is a dm it s of ca ses in wh ich a m a n wh o
h a d m a de h is defen ce by oa t h sh ou ld n ot be su ffer ed t o u n der go t h e h a r dsh ip
of a du el. Th is cu st om spr ea d it self fu r t h er :79 we sh a ll pr esen t ly see t h e
m isch iefs t h a t a r ose fr om it , a n d h ow t h ey wer e obliged t o r et u r n t o t h e a n cien t
pr a ct ice.
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I do n ot pr et en d t o den y t h a t in t h e ch a n ges m a de in t h e code of t h e Ba r ba r ia n
la ws, in t h e r egu la t ion s a dded t o t h a t code, a n d in t h e body of t h e Ca pit u la r ies,
it is possible t o fin d som e pa ssa ges wh er e t h e t r ia l by com ba t is n ot a
con sequ en ce of t h e n ega t ive pr oof. P a r t icu la r cir cu m st a n ces m igh t , in t h e cou r se
of m a n y a ges, give r ise t o pa r t icu la r la ws. I spea k on ly of t h e gen er a l spir it of
t h e la ws of t h e Ger m a n s, of t h eir n a t u r e a n d or igin ; I spea k of t h e a n cien t
cu st om s of t h ose people t h a t wer e eit h er h in t ed a t or est a blish ed by t h ose la ws;
a n d t h is is t h e on ly m a t t er in qu est ion .
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6"71
Th e Sa lic la w 80 a llowed of t h e or dea l, or t r ia l by boilin g wa t er ; a n d a s t h is t r ia l
wa s excessively cr u el, t h e la w fou n d a n expedien t t o soft en it s r igou r .81 It
per m it t ed t h e per son , wh o h a d been su m m on ed t o m a ke t h e t r ia l wit h boilin g
wa t er , t o r a n som h is h a n d, wit h t h e con sen t of t h e a dver se pa r t y. Th e a ccu ser ,
for a pa r t icu la r su m det er m in ed by t h e la w, m igh t be sa t isfied wit h t h e oa t h of
a few wit n esses, decla r in g t h a t t h e a ccu sed h a d n ot com m it t ed t h e cr im e. Th is
wa s a pa r t icu la r ca se, in wh ich t h e Sa lic la w a dm it t ed of t h e n ega t ive pr oof.
Th is t r ia l wa s a t h in g pr iva t ely a gr eed u pon , wh ich t h e la w per m it t ed on ly,
bu t did n ot or da in . Th e la w ga ve a pa r t icu la r in dem n it y t o t h e a ccu ser , wh o
wou ld a llow t h e a ccu sed t o m a ke h is defen ce by a n ega t ive pr oof: t h e pla in t iff
wa s a t liber t y t o be sa t isfied wit h t h e oa t h of t h e defen da n t , a s h e wa s a t liber t y
t o for give h im t h e in ju r y.
Th e la w con t r ived a m iddle cou r se, 82 t h a t befor e sen t en ce pa ssed, bot h pa r t ies,
t h e on e t h r ou gh fea r of a t er r ible t r ia l, t h e ot h er for t h e sa ke of a sm a ll
in dem n it y, sh ou ld t er m in a t e t h eir dispu t es, a n d pu t a n en d t o t h eir a n im osit ies.
It is pla in , t h a t wh en on ce t h is n ega t ive pr oof wa s com plet ed, n ot h in g m or e wa s
r equ isit e; a n d, t h er efor e, t h a t t h e pr a ct ice of lega l du els cou ld n ot be a
con sequ en ce of t h is pa r t icu la r r egu la t ion of t h e Sa lic la w.
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It is a st on ish in g t h a t ou r a n cest or s sh ou ld t h u s r est t h e h on ou r , for t u n e a n d
life of t h e su bject , on t h in gs t h a t depen ded less on r ea son t h a n on h a za r d, a n d
t h a t t h ey sh ou ld in cessa n t ly m a ke u se of pr oofs in ca pa ble of con vict in g, a n d
t h a t h a d n o m a n n er of con n ect ion eit h er wit h in n ocen ce or gu ilt .
Th e Ger m a n s, wh o h a d n ever been su bdu ed,83 en joyed a n excessive
in depen den ce. Differ en t fa m ilies wa ged wa r wit h ea ch ot h er 84 t o obt a in
sa t isfa ct ion for m u r der s, r obber ies or a ffr on t s. Th is cu st om wa s m oder a t ed by
su bject in g t h ese h ost ilit ies t o r u les; it wa s or da in ed t h a t t h ey sh ou ld be n o
lon ger com m it t ed bu t by t h e dir ect ion a n d u n der t h e eye of t h e m a gist r a t e. 85
Th is wa s fa r pr efer a ble t o a gen er a l licen ce of a n n oyin g ea ch ot h er .
As t h e Tu r ks in t h eir civil wa r s look u pon t h e fir st vict or y a s a decision of

h ea ven in fa vou r of t h e vict or , so t h e in h a bit a n t s of Ger m a n y in t h eir pr iva t e
qu a r r els con sider ed t h e even t of a com ba t a s a decr ee of P r oviden ce, ever
a t t en t ive t o pu n ish t h e cr im in a l or t h e u su r per .
Ta cit u s in for m s u s t h a t wh en on e Ger m a n n a t ion in t en ded t o decla r e wa r
a ga in st a n ot h er , t h ey looked ou t for a pr ison er wh o wa s t o figh t wit h on e of
t h eir people, a n d by t h e even t t h ey ju dged of t h e su ccess of t h e wa r . A n a t ion
wh o believed t h a t pu blic qu a r r els cou ld be det er m in ed by a sin gle com ba t m igh t
ver y well t h in k t h a t it wa s pr oper a lso for decidin g t h e dispu t es of in dividu a ls.
Gu n deba ld, Kin g of Bu r gu n dy, ga ve t h e gr ea t est sa n ct ion t o t h e cu st om of
lega l du els. 86 Th e r ea son h e a ssign s for t h is la w is m en t ion ed in h is edict , “It is,”
sa ys h e, “in or der t o pr even t ou r su bject s fr om a t t est in g by oa t h wh a t is
u n cer t a in , a n d per ju r in g t h em selves a bou t wh a t is cer t a in .” Th u s, wh ile t h e
cler gy decla r ed t h a t a n im piou s la w wh ich per m it t ed com ba t s, 87 t h e Bu r gu n dia n
Kin gs looked u pon t h a t a s a sa cr ilegiou s la w wh ich a u t h or ized t h e t a kin g of a n
oa t h .
Th e t r ia l by com ba t h a d som e r ea son for it , fou n ded on exper ien ce. In a
m ilit a r y n a t ion , cowa r dice su pposes ot h er vices; it is a n a r gu m en t of a per son ’s
h a vin g devia t ed fr om t h e pr in ciples of h is edu ca t ion , of h is bein g in sen sible of
h on ou r , a n d of h a vin g r efu sed t o be dir ect ed by t h ose m a xim s wh ich gover n
ot h er m en ; it sh ows t h a t h e n eit h er fea r s t h eir con t em pt , n or set s a n y va lu e
u pon t h eir est eem . Men of a n y t oler a ble ext r a ct ion seldom wa n t eit h er t h e
dext er it y r equ isit e t o co-oper a t e wit h st r en gt h , or t h e st r en gt h n ecessa r y t o
con cu r wit h cou r a ge; for a s t h ey set a va lu e u pon h on ou r , t h ey a r e pr a ct ised in
m a t t er s wit h ou t wh ich t h is h on ou r ca n n ot be obt a in ed. Besides, in a m ilit a r y
n a t ion , wh er e st r en gt h , cou r a ge a n d pr owess a r e est eem ed, cr im es r ea lly odiou s
a r e t h ose wh ich a r ise fr om fr a u d, a r t ifice, a n d cu n n in g, t h a t is, fr om cowa r dice.
Wit h r ega r d t o t h e t r ia l by fir e, a ft er t h e pa r t y a ccu sed h a d pu t h is h a n d on
a h ot ir on , or in boilin g wa t er , t h ey wr a pped t h e h a n d in a ba g a n d sea led it u p;
if a ft er t h r ee da ys t h er e a ppea r ed n o m a r k, h e wa s a cqu it t ed, Is it n ot pla in ,
t h a t a m on g people in u r ed t o t h e h a n dlin g of a r m s, t h e im pr ession m a de on a
r ou gh or ca llou s skin by t h e h ot ir on or by boilin g wa t er cou ld n ot be so gr ea t a s
t o be seen t h r ee da ys a ft er wa r ds? An d if t h er e a ppea r ed a n y m a r k, it sh owed
t h a t t h e per son wh o h a d u n der gon e t h e t r ia l wa s a n effem in a t e fellow. Ou r

pea sa n t s a r e n ot a fr a id t o h a n dle h ot ir on wit h t h eir ca llou s h a n ds; a n d, wit h
r ega r d t o t h e wom en , t h e h a n ds of t h ose wh o wor ked h a r d m igh t be ver y well
a ble t o r esist h ot ir on . Th e la dies did n ot wa n t ch a m pion s t o defen d t h eir ca u se;
a n d in a n a t ion wh er e t h er e wa s n o lu xu r y, t h er e wa s n o m iddle st a t e.88
By t h e la w of t h e Th u r in gia n s 89 a wom a n a ccu sed of a du lt er y wa s con dem n ed
t o t h e t r ia l by boilin g wa t er on ly wh en t h er e wa s n o ch a m pion t o defen d h er ;
a n d t h e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s a dm it s of t h is t r ia l 90 on ly wh en a per son h a d n o
wit n esses t o a ppea r in ju st ifica t ion . Now a wom a n t h a t cou ld n ot pr eva il u pon
a n y on e r ela t ive t o defen d h er ca u se, or a m a n t h a t cou ld n ot pr odu ce on e sin gle
wit n ess t o a t t est h is h on est y, wa s, fr om t h ose ver y cir cu m st a n ces, su fficien t ly
con vict ed.
I con clu de, t h er efor e, t h a t u n der t h e cir cu m st a n ces of t im e in wh ich t h e t r ia l
by com ba t a n d t h e t r ia l by h ot ir on a n d boilin g wa t er obt a in ed, t h er e wa s su ch
a n a gr eem en t bet ween t h ose la ws a n d t h e m a n n er s of t h e people, t h a t t h e la ws
wer e r a t h er u n ju st in t h em selves t h a n pr odu ct ive of in ju st ice, t h a t t h e effect s
wer e m or e in n ocen t t h a n t h e ca u se, t h a t t h ey wer e m or e con t r a r y t o equ it y t h a n
pr eju dicia l t o it s r igh t s, m or e u n r ea son a ble t h a n t yr a n n ica l.
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F r om Agoba r d’s let t er t o Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e, it m igh t be in fer r ed t h a t t h e
cu st om of ju dicia l com ba t s wa s n ot est a blish ed a m on g t h e F r a n ks; for h a vin g
r epr esen t ed t o t h a t pr in ce t h e a bu ses of t h e la w of Gu n deba ld, h e desir es t h a t
pr iva t e dispu t es sh ou ld be decided in Bu r gu n dy by t h e la w of t h e F r a n ks. Bu t
a s it is well kn own fr om ot h er qu a r t er s t h a t t h e t r ia l by com ba t pr eva iled a t
t h a t t im e in F r a n ce, t h is h a s been t h e ca u se of som e per plexit y. H owever , t h e
difficu lt y m a y be solved by wh a t I h a ve sa id; t h e la w of t h e Sa lia n F r a n ks did
n ot a llow of t h is kin d of t r ia l a n d t h a t of t h e Ripu a r ia n F r a n ks did.91
Bu t , n ot wit h st a n din g t h e cla m ou r s of t h e cler gy, t h e cu st om of ju dicia l
com ba t s ga in ed gr ou n d con t in u a lly in F r a n ce; a n d I sh a ll pr esen t ly m a ke it
a ppea r t h a t t h e cler gy t h em selves wer e in a gr ea t m ea su r e t h e occa sion of it .
It is t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds t h a t fu r n ish es u s wit h t h is pr oof. “Th er e h a s
been lon g sin ce a det est a ble cu st om in t r odu ced,” sa ys t h e pr ea m ble t o t h e
con st it u t ion of Ot h o II:92 “t h is is, t h a t if t h e t it le t o a n est a t e wa s sa id t o be

fa lse, t h e per son wh o cla im ed u n der t h a t t it le m a de oa t h u pon t h e Gospel t h a t
it wa s gen u in e; a n d wit h ou t a n y pr ecedin g ju dgm en t h e t ook possession of t h e
est a t e; so t h a t t h ey wh o wou ld per ju r e t h em selves wer e su r e of ga in in g t h eir
poin t .” Th e E m per or Ot h o I h a vin g ca u sed h im self t o be cr own ed a t Rom e 93 a t
t h e ver y t im e t h a t a cou n cil wa s t h er e u n der P ope J oh n XII, a ll t h e lor ds of It a ly
r epr esen t ed t o t h a t pr in ce t h e n ecessit y of en a ct in g a la w t o r efor m t h is h or r ible
a bu se. 94 Th e P ope a n d t h e E m per or wer e of opin ion t h a t t h e a ffa ir sh ou ld be
r efer r ed t o t h e cou n cil wh ich wa s t o be sh or t ly h eld a t Ra ven n a .95 Th er e t h e
lor ds m a de t h e sa m e dem a n ds, a n d r edou bled t h eir com pla in t s; bu t t h e a ffa ir
wa s pu t off on ce m or e, u n der pr et en ce of t h e a bsen ce of pa r t icu la r per son s.
Wh en Ot h o II a n d Con r a d, Kin g of Bu r gu n dy, a r r ived in It a ly,96 t h ey h a d a
con fer en ce a t Ver on a 97 wit h t h e It a lia n lor ds, 98 a n d a t t h eir r epea t ed
solicit a t ion s, t h e E m per or , wit h t h eir u n a n im ou s con sen t , m a de a la w, t h a t
wh en ever t h er e h a ppen ed a n y dispu t es a bou t in h er it a n ces, wh ile on e of t h e
pa r t ies in sist ed u pon t h e lega lit y of h is t it le a n d t h e ot h er m a in t a in ed it s bein g
fa lse, t h e a ffa ir sh ou ld be decided by com ba t ; t h a t t h e sa m e r u le sh ou ld be
obser ved in con t est s r ela t in g t o fiefs; a n d t h a t t h e cler gy sh ou ld be su bject t o t h e
sa m e la w, bu t sh ou ld figh t by t h eir ch a m pion s. H er e we see t h a t t h e n obilit y
in sist ed on t h e t r ia l by com ba t beca u se of t h e in con ven ien ce of t h e pr oof
in t r odu ced by t h e cler gy; t h a t n ot wit h st a n din g t h e cla m ou r s of t h e n obilit y, t h e
n ot or iou sn ess of t h e a bu se wh ich ca lled ou t lou dly for r edr ess, a n d t h e a u t h or it y
of Ot h o wh o ca m e in t o It a ly t o spea k a n d a ct a s m a st er , st ill t h e cler gy h eld ou t
in t wo cou n cils; in fin e, t h a t t h e join t con cu r r en ce of t h e n obilit y a n d pr in ces
h a vin g obliged t h e cler gy t o su bm it , t h e cu st om of ju dicia l com ba t s m u st h a ve
been con sider ed a s a pr ivilege of t h e n obilit y, a s a ba r r ier a ga in st in ju st ice a n d
a s a secu r it y of pr oper t y, a n d fr om t h a t ver y m om en t t h is cu st om m u st h a ve
ga in ed gr ou n d. An d t h is wa s effect ed a t a t im e wh en t h e power of t h e E m per or s
wa s gr ea t , a n d t h a t of t h e popes in con sider a ble; a t a t im e wh en t h e Ot h os ca m e
t o r evive t h e dign it y of t h e em pir e in It a ly.
I sh a ll m a ke on e r eflect ion wh ich will cor r obor a t e wh a t h a s been a bove sa id,
n a m ely, t h a t t h e in st it u t ion of n ega t ive pr oofs en t a iled t h a t of ju dicia l com ba t s.
Th e a bu se com pla in ed of t o t h e Ot h os wa s, t h a t a per son wh o wa s ch a r ged wit h
h a vin g a fa lse t it le t o a n est a t e, defen ded h im self by a n ega t ive pr oof, decla r in g
u pon t h e Gospels it wa s n ot fa lse. Wh a t wa s don e t o r efor m t h e a bu se of a la w
wh ich h a d been m u t ila t ed? Th e cu st om of com ba t wa s r evived.
I h a st en ed t o spea k of t h e con st it u t ion of Ot h o II, in or der t o give a clea r idea
of t h e dispu t es bet ween t h e cler gy a n d t h e la it y of t h ose t im es. Th er e h a d been
in deed a con st it u t ion of Lot h a r iu s I 99 of a n ea r lier da t e, a sover eign wh o, u pon
t h e sa m e com pla in t s a n d dispu t es, bein g desir ou s of secu r in g t h e ju st
possession of pr oper t y, h a d or da in ed t h a t t h e n ot a r y sh ou ld m a ke oa t h t h a t t h e
deed or t it le wa s n ot for ged; a n d if t h e n ot a r y sh ou ld h a ppen t o die, t h e
wit n esses sh ou ld be swor n wh o h a d sign ed it . Th e evil, h owever , st ill con t in u ed,
t ill t h ey wer e obliged a t len gt h t o h a ve r ecou r se t o t h e r em edy a bove-m en t ion ed.
Befor e t h a t t im e I fin d t h a t , in t h e gen er a l a ssem blies h eld by Ch a r lem a gn e,
t h e n a t ion r epr esen t ed t o h im 100 t h a t in t h e a ct u a l st a t e of t h in gs it wa s
ext r em ely difficu lt for eit h er t h e a ccu ser or t h e a ccu sed t o a void per ju r in g
t h em selves, a n d t h a t for t h is r ea son it wa s m u ch bet t er t o r evive t h e ju dicia l
com ba t , wh ich wa s a ccor din gly don e.
Th e u sa ge of ju dicia l com ba t s ga in ed gr ou n d a m on g t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, a n d
t h a t of a n oa t h wa s lim it ed. Th eodor ic, Kin g of It a ly, su ppr essed t h e sin gle
com ba t a m on g t h e Ost r ogot h s;101 a n d t h e la ws of Ch a in da su in t h u s a n d
Recessu in t h u s seem ed a s if t h ey wou ld a bolish t h e ver y idea of it . Bu t t h ese
la ws wer e so lit t le r espect ed in Na r bon n e Ga u l, t h a t t h ey looked u pon t h e lega l
du el a s a pr ivilege of t h e Got h s.102
Th e Lom ba r ds wh o con qu er ed It a ly a ft er t h e Ost r ogot h s h a d been dest r oyed
by t h e Gr eeks, in t r odu ced t h e cu st om of ju dicia l com ba t in t o t h a t cou n t r y, bu t
t h eir fir st la ws ga ve a ch eck t o it . 103 Ch a r lem a gn e, 104 Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e, a n d
t h e Ot h os m a de diver s gen er a l con st it u t ion s, wh ich we fin d in ser t ed in t h e la ws
of t h e Lom ba r ds a n d a dded t o t h e Sa lic la ws, wh er eby t h e pr a ct ice of lega l
du els, a t fir st in cr im in a l, a n d a ft er wa r ds in civil ca ses, obt a in ed a gr ea t er
ext en t . Th ey kn ew n ot wh a t t o do. Th e n ega t ive pr oof by oa t h h a d it s
in con ven ien ces; t h a t of lega l du els h a d it s in con ven ien ces a lso; h en ce t h ey oft en
ch a n ged, a ccor din g a s t h e on e or t h e ot h er a ffect ed t h em m ost .
On t h e on e h a n d, t h e cler gy wer e plea sed t o see t h a t in a ll secu la r a ffa ir s
people wer e obliged t o h a ve r ecou r se t o t h e a lt a r , 105 a n d, on t h e ot h er , a h a u gh t y
n obilit y wer e fon d of m a in t a in in g t h eir r igh t s by t h e swor d.

I wou ld n ot h a ve it in fer r ed t h a t it wa s t h e cler gy wh o in t r odu ced t h e cu st om
so m u ch com pla in ed of by t h e n obilit y. Th is cu st om wa s der ived fr om t h e spir it
of t h e Ba r ba r ia n la ws, a n d fr om t h e est a blish m en t of n ega t ive pr oofs. Bu t a
pr a ct ice t h a t con t r ibu t ed t o t h e im pu n it y of su ch a n u m ber of cr im in a ls, h a vin g
given som e people r ea son t o t h in k it wa s pr oper t o m a ke u se of t h e sa n ct it y of
t h e ch u r ch es in or der t o st r ik e t er r or in t o t h e gu ilt y, a n d t o in t im ida t e
per ju r er s, t h e cler gy m a in t a in ed t h is u sa ge a n d t h e pr a ct ice wh ich a t t en ded it :
for in ot h er r espect s t h ey wer e a bsolu t ely a ver se t o n ega t ive pr oofs. We fin d in
Bea u m a n oir 106 t h a t t h is kin d of pr oof wa s n ever a llowed in ecclesia st ic cou r t s,
wh ich con t r ibu t ed gr ea t ly, wit h ou t dou bt , t o it s su ppr ession , a n d t o wea ken in
t h is r espect t h e r egu la t ion of t h e codes of t h e Ba r ba r ia n la ws.
Th is will con vin ce u s m or e st r on gly of t h e con n ect ion bet ween t h e u sa ge of
n ega t ive pr oofs a n d t h a t of ju dicia l com ba t s, of wh ich I h a ve sa id so m u ch . Th e
la y t r ibu n a ls a dm it t ed of bot h , a n d bot h wer e r eject ed by t h e ecclesia st ic cou r t s.
In ch oosin g t h e t r ia l by du el t h e n a t ion followed it s m ilit a r y spir it ; for wh ile
t h is wa s est a blish ed a s a divin e decision , t h e t r ia ls by t h e cr oss, by cold or
boilin g wa t er s, wh ich h a d been a lso r ega r ded in t h e sa m e ligh t s, wer e a bolish ed.
Ch a r lem a gn e or da in ed t h a t , if a n y differ en ce sh ou ld a r ise bet ween h is
ch ildr en , it sh ou ld be t er m in a t ed by t h e ju dgm en t of t h e cr oss. Lou is t h e
Debon n a ir e 107 lim it ed t h is ju dgm en t t o ecclesia st ic a ffa ir s; h is son Lot h a r iu s
a bolish ed it in a ll ca ses; n a y, h e su ppr essed even t h e t r ia l by cold wa t er .108
I do n ot pr et en d t o sa y t h a t , a t a t im e wh en so few u sa ges wer e u n iver sa lly
r eceived, t h ese t r ia ls wer e n ot r evived in som e ch u r ch es, especia lly a s t h ey a r e
m en t ion ed in a ch a r t er of P h ilip Au gu st u s, 109 bu t I a ffir m t h a t t h ey wer e ver y
seldom pr a ct ised. Bea u m a n oir , 110 wh o lived a t t h e t im e of St . Lou is a n d a lit t le
a ft er , en u m er a t in g t h e differ en t kin ds of t r ia l, m en t ion s t h a t of ju dicia l com ba t ,
bu t n ot a wor d of t h e ot h er s.
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I h a ve a lr ea dy m en t ion ed t h e r ea son s t h a t h a d dest r oyed t h e a u t h or it y of t h e
Sa lic a n d Rom a n la ws, a s a lso of t h e Ca pit u la r ies; h er e I sh a ll a dd t h a t t h e
pr in cipa l ca u se wa s t h e gr ea t ext en sion given t o ju dicia r y com ba t s.

As t h e Sa lic la ws did n ot a dm it of t h is cu st om , t h ey beca m e in som e m ea su r e
u seless, a n d fell in t o oblivion , In like m a n n er t h e Rom a n la ws, wh ich a lso
r eject ed t h is cu st om , wer e la id a side; t h eir wh ole a t t en t ion wa s t h en t a ken u p
in est a blish in g t h e la w of ju dicia l com ba t s, a n d in for m in g a pr oper digest of t h e
sever a l ca ses t h a t m igh t h a ppen on t h ose occa sion s. Th e r egu la t ion s of t h e
Ca pit u la r ies beca m e likewise of n o m a n n er of ser vice. Th u s it is t h a t su ch a
n u m ber of la ws lost a ll t h eir a u t h or it y, wit h ou t ou r bein g a ble t o t ell t h e pr ecise
t im e in wh ich it wa s lost ; t h ey fell in t o oblivion , a n d we ca n n ot fin d a n y ot h er s
t h a t wer e su bst it u t ed in t h eir pla ce.
Su ch a n a t ion h a d n o n eed of wr it t en la ws; h en ce it s wr it t en la ws m igh t ver y
ea sily fa ll in t o disu se.
If t h er e h a ppen ed t o be a n y dispu t es bet ween t wo pa r t ies, t h ey h a d on ly t o
or der a sin gle com ba t . F or t h is n o gr ea t kn owledge or a bilit ies wer e r equ isit e.
All civil a n d cr im in a l a ct ion s a r e r edu ced t o fa ct s. It is u pon t h ese fa ct s t h ey
fou gh t ; a n d n ot on ly t h e su bst a n ce of t h e a ffa ir , bu t likewise t h e in ciden t s a n d
im pa r la n ces wer e decided by com ba t , a s Bea u m a n oir obser ves, wh o pr odu ces
sever a l in st a n ces. 111
I fin d t h a t , t owa r ds t h e com m en cem en t of t h e t h ir d r a ce, t h e ju r ispr u den ce of
t h ose t im es r ela t ed en t ir ely t o pr eceden t s; ever yt h in g wa s r egu la t ed by t h e
poin t of h on ou r . If t h e ju dge wa s n ot obeyed, h e in sist ed u pon sa t isfa ct ion fr om
t h e per son t h a t con t em n ed h is a u t h or it y. At Bou r ges, if t h e pr ovost h a d
su m m on ed a per son a n d h e r efu sed t o com e, h is wa y of pr oceedin g wa s t o t ell
h im , “I sen t for t h ee, a n d t h ou didst n ot t h in k it wor t h t h y wh ile t o com e; I
dem a n d t h er efor e sa t isfa ct ion for t h is t h y con t em pt .” Upon wh ich t h ey fou gh t . 112
Lou is t h e F a t r efor m ed t h is cu st om . 113
Th e cu st om of lega l du els pr eva iled a t Or lea n s, even in a ll dem a n ds of debt . 114
Lou is t h e You n g decla r ed t h a t t h is cu st om sh ou ld t a ke pla ce on ly wh en t h e
dem a n d exceeded five sou s. Th is or din a n ce wa s a loca l la w; for in St . Lou is’ t im e
it wa s su fficien t t h a t t h e va lu e wa s m or e t h a n t welve den ier s. 115 Bea u m a n oir 116
h a d h ea r d a gen t lem a n of t h e la w a ffir m t h a t for m er ly t h er e h a d been a ba d
cu st om in F r a n ce of h ir in g a ch a m pion for a cer t a in t im e t o figh t t h eir ba t t les
in a ll ca u ses. Th is sh ows t h a t t h e cu st om of ju dicia r y com ba t m u st h a ve
pr eva iled a t t h a t t im e t o a won der fu l ext en t .
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We m eet wit h in explica ble en igm a s in t h e codes of la ws of t h e Ba r ba r ia n s. Th e
la w of t h e F r isia n s 117 a llows on ly h a lf a sou in com posit ion t o a per son t h a t h a d
been bea t en wit h a st ick, a n d yet for ever so sm a ll a wou n d it a llows m or e. By
t h e Sa lic la w, if a fr eem a n ga ve t h r ee blows wit h a st ick t o a n ot h er fr eem a n , h e
pa id t h r ee sou s; if h e dr ew blood, h e wa s pu n ish ed a s if h e h a d wou n ded h im
wit h st eel, a n d h e pa id fift een sou s: t h u s t h e pu n ish m en t wa s pr opor t ion ed t o
t h e gr ea t n ess of t h e wou n d. Th e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds est a blish ed differ en t
com posit ion s for on e, t wo, t h r ee, fou r blows, a n d so on . 118 At pr esen t , a sin gle
blow is equ iva len t t o a h u n dr ed t h ou sa n d.
Th e con st it u t ion of Ch a r lem a gn e, in ser t ed in t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, or da in s
t h a t t h ose wh o wer e a llowed t h e t r ia l by com ba t sh ou ld figh t wit h ba st on s. 119
P er h a ps t h is wa s ou t of r ega r d t o t h e cler gy; or pr oba bly, a s t h e u sa ge of lega l
du els ga in ed gr ou n d, t h ey wa n t ed t o r en der t h em less sa n gu in a r y. Th e
ca pit u la r y of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e a llows t h e liber t y of ch oosin g t o figh t eit h er
wit h t h e swor d or ba st on . 120 In pr ocess of t im e n on e bu t bon dm en fou gh t wit h
t h e ba st on . 121
H er e I seet h e fir st r ise a n d for m a t ion of t h e pa r t icu la r a r t icles of ou r poin t of
h on ou r . Th e a ccu ser bega n by decla r in g in t h e pr esen ce of t h e ju dge t h a t su ch
a per son h a d com m it t ed su ch a n a ct ion , a n d t h e a ccu sed m a de a n swer t h a t h e
lied, 122 u pon wh ich t h e ju dge ga ve or der s for t h e du el. It beca m e t h en a n
est a blish ed r u le t h a t wh en ever a per son h a d t h e lie given h im , it wa s in cu m ben t
on h im t o figh t .
Upon a m a n ’s decla r in g t h a t h e wou ld figh t , 123 h e cou ld n ot a ft er wa r ds depa r t
fr om h is wor d; if h e did, h e wa s con dem n ed t o a pen a lt y. H en ce t h is r u le
en su ed, t h a t wh en ever a per son h a d en ga ged h is wor d, h on ou r for ba de h im t o
r eca ll it .
Gen t lem en fou gh t on e a n ot h er on h or seba ck, a n d a r m ed a t a ll poin t s;124
villa in s fou gh t on foot a n d wit h ba st on s. 125 H en ce it followed t h a t t h e ba st on
wa s looked u pon a s t h e in st r u m en t of in su lt s a n d a ffr on t s, 126 beca u se t o st r ike
a m a n wit h it wa s t r ea t in g h im like a villa in .
Non e bu t villa in s fou gh t wit h t h eir fa ces u n cover ed,127 so t h a t n on e bu t t h ey

cou ld r eceive a blow on t h e fa ce. Th er efor e, a box on t h e ea r beca m e a n in ju r y
t h a t m u st be expia t ed wit h blood, beca u se t h e per son wh o r eceived it h a d been
t r ea t ed a s a villa in .
Th e sever a l people of Ger m a n y wer e n o less sen sible t h a n we of t h e poin t of
h on ou r ; n a y, t h ey wer e m or e so. Th u s t h e m ost dist a n t r ela t ives t ook a ver y
con sider a ble sh a r e t o t h em selves in ever y a ffr on t , a n d on t h is a ll t h eir codes a r e
fou n ded. Th e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds or da in s 128 t h a t wh osoever goes a t t en ded wit h
ser va n t s t o bea t a m a n u n a wa r es, in or der t o loa d h im wit h sh a m e a n d t o
r en der h im r idicu lou s, sh ou ld pa y h a lf t h e com posit ion wh ich h e wou ld owe if
h e h a d killed h im ;129 a n d if t h r ou gh t h e sa m e m ot ive h e t ied or bou n d h im , h e
wou ld pa y t h r ee-qu a r t er s of t h e sa m e com posit ion .
Let u s t h en con clu de t h a t ou r for efa t h er s wer e ext r em ely sen sible of a ffr on t s;
bu t t h a t a ffr on t s of a pa r t icu la r kin d, su ch a s bein g st r u ck wit h a cer t a in
in st r u m en t on a cer t a in pa r t of t h e body, a n d in a cer t a in m a n n er , wer e a s yet
u n kn own t o t h em . All t h is wa s in clu ded in t h e a ffr on t of bein g bea t en , a n d in
t h is ca se t h e a m ou n t of violen ce det er m in ed t h e m a gn it u de of t h e ou t r a ge.
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“It wa s a gr ea t in fa m y,” sa ys Ta cit u s,130 “a m on g t h e Ger m a n s for a per son t o
lea ve h is bu ckler beh in d h im in ba t t le; for wh ich r ea son m a n y a ft er a
m isfor t u n e of t h is kin d h a ve dest r oyed t h em selves.” Th u s t h e a n cien t Sa lic
la w 131 a llows a com posit ion of fift een sou s t o a n y per son t h a t h a d been
in ju r iou sly r epr oa ch ed wit h h a vin g left h is bu ckler beh in d h im .
Wh en Ch a r lem a gn e a m en ded t h e Sa lic la w,132 h e a llowed in t h is ca se n o m or e
t h a n t h r ee sou s in com posit ion . As t h is pr in ce ca n n ot be su spect ed of h a vin g
h a d a design t o en er va t e t h e m ilit a r y disciplin e, it is m a n ifest t h a t su ch a n
a lt er a t ion wa s du e t o a ch a n ge of wea pon s, a n d t h a t fr om t h is ch a n ge of
wea pon s a gr ea t n u m ber of u sa ges der ive t h eir or igin .
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Ou r con n ect ion s wit h t h e fa ir sex a r e fou n ded on t h e plea su r e of en joym en t ;
on t h e h a ppin ess of lovin g a n d bein g loved; a n d likewise on t h e a m bit ion of
plea sin g t h e la dies, beca u se t h ey a r e t h e best ju dges of som e of t h ose t h in gs
wh ich con st it u t e per son a l m er it . Th is gen er a l desir e of plea sin g pr odu ces
ga lla n t r y, wh ich is n ot love it self, bu t t h e delica t e, t h e vola t ile, t h e per pet u a l
sim u la t ion of love.
Accor din g t o t h e differ en t cir cu m st a n ces of ever y cou n t r y a n d a ge, love
in clin es m or e t o on e of t h ose t h r ee t h in gs t h a n t o t h e ot h er t wo. Now I m a in t a in
t h a t t h e pr eva ilin g spir it a t t h e t im e of ou r ju dicia l com ba t s m u st h a ve been
t h a t of ga lla n t r y.
I fin d in t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, 133 t h a t if on e of t h e t wo ch a m pion s wa s
fou n d t o h a ve a n y m a gic h er bs a bou t h im , t h e ju dge or der ed t h em t o be t a ken
fr om h im , a n d obliged h im t o swea r h e h a d n o m or e. Th is la w cou ld be fou n ded
on ly on t h e vu lga r opin ion ; it wa s fea r , t h e a lleged in ven t or of m u ch t h a t m a de
t h em im a gin e t h is kin d of pr est ige. As in sin gle com ba t s t h e ch a m pion s wer e
a r m ed a t a ll poin t s, a n d a s wit h h ea vy a r m s, bot h of t h e offen sive a n d defen sive
kin d, t h ose of a pa r t icu la r t em per a n d st r en gt h ga ve im m en se a dva n t a ges, t h e
n ot ion of som e ch a m pion s h a vin g en ch a n t ed a r m s m u st cer t a in ly h a ve t u r n ed
t h e br a in s of a gr ea t m a n y people.
H en ce a r ose t h e m a r vellou s syst em of ch iva lr y. Th e m in ds of a ll sor t s of
people qu ickly im bibed t h ese ext r a va ga n t idea s, In r om a n ces a r e fou n d
kn igh t s-er r a n t , n ecr om a n cer s, a n d fa ir ies, win ged or in t elligen t h or ses, in visible
or in vu ln er a ble m en , m a gicia n s wh o con cer n ed t h em selves in t h e bir t h a n d
edu ca t ion of gr ea t per son a ges, en ch a n t ed a n d disen ch a n t ed pa la ces, a n ew
wor ld in t h e m idst of t h e old on e, t h e u su a l cou r se of n a t u r e bein g left on ly t o
t h e lower cla ss of m a n kin d. Kn igh t s-er r a n t ever in a r m ou r , in a pa r t of t h e
wor ld a bou n din g in ca st les, for t s, a n d r obber s, pla ced a ll t h eir glor y in
pu n ish in g in ju st ice, a n d in pr ot ect in g wea kn ess. H en ce ou r r om a n ces a r e fu ll
of ga lla n t r y fou n ded on t h e idea of love join ed t o t h a t of st r en gt h a n d pr ot ect ion .
Su ch wa s t h e or igin of ga lla n t r y, wh en t h ey for m ed t h e n ot ion of a n
ext r a or din a r y r a ce of m en wh o a t t h e sigh t of a vir t u ou s a n d bea u t ifu l la dy in
dist r ess wer e in clin ed t o expose t h em selves t o a ll h a za r ds for h er sa ke, a n d t o
en dea vou r t o plea se h er in t h e com m on a ct ion s of life.

Ou r r om a n ces of ch iva lr y fla t t er ed t h is desir e of plea sin g, a n d com m u n ica t ed
t o a pa r t of E u r ope t h a t spir it of ga lla n t r y wh ich we m a y ven t u r e t o a ffir m wa s
ver y lit t le kn own t o t h e a n cien t s.
Th e pr odigiou s lu xu r y of t h a t im m en se cit y of Rom e en cou r a ged sen su ou s
plea su r es. Th e t r a n qu illit y of t h e pla in s of Gr eece ga ve r ise t o t h e descr ipt ion
of t h e sen t im en t s of love. 134 Th e idea of kn igh t s-er r a n t , pr ot ect or s of t h e vir t u e
a n d bea u t y of t h e fa ir sex, led t o t h a t of ga lla n t r y.
Th is spir it wa s con t in u ed by t h e cu st om of t ou r n a m en t s, wh ich , u n it in g t h e
r igh t s of va lou r a n d love, a dded st ill a con sider a ble im por t a n ce t o ga lla n t r y.
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Som e per h a ps will h a ve a cu r iosit y t o see t h is a bom in a ble cu st om of ju dicia r y
com ba t r edu ced t o pr in ciples a n d t o fin d t h e gr ou n dwor k of su ch a n
ext r a or din a r y code of la ws. Men , t h ou gh r ea son a ble in t h e m a in , r edu ce t h eir
ver y pr eju dices t o r u le. Not h in g wa s m or e con t r a r y t o good sen se, t h a n t h ose
com ba t s, a n d yet wh en on ce t h is poin t wa s la id down , a kin d of pr u den t ia l
m a n a gem en t wa s u sed in ca r r yin g it in t o execu t ion .
In or der t o be t h or ou gh ly a cqu a in t ed wit h t h e ju r ispr u den ce of t h ose t im es,
it is n ecessa r y t o r ea d wit h a t t en t ion t h e r egu la t ion s of St . Lou is, wh o m a de
su ch gr ea t ch a n ges in t h e ju dicia r y or der . Défon t a in es wa s con t em por a r y wit h
t h a t pr in ce; Bea u m a n oir wr ot e a ft er h im ,135 a n d t h e r est lived sin ce h is t im e.
We m u st , t h er efor e, look for t h e a n cien t pr a ct ice in t h e a m en dm en t s t h a t h a ve
been m a de of it .
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Wh en t h er e h a ppen ed t o be sever a l a ccu ser s, t h ey wer e obliged t o a gr ee
a m on g t h em selves t h a t t h e a ct ion m igh t be ca r r ied on by a sin gle pr osecu t or ;
a n d, if t h ey cou ld n ot a gr ee, t h e per son befor e wh om t h e a ct ion wa s br ou gh t ,
a ppoin t ed on e of t h em t o pr osecu t e t h e qu a r r el.136
Wh en a gen t lem a n ch a llen ged a villa in , h e wa s obliged t o pr esen t h im self on
foot wit h bu ck ler a n d ba st on ; bu t if h e ca m e on h or seba ck a n d a r m ed like a
gen t lem a n , t h ey t ook. h is h or se a n d h is a r m s fr om h im a n d, st r ippin g h im t o h is
sh ir t , t h ey com pelled h im t o figh t in t h a t con dit ion wit h t h e villa in .137

Befor e t h e com ba t t h e m a gist r a t es or der ed t h r ee ba n s t o be pu blish ed. By t h e
fir st t h e r ela t ives of t h e pa r t ies wer e com m a n ded t o r et ir e; by t h e secon d t h e
people wer e wa r n ed t o be silen t ; a n d t h e t h ir d pr oh ibit ed t h e givin g of a n y
a ssist a n ce t o eit h er of t h e pa r t ies, u n der sever e pen a lt ies, n a y, even on pa in of
dea t h if by t h is a ssist a n ce eit h er of t h e com ba t a n t s sh ou ld h a ppen t o be
va n qu ish ed. 138
Th e officer s belon gin g t o t h e civil m a gist r a t e 139 gu a r ded t h e list or en closu r e
wh er e t h e ba t t le wa s fou gh t ; a n d in ca se eit h er of t h e pa r t ies decla r ed h im self
desir ou s of pea ce, t h ey t ook pa r t icu la r n ot ice of t h e a ct u a l st a t e in wh ich t h ey
m u t u a lly st ood a t t h a t ver y m om en t , t o t h e en d t h a t t h ey m igh t be r est or ed t o
t h e sa m e sit u a t ion in ca se t h ey did n ot com e t o a n u n der st a n din g.140
Wh en t h e pledges wer e r eceived eit h er for a cr im e or for fa lse ju dgm en t , t h e
pa r t ies cou ld n ot m a ke u p t h e m a t t er wit h ou t t h e con sen t of t h e lor d; a n d wh en
on e of t h e pa r t ies wa s over com e, t h er e cou ld be n o a ccom m oda t ion wit h ou t t h e
per m ission of t h e cou n t , wh ich h a d som e a n a logy t o ou r let t er s of gr a ce.141
Bu t if it h a ppen ed t o be a ca pit a l cr im e, a n d t h e lor d, cor r u pt ed by pr esen t s,
con sen t ed t o a n a ccom m oda t ion , h e wa s obliged t o pa y a fin e of sixt y livr es, a n d
t h e r igh t h e h a d of pu n ish in g t h e m a lefa ct or devolved u pon t h e cou n t .142
Th er e wer e a gr ea t m a n y people in ca pa ble eit h er of offer in g, or of a ccept in g
ba t t le. Bu t liber t y wa s given t h em , on ca u se bein g sh own , t o ch oose a ch a m pion ;
a n d t h a t h e m igh t h a ve a st r on ger in t er est in defen din g t h e pa r t y in wh ose
beh a lf h e a ppea r ed, h is h a n d wa s cu t off if h e lost t h e ba t t le.143
Wh en ca pit a l la ws wer e m a de in t h e la st cen t u r y a ga in st du els, per h a ps it
wou ld h a ve been su fficien t t o h a ve depr ived a wa r r ior of h is m ilit a r y ca pa cit y
by t h e loss of h is h a n d; n ot h in g in gen er a l bein g a gr ea t er m or t ifica t ion t o
m a n kin d t h a n t o su r vive t h e loss of t h eir ch a r a ct er .
Wh en , in ca pit a l ca ses, t h e du el wa s fou gh t by ch a m pion s, t h e pa r t ies wer e
pla ced wh er e t h ey cou ld n ot beh old t h e ba t t le; ea ch wa s bou n d wit h t h e cor d
t h a t wa s t o be u sed a t h is execu t ion in ca se h is ch a m pion wa s over com e. 144 Th e
per son over com e in ba t t le did n ot a lwa ys lose t h e poin t con t est ed; if, for
in st a n ce, t h ey fou gh t on a n im pa r la n ce, h e lost on ly t h e im pa r la n ce.145
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Wh en pledges of ba t t le h a d been r eceived u pon a civil a ffa ir of sm a ll
im por t a n ce, t h e lor d obliged t h e pa r t ies t o wit h dr a w t h em .
If a fa ct wa s n ot or iou s; for in st a n ce, if a m a n h a d been a ssa ssin a t ed in t h e
open m a r ket pla ce, t h en t h er e wa s n eit h er a t r ia l by wit n esses, n or by com ba t ;
t h e ju dge ga ve h is decision fr om t h e n ot or iet y of t h e fa ct .146
Wh en t h e cou r t of a lor d h a d oft en det er m in ed a ft er t h e sa m e m a n n er , a n d t h e
u sa ge wa s t h u s kn own ,147 t h e lor d r efu sed t o gr a n t t h e pa r t ies t h e pr ivilege of
du ellin g, t o t h e en d t h a t t h e u sa ges m igh t n ot be a lt er ed by t h e differ en t su ccess
of t h e com ba t s.
Th ey wer e n ot a llowed t o in sist u pon du ellin g bu t for t h em selves, for som e on e
belon gin g t o t h eir fa m ily, or for t h eir liege lor d.148
Wh en t h e a ccu sed h a d been a cqu it t ed, a n ot h er r ela t ive cou ld n ot in sist on
figh t in g h im ; ot h er wise dispu t es wou ld n ever be t er m in a t ed.149
If a per son a ppea r ed a ga in in pu blic wh ose r ela t ives, u pon a su pposit ion of h is
bein g m u r der ed, wa n t ed t o r even ge h is dea t h , t h er e wa s t h en n o r oom for a
com ba t ; t h e sa m e m a y be sa id if by a n ot or iou s a bsen ce t h e fa ct wa s pr oved t o
be im possible. 150
If a m a n wh o h a d been m or t a lly wou n ded h a d excu lpa t ed befor e h is dea t h t h e
per son a ccu sed a n d n a m ed a n ot h er , t h ey did n ot pr oceed t o a du el; bu t if h e h a d
m en t ion ed n obody h is decla r a t ion wa s look ed u pon a s a for given ess on h is
dea t h -bed; t h e pr osecu t ion wa s con t in u ed, a n d even a m on g gen t lem en t h ey
cou ld m a ke wa r a ga in st ea ch ot h er .151
Wh en t h er e wa s a con flict , a n d on e of t h e r ela t ives h a d given or r eceived
pledges of ba t t le, t h e r igh t of con t est cea sed; for t h en it wa s t h ou gh t t h a t t h e
pa r t ies wa n t ed t o pu r su e t h e or din a r y cou r se of ju st ice; t h er efor e h e t h a t wou ld
h a ve con t in u ed t h e con t est wou ld h a ve been sen t en ced t o m a ke good a ll t h e
losses.
Th u s t h e pr a ct ice of ju dicia r y com ba t h a d t h is a dva n t a ge, t h a t it wa s a pt t o
ch a n ge a gen er a l in t o a n in dividu a l qu a r r el, t o r est or e t h e cou r t s of ju dica t u r e
t o t h eir a u t h or it y, a n d t o br in g ba ck in t o t h e civil st a t e t h ose wh o wer e n o
lon ger gover n ed bu t by t h e la w of n a t ion s.
As t h er e a r e a n in fin it e n u m ber of wise t h in gs t h a t a r e m a n a ged in a ver y
foolish m a n n er ; so t h er e a r e m a n y foolish t h in gs t h a t a r e ver y wisely con du ct ed.

Wh en a m a n wh o wa s ch a llen ged wit h a cr im e visibly sh owed t h a t it h a d been
com m it t ed by t h e ch a llen ger h im self, t h er e cou ld be t h en n o pledges of ba t t le;
for t h er e is n o cr im in a l bu t wou ld pr efer a du el of u n cer t a in even t t o a cer t a in
pu n ish m en t . 152
Th er e wer e n o du els in a ffa ir s decided by a r bit er s, 153 n or by ecclesia st ica l
cou r t s, n or in ca ses r ela t in g t o wom en ’s dowr ies.
“A wom a n ,” sa ys Bea u m a n oir , “ca n n ot figh t .” if a wom a n ch a llen ged a per son
wit h ou t n a m in g h er ch a m pion , t h e pledges of ba t t le wer e n ot a ccept ed. It wa s
a lso r equ isit e t h a t a wom a n sh ou ld be a u t h or ised by h er ba r on , t h a t is, by h er
h u sba n d, t o ch a llen ge; bu t sh e m igh t be ch a llen ged wit h ou t t h is a u t h or it y.154
If eit h er t h e ch a llen ger or t h e per son ch a llen ged wer e u n der fift een yea r s of
a ge, t h er e cou ld be n o com ba t . 155 Th ey m igh t or der it , in deed, in dispu t es
r ela t in g t o or ph a n s wh en t h eir gu a r dia n s or t r u st ees wer e willin g t o r u n t h e
r isk of t h is pr ocedu r e.
Th e ca ses in wh ich a bon dm a n wa s a llowed t o figh t a r e, I t h in k, a s follows. H e
wa s a llowed t o figh t a n ot h er bon dm a n ; t o figh t a fr eedm a n , or even a
gen t lem a n , in ca se h e wer e ch a llen ged; bu t if h e h im self ch a llen ged, t h e ot h er
m igh t r efu se t o figh t ; a n d even t h e bon dm a n ’s lor d h a d a r igh t t o t a ke h im ou t
of t h e cou r t . 156 Th e bon dm a n m igh t by h is lor d’s ch a r t er or by u sa ge figh t wit h
a n y fr eem a n ;157 a n d t h e ch u r ch cla im ed t h is r igh t for h er bon dm en 158 a s a m a r k
of r espect du e t o h er by t h e la it y.159
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Bea u m a n oir in for m s u s 160 t h a t a per son wh o sa w a wit n ess goin g t o swea r
a ga in st h im m igh t elu de t h e ot h er by t ellin g t h e ju dges t h a t h is a dver sa r y
pr odu ced a fa lse a n d sla n der in g wit n ess; a n d if t h e wit n ess wa s willin g t o
m a in t a in t h e qu a r r el, h e ga ve pledges of ba t t le. Th e in qu ir y wa s n o lon ger t h e
qu est ion ; for if t h e wit n ess wa s over com e, it wa s decided t h a t t h e a dver sa r y h a d
pr odu ced a fa lse wit n ess, a n d h e lost h is ca u se.
It wa s n ecessa r y t h a t t h e secon d wit n ess sh ou ld n ot be h ea r d; for if h e h a d
m a de h is a t t est a t ion , t h e a ffa ir wou ld h a ve been decided by t h e deposit ion of
t wo wit n esses. Bu t by st a yin g t h e secon d, t h e deposit ion of t h e fir st wit n ess

beca m e void.
Th e secon d wit n ess bein g t h u s r eject ed, t h e pa r t y wa s n ot a llowed t o pr odu ce
a n y ot h er s, bu t h e lost h is ca u se; in ca se, h owever , t h er e h a d been n o pledges
of ba t t le, h e m igh t pr odu ce ot h er wit n esses.
Bea u m a n oir obser ves 161 t h a t t h e wit n ess m igh t sa y t o t h e pa r t y h e a ppea r ed
for , befor e h e m a de h is deposit ion : “I do n ot ca r e t o figh t for you r qu a r r el, n or
t o en t er in t o a n y deba t e; bu t if you a r e willin g t o st a n d by m e, I a m r ea dy t o t ell
t h e t r u t h .” Th e pa r t y wa s t h en obliged t o figh t for t h e wit n ess, a n d if h e
h a ppen ed t o be over com e, h e did n ot lose h is ca u se,162 bu t t h e wit n ess wa s
r eject ed.
Th is, I believe, wa s a m odifica t ion of t h e a n cien t cu st om ; a n d wh a t m a kes m e
t h in k so is t h a t we fin d t h is u sa ge of ch a llen gin g t h e wit n esses est a blish ed in
t h e la ws of t h e Ba va r ia n s 163 a n d Bu r gu n dia n s 164 wit h ou t a n y r est r ict ion .
I h a ve a lr ea dy m a de m en t ion of t h e con st it u t ion of Gu n deba ld, a ga in st wh ich
Agoba r d 165 a n d St . Avit u s 166 m a de su ch lou d com pla in t s. “Wh en t h e a ccu sed,”
sa ys t h is pr in ce, “pr odu ces wit n esses t o swea r t h a t h e h a s n ot com m it t ed t h e
cr im e, t h e a ccu ser m a y ch a llen ge on e of t h e wit n esses t o a com ba t ; for it is ver y
ju st t h a t t h e per son wh o h a s offer ed t o swea r , a n d h a s decla r ed t h a t h e wa s
cer t a in of t h e t r u t h , sh ou ld m a ke n o difficu lt y of m a in t a in in g it by com ba t .”
Th u s t h e wit n esses wer e depr ived by t h is kin g of ever y kin d of su bt er fu ge t o
a void t h e ju dicia r y com ba t .
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Appea l of fa lse J u dgm en t . As t h e n a t u r e of ju dicia l com ba t s wa s t o t er m in a t e
t h e a ffa ir for ever , a n d wa s in com pa t ible wit h a n ew ju dgm en t a n d n ew
pr osecu t ion s, 167 a n a ppea l, su ch a s is est a blish ed by t h e Rom a n a n d Ca n on la ws,
t h a t is, t o a su per ior cou r t in or der t o r eju dge t h e pr oceedin gs of a n in fer ior , wa s
a t h in g u n kn own in F r a n ce.
Th is is a for m of pr oceedin g t o wh ich a wa r like n a t ion , gover n ed solely by t h e
poin t of h on ou r , wa s qu it e a st r a n ger ; a n d a gr eea bly t o t h is ver y spir it , t h e
sa m e m et h ods wer e u sed a ga in st t h e ju dges a s wer e a llowed a ga in st t h e
pa r t ies. 168
An a ppea l a m on g t h e people of t h is n a t ion wa s a ch a llen ge t o figh t wit h a r m s,
a ch a llen ge t o be decided by blood; a n d n ot t h a t in vit a t ion t o a pa per qu a r r el,
t h e kn owledge of wh ich wa s r eser ved for su cceedin g a ges.
Th u s St . Lou is, in h is In st it u t ion s,169 sa ys t h a t a n a ppea l in clu des bot h felon y
a n d in iqu it y. Th u s Bea u m a n oir t ells u s t h a t if a va ssa l wa n t ed t o m a ke h is
com pla in t of a n ou t r a ge com m it t ed a ga in st h im by h is lor d, 170 h e wa s fir st
obliged t o a n n ou n ce t h a t h e qu it t ed h is fief; a ft er wh ich h e a ppea led t o h is lor d
pa r a m ou n t , a n d offer ed pledges of ba t t le, In like m a n n er t h e lor d r en ou n ced t h e
h om a ge of h is va ssa l, if h e ch a llen ged h im befor e t h e cou n t .
F or a va ssa l t o ch a llen ge h is lor d of fa lse ju dgm en t wa s a s m u ch a s t o sa y t o
h im t h a t h is sen t en ce wa s u n ju st a n d m a liciou s; n ow t o u t t er su ch wor ds
a ga in st h is lor d wa s in som e m ea su r e com m it t in g t h e cr im e of felon y.
H en ce, in st ea d of br in gin g a ch a llen ge of fa lse ju dgm en t a ga in st t h e lor d wh o
a ppoin t ed a n d dir ect ed t h e cou r t , t h ey ch a llen ged t h e peer s of wh om t h e cou r t
it self wa s for m ed, by wh ich m ea n s t h ey a voided t h e cr im e of felon y, for t h ey
in su lt ed on ly t h eir peer s, wit h wh om t h ey cou ld a lwa ys a ccou n t for t h e a ffr on t .
It wa s a ver y da n ger ou s t h in g t o ch a llen ge t h e peer s of fa lse ju dgm en t . 171 If
t h e pa r t y wa it ed t ill ju dgm en t wa s pr on ou n ced, h e wa s obliged t o figh t t h em a ll
wh en t h ey offer ed t o m a ke good t h eir ju dgm en t . 172 If t h e a ppea l wa s m a de
befor e a ll t h e ju dges h a d given t h eir opin ion , h e wa s obliged t o figh t a ll wh o h a d
a gr eed in t h eir ju dgm en t . To a void t h is da n ger , it wa s u su a l t o pet it ion t h e lor d
t o dir ect t h a t ea ch peer sh ou ld give h is opin ion a lou d;173 a n d wh en t h e fir st h a d
pr on ou n ced, a n d t h e secon d wa s goin g t o do t h e sa m e, t h e pa r t y t old h im t h a t
h e wa s a lia r , a kn a ve a n d a sla n der er , a n d t h en h e h a d t o figh t on ly wit h t h a t
peer .
Défon t a in es 174 wou ld h a ve it t h a t , befor e a ch a llen ge wa s m a de of fa lse
ju dgm en t , it wa s cu st om a r y t o let t h r ee ju dges pr on ou n ce; a n d h e does n ot sa y
t h a t it wa s n ecessa r y t o figh t t h em a ll t h r ee; m u ch less t h a t t h er e wa s a n y
obliga t ion t o figh t a ll t h ose wh o h a d decla r ed t h em selves of t h e sa m e opin ion .
Th ese differ en ces a r ose fr om t h is, t h a t in t h ose t im es t h er e wer e few u sa ges
exa ct ly in a ll pa r t s t h e sa m e; Bea u m a n oir gives a n a ccou n t of wh a t pa ssed in
t h e cou n t y of Cler m on t ; a n d Défon t a in es of wh a t wa s pr a ct ised in Ver m a n dois.
Wh en on e of t h e peer s or a va ssa l h a d decla r ed t h a t h e wou ld m a in t a in t h e

ju dgm en t , t h e ju dge or der ed pledges of ba t t le t o be given , a n d likewise t ook
secu r it y of t h e ch a llen ger t h a t h e wou ld m a in t a in h is ca se. 175 Bu t t h e peer wh o
wa s ch a llen ged ga ve n o secu r it y, beca u se h e wa s t h e lor d’s va sa l, a n d wa s
obliged t o defen d t h e ch a llen ge, or t o pa y t h e lor d a fin e of sixt y livr es.
If h e wh o ch a llen ged did n ot pr ove t h a t t h e ju dgm en t wa s ba d, 176 h e pa id t h e
lor d a fin e of sixt y livr es, t h e sa m e fin e t o t h e peer wh om h e h a d ch a llen ged,
a n d a s m u ch t o ever y on e of t h ose wh o h a d open ly con sen t ed t o t h e ju dgm en t . 177
Wh en a per son , st r on gly su spect ed of a ca pit a l cr im e, h a d been t a ken a n d
con dem n ed, h e cou ld m a ke n o a ppea l of fa lse ju dgm en t :178 for h e wou ld a lwa ys
a ppea l eit h er t o pr olon g h is life, or t o get a n a bsolu t e disch a r ge.
If a per son sa id t h a t t h e ju dgm en t wa s fa lse a n d ba d a n d did n ot offer t o pr ove
it so, t h a t is, t o figh t , h e wa s con dem n ed t o a fin e of t en sou s if a gen t lem a n , a n d
t o five sou s if a bon dm a n , for t h e in ju r iou s expr ession s h e h a d u t t er ed.179
Th e ju dges or peer s wh o wer e over com e for feit ed n eit h er life n or lim bs, 180 bu t
t h e per son wh o ch a llen ged t h em wa s pu n ish ed wit h dea t h , if it h a ppen ed t o be
a ca pit a l cr im e. 181
Th is m a n n er of ch a llen gin g t h e va ssa ls wit h fa lse ju dgm en t wa s t o a void
ch a llen gin g t h e lor d h im self. Bu t if t h e lor d h a d n o peer s, 182 or h a d n ot a
su fficien t n u m ber , h e m igh t a t h is own expen se bor r ow peer s of h is lor d
pa r a m ou n t ;183 bu t t h ese peer s wer e n ot obliged t o pr on ou n ce ju dgm en t if t h ey
did n ot like it ; t h ey m igh t decla r e t h a t t h ey wer e com e on ly t o give t h eir
opin ion : in t h a t pa r t icu la r ca se, t h e lor d h im self ju dged a n d pr on ou n ced
sen t en ce a s ju dge;184 a n d if a n a ppea l of fa lse ju dgm en t wa s m a de a ga in st h im ,
it wa s h is bu sin ess t o a n swer t o t h e ch a llen ge.
If t h e lor d h a ppen ed t o be so ver y poor a s n ot t o be a ble t o h ir e peer s of h is
pa r a m ou n t , 185 or if h e n eglect ed t o a sk for t h em , or t h e pa r a m ou n t r efu sed t o
give t h em , t h en , a s t h e lor d cou ld n ot ju dge by h im self, a n d a s n obody wa s
obliged t o plea d befor e a t r ibu n a l wh er e ju dgm en t cou ld n ot be given , t h e a ffa ir
wa s br ou gh t befor e t h e lor d pa r a m ou n t .
Th is, I believe, wa s on e of t h e pr in cipa l ca u ses of t h e sepa r a t ion bet ween t h e
ju r isdict ion a n d t h e fief, wh en ce a r ose t h e m a xim of t h e F r en ch la wyer s, “Th e
fief is on e t h in g, a n d t h e ju r isdict ion is a n ot h er .” F or a s t h er e wer e a va st
n u m ber of peer s wh o h a d n o su bor din a t e va ssa ls u n der t h em , t h ey wer e

in ca pa ble of h oldin g t h eir cou r t ; a ll a ffa ir s wer e t h en br ou gh t befor e t h eir lor d
pa r a m ou n t , a n d t h ey lost t h e pr ivilege of pr on ou n cin g ju dgm en t , beca u se t h ey
h a d n eit h er power n or will t o cla im it .
All t h e ju dges wh o h a d been a t t h e ju dgm en t wer e obliged t o be pr esen t wh en
it wa s pr on ou n ced, t h a t t h ey m igh t follow on e a n ot h er , a n d sa y a ye t o t h e
per son wh o, wa n t in g t o m a ke a n a ppea l of fa lse ju dgm en t , a sked t h em wh et h er
t h ey followed;186 for Défon t a in es sa ys 187 t h a t it is a n a ffa ir of cou r t esy a n d
loya lt y, a n d t h er e is n o su ch t h in g a s eva sion or dela y. H en ce, I im a gin e, a r ose
t h e cu st om st ill followed in E n gla n d of obligin g t h e ju r y t o be a ll u n a n im ou s in
t h eir ver dict in ca ses r ela t in g t o life a n d dea t h .
J u dgm en t wa s t h er efor e given , a ccor din g t o t h e opin ion of t h e m a jor it y; a n d
if t h er e wa s a n equ a l division , sen t en ce wa s pr on ou n ced, in cr im in a l ca ses, in
fa vou r of t h e a ccu sed; in ca ses of debt , in fa vou r of t h e debt or ; a n d in ca ses of
in h er it a n ce, in fa vou r of t h e defen da n t .
Défon t a in es obser ves 188 t h a t a peer cou ld n ot excu se h im self by sa yin g t h a t h e
wou ld n ot sit in cou r t if t h er e wer e on ly fou r , 189 or if t h e wh ole n u m ber , or a t
lea st t h e wisest pa r t , wer e n ot pr esen t . Th is is ju st a s if h e wer e t o sa y, in t h e
h ea t of a n en ga gem en t , t h a t h e wou ld n ot a ssist h is lor d beca u se h e h a d n ot a ll
h is va ssa ls wit h h im . Bu t it wa s t h e lor d’s bu sin ess t o ca u se h is cou r t t o be
r espect ed, a n d t o ch oose t h e br a vest a n d m ost kn owin g of h is t en a n t s. Th is I
m en t ion , in or der t o sh ow t h e du t y of va ssa ls, wh ich wa s t o figh t , a n d t o give
ju dgm en t : a n d su ch , in deed, wa s t h is du t y, t h a t t o give ju dgm en t wa s a ll t h e
sa m e a s t o figh t .
It wa s la wfu l for a lor d, wh o wen t t o la w wit h h is va ssa l in h is own cou r t , a n d
wa s ca st , t o ch a llen ge on e of h is t en a n t s wit h fa lse ju dgm en t . Bu t a s t h e la t t er
owed a r espect t o h is lor d for t h e fea lt y h e h a d vowed, a n d t h e lor d, on t h e ot h er
h a n d, owed ben evolen ce t o h is va ssa l for t h e fea lt y a ccept ed, it wa s cu st om a r y
t o m a ke a dist in ct ion bet ween t h e lor d’s a ffir m in g in gen er a l t h a t t h e ju dgm en t
wa s fa lse a n d u n ju st , 190 a n d im pu t in g per son a l pr eva r ica t ion s t o h is t en a n t . 191
In t h e for m er ca se h e a ffr on t ed h is own cou r t , a n d in som e m ea su r e h im self, so
t h a t t h er e wa s n o r oom for pledges of ba t t le. Bu t t h er e wa s r oom in t h e la t t er ,
beca u se h e a t t a cked h is va ssa l’s h on ou r ; a n d t h e per son over com e wa s depr ived
of life a n d pr oper t y, in or der t o m a in t a in t h e pu blic t r a n qu illit y.

Th is dist in ct ion , wh ich wa s n ecessa r y in t h a t pa r t icu la r ca se, h a d a ft er wa r ds
a gr ea t er ext en t . Bea u m a n oir sa ys t h a t wh en t h e ch a llen ger of fa lse ju dgm en t
a t t a cked on e of t h e peer s by per son a l im pu t a t ion , ba t t le en su ed; bu t if h e
a t t a cked on ly t h e ju dgm en t , t h e peer ch a llen ged wa s a t liber t y t o det er m in e t h e
dispu t e eit h er by ba t t le or by la w.192 Bu t a s t h e pr eva ilin g spir it in
Bea u m a n oir ’s t im e wa s t o r est r a in t h e u sa ge of ju dicia l com ba t s, a n d a s t h is
liber t y, wh ich h a d been gr a n t ed t o t h e peer ch a llen ged, of defen din g t h e
ju dgm en t by com ba t or n ot is equ a lly con t r a r y t o t h e idea s of h on ou r est a blish ed
in t h ose da ys, a n d t o t h e obliga t ion t h e va ssa l la y u n der of defen din g h is lor d’s
ju r isdict ion , I a m a pt t o t h in k t h a t t h is dist in ct ion of Bea u m a n oir ’s wa s a
n ovelt y in F r en ch ju r ispr u den ce.
I wou ld n ot h a ve it t h ou gh t t h a t a ll a ppea ls of fa lse ju dgm en t wer e decided by
ba t t le; it fa r ed wit h t h is a ppea l a s wit h a ll ot h er s. Th e r ea der m a y r ecollect t h e
except ion s m en t ion ed in t h e 25t h ch a pt er . H er e it wa s t h e bu sin ess of t h e
su per ior cou r t t o exa m in e wh et h er it wa s pr oper t o wit h dr a w t h e pledges of
ba t t le or n ot .
Th er e cou ld be n o a ppea l of fa lse ju dgm en t a ga in st t h e kin g’s cou r t , beca u se,
a s t h er e wa s n o on e equ a l t o t h e kin g, n o on e cou ld ch a llen ge h im ; a n d a s t h e
kin g h a d n o su per ior , n on e cou ld a ppea l fr om h is cou r t .
Th is fu n da m en t a l r egu la t ion , wh ich wa s n ecessa r y a s a polit ica l la w,
dim in ish ed a lso a s a civil la w t h e a bu ses of t h e ju dicia l pr oceedin gs of t h ose
t im es. Wh en a lor d wa s a fr a id t h a t h is cou r t wou ld be ch a llen ged wit h fa lse
ju dgm en t , or per ceived t h a t t h ey wer e det er m in ed t o ch a llen ge, if t h e in t er est s
of ju st ice r equ ir ed t h a t it sh ou ld n ot be ch a llen ged, h e m igh t dem a n d fr om t h e
k in g’s cou r t m en wh ose ju dgm en t cou ld n ot be set a side.193 Th u s Kin g P h ilip,
sa ys Défon t a in es, 194 sen t h is wh ole cou n cil t o ju dge a n a ffa ir in t h e cou r t of t h e
Abbot of Cor bey.
Bu t if t h e lor d cou ld n ot h a ve ju dges fr om t h e kin g, h e m igh t r em ove h is cou r t
in t o t h e kin g’s, if h e h eld im m edia t ely of h im ; a n d if t h er e wer e in t er m edia t e
lor ds, h e h a d r ecou r se t o h is su zer a in , r em ovin g fr om on e lor d t o a n ot h er t ill h e
ca m e t o t h e sover eign .
Th u s, n ot wit h st a n din g t h ey h a d in t h ose da ys n eit h er t h e pr a ct ice n or even
t h e idea of ou r m oder n a ppea ls, yet t h ey h a d r ecou r se t o t h e kin g, wh o wa s t h e

sou r ce wh en ce a ll t h ose r iver s flowed, a n d t h e sea in t o wh ich t h ey r et u r n ed.
EQ1&@(&+-%&:44%"$&'(&C%("F$+&'(&[F,+59%1
Th e a ppea l of defa u lt of ju st ice wa s, wh en t h e cou r t of a pa r t icu la r lor d
defer r ed, eva ded, or r efu sed t o do ju st ice t o t h e pa r t ies.
Du r in g t h e t im e of ou r pr in ces of t h e secon d r a ce, t h ou gh t h e cou n t h a d
sever a l officer s u n der h im , t h eir per son wa s su bor din a t e, bu t n ot t h eir
ju r isdict ion . Th ese officer s in t h eir cou r t da ys, a ssizes, or P la cit a , ga ve
ju dgm en t in t h e la st r esor t a s t h e cou n t h im self; a ll t h e differ en ce con sist ed in
t h e division of t h e ju r isdict ion . F or in st a n ce, t h e cou n t h a d t h e power of
con dem n in g t o dea t h , of ju dgin g of liber t y, a n d of t h e r est it u t ion of goods, wh ich
t h e cen t en a r ii h a d n ot .195
F or t h e sa m e r ea son t h er e wer e gr ea t er ca ses wh ich wer e r eser ved t o t h e kin g;
n a m ely, t h ose wh ich dir ect ly con cer n ed t h e polit ica l or der of t h e st a t e. 196 Su ch
wer e t h e dispu t es bet ween bish ops, a bbot s, cou n t s, a n d ot h er gr a n dees, wh ich
wer e det er m in ed by t h e kin g t oget h er wit h t h e gr ea t va ssa ls.197
Wh a t som e a u t h or s h a ve a dva n ced, n a m ely, t h a t a n a ppea l la y fr om t h e cou n t
t o t h e kin g’s com m issa r y, or Missu s Dom in icu s, is n ot well-gr ou n ded. Th e cou n t
a n d t h e Missu s h a d a n equ a l ju r isdict ion , in depen den t of ea ch ot h er .198 Th e
wh ole differ en ce wa s t h a t t h e Missu s h eld h is P la cit a , or a ssizes, fou r m on t h s
in t h e yea r ,199 a n d t h e cou n t t h e ot h er eigh t .
If a per son , wh o h a d been con dem n ed a t a n a ssize, dem a n ded t o h a ve h is
ca u se t r ied over a ga in , a n d wa s a ft er wa r ds ca st , h e pa id a fin e of fift een sou s,
or r eceived fift een blows fr om t h e ju dges wh o h a d decided t h e a ffa ir .200
Wh en t h e cou n t s, or t h e kin g’s com m issa r ies did n ot fin d t h em selves a ble t o
br in g t h e gr ea t lor ds t o r ea son , t h ey m a de t h em give ba il or secu r it y 201 t h a t t h ey
wou ld a ppea r in t h e kin g’s cou r t : t h is wa s t o t r y t h e ca u se, a n d n ot t o r eju dge
it . I fin d in t h e ca pit u la r y of Met z 202 a la w by wh ich t h e a ppea l of fa lse ju dgm en t
t o t h e kin g’s cou r t is est a blish ed, a n d a ll ot h er k in ds of a ppea l a r e pr oscr ibed
a n d pu n ish ed.
If t h ey r efu sed t o su bm it t o t h e ju dgm en t of t h e sh er iffs 203 a n d m a de n o
com pla in t , t h ey wer e im pr ison ed t ill t h ey h a d su bm it t ed, bu t if t h ey
com pla in ed, t h ey wer e con du ct ed u n der a pr oper gu a r d befor e t h e kin g, a n d t h e

a ffa ir wa s exa m in ed in h is cou r t .
Th er e cou ld be h a r dly a n y r oom t h en for a n a ppea l of defa u lt of ju st ice. F or
in st ea d of it s bein g u su a l in t h ose da ys t o com pla in t h a t t h e cou n t s a n d ot h er s
wh o h a d a r igh t of h oldin g a ssizes wer e n ot exa ct in disch a r gin g t h is du t y, 204 it
wa s a gen er a l com pla in t t h a t t h ey wer e t oo exa ct . H en ce we fin d su ch n u m ber s
of or din a n ces, by wh ich t h e cou n t s a n d a ll ot h er officer s of ju st ice a r e for bidden
t o h old t h eir a ssizes a bove t h r ice a yea r . It wa s n ot so n ecessa r y t o ch a st ise
t h eir in dolen ce, a s t o ch eck t h eir a ct ivit y.
Bu t , a ft er a n in fin it e n u m ber of pet t y lor dsh ips h a d been for m ed, a n d
differ en t degr ees of va ssa la ge est a blish ed, t h e n eglect of cer t a in va ssa ls in
h oldin g t h eir cou r t s ga ve r ise t o t h is kin d of a ppea l;205 especia lly a s ver y
con sider a ble pr ofit s a ccr u ed t o t h e lor d pa r a m ou n t fr om t h e sever a l fin es.
As t h e cu st om of ju dicia l com ba t s ga in ed ever y da y m or e gr ou n d, t h er e wer e
pla ces, ca ses, a n d t im es, in wh ich it wa s difficu lt t o a ssem ble t h e peer s, a n d
con sequ en t ly in wh ich ju st ice wa s dela yed. Th e a ppea l of defa u lt of ju st ice wa s
t h er efor e in t r odu ced, a n a ppea l t h a t h a s been oft en a r em a r ka ble er a in ou r
h ist or y; beca u se m ost of t h e wa r s of t h ose da ys wer e im pu t ed t o a viola t ion of
t h e polit ica l la w; a s t h e ca u se, or a t lea st t h e pr et en ce, of ou r m oder n wa r s is
t h e in fr in gem en t of t h e la ws of n a t ion s.
Bea u m a n oir sa ys 206 t h a t , in ca se of defa u lt of ju st ice, ba t t le wa s n ot a llowed:
t h e r ea son s a r e t h ese:
1. Th ey cou ld n ot ch a llen ge t h e lor d h im self, beca u se of t h e r espect du e t o h is
per son ; n eit h er cou ld t h ey ch a llen ge t h e lor d’s peer s, beca u se t h e ca se wa s clea r ,
a n d t h ey h a d on ly t o r eckon t h e da ys of t h e su m m on s, or of t h e ot h er dela ys;
t h er e h a d been n o ju dgm en t pa ssed, con sequ en t ly t h er e cou ld be n o a ppea l of
fa lse ju dgm en t : in fin e, t h e cr im e of t h e peer s offen ded t h e lor d a s well a s t h e
pa r t y, a n d it wa s a ga in st r u le t h a t t h er e sh ou ld be ba t t le bet ween t h e lor d a n d
h is peer s.
Bu t a s t h e defa u lt wa s pr oved by wit n esses befor e t h e su per ior cou r t , 207 t h e
wit n esses m igh t be ch a llen ged, a n d t h en n eit h er t h e lor d n or h is cou r t wer e
offen ded.
In ca se t h e defa u lt wa s owin g t o t h e lor d’s t en a n t s or peer s, wh o h a d dela yed
t o a dm in ist er ju st ice, or h a d a voided givin g ju dgm en t a ft er pa st dela ys, t h en

t h ese peer s wer e a ppea led of defa u lt of ju st ice befor e t h e pa r a m ou n t ; a n d if t h ey
wer e ca st , t h ey pa id a fin e t o t h eir lor d. 208 Th e la t t er cou ld n ot give t h em a n y
a ssist a n ce; on t h e con t r a r y, h e seized t h eir fief, t ill t h ey h a d ea ch pa id a fin e of
sixt y livr es.
2. Wh en t h e defa u lt wa s owin g t o t h e lor d, wh ich wa s t h e ca se wh en ever t h er e
h a ppen ed n ot t o be a su fficien t n u m ber of peer s in h is cou r t t o pa ss ju dgm en t ,
or wh en h e h a d n ot a ssem bled h is t en a n t s or a ppoin t ed som ebody in h is pla ce
t o a ssem ble t h em , a n a ppea l m igh t be m a de of t h e defa u lt befor e t h e lor d
pa r a m ou n t ; bu t t h en t h e pa r t y a n d n ot t h e lor d wa s su m m on ed, beca u se of t h e
r espect du e t o t h e la t t er .209
Th e lor d dem a n ded t o be t r ied befor e t h e pa r a m ou n t , a n d if h e wa s a cqu it t ed
of t h e defa u lt , t h e ca u se wa s r em a n ded t o h im , a n d h e wa s likewise pa id a fin e
of sixt y livr es.210 Bu t if t h e defa u lt wa s pr oved, t h e pen a lt y in flict ed on h im wa s
t o lose t h e t r ia l of t h e ca u se, 211 wh ich wa s t o be t h en det er m in ed in t h e su per ior
cou r t . An d, in deed, t h e com pla in t of defa u lt wa s m a de wit h n o ot h er view.
3. If t h e lor d wa s su ed in h is own cou r t , 212 wh ich n ever h a ppen ed bu t u pon
dispu t es in r ela t ion t o t h e fief, a ft er let t in g a ll t h e dela ys pa ss, t h e lor d h im self
wa s su m m on ed befor e t h e peer s in t h e sover eign ’s n a m e, 213 wh ose per m ission
wa s n ecessa r y on t h a t occa sion . Th e peer s did n ot m a ke t h e su m m on s in t h eir
own n a m e, beca u se t h ey cou ld n ot su m m on t h eir lor d, bu t t h ey cou ld su m m on
for t h eir lor d. 214
Som et im es t h e a ppea l of defa u lt of ju st ice wa s followed by a n a ppea l of fa lse
ju dgm en t , wh en t h e lor d h a d ca u sed ju dgm en t t o be pa ssed, n ot wit h st a n din g
t h e defa u lt .215
Th e va ssa l wh o h a d wr on gfu lly ch a llen ged h is lor d of defa u lt of ju st ice wa s
sen t en ced t o pa y a fin e a ccor din g t o h is lor d’s plea su r e.216
Th e in h a bit a n t s of Ga u n t h a d ch a llen ged t h e E a r l of F la n der s of defa u lt of
ju st ice befor e t h e kin g, for h a vin g dela yed t o give ju dgm en t in h is own cou r t . 217
Upon exa m in a t ion it wa s fou n d t h a t h e h a d u sed fewer dela ys t h a n even t h e
cu st om of t h e cou n t r y a llowed. Th ey wer e t h er efor e r em a n ded t o h im ; u pon
wh ich t h eir effect s t o t h e va lu e of sixt y t h ou sa n d livr es wer e seized. Th ey
r et u r n ed t o t h e k in g’s cou r t in or der t o h a ve t h e fin e m oder a t ed; bu t it wa s
decided t h a t t h e ea r l m igh t in sist u pon t h e fin e, a n d even u pon m or e if h e

plea sed. Bea u m a n oir wa s pr esen t a t t h ose ju dgm en t s.
4. In ot h er dispu t es wh ich t h e lor d m igh t h a ve wit h h is va ssa l, in r espect t o
t h e per son or h on ou r of t h e la t t er , or t o pr oper t y t h a t did n ot belon g t o t h e fief,
t h er e wa s n o r oom for a ch a llen ge of defa u lt of ju st ice; beca u se t h e ca u se wa s
n ot t r ied in t h e lor d’s cou r t , bu t in t h a t of t h e pa r a m ou n t : va ssa ls, sa ys
Défon t a in es, 218 h a vin g n o power t o give ju dgm en t on t h e per son of t h eir lor d.
I h a ve been a t som e t r ou ble t o give a clea r idea of t h ose t h in gs, wh ich a r e so
obscu r e a n d con fu sed in a n cien t a u t h or s t h a t t o disen t a n gle t h em fr om t h e
ch a os in wh ich t h ey wer e in volved m a y be r eckon ed a n ew discover y.
ES1&U4'9-&'(&+-%&/%5D*&'(&3+1&6'F5,1
St . Lou is a bolish ed t h e ju dicia l com ba t s in a ll t h e cou r t s of h is dem esn e, a s
a ppea r s by t h e or din a n ce h e pu blish ed t h er eu pon , 219 a n d by t h e In st it u t ion s.220
Bu t h e did n ot su ppr ess t h em in t h e cou r t s of h is ba r on s, except in t h e ca se
of ch a llen ge of fa lse ju dgm en t .221
A va ssa l cou ld n ot ch a llen ge t h e cou r t of h is lor d of fa lse ju dgm en t , wit h ou t
dem a n din g a ju dicia l com ba t a ga in st t h e ju dges wh o pr on ou n ced sen t en ce. Bu t
St . Lou is in t r odu ced t h e pr a ct ice of ch a llen gin g of fa lse ju dgm en t wit h ou t
figh t in g, a ch a n ge t h a t m a y be r eckon ed a kin d of r evolu t ion . 222
H e decla r ed 223 t h a t t h er e sh ou ld be n o ch a llen ge of fa lse ju dgm en t in t h e
lor dsh ips of h is dem esn es, beca u se it wa s a cr im e of felon y. In r ea lit y, if it wa s
a kin d of felon y a ga in st t h e lor d, by a m u ch st r on ger r ea son it wa s felon y
a ga in st t h e kin g. Bu t h e con sen t ed t h a t t h ey m igh t dem a n d a n a m en dm en t 224
of t h e ju dgm en t s pa ssed in h is cou r t s; n ot beca u se t h ey wer e fa lse or in iqu it ou s,
bu t beca u se t h ey did som e pr eju dice. 225 On t h e con t r a r y, h e or da in ed t h a t t h ey
sh ou ld be obliged t o m a ke a ch a llen ge of fa lse ju dgm en t a ga in st t h e cou r t s of
t h e ba r on s, 226 in ca se of a n y com pla in t .
It wa s n ot a llowed by t h e In st it u t ion s, a s we h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved, t o br in g
a ch a llen ge of fa lse ju dgm en t a ga in st t h e cou r t s in t h e kin g’s dem esn es. Th ey
wer e obliged t o dem a n d a n a m en dm en t befor e t h e sa m e cou r t ; a n d in ca se t h e
ba iliff r efu sed t h e a m en dm en t dem a n ded, t h e kin g ga ve lea ve t o m a ke a n
a ppea l t o h is cou r t ;227 or r a t h er , in t er pr et in g t h e In st it u t ion s by t h em selves, t o
pr esen t h im a r equ est or pet it ion .228

Wit h r ega r d t o t h e cou r t s of t h e lor ds, St . Lou is, by per m it t in g t h em t o be
ch a llen ged of fa lse ju dgm en t , wou ld h a ve t h e ca u se br ou gh t befor e t h e r oya l
t r ibu n a l, 229 or t h a t of t h e lor d pa r a m ou n t , n ot t o be decided by du el230 bu t by
wit n esses, pu r su a n t t o a cer t a in for m of pr oceedin g, t h e r u les of wh ich h e la id
down in t h e In st it u t ion s.231
Th u s, wh et h er t h ey cou ld fa lsify t h e ju dgm en t , a s in t h e cou r t of t h e ba r on s;
or wh et h er t h ey cou ld n ot fa lsify, a s in t h e cou r t of h is dem esn es, h e or da in ed
t h a t t h ey m igh t a ppea l wit h ou t t h e h a za r d of a du el.
Défon t a in es 232 gives u s t h e fir st t wo exa m ples h e ever sa w, in wh ich t h ey
pr oceeded t h u s wit h ou t a lega l du el: on e, in a ca u se t r ied a t t h e cou r t of St .
Qu en t in , wh ich belon ged t o t h e kin g’s dem esn e; a n d t h e ot h er , in t h e cou r t of
Pont hieu, wher e t h e cou n t , wh o wa s pr esen t , opposed t h e a n cien t ju r ispr u dence:
bu t t h ese t wo ca u ses wer e decided by la w.
H er e, per h a ps, it will be a sked wh y St . Lou is or da in ed for t h e cou r t s of h is
ba r on s a differ en t for m of pr oceedin g fr om t h a t wh ich h e h a d est a blish ed in t h e
cou r t s of h is dem esn e? Th e r ea son is t h is: wh en St . Lou is m a de t h e r egu la t ion
for t h e cou r t s of h is dem esn es, h e wa s n ot ch ecked or lim it ed in h is views: bu t
h e h a d m ea su r es t o keep wit h t h e lor ds wh o en joyed t h is a n cien t pr er oga t ive,
t h a t ca u ses sh ou ld n ot be r em oved fr om t h eir cou r t s, u n less t h e pa r t y wa s
willin g t o expose h im self t o t h e da n ger s of a n a ppea l of fa lse ju dgm en t . St . Lou is
pr eser ved t h e u sa ge of t h is a ppea l; bu t h e or da in ed t h a t it sh ou ld be m a de
wit h ou t a ju dicia l com ba t ; t h a t is, in or der t o m a ke t h e ch a n ge less felt , h e
su ppr essed t h e t h in g, a n d con t in u ed t h e t er m s.
Th is r egu la t ion wa s n ot u n iver sa lly r eceived in t h e cou r t s of t h e lor ds.
Bea u m a n oir sa ys 233 t h a t in h is t im e t h er e wer e t wo wa ys of t r yin g ca u ses; on e
a ccor din g t o t h e kin g’s est a blish m en t , a n d t h e ot h er pu r su a n t t o t h e a n cien t
pr a ct ice; t h a t t h e lor ds wer e a t liber t y t o follow wh ich wa y t h ey plea sed; bu t
wh en t h ey h a d pit ch ed u pon on e in a n y ca u se, t h ey cou ld n ot a ft er wa r ds h a ve
r ecou r se t o t h e ot h er . H e a dds, 234 t h a t t h e Cou n t of Cler m on t followed t h e n ew
pr a ct ice, wh ile h is va ssa ls kept t o t h e old on e; bu t t h a t it wa s in h is power t o
r eest a blish t h e a n cien t pr a ct ice wh en ever h e plea sed, ot h er wise h e wou ld h a ve
less a u t h or it y t h a n h is va ssa ls.
It is pr oper h er e t o obser ve t h a t F r a n ce wa s a t t h a t t im e divided in t o t h e

cou n t r y of t h e kin g’s dem esn e, a n d t h a t wh ich wa s ca lled t h e cou n t r y of t h e
ba r on s, or t h e ba r on ies; a n d, t o m a ke u se of t h e t er m s of St . Lou is’ In st it u t ion s,
in t o t h e cou n t r y u n der obedien ce t o t h e kin g, a n d t h e cou n t r y ou t of h is
obedien ce. 235 Wh en t h e kin g m a de or din a n ces for t h e cou n t r y of h is dem esn e, h e
em ployed h is own sin gle a u t h or it y. Bu t wh en h e pu blish ed a n y or din a n ces t h a t
con cer n ed a lso t h e cou n t r y of h is ba r on s, t h ese wer e m a de in con cer t wit h
t h em , 236 or sea led a n d su bscr ibed by t h em : ot h er wise t h e ba r on s r eceived or
r efu sed t h em , a ccor din g a s t h ey seem ed con du cive t o t h e good of t h eir ba r on ies.
Th e r ea r -va ssa ls wer e u pon t h e sa m e t er m s wit h t h e gr ea t -va ssa ls. Now t h e
In st it u t ion s wer e n ot m a de wit h t h e con sen t of t h e lor ds, t h ou gh t h ey r egu la t ed
m a t t er s wh ich t o t h em wer e of gr ea t im por t a n ce: bu t t h ey wer e r eceived on ly
by t h ose wh o believed t h ey wou ld r edou n d t o t h eir a dva n t a ge. Rober t , son of St .
Lou is, r eceived t h em in h is cou n t y of Cler m on t ; yet h is va ssa ls did n ot t h in k
pr oper t o con for m t o t h is pr a ct ice.
GT1&@#,%.;"+5'*&'*&:44%"$,1
I a ppr eh en d t h a t a ppea ls, wh ich wer e ch a llen ges t o a com ba t , m u st h a ve been
m a de im m edia t ely on t h e spot . “If t h e pa r t y lea ves t h e cou r t wit h ou t a ppea lin g,”
sa ys Bea u m a n oir , 237 “h e loses h is a ppea l, a n d t h e ju dgm en t st a n ds good.” Th is
con t in u ed st ill in for ce, even a ft er a ll t h e r est r ict ion s of ju dicia l com ba t .238
GB1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Th e villa in cou ld n ot br in g a ch a llen ge of fa lse ju dgm en t a ga in st t h e cou r t of
h is lor d. Th is we lea r n fr om Défon t a in es, 239 a n d h e is con fir m ed m or eover by t h e
In st it u t ion s.240 H en ce Défon t a in es sa ys, 241 “bet ween t h e lor d a n d h is villa in
t h er e is n o ot h er ju dge bu t God.”
It wa s t h e cu st om of ju dicia l com ba t s t h a t depr ived t h e villa in s of t h e pr ivilege
of ch a llen gin g t h eir lor d’s cou r t of fa lse ju dgm en t . An d so t r u e is t h is, t h a t t h ose
villa in s 242 wh o by ch a r t er or cu st om h a d a r igh t t o figh t h a d a lso t h e pr ivilege
of ch a llen gin g t h eir lor d’s cou r t of fa lse ju dgm en t , even t h ou gh t h e peer s wh o
t r ied t h em wer e gen t lem en ;243 a n d Défon t a in es pr oposes expedien t s t o
gen t lem en in or der t o a void t h e sca n da l of figh t in g wit h a villa in by wh om t h ey
h a d been ch a llen ged of fa lse ju dgm en t .244

As t h e pr a ct ice of ju dicia l com ba t s bega n t o declin e, a n d t h e u sa ge of n ew
a ppea ls t o be in t r odu ced, it wa s r eckon ed u n fa ir t h a t fr eem en sh ou ld h a ve a
r em edy a ga in st t h e in ju st ice of t h e cou r t s of t h eir lor ds, a n d t h e villa in s sh ou ld
n ot ; h en ce t h e pa r lia m en t r eceived t h eir a ppea ls a ll t h e sa m e a s t h ose of
fr eem en .
GE1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Wh en a ch a llen ge of fa lse ju dgm en t wa s br ou gh t a ga in st t h e lor d’s cou r t , t h e
lor d a ppea r ed in per son befor e h is pa r a m ou n t t o defen d t h e ju dgm en t of h is
cou r t . In like m a n n er , in t h e a ppea l of defa u lt of ju st ice, t h e pa r t y su m m on ed
befor e t h e lor d pa r a m ou n t br ou gh t h is lor d a lon g wit h h im , t o t h e en d t h a t if
t h e defa u lt wa s n ot pr oved, h e m igh t r ecover h is ju r isdict ion .245
In pr ocess of t im e a s t h e pr a ct ice obser ved in t h ese t wo pa r t icu la r ca ses
beca m e gen er a l, by t h e in t r odu ct ion of a ll sor t s of a ppea ls, it seem ed ver y
ext r a or din a r y t h a t t h e lor d sh ou ld be obliged t o spen d h is wh ole life in st r a n ge
t r ibu n a ls, a n d for ot h er people’s a ffa ir s. P h ilip of Va lois or da in ed 246 t h a t n on e
bu t t h e ba iliffs sh ou ld be su m m on ed; a n d wh en t h e u sa ge of a ppea ls beca m e
st ill m or e fr equ en t , t h e pa r t ies wer e obliged t o defen d t h e a ppea l: t h e deed of
t h e ju dge beca m e t h a t of t h e pa r t y.247
I t ook n ot ice t h a t in t h e a ppea l of defa u lt of ju st ice, 248 t h e lor d lost on ly t h e
pr ivilege of h a vin g t h e ca u se t r ied in h is own cou r t . Bu t if t h e lor d h im self wa s
su ed a s pa r t y, 249 wh ich beca m e a ver y com m on pr a ct ice, 250 h e pa id a fin e of sixt y
livr es t o t h e k in g, or t o t h e pa r a m ou n t , befor e wh om t h e a ppea l wa s br ou gh t .
Th en ce a r ose t h e u sa ge, a ft er a ppea ls h a d been gen er a lly r eceived, of m a kin g
t h e fin e pa ya ble t o t h e lor d u pon t h e r ever sa l of t h e sen t en ce of h is ju dge; a
u sa ge wh ich la st ed a lon g t im e, a n d wa s con fir m ed by t h e or din a n ce of
Rou sillon , bu t fell, a t len gt h , t o t h e gr ou n d t h r ou gh it s own a bsu r dit y.
GG1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
In t h e pr a ct ice of ju dicia l com ba t s, t h e per son wh o h a d ch a llen ged on e of t h e
ju dges of fa lse ju dgm en t m igh t lose h is ca u se by t h e com ba t , bu t cou ld n ot
possibly ga in it . 251 An d, in deed, t h e pa r t y wh o h a d a ju dgm en t in h is fa vou r
ou gh t n ot t o h a ve been depr ived of it by a n ot h er m a n ’s a ct . Th e a ppella n t ,

t h er efor e, wh o h a d ga in ed t h e ba t t le wa s obliged t o figh t likewise a ga in st t h e
a dver se pa r t y: n ot in or der t o kn ow wh et h er t h e ju dgm en t wa s good or ba d (for
t h is ju dgm en t wa s ou t of t h e ca se, bein g r ever sed by t h e com ba t ), bu t t o
det er m in e wh et h er t h e dem a n d wa s ju st or n ot ; a n d it wa s on t h is n ew poin t
t h ey fou gh t . Th en ce pr oceeds ou r m a n n er of pr on ou n cin g decr ees, “Th e cou r t
a n n u ls t h e a ppea l; t h e cou r t a n n u ls t h e a ppea l a n d t h e ju dgm en t a ga in st wh ich
t h e a ppea l wa s br ou gh t .” In effect , wh en t h e per son wh o h a d m a de t h e
ch a llen ge of fa lse ju dgm en t h a ppen ed t o be over com e, t h e a ppea l wa s r ever sed:
wh en h e pr oved vict or iou s, bot h t h e ju dgm en t a n d t h e a ppea l wer e r ever sed;
t h en t h ey wer e obliged t o pr oceed t o a n ew ju dgm en t .
Th is is so fa r t r u e t h a t , wh en t h e ca u se wa s t r ied by in qu est s, t h is m a n n er of
pr on ou n cin g did n ot t a ke pla ce: wit n ess wh a t M. de la Roch e F la vin sa ys, 252
n a m ely, t h a t t h e ch a m ber of in qu ir y cou ld n ot u se t h is for m a t t h e begin n in g of
it s exist en ce.
GJ1&?*&7-"+&K"**%.&+-%&8.'9%%05*D,&"+&6"7&#%9"<%&,%9.%+1
Du els h a d in t r odu ced a pu blic for m of pr oceedin g, so t h a t bot h t h e a t t a ck a n d
t h e defen ce wer e equ a lly kn own . “Th e wit n esses,” sa ys Bea u m a n oir , 253 “ou gh t
t o give t h eir t est im on y in open cou r t .”
Bou t illier ’s com m en t a t or sa ys h e h a d lea r n ed of a n cien t pr a ct it ion er s, a n d
fr om som e old m a n u scr ipt la w book s, t h a t cr im in a l pr ocesses wer e a n cien t ly
ca r r ied on in pu blic, a n d in a for m n ot ver y differ en t fr om t h e pu blic ju dgm en t s
of t h e Rom a n s. Th is wa s owin g t o t h eir n ot kn owin g h ow t o wr it e; a t h in g in
t h ose da ys ver y com m on . Th e u sa ge of wr it in g fixes t h e idea s, a n d keeps t h e
secr et ; bu t wh en t h is u sa ge is la id a side, n ot h in g bu t t h e n ot or iet y of t h e
pr oceedin g is ca pa ble of fixin g t h ose idea s.
An d a s u n cer t a in t y m igh t ea sily a r ise in r espect t o wh a t h a d been a dju dica t ed
by va ssa ls, or plea ded befor e t h em , t h ey cou ld, t h er efor e, r efr esh t h eir
m em or y 254 ever y t im e t h ey h eld a cou r t by wh a t wer e ca lled pr oceedin gs on
r ecor d. 255 In t h a t ca se, it wa s n ot a llowed t o ch a llen ge t h e wit n esses t o com ba t ;
for t h en t h er e wou ld be n o en d of dispu t es.
In pr ocess of t im e a pr iva t e for m of pr oceedin g wa s in t r odu ced. E ver yt h in g
befor e h a d been pu blic; ever yt h in g n ow beca m e secr et ; t h e in t er r oga t or ies, t h e

in for m a t ion s, t h e r e-exa m in a t ion s, t h e con fr on t in g of wit n esses, t h e opin ion of
t h e a t t or n ey-gen er a l; a n d t h is is t h e pr esen t pr a ct ice. Th e fir st for m of
pr oceedin g wa s su it a ble t o t h e gover n m en t of t h a t t im e, a s t h e n ew for m wa s
pr oper t o t h e gover n m en t sin ce est a blish ed.
Bou t illier ’s com m en t a t or fixes t h e epoch of t h is ch a n ge t o t h e or din a n ce in t h e
yea r 1539. I a m a pt t o believe t h a t t h e ch a n ge wa s m a de in sen sibly, a n d pa ssed
fr om on e lor dsh ip t o a n ot h er , in pr opor t ion a s t h e lor ds r en ou n ced t h e a n cien t
for m of ju dgin g, a n d t h a t der ived fr om t h e In st it u t ion s of St . Lou is wa s
im pr oved. An d in deed, Bea u m a n oir sa ys 256 t h a t wit n esses wer e pu blicly h ea r d
on ly in ca ses in wh ich it wa s a llowed t o give pledges of ba t t le: in ot h er s t h ey
wer e h ea r d in secr et , a n d t h eir deposit ion s wer e r edu ced t o wr it in g. Th e
pr oceedin gs beca m e, t h er efor e, secr et , wh en t h ey cea sed t o give pledges of
ba t t le.
GL1&@(&+-%&)',+,1
In for m er t im es n o on e wa s con dem n ed in t h e la y cou r t s of F r a n ce t o t h e
pa ym en t of cost s. 257 Th e pa r t y ca st wa s su fficien t ly pu n ish ed by pecu n ia r y fin es
t o t h e lor d a n d h is peer s. F r om t h e m a n n er of pr oceedin g by ju dicia l com ba t it
followed, t h a t t h e pa r t y con dem n ed a n d depr ived of life a n d for t u n e wa s
pu n ish ed a s m u ch a s h e cou ld be: a n d in t h e ot h er ca ses of t h e ju dicia l com ba t ,
t h er e wer e fin es som et im es fixed, a n d som et im es depen den t on t h e disposit ion
of t h e lor d, wh ich wer e su fficien t t o m a ke people dr ea d t h e con sequ en ces of
su it s. Th e sa m e m a y be sa id of ca u ses t h a t wer e n ot decided by com ba t . As t h e
lor d h a d t h e ch ief pr ofit s, so h e wa s a lso a t t h e ch ief expen se, eit h er t o a ssem ble
h is peer s, or t o en a ble t h em t o pr oceed t o ju dgm en t . Besides, a s dispu t es wer e
gen er a lly det er m in ed a t t h e sa m e pla ce, a n d a lm ost a lwa ys a t t h e sa m e t im e,
wit h ou t t h a t in fin it e m ult it ude of wr it in gs wh ich a ft er wa r ds followed, t h er e wa s
n o n ecessit y of a llowin g cost s t o t h e pa r t ies.
Th e cu st om of a ppea ls n a t u r a lly in t r odu ced t h a t of givin g cost s. Th u s
Défon t a in es sa ys, 258 t h a t wh en t h ey a ppea led by wr it t en la w, t h a t is, wh en t h ey
followed t h e n ew la ws of St . Lou is, t h ey ga ve cost s; bu t t h a t in t h e or din a r y
pr a ct ice, wh ich did n ot per m it t h em t o a ppea l wit h ou t fa lsifyin g t h e ju dgm en t ,
n o cost s wer e a llowed. Th ey obt a in ed on ly a fin e, a n d t h e possession for a yea r

a n d a da y of t h e t h in g con t est ed, if t h e ca u se wa s r em a n ded t o t h e lor d.
Bu t wh en t h e n u m ber of a ppea ls in cr ea sed fr om t h e n ew fa cilit y of
a ppea lin g;259 wh en by t h e fr equ en t u sa ge of t h ose a ppea ls fr om on e cou r t t o
a n ot h er , t h e pa r t ies wer e con t in u a lly r em oved fr om t h e pla ce of t h eir r esiden ce;
wh en t h e n ew m et h od of pr ocedu r e m u lt iplied a n d pr olon ged t h e su it s; wh en
t h e a r t of elu din g t h e ver y ju st est dem a n ds beca m e r efin ed; wh en t h e pa r t ies
a t la w kn ew h ow t o fly on ly in or der t o be followed; wh en pla in t s wer e r u in ou s
a n d defen ce ea sy; wh en t h e a r gu m en t s wer e lost in wh ole volu m es of wor ds a n d
wr it in gs; wh en t h e kin gdom wa s filled wit h lim bs of t h e la w, wh o wer e
st r a n ger s t o ju st ice; wh en k n a ver y fou n d en cou r a gem en t a t t h e ver y pla ce
wh er e it did n ot fin d pr ot ect ion ; t h en it wa s n ecessa r y t o det er lit igiou s people
by t h e fea r of cost s. Th ey wer e obliged t o pa y cost s for t h e ju dgm en t a n d for t h e
m ea n s t h ey h a d em ployed t o elu de it . Ch a r les t h e F a ir m a de a gen er a l
or din a n ce on t h a t su bject .260
GO1&@(&+-%&4F#$59&8.',%9F+'.1
As by t h e Sa lic, Ripu a r ia n , a n d ot h er ba r ba r ou s la ws, cr im es wer e pu n ish ed
wit h pecu n ia r y fin es; t h ey h a d n ot in t h ose da ys, a s we h a ve a t pr esen t , a pu blic
officer wh o h a d t h e ca r e of cr im in a l pr osecu t ion s. An d, in deed, t h e issu e of a ll
ca u ses bein g r edu ced t o t h e r epa r a t ion of in ju r ies, ever y pr osecu t ion wa s in
som e m ea su r e civil, a n d m igh t be m a n a ged by a n y on e. On t h e ot h er h a n d, t h e
Rom a n la w h a d popu la r for m s for t h e pr osecu t ion of cr im es wh ich wer e
in con sist en t wit h t h e fu n ct ion s of a pu blic pr osecu t or .
Th e cu st om of ju dicia l com ba t s wa s n o less opposit e t o t h is idea ; for wh o is it
t h a t wou ld ch oose t o be a pu blic pr osecu t or a n d t o m a k e h im self ever y m a n ’s
ch a m pion a ga in st a ll t h e wor ld?
I fin d in t h e collect ion of for m u la s, in ser t ed by Mu r a t or i in t h e la ws of t h e
Lom ba r ds, t h a t u n der ou r pr in ces of t h e secon d r a ce t h er e wa s a n a dvoca t e for
t h e pu blic pr osecu t or . 261 Bu t wh oever plea ses t o r ea d t h e en t ir e collect ion of
t h ese for m u la s will fin d t h a t t h er e wa s a t ot a l differ en ce bet ween su ch officer s
a n d t h ose we n ow ca ll t h e pu blic pr osecu t or , ou r a t t or n eys-gen er a l, ou r kin g’s
solicit or s, or ou r solicit or s for t h e n obilit y. Th e for m er wer e r a t h er a gen t s t o t h e
pu blic for t h e m a n a gem en t of polit ica l a n d dom est ic a ffa ir s, t h a n for t h e civil.
An d, in deed, we did n ot fin d in t h ose for m u la s t h a t t h ey wer e en t r u st ed wit h
cr im in a l pr osecu t ion s, or wit h ca u ses r ela t in g t o m in or s, t o ch u r ch es, or t o t h e
con dit ion of a n y on e.
I sa id t h a t t h e est a blish m en t of a pu blic pr osecu t or wa s r epu gn a n t t o t h e
u sa ge of ju dicia l com ba t s. I fin d, n ot wit h st a n din g, in on e of t h ose for m u la s, a n
a dvoca t e for t h e pu blic pr osecu t or , wh o h a d t h e liber t y t o figh t . Mu r a t or i h a s
pla ced it ju st a ft er t h e con st it u t ion of H en r y I, for wh ich it wa s m a de. 262 In t h is
con st it u t ion it is sa id, “Th a t if a n y m a n kills h is fa t h er , h is br ot h er , or a n y of
h is ot h er r ela t ives, h e sh a ll lose t h eir su ccession , wh ich sh a ll pa ss t o t h e ot h er
r ela t ives, a n d h is own pr oper t y sh a ll go t o t h e exch equ er .” Now it wa s in su in g
for t h e est a t e wh ich h a d devolved t o t h e exch equ er , t h a t t h e a dvoca t e for t h e
pu blic pr osecu t or , by wh om it s r igh t s wer e defen ded, h a d t h e pr ivilege of
figh t in g: t h is ca se fell wit h in t h e gen er a l r u le.
We see in t h ose for m u la s t h e a dvoca t e for t h e pu blic pr osecu t or pr oceedin g
a ga in st a per son wh o h a d t a ken a r obber , bu t h a d n ot br ou gh t h im befor e t h e
cou n t ;263 a ga in st a n ot h er wh o h a d r a ised a n in su r r ect ion or t u m u lt a ga in st t h e
cou n t ;264 a ga in st a n ot h er wh o h a d sa ved a m a n ’s life wh om t h e cou n t h a d
or der ed t o be pu t t o dea t h ;265 a ga in st t h e a dvoca t e of som e ch u r ch es, wh om t h e
cou n t h a d com m a n ded t o br in g a r obber befor e h im , bu t h a d n ot obeyed;266
a ga in st a n ot h er wh o h a d r evea led t h e kin g’s secr et t o st r a n ger s;267 a ga in st
a n ot h er , wh o wit h open violen ce h a d a t t a cked t h e em per or ’s com m issa r y;268
a ga in st a n ot h er wh o h a d been gu ilt y of con t em pt t o t h e em per or ’s r escr ipt s, a n d
h e wa s pr osecu t ed eit h er by t h e em per or ’s a dvoca t e or by t h e em per or
h im self;269 a ga in st a n ot h er wh o r efu sed t o a ccept of t h e pr in ce’s coin ;270 in fin e,
t h is a dvoca t e su ed for t h in gs wh ich by t h e la w wer e a dju dged t o t h e
exch equ er .271
Bu t in cr im in a l ca u ses, we n ever m eet wit h t h e a dvoca t e for t h e pu blic
pr osecu t or ; n ot even wh er e du els a r e u sed;272 n ot even in t h e ca se of
in cen dia r ies;273 n ot even wh en t h e ju dge is killed on h is ben ch ;274 n ot even in
ca u ses r ela t in g t o t h e con dit ion s of per son s,275 t o liber t y a n d sla ver y.276
Th ese for m u la s a r e m a de, n ot on ly for t h e la ws of t h e Lom ba r ds, bu t likewise
for t h e ca pit u la r ies a dded t o t h em , so t h a t we h a ve n o r ea son t o dou bt of t h eir
givin g u s t h e pr a ct ice obser ved wit h r ega r d t o t h is su bject u n der ou r pr in ces of

t h e secon d r a ce.
It is obviou s t h a t t h ese a dvoca t es for a pu blic pr osecu t or m u st h a ve en ded
wit h ou r secon d r a ce of kin gs, in t h e sa m e m a n n er a s t h e kin g’s com m ission er s
in t h e pr ovin ces; beca u se t h er e wa s n o lon ger a gen er a l la w n or gen er a l
exch equ er , a n d beca u se t h er e wer e n o lon ger a n y cou n t s in t h e pr ovin ces t o h old
t h e a ssizes, a n d, of cou r se, t h er e wer e n o m or e of t h ose officer s wh ose pr in cipa l
fu n ct ion wa s t o su ppor t t h e a u t h or it y of t h e cou n t s.
As t h e u sa ge of com ba t s beca m e m or e fr equ en t u n der t h e t h ir d r a ce, it did n ot
a llow of a n y su ch t h in g a s a pu blic pr osecu t or . H en ce Bou t illier , in h is Som m e
Ru r a le, spea kin g of t h e officer s of ju st ice, t a kes n ot ice on ly of t h e ba iliffs, t h e
peer s a n d ser jea n t s. See t h e In st it u t ion s 277 a n d Bea u m a n oir 278 con cer n in g t h e
m a n n er in wh ich pr osecu t ion s wer e m a n a ged in t h ose da ys.
I fin d in t h e la ws of J a m es II, Kin g of Ma jor ca , 279 a cr ea t ion of t h e office of
k in g’s a t t or n ey-gen er a l, wit h t h e ver y sa m e fu n ct ion s a s a r e exer cised a t
pr esen t by t h e officer s of t h a t n a m e a m on g u s. It is m a n ifest t h a t t h is office wa s
n ot in st it u t ed t ill we h a d ch a n ged t h e for m of ou r ju dicia r y pr oceedin gs.
GP1&?*&7-"+&K"**%.&+-%&?*,+5+F+5'*,&'(&3+1&6'F5,&(%$$&5*+'&@#$5;5'*1
It wa s t h e fa t e of t h e In st it u t ion s t h a t t h eir or igin , pr ogr ess, a n d declin e wer e
com pr ised wit h in a ver y sh or t per iod.
I sh a ll m a ke a few r eflect ion s u pon t h is su bject . Th e code we h a ve n ow u n der
t h e n a m e of St . Lou is’ In st it u t ion s wa s n ever design ed a s a la w for t h e wh ole
kin gdom , t h ou gh su ch a design is m en t ion ed in t h e pr efa ce. Th e com pila t ion is
a gen er a l code, wh ich det er m in es a ll poin t s r ela t in g t o civil a ffa ir s, t o t h e
disposa l of pr oper t y by will or ot h er wise, t h e dowr ies a n d pr ivileges of wom en ,
a n d em olu m en t s a n d pr ivileges of fiefs, wit h t h e a ffa ir s in r ela t ion t o t h e police,
&c. Now, t o give a gen er a l body of civil la ws, a t a t im e wh en ea ch cit y, t own , or
villa ge, h a d it s cu st om s, wa s a t t em pt in g t o su bver t in on e m om en t a ll t h e
pa r t icu la r la ws t h en in for ce in ever y pa r t of t h e kin gdom . To r edu ce a ll t h e
pa r t icu la r cu st om s t o a gen er a l on e wou ld be a ver y in con sider a t e t h in g, even
a t pr esen t wh en ou r pr in ces fin d ever ywh er e t h e m ost pa ssive obedien ce. Bu t
if it be t r u e t h a t we ou gh t n ot t o ch a n ge wh en t h e in con ven ien ces a r e equ a l t o
t h e a dva n t a ges, m u ch less sh ou ld we ch a n ge wh en t h e a dva n t a ges a r e sm a ll

a n d t h e in con ven ien ces im m en se. Now, if we a t t en t ively con sider t h e sit u a t ion
wh ich t h e kin gdom wa s in a t t h a t t im e, wh en ever y lor d wa s pu ffed u p wit h t h e
n ot ion of h is sover eign t y a n d power , we sh a ll fin d t h a t t o a t t em pt a gen er a l
a lt er a t ion of t h e r eceived la ws a n d cu st om s m u st be a t h in g t h a t cou ld n ever
en t er in t o t h e h ea ds of t h ose wh o wer e t h en in t h e a dm in ist r a t ion .
Wh a t I h a ve been sa yin g pr oves likewise t h a t t h is code of in st it u t ion s wa s n ot
con fir m ed in pa r lia m en t by t h e ba r on s a n d m a gist r a t es of t h e kin gdom , a s is
m en t ion ed in a m a n u scr ipt of t h e t own -h a ll of Am ien s, qu ot ed by M. Du
Ca n ge.280 We fin d in ot h er m a n u scr ipt s t h a t t h is code wa s given by St . Lou is in
t h e yea r 1270, befor e h e set ou t for Tu n is. Bu t t h is fa ct is n ot t r u er t h a n t h e
ot h er ; for St . Lou is set ou t u pon t h a t expedit ion in 1269, a s M. Du Ca n ge
obser ves: wh en ce h e con clu des t h a t t h is code m igh t h a ve been pu blish ed in h is
a bsen ce. Bu t t h is I sa y is im possible. H ow ca n St . Lou is be im a gin ed t o h a ve
pit ch ed u pon t h e t im e of h is a bsen ce for t r a n sa ct in g a n a ffa ir wh ich wou ld h a ve
been a sowin g of t r ou bles, a n d m igh t h a ve pr odu ced n ot on ly ch a n ges, bu t
r evolu t ion s? An en t er pr ise of t h a t kin d h a d n eed, m or e t h a n a n y ot h er , of bein g
closely pu r su ed, a n d cou ld n ot be t h e wor k of a feeble r egen cy, com posed
m or eover of lor ds, wh ose in t er est it wa s t h a t it sh ou ld n ot su cceed. Th ese wer e
Ma t h ieu , Abbot of St . Den is, Sim on of Cler m on t , Cou n t of Nesle, a n d, in ca se of
dea t h , P h ilip, Bish op of E vr eu x, a n d J ea n , Cou n t of P on t h ieu . We h a ve seen
a bove 281 t h a t t h e Cou n t of P on t h ieu opposed t h e execu t ion of a n ew ju dicia r y
or der in h is lor dsh ip.
Th ir dly, I a ffir m it t o be ver y pr oba ble t h a t t h e code n ow ext a n t is qu it e a
differ en t t h in g fr om St . Lou is’ In st it u t ion s, It cit es t h e In st it u t ion s; t h er efor e
it is a com m en t u pon t h e In st it u t ion s, a n d n ot t h e in st it u t ion s t h em selves.
Besides, Bea u m a n oir , wh o fr equ en t ly m a kes m en t ion of St . Lou is’ In st it u t ion s,
qu ot es on ly som e pa r t icu la r la ws of t h a t pr in ce, a n d n ot t h is com pila t ion .
Défon t a in es, 282 wh o wr ot e in t h a t pr in ce’s r eign , m a kes m en t ion of t h e fir st t wo
t im es t h a t h is In st it u t ion s on ju dicia l pr oceedin gs wer e pu t in execu t ion , a s of
a t h in g lon g sin ce ela psed. Th e in st it u t ion s of St . Lou is wer e pr ior , t h er efor e,
t o t h e com pila t ion I a m n ow spea kin g of, wh ich fr om t h eir r igou r , a n d t h eir
a dopt in g t h e er r on eou s pr efa ces in ser t ed by som e ign or a n t per son s in t h a t
wor k, cou ld n ot h a ve been pu blish ed befor e t h e la st yea r of St . Lou is or even n ot

t ill a ft er h is dea t h .
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Wh a t is t h is com pila t ion t h en wh ich goes a t pr esen t u n der t h e n a m e of St .
Lou is’ In st it u t ion s? Wh a t is t h is obscu r e, con fu sed, a n d a m bigu ou s code, wh er e
t h e F r en ch la w is con t in u a lly m ixed wit h t h e Rom a n , wh er e a legisla t or spea ks
a n d yet we see a civilia n , wh er e we fin d a com plet e digest of a ll ca ses a n d poin t s
of t h e civil la w? To u n der st a n d t h is t h or ou gh ly, we m u st t r a n sfer ou r selves in
im a gin a t ion t o t h ose t im es.
St . Lou is, seein g t h e a bu ses in t h e ju r ispr u den ce of h is t im e, en dea vou r ed t o
give t h e people a dislik e t o it . Wit h t h is view h e m a de sever a l r egu la t ion s for
t h e cou r t of h is dem esn es, a n d for t h ose of h is ba r on s. An d su ch wa s h is su ccess
t h a t Bea u m a n oir , wh o wr ot e a lit t le a ft er t h e dea t h of t h a t pr in ce, in for m s u s 283
t h a t t h e m a n n er of t r yin g ca u ses wh ich h a d been est a blish ed by St . Lou is
obt a in ed in a gr ea t n u m ber of t h e cou r t s of t h e ba r on s.
Th u s t h is pr in ce a t t a in ed h is en d, t h ou gh h is r egu la t ion s for t h e cou r t s of t h e
lor ds wer e n ot design ed a s a gen er a l la w for t h e kin gdom , bu t a s a m odel wh ich
ever y on e m igh t follow, a n d wou ld even fin d h is a dva n t a ge in it . H e r em oved t h e
ba d pr a ct ice by sh owin g t h em a bet t er . Wh en it a ppea r ed t h a t h is cou r t s, a n d
t h ose of som e lor ds, h a d ch osen a for m of pr oceedin g m or e n a t u r a l, m or e
r ea son a ble, m or e con for m a ble t o m or a lit y, t o r eligion , t o t h e pu blic t r a n qu illit y,
a n d t o t h e secu r it y of per son a n d pr oper t y, t h is for m wa s soon a dopt ed, a n d t h e
ot h er r eject ed.
To a llu r e wh en it is r a sh t o con st r a in , t o win by plea sin g m ea n s wh en it is
im pr oper t o exer t a u t h or it y, sh ows t h e m a n of a bilit ies. Rea son h a s a n a t u r a l,
a n d even a t yr a n n ica l swa y; it m eet s wit h r esist a n ce, bu t t h is ver y r esist a n ce
con st it u t es it s t r iu m ph ; for a ft er a sh or t st r u ggle it com m a n ds a n en t ir e
su bm ission .
St . Lou is, in or der t o give a dist a st e of t h e F r en ch ju r ispr u den ce, ca u sed t h e
books of t h e Rom a n la w t o be t r a n sla t ed; by wh ich m ea n s t h ey wer e m a de
kn own t o t h e la wyer s of t h ose t im es. Défon t a in es, wh o is t h e oldest la w wr it er
we h a ve, m a de gr ea t u se of t h ose Rom a n la ws. 284 H is wor k is, in som e m ea su r e,
a r esu lt fr om t h e a n cien t F r en ch ju r ispr u den ce, of t h e la ws or In st it u t ion s of St .

Lou is, a n d of t h e Rom a n la w. Bea u m a n oir m a de ver y lit t le u se of t h e la t t er ; bu t
h e r econ ciled t h e a n cien t F r en ch la ws t o t h e r egu la t ion s of St . Lou is.
I h a ve a n ot ion , t h er efor e, t h a t t h e la w book kn own by t h e n a m e of t h e
In st it u t ion s wa s com piled by som e ba iliffs, wit h t h e sa m e design a s t h a t of t h e
a u t h or s of t h ose t wo Wor ks, a n d especia lly of Défon t a in es. Th e t it le of t h is wor k
m en t ion s t h a t it is wr it t en a ccor din g t o t h e u sa ge of P a r is, Or lea n s, a n d t h e
cou r t of Ba r on y; a n d t h e pr ea m ble sa ys t h a t it t r ea t s of t h e u sa ge of t h e wh ole
kin gdom , of An jou a n d of t h e cou r t of Ba r on y. It is pla in t h a t t h is wor k wa s
m a de for P a r is, Or lea n s a n d An jou , a s t h e wor ks of Bea u m a n oir a n d
Défon t a in es wer e fr a m ed for t h e cou n t ies of Cler m on t a n d Ver m a n dois; a n d a s
it a ppea r s fr om Bea u m a n oir t h a t diver s la ws of St . Lou is h a d been r eceived in
t h e cou r t s of Ba r on y, t h e com piler wa s in t h e r igh t t o sa y t h a t h is wor k r ela t ed
a lso t o t h ose cou r t s. 285
It is m a n ifest t h a t t h e per son wh o com posed t h is wor k com piled t h e cu st om s
of t h e cou n t r y t oget h er wit h t h e la ws a n d In st it u t ion s of St . Lou is. Th is is a
ver y va lu a ble wor k, beca u se it con t a in s t h e a n cien t cu st om s of An jou , t h e
In st it u t ion s of St . Lou is, a s t h ey wer e t h en in u se; a n d, in fin e, t h e wh ole
pr a ct ice of t h e a n cien t F r en ch la w.
Th e differ en ce bet ween t h is wor k a n d t h ose of Défon t a in es a n d Bea u m a n oir
is it s spea kin g in im per a t ive t er m s a s a legisla t or ; a n d t h is m igh t be r igh t , sin ce
it wa s a m edley of wr it t en cu st om s a n d la ws.
Th er e wa s a n in t r in sic defect in t h is com pila t ion ; it for m ed a n a m ph ibiou s
code, in wh ich t h e F r en ch a n d Rom a n la ws wer e m ixed, a n d wh er e t h in gs wer e
join ed t h a t wer e in n o r ela t ion , bu t oft en con t r a dict or y t o ea ch ot h er .
I a m n ot ign or a n t t h a t t h e F r en ch cou r t s of va ssa ls or peer s; t h e ju dgm en t s
wit h ou t power of a ppea lin g t o a n ot h er t r ibu n a l; t h e m a n n er of pr on ou n cin g
sen t en ce by t h ese wor ds “I con dem n ” or “I a bsolve,”286 h a d som e con for m it y t o
t h e popu la r ju dgm en t s of t h e Rom a n s. Bu t t h ey m a de ver y lit t le u se of t h a t
a n cien t ju r ispr u den ce; t h ey r a t h er ch ose t h a t wh ich wa s a ft er wa r ds in t r odu ced
by t h e em per or , in or der t o r egu la t e, lim it , cor r ect , a n d ext en d t h e F r en ch
ju r ispr u den ce.
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Th e ju dicia r y for m s in t r odu ced by St . Lou is fell in t o disu se. Th is pr in ce h a d
n ot so m u ch in view t h e t h in g it self, t h a t is, t h e best m a n n er of t r yin g ca u ses,
a s t h e best m a n n er of su pplyin g t h e a n cien t pr a ct ice of t r ia l. Th e pr in cipa l
in t en t wa s t o give a disr elish of t h e a n cien t ju r ispr u den ce, a n d t h e n ext t o for m
a n ew on e. Bu t wh en t h e in con ven ien ces of t h e la t t er a ppea r ed, a n ot h er soon
su cceeded.
Th e In st it u t ion s of St . Lou is did n ot , t h er efor e, so m u ch ch a n ge t h e F r en ch
ju r ispr u den ce a s t h ey a ffor ded t h e m ea n s of ch a n gin g it ; t h ey open ed n ew
t r ibu n a ls, or r a t h er wa ys t o com e a t t h em . An d wh en on ce t h e pu blic h a d ea sy
a ccess t o t h e su per ior cou r t s, t h e ju dgm en t s wh ich befor e con st it u t ed on ly t h e
u sa ges of a pa r t icu la r lor dsh ip for m ed a u n iver sa l digest . By m ea n s of t h e
In st it u t ion s, t h ey h a d obt a in ed gen er a l decision s, wh ich wer e en t ir ely wa n t in g
in t h e kin gdom ; wh en t h e bu ildin g wa s fin ish ed, t h ey let t h e sca ffold fa ll t o t h e
gr ou n d.
Th u s t h e In st it u t ion s pr odu ced effect s wh ich cou ld h a r dly be expect ed fr om
a m a st er piece of legisla t ion . To pr epa r e gr ea t ch a n ges wh ole a ges a r e
som et im es r equ isit e; t h e even t s r ipen , a n d t h e r evolu t ion s follow.
Th e pa r lia m en t ju dged in t h e la st r esor t of a lm ost a ll t h e a ffa ir s of t h e
kin gdom . Befor e,287 it t ook cogn iza n ce on ly of dispu t es bet ween t h e du k es,
cou n t s, ba r on s, bish ops, a bbot s, or bet ween t h e kin g a n d h is va ssa ls, 288 r a t h er
in t h e r ela t ion t h ey bor e t o t h e polit ica l t h a n t o t h e civil or der . Th ey wer e soon
obliged t o r en der it per m a n en t , wh er ea s it u sed t o be h eld on ly a few t im es in
a yea r : a n d, in fin e, a gr ea t n u m ber wer e cr ea t ed; in or der t o be su fficien t for
t h e decision of a ll m a n n er of ca u ses.
No soon er h a d t h e pa r lia m en t becom e a fixed body, t h a n t h ey bega n t o com pile
it s decr ees. J ea n de Mon lu c, in t h e r eign of P h ilip t h e F a ir , m a de a collect ion
wh ich a t pr esen t is kn own by t h e n a m e of t h e Olim r egist er s.289
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C%9.%+"$,1
Bu t h ow com es it , som e will a sk, t h a t wh en t h e In st it u t ion s wer e la id a side,
t h e ju dicia l for m s of t h e ca n on la w sh ou ld be pr efer r ed t o t h ose of t h e Rom a n ?

It wa s beca u se t h ey h a d con st a n t ly befor e t h eir eyes t h e ecclesia st ic cou r t s,
wh ich followed t h e for m s of t h e ca n on la w, a n d t h ey kn ew of n o cou r t t h a t
followed t h ose of t h e Rom a n la w. Besides, t h e lim it s of t h e spir it u a l a n d
t em por a l ju r isdict ion wer e a t t h a t t im e ver y lit t le u n der st ood; t h er e wer e people
wh o su ed in differ en t ly 290 a n d ca u ses t h a t wer e t r ied in differ en t ly, in eit h er
cou r t . 291 It seem s 292 a s if t h e t em por a l ju r isdict ion r eser ved n o ot h er ca ses
exclu sively t o it self t h a n t h e ju dgm en t of feu da l m a t t er s, 293 a n d of su ch cr im es
com m it t ed by la ym en a s did n ot r ela t e t o r eligion . F or 294 if on t h e a ccou n t of
con ven t ion s a n d con t r a ct s, t h ey h a d occa sion t o su e in a t em por a l cou r t , t h e
pa r t ies m igh t of t h eir own a ccor d pr oceed befor e t h e spir it u a l t r ibu n a ls; a n d a s
t h e la t t er h a d n ot a power t o oblige t h e t em por a l cou r t t o execu t e t h e sen t en ce,
t h ey com m a n ded su bm ission by m ea n s of excom m u n ica t ion s. Un der t h ose
cir cu m st a n ces, wh en t h ey wa n t ed t o ch a n ge t h e cou r se of pr oceedin gs in t h e
t em por a l cou r t , t h ey t ook t h a t of t h e spir it u a l t r ibu n a ls, beca u se t h ey kn ew it ;
bu t did n ot m eddle wit h t h a t of t h e Rom a n la w, by r ea son t h ey wer e st r a n ger s
t o it : for in poin t of pr a ct ice people kn ow on ly wh a t is r ea lly pr a ct ised.
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Th e civil power bein g in t h e h a n ds of a n in fin it e n u m ber of lor ds, it wa s a n
ea sy m a t t er for t h e ecclesia st ic ju r isdict ion t o ga in da ily a gr ea t er ext en t . Bu t
a s t h e ecclesia st ic cou r t s wea ken ed t h ose of t h e lor ds, a n d con t r ibu t ed t h er eby
t o give st r en gt h t o t h e r oya l ju r isdict ion , t h e la t t er gr a du a lly ch ecked t h e
ju r isdict ion of t h e cler gy. Th e pa r lia m en t , wh ich in it s for m of pr oceedin gs h a d
a dopt ed wh a t ever wa s good a n d u sefu l in t h e spir it u a l cou r t s, soon per ceived
n ot h in g else bu t t h e a bu ses wh ich h a d cr ept in t o t h ose t r ibu n a ls; a n d a s t h e
r oya l ju r isdict ion ga in ed gr ou n d ever y da y, it gr ew ever y da y m or e ca pa ble of
cor r ect in g t h ose a bu ses. An d, in deed, t h ey wer e in t oler a ble; wit h ou t
en u m er a t in g t h em I sh a ll r efer t h e r ea der t o Bea u m a n oir , t o Bou t illier a n d t o
t h e or din a n ces of ou r kin gs. 295 I sh a ll m en t ion on ly t wo in wh ich t h e pu blic
in t er est wa s m or e dir ect ly con cer n ed. Th ese a bu ses we kn ow by t h e decr ees t h a t
r efor m ed t h em ; t h ey h a d been in t r odu ced in t h e t im es of t h e da r kest ign or a n ce,
a n d u pon t h e br ea kin g ou t of t h e fir st glea m of ligh t , t h ey va n ish ed. F r om t h e
silen ce of t h e cler gy it m a y be pr esu m ed t h a t t h ey for wa r ded t h is r efor m a t ion :

wh ich , con sider in g t h e n a t u r e of t h e h u m a n m in d, deser ves com m en da t ion .
E ver y m a n t h a t died wit h ou t bequ ea t h in g a pa r t of h is est a t e t o t h e ch u r ch ,
wh ich wa s ca lled dyin g “wit h ou t con fession ,” wa s depr ived of t h e sa cr a m en t a n d
of Ch r ist ia n bu r ia l. If h e died in t est a t e, h is r ela t ives wer e obliged t o pr eva il
u pon t h e bish op t h a t h e wou ld, join t ly wit h t h em , n a m e pr oper a r bit er s t o
det er m in e wh a t su m t h e decea sed ou gh t t o h a ve given , in ca se h e h a d m a de a
will. P eople cou ld n ot lie t oget h er t h e fir st n igh t of t h eir n u pt ia ls, or even t h e
t wo followin g n igh t s, wit h ou t h a vin g pr eviou sly pu r ch a sed lea ve; t h ese, in deed,
wer e t h e best t h r ee n igh t s t o ch oose; for a s t o t h e ot h er s, t h ey wer e n ot wor t h
m u ch . All t h is wa s r edr essed by t h e pa r lia m en t : we fin d in t h e glossa r y of t h e
F r en ch la w,296 by Ra ga u , t h e decr ee wh ich it pu blish ed a ga in st t h e Bish op of
Am ien s. 297
I r et u r n t o t h e begin n in g of m y ch a pt er . Wh en ever we obser ve in a n y a ge or
gover n m en t t h e differ en t bodies of t h e st a t e en dea vou r in g t o in cr ea se t h eir
a u t h or it y, a n d t o t a ke pa r t icu la r a dva n t a ges of ea ch ot h er , we sh ou ld be oft en
m ist a ken wer e we t o con sider t h eir en cr oa ch m en t s a s a n eviden t m a r k of t h eir
cor r u pt ion . Th r ou gh a fa t a lit y in sepa r a ble fr om h u m a n n a t u r e, m oder a t ion in
gr ea t m en is ver y r a r e: a n d a s it is a lwa ys m u ch ea sier t o pu sh on for ce in t h e
dir ect ion in wh ich it m oves t h a n t o st op it s m ovem en t , so in t h e su per ior cla ss
of t h e people, it is less difficu lt , per h a ps, t o fin d m en ext r em ely vir t u ou s, t h a n
ext r em ely pr u den t .
Th e h u m a n m in d feels su ch a n exqu isit e plea su r e in t h e exer cise of power ;
even t h ose wh o a r e lover s of vir t u e a r e so excessively fon d of t h em selves t h a t
t h er e is n o m a n so h a ppy a s n ot st ill t o h a ve r ea son t o m ist r u st h is h on est
in t en t ion s; a n d, in deed, ou r a ct ion s depen d on so m a n y t h in gs t h a t it is
in fin it ely ea sier t o do good, t h a n t o do it well.
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!.5#F*"$,1
Upon t h e discover y of J u st in ia n ’s digest t owa r ds t h e yea r 1137, t h e Rom a n
la w seem ed t o r ise ou t of it s a sh es. Sch ools wer e t h en est a blish ed in It a ly,
wh er e it wa s pu blicly t a u gh t ; t h ey h a d a lr ea dy t h e J u st in ia n code a n d t h e
Novella e. I m en t ion ed befor e t h a t t h is code h a d been so fa vou r a bly r eceived in

t h a t cou n t r y a s t o eclipse t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds.
Th e It a lia n doct or s br ou gh t t h e la w of J u st in ia n in t o F r a n ce, wh er e t h ey h a d
on ly t h e Th eodosia n code;298 beca u se J u st in ia n ’s la ws wer e n ot m a de t ill a ft er
t h e set t lem en t of t h e Ba r ba r ia n s in Ga u l. 299 Th is la w m et wit h som e opposit ion :
bu t it st ood it s gr ou n d n ot wit h st a n din g t h e excom m u n ica t ion s of t h e popes, wh o
su ppor t ed t h eir own ca n on s. 300 St Lou is en dea vou r ed t o br in g it in t o r epu t e by
t h e t r a n sla t ion s of J u st in ia n ’s wor ks, m a de a ccor din g t o h is or der s, wh ich a r e
st ill in m a n u scr ipt in ou r libr a r ies; a n d I h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved t h a t t h ey m a de
gr ea t u se of t h em in com pilin g t h e In st it u t ion s. P h ilip t h e F a ir or der ed t h e
La ws of J u st in ia n t o be t a u gh t on ly a s wr it t en r ea son in t h ose pr ovin ces of
F r a n ce t h a t wer e gover n ed by cu st om s; a n d t h ey wer e a dopt ed a s a la w in t h ose
pr ovin ces wh er e t h e Rom a n la w h a d been r eceived.301
I h a ve a lr ea dy n ot iced t h a t t h e m a n n er of pr oceedin g by ju dicia l com ba t
r equ ir ed ver y lit t le kn owledge in t h e ju dges; dispu t es wer e decided a ccor din g
t o t h e u sa ge of ea ch pla ce, a n d t o a few sim ple cu st om s r eceived by t r a dit ion . In
Bea u m a n oir ’s t im e t h er e wer e t wo differ en t wa ys of a dm in ist er in g ju st ice;302 in
som e pla ces t h ey t r ied by peer s, 303 in ot h er s by ba iliffs: in followin g t h e for m er
wa y, t h e peer s ga ve ju dgm en t a ccor din g t o t h e pr a ct ice of t h eir cou r t ; in t h e
la t t er , it wa s t h e pr u d’h om m es, or old m en , wh o poin t ed ou t t h is sa m e pr a ct ice
t o t h e ba iliffs. 304 Th is wh ole pr oceedin g r equ ir ed n eit h er lea r n in g, ca pa cit y, n or
st u dy. Bu t wh en t h e da r k code of t h e In st it u t ion s m a de it s a ppea r a n ce; wh en
t h e Rom a n la w wa s t r a n sla t ed a n d t a u gh t in pu blic sch ools; wh en a cer t a in a r t
of pr ocedu r e a n d ju r ispr u den ce bega n t o be for m ed; wh en pr a ct it ion er s a n d
civilia n s wer e seen t o r ise, t h e peer s a n d t h e pr u d’h om m es wer e n o lon ger
ca pa ble of ju dgin g: t h e peer s bega n t o wit h dr a w fr om t h e lor ds’ t r ibu n a ls; a n d
t h e lor ds wer e ver y lit t le in clin ed t o a ssem ble t h em ; especia lly a s t h e n ew for m
of t r ia l, in st ea d of bein g a solem n pr oceedin g, a gr eea ble t o t h e n obilit y a n d
in t er est in g t o a wa r like people, h a d becom e a cou r se of plea din g wh ich t h ey
n eit h er u n der st ood, n or ca r ed t o lea r n . Th e cu st om of t r yin g by peer s bega n t o
be less u sed;305 t h a t of t r yin g, by ba iliffs t o be m or e so; t h e ba iliffs did n ot give
ju dgm en t t h em selves,306 t h ey su m m ed u p t h e eviden ce a n d pr on ou n ced t h e
ju dgm en t of t h e pr u d’h om m es; bu t t h e la t t er bein g n o lon ger ca pa ble of ju dgin g,
t h e ba iliffs t h em selves ga ve ju dgm en t .

Th is wa s effect ed so m u ch t h e ea sier , a s t h ey h a d befor e t h eir eyes t h e
pr a ct ice of t h e ecclesia st ic cou r t s; t h e ca n on a n d n ew civil la w bot h con cu r r ed
a like t o a bolish t h e peer s.
Th u s fell t h e u sa ge h it h er t o con st a n t ly obser ved in t h e F r en ch m on a r ch y, t h a t
ju dgm en t sh ou ld n ot be pr on ou n ced by a sin gle per son , a s m a y be seen in t h e
Sa lic la ws, t h e ca pit u la r ies, a n d in t h e fir st la w-wr it er s u n der t h e t h ir d r a ce. 307
Th e con t r a r y a bu se wh ich obt a in s on ly in loca l ju r isdict ion s h a s been
m oder a t ed, a n d in som e m ea su r e r edr essed, by in t r odu cin g in m a n y pla ces a
judge’s depu t y, wh om h e con su lt s, a n d wh o r epr esen t s t h e a n cien t pr u d’h om m es
by t h e obliga t ion t h e ju dge is u n der of t a kin g t wo gr a du a t es in ca ses t h a t
deser ve a cor por a l pu n ish m en t ; a n d, in fin e, it h a s becom e of n o effect by t h e
ext r em e fa cilit y of a ppea ls.
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Th u s t h er e wa s n o la w t o pr oh ibit t h e lor ds fr om h oldin g t h eir cou r t s
t h em selves; n on e t o a bolish t h e fu n ct ion s of t h eir peer s; n on e t o or da in t h e
cr ea t ion of ba iliffs; n on e t o give t h em t h e power of ju dgin g. All t h is wa s effect ed
in sen sibly, a n d by t h e ver y n ecessit y of t h e t h in g. Th e kn owledge of t h e Rom a n
la w, t h e decr ees of t h e cou r t s, t h e n ew digest of t h e cu st om s, r equ ir ed a st u dy
of wh ich t h e n obilit y a n d illit er a t e people wer e in ca pa ble.
Th e on ly or din a n ce we h a ve u pon t h is su bject is t h a t wh ich obliged t h e lor ds
t o ch oose t h eir ba iliffs .fr om a m on g t h e la it y. 308 It is a m ist a ke t o look u pon t h is
a s a la w of t h eir cr ea t ion ; for it sa ys n o su ch t h in g. Besides, t h e in t en t ion of t h e
legisla t or is det er m in ed by t h e r ea son s a ssign ed in t h e or din a n ce: “t o t h e en d
t h a t t h e ba iliffs m a y be pu n ish ed for t h eir pr eva r ica t ion s, it is n ecessa r y t h ey
be t a ken fr om t h e or der of t h e la it y.” Th e im m u n it ies of t h e cler gy in t h ose da ys
a r e ver y well kn own .
We m u st n ot im a gin e t h a t t h e pr ivileges wh ich t h e n obilit y for m er ly en joyed,
a n d of wh ich t h ey a r e n ow divest ed, wer e t a ken fr om t h em a s u su r pa t ion s; n o,
m a n y of t h ose pr ivileges wer e lost t h r ou gh n eglect , a n d ot h er s wer e given u p
beca u se, a s va r iou s ch a n ges h a d been in t r odu ced in t h e cou r se of so m a n y a ges,
t h ey wer e in con sist en t wit h t h ose ch a n ges.
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Th e ju dges, wh o h a d n o ot h er r u le t o go by t h a n t h e u sa ges, in qu ir ed ver y
oft en by wit n esses in t o ever y ca u se t h a t wa s br ou gh t befor e t h em .
Th e u sa ge of ju dicia l com ba t s begin n in g t o declin e, t h ey m a de t h eir in qu est s
in wr it in g. Bu t a ver ba l pr oof com m it t ed t o wr it in g is n ever m or e t h a n a ver ba l
pr oof; so t h a t t h is on ly in cr ea sed t h e expen ses of la w pr oceedin gs. Regu la t ion s
wer e t h en m a de wh ich r en der ed m ost of t h ose in qu est s u seless;309 pu blic
r egist er s wer e est a blish ed, wh ich a scer t a in ed m ost fa ct s, a s n obilit y, a ge,
legit im a cy, a n d m a r r ia ge. Wr it in g is a wit n ess ver y h a r d t o cor r u pt ; t h e cu st om s
wer e t h er efor e r edu ced t o wr it in g. All t h is is ver y r ea son a ble; it is m u ch ea sier
t o go a n d see in t h e ba pt ism a l r egist er wh et h er P et er is t h e son of P a u l t h a n t o
pr ove t h is fa ct by a t ediou s in qu est . Wh en t h er e a r e a n u m ber of u sa ges in a
cou n t r y, it is m u ch ea sier t o wr it e t h em a ll down in a code, t h a n t o oblige
in dividu a ls t o pr ove ever y u sa ge. At len gt h t h e fa m ou s or din a n ce wa s m a de
wh ich pr oh ibit ed t h e a dm it t in g of t h e pr oof by wit n esses for a debt exceedin g
a n h u n dr ed livr es, except t h er e wa s t h e begin n in g of a pr oof in wr it in g.
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F r a n ce, a s we h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved, wa s gover n ed by wr it t en cu st om s, a n d
t h e pa r t icu la r u sa ges of ea ch lor dsh ip con st it u t ed t h e civil la w. E ver y lor dsh ip
h a d it s civil la w, a ccor din g t o Bea u m a n oir , 310 a n d so pa r t icu la r a la w, t h a t t h is
a u t h or , wh o is looked u pon a s a lu m in a r y; a n d a ver y gr ea t lu m in a r y of t h ose
t im es; sa ys h e does n ot believe t h a t t h r ou gh ou t t h e wh ole kin gdom t h er e wer e
t wo lor dsh ips en t ir ely gover n ed by t h e sa m e la w.
Th is pr odigiou s diver sit y h a d a t wofold or igin . Wit h r ega r d t o t h e fir st , t h e
r ea der m a y r ecollect wh a t h a s been a lr ea dy sa id con cer n in g it in t h e ch a pt er of
loca l cu st om s:311 a n d a s t o t h e secon d, we m eet wit h it in t h e differ en t even t s of
lega l du els, it bein g n a t u r a l t h a t a con t in u a l ser ies of for t u it ou s ca ses m u st
h a ve been pr odu ct ive of n ew u sa ges.
Th ese cu st om s wer e pr eser ved in t h e m em or y of old m en , bu t in sen sibly la ws
or wr it t en cu st om s wer e for m ed.
1. At t h e com m en cem en t of t h e t h ir d r a ce, t h e kin gs ga ve n ot on ly pa r t icu la r
ch a r t er s, bu t likewise gen er a l on es, in t h e m a n n er a bove expla in ed; su ch a r e t h e
in st it u t ion s of P h ilip Au gu st u s a n d t h ose m a de by St . Lou is. In like m a n n er t h e

gr ea t va ssa ls, in con cu r r en ce wit h t h e lor ds wh o h eld u n der t h em , gr a n t ed
cer t a in ch a r t er s or est a blish m en t s, a ccor din g t o pa r t icu la r cir cu m st a n ces a t t h e
a ssizes of t h eir du ch ies or cou n t ies; su ch wer e t h e a ssize of Godfr ey, Cou n t of
Br it t a n y, on t h e division of t h e n obles; t h e cu st om s of Nor m a n dy, gr a n t ed by
Du ke Ra lph ; t h e cu st om s of Ch a m pa gn e, given by Kin g Th eoba ld; t h e la ws of
Sim on , Cou n t of Mon t for t , a n d ot h er s. Th is pr odu ced som e wr it t en la ws, a n d
even m or e gen er a l on es t h a n t h ose t h ey h a d befor e.
2. At t h e begin n in g of t h e t h ir d r a ce, a lm ost a ll t h e com m on people wer e
bon dm en ; bu t t h er e wer e sever a l r ea son s wh ich a ft er wa r ds det er m in ed t h e
kin gs a n d lor ds t o en fr a n ch ise t h em .
Th e lor ds by en fr a n ch isin g t h eir bon dm en ga ve t h em pr oper t y; it wa s
n ecessa r y t h er efor e t o give t h em civil la ws, in or der t o r egu la t e t h e disposa l of
t h a t pr oper t y. Bu t by en fr a n ch isin g t h eir bon dm en , t h ey likewise depr ived
t h em selves of t h eir pr oper t y; t h er e wa s a n ecessit y, t h er efor e, of r egu la t in g t h e
r igh t s wh ich t h ey r eser ved t o t h em selves, a s a n equ iva len t for t h a t pr oper t y.
Bot h t h ese t h in gs wer e r egu la t ed by t h e ch a r t er s of en fr a n ch isem en t ; t h ose
ch a r t er s for m ed a pa r t of ou r cu st om s, a n d t h is pa r t wa s r edu ced t o wr it in g. 312
3. Un der t h e r eign of St . Lou is, a n d of t h e su cceedin g pr in ces, som e a ble
pr a ct it ion er s, su ch a s Défon t a in es, Bea u m a n oir , a n d ot h er s, com m it t ed t h e
cu st om s of t h eir ba iliwicks t o wr it in g. Th eir design wa s r a t h er t o give t h e
cou r se of ju dicia l pr oceedin gs, t h a n t h e u sa ges of t h eir t im e in r espect t o t h e
disposa l of pr oper t y. Bu t t h e wh ole is t h er e, a n d t h ou gh t h ese pa r t icu la r
a u t h or s h a ve n o a u t h or it y bu t wh a t t h ey der ive fr om t h e t r u t h a n d n ot or iet y of
t h e t h in gs t h ey spea k of, yet t h er e is n o m a n n er of dou bt bu t t h a t t h ey
con t r ibu t ed gr ea t ly t o t h e r est or a t ion of ou r a n cien t F r en ch ju r ispr u den ce. Su ch
wa s in t h ose da ys ou r com m on la w.
We h a ve com e n ow t o t h e gr a n d epoch . Ch a r les VII a n d h is su ccessor s ca u sed
t h e differ en t loca l cu st om s t h r ou gh ou t t h e kin gdom t o be r edu ced t o wr it in g,
a n d pr escr ibed set for m s t o be obser ved t o t h eir digest in g. Now, a s t h is
digest in g wa s m a de t h r ou gh a ll t h e pr ovin ces, a n d a s people ca m e fr om ea ch
lor dsh ip t o decla r e in t h e gen er a l a ssem bly of t h e pr ovin ce t h e wr it t en or
u n wr it t en u sa ges of ea ch pla ce, en dea vou r s wer e m a de t o r en der t h e cu st om s
m or e gen er a l, a s m u ch a s possible, wit h ou t in ju r in g t h e in t er est s of in dividu a ls,

wh ich wer e ca r efu lly pr eser ved. 313 Th u s ou r cu st om s wer e ch a r a ct er ised in a
t h r eefold m a n n er ; t h ey wer e com m it t ed t o wr it in g, t h ey wer e m a de m or e
gen er a l, a n d t h ey r eceived t h e st a m p of t h e r oya l a u t h or it y.
Ma n y of t h ese cu st om s h a vin g been digest ed a n ew, sever a l ch a n ges wer e
m a de eit h er in su ppr essin g wh a t ever wa s in com pa t ible wit h t h e a ct u a l pr a ct ice
of t h e la w, or in a ddin g sever a l t h in gs dr a wn fr om t h is pr a ct ice.
Th ou gh t h e com m on la w is con sider ed a m on g u s a s in som e m ea su r e opposit e
t o t h e Rom a n , in som u ch t h a t t h ese t wo la ws divide t h e differ en t t er r it or ies, it
is, n ot wit h st a n din g, t r u e t h a t sever a l r egu la t ion s of t h e Rom a n la w en t er ed in t o
ou r cu st om s, especia lly wh en t h ey m a de t h e n ew digest s, a t a t im e n ot ver y
dist a n t fr om ou r s, wh en t h is la w wa s t h e pr in cipa l st u dy of t h ose wh o wer e
design ed for civil em ploym en t s, a t a t im e wh en it wa s n ot u su a l for people t o
boa st of n ot kn owin g wh a t it wa s t h eir du t y t o kn ow, a n d of kn owin g wh a t t h ey
ou gh t n ot t o kn ow, a t a t im e wh en a qu ick n ess of u n der st a n din g wa s m a de
m or e su bser vien t t o lea r n in g t h a n pr et en din g t o a pr ofession , a n d wh en a
con t in u a l pu r su it of a m u sem en t s wa s n ot even t h e ch a r a ct er ist ic of wom en .
I sh ou ld h a ve been m or e diffu se a t t h e en d of t h is book, a n d, en t er in g in t o t h e
sever a l det a ils, sh ou ld h a ve t r a ced a ll t h e in sen sible ch a n ges wh ich fr om t h e
open in g of a ppea ls h a ve for m ed t h e gr ea t cor pu s of ou r F r en ch ju r ispr u den ce.
Bu t t h is wou ld h a ve been in gr a ft in g on e la r ge wor k u pon a n ot h er . I a m like t h a t
a n t iqu a r ia n 314 wh o set ou t fr om h is own cou n t r y, a r r ived in E gypt , ca st a n eye
on . t h e pyr a m ids a n d r et u r n ed h om e.
2'+%,1
1. See t h e pr ologu e t o t h e Sa lic La w. Mr . Leibn it z sa ys, in h is t r ea t ise of t h e
or igin of t h e F r a n ks, t h a t t h is la w wa s m a de befor e t h e r eign of Clovis: bu t
it cou ld n ot be befor e t h e F r a n ks h a d qu it t ed Ger m a n y, for a t t h a t t im e t h ey
did n ot u n der st a n d t h e La t in t on gu e.
2. See Gr egor y of Tou r s.
3. See t h e pr ologu e t o t h e La w of t h e Ba va r ia n s, a n d t h a t t o t h e Sa lic La w.
4. Ibid.
5. Lex An glior u m Wer in or u m , h oc est Th u r in gor u m .
6. Th ey did n ot kn ow h ow t o wr it e.
7. Th ey wer e m a de by E u r ic, a n d a m en ded by Leovigildu s. See Isidor u s’s
ch r on icle. Ch a in da su in t h u s a n d Recessu in t h u s r efor m ed t h em . E giga s
or der ed t h e code n ow ext a n t t o be m a de, a n d com m ission ed bish ops for t h a t
pu r pose; n ever t h eless t h e la ws of Ch a in da su in t h u s a n d Recessu in t h u s wer e
pr eser ved, a s a ppea r s by t h e sixt h cou n cil of Toledo.
8. See t h e pr ologu e t o t h e La w of t h e Ba va r ia n s.
9. We fin d on ly a few in Ch ildeber t ’s decr ee.
10. See t h e pr ologu e t o t h e Code of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, a n d t h e code it self,
especia lly t it . 12, § 5, a n d t it . 38. See a lso Gr egor y of Tou r s, ii. 33, a n d t h e
code of t h e Visigot h s.
11. See lower down , ch a pt er 3.
12. See ca p. ii. §§ 8 a n d 9, a n d ca p. iv. §§ 2 a n d 7.
13. De Bello Ga ll., vi.
14. Book i, for m u l. 8.
15. Ch a pt er 31.
16. Th a t of Clot a r iu s in t h e yea r 560, in t h e edit ion of t h e Ca pit u la r ies of
Ba lu ziu s, i, a r t . 4, ib. in fin e.
17. Ca pit u la r ies a dded t o t h e La w of t h e Lom ba r ds, i, t it . 25, 71, ii, t it . 41, 7,
a n d t it . 56, 1, 2.
18. Ibid., ii, t it . 5.
19. Ibid., ii, t it . 7, 1.
20. Ibid., 2.
21. Ibid., ii, t it . 35, 2.
22. In t h e La w of t h e Lom ba r ds, ii, t it . 37.
23. Sa lic La w, t it . 44, § 1.
24. Ibid., t it . 44, §§ 15, 7.
25. Ibid., t it . 41, § 4.
26. Ibid., § 6.
27. Th e pr in cipa l Rom a n s followed t h e cou r t , a s m a y be seen by t h e lives of
sever a l bish ops, wh o wer e t h er e edu ca t ed; t h er e wer e h a r dly a n y bu t
Rom a n s t h a t kn ew h ow t o wr it e.
28. Sa lic La w, t it . 45.
29. Lidu s wh ose con dit ion wa s bet t er t h a n t h a t of a bon dm a n . — La w of t h e

Alem a n s, 95.
30. Tit . 35, §§ 3, 4.
31. Th e Abbé du Bos.
32. Wit n ess t h e expedit ion of Ar boga st es, in Gr egor y of Tou r s, H ist or y, ii.
33. Th e F r a n ks, t h e Visigot h s, a n d Bu r gu n dia n s.
34. It wa s fin ish ed in 438.
35. Th e 20t h yea r of t h e r eign of t h is pr in ce, a n d pu blish ed t wo yea r s a ft er by
An ia n , a s a ppea r s fr om t h e pr efa ce t o t h a t code.
36. Th e yea r 504 of t h e Spa n ish er a , t h e Ch r on icle of Isidor u s.
37. F r a n cu m , a u t Ba r ba r u m , a u t h om in em qu i Sa lica lege vivit . — Sa lic La w,
t it . 45, § 1.
38. “Accor din g t o t h e Rom a n la w u n der wh ich t h e ch u r ch lives,” a s is sa id in t h e
la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s, t it . 58, § 1. See a lso t h e n u m ber less a u t h or it ies on
t h is h ea d pr on ou n ced by Du Ca n ge, u n der t h e wor ds Lex Rom a n a .
39. See t h e Ca pit u la r ies a dded t o t h e Sa lic la w in Lin dem br ock , a t t h e en d of
t h a t la w, a n d t h e differ en t codes of t h e la ws of t h e Ba r ba r ia n s con cer n in g
t h e pr ivileges of ecclesia st ics in t h is r espect . See a lso t h e let t er of
Ch a r lem a gn e t o h is son P epin , Kin g of It a ly, in t h e yea r 807, in t h e edit ion
of Ba lu ziu s, i, 462, wh er e it is sa id, t h a t a n ecclesia st ic sh ou ld r eceive a
t r iple com pen sa t ion ; a n d t h e Collect ion of t h e Ca pit u la r ies, v, a r t . 302, i.
E dit ion of Ba lu ziu s.
40. See t h a t la w.
41. Of t h is I sh a ll spea k in a n ot h er pla ce, xxx. 6-9.
42. Agoba r d, Oper a .
43. See Ger va is of Tilbu r y, in Du ch esn e’s Collect ion , iii, p. 366. An d a ch r on icle
of t h e yea r 759, pr odu ced by Ca t el, H ist . of La n gu edoc. An d t h e u n cer t a in
a u t h or of t h e Life of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e, u pon t h e dem a n d m a de by t h e
people of Sept im ania , a t t h e a ssem bly in Ca r isia co, in Du ch esn e’s Collect ion ,
ii, p. 316.
44. Ar t . 16. See a lso a r t . 20.
45. See a r t s. 12 a n d 16 of t h e edict of P ist es in Ca vilon o, in Na r bon a , &c.
46. See wh a t Ma ch ia velli sa ys of t h e r u in of t h e a n cien t n obilit y of F lor en ce.
47. H e bega n t o r eign in t h e yea r 642.

48. “We will n o lon ger be h a r a ssed eit h er by for eign or by t h e Rom a n la ws.” —
La w of t h e Visigot h s, ii, t it . 1, §§ 9, 10.
49. La w of t h e Visigot h s, iii, t it . 1, 1.
50. See Book iv. 19, 26.
51. Th e r evolt of t h ese pr ovin ces wa s a gen er a l defect ion , a s a ppea r s by t h e
sen t en ce in t h e sequ el of t h e h ist or y. P a u lu s a n d h is a dh er en t s wer e
Rom a n s; t h ey wer e even fa vou r ed by t h e bish ops. Va m ba du r st n ot pu t t o
dea t h t h e r ebels wh om h e h a d qu elled. Th e a u t h or of t h e h ist or y ca lls
Na r bon n e Ga u l t h e n u r ser y of t r ea son .
52. De Bello Got h or u m , i. 13.
53. Ca pit u la r ies, vi, 343, yea r 1613, edit ion of Ba lu ziu s, i, p. 981.
54. M. de la Th a u m a ssièr e h a s collect ed m a n y of t h em . See, for in st a n ce,
ch a pt er s 41, 46, a n d ot h er s.
55. Missi Dom in ici.
56. Let n ot t h e bish ops, sa ys Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, in t h e Ca pit u la r y of 844, a r t . 8,
u n der pr et en ce of t h e a u t h or it y of m a kin g ca n on s, oppose t h is con st it u t ion ,
or n eglect t h e obser va n ce of it . It seem s h e a lr ea dy for esa w t h e fa ll t h er eof.
57. In t h e collect ion of ca n on s a va st n u m ber of t h e decr et a ls of t h e popes wer e
in ser t ed; t h ey wer e ver y few in t h e a n cien t collect ion . Dion ysiu s E xigu u s pu t
a gr ea t m a n y in t o h is; bu t t h a t of Isidor u s Mer ca t or wa s st u ffed wit h
gen u in e a n d spu r iou s decr et a ls. Th e old collect ion obt a in ed in F r a n ce t ill
Ch a r lem a gn e. Th is pr in ce r eceived fr om t h e h a n d of P ope Adr ia n I t h e
collect ion of Dion ysiu s E xigu u s, a n d ca u sed it t o be a ccept ed. Th e collect ion
of Isidor u s Mer ca t or a ppea r ed in F r a n ce a bou t t h e r eign of Ch a r lem a gn e;
people gr ew pa ssion a t ely fon d of it : t o t h is su cceeded wh a t we n ow ca ll t h e
cou r se of ca n on la w.
58. See t h e edict of P ist es, a r t . 20.
59. Th is is expr essly set down in som e pr ea m bles t o t h ese codes: we even fin d
in t h e la ws of t h e Sa xon s a n d F r isia n s differ en t r egu la t ion s, a ccor din g t o t h e
differ en t dist r ict s. To t h ese u sa ges wer e a dded som e pa r t icu la r r egu la t ion s
su it a ble t o t h e exigen cy of cir cu m st a n ces; su ch wer e t h e sever e la ws a ga in st
t h e Sa xon s.
60. Of t h is I sh a ll spea k elsewh er e (xxx. 14).

61. P r efa ce t o Ma r cu lfu s, F or m u la e.
62. La w of t h e Lom ba r ds, ii, t it . 58, § 3.
63. Ibid., t it . 41, § 6.
64. Life of St . Leger .
65. La w of t h e Lom ba r ds, ii, t it . 41, § 6.
66. See ch a pt er 5.
67. Th is r ela t es t o wh a t Ta cit u s sa ys. De Mor ibu s Ger m a n or u m , 28, t h a t t h e
Ger m a n s h a d gen er a l a n d pa r t icu la r cu st om s.
68. La w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s, t it . 6, 7, 8, a n d ot h er s.
69. Ibid., t it . 11, 12, 17.
70. It wa s wh en a n a ccu sa t ion wa s br ou gh t a ga in st a n An t r u st io, t h a t is, t h e
kin g’s va ssa l, wh o wa s su pposed t o be possessed of a gr ea t er degr ee of
liber t y. See P a ct u s legis Sa lica e, t it . 76.
71. Ibid.
72. Accor din g t o t h e pr a ct ice n ow followed in E n gla n d.
73. Tit . 32; t it . 57, § 2; t it . 59, § 4.
74. See t h e followin g n ot e.
75. Th is spir it a ppea r s in t h e La w of Ripu a r ia n s, t it . 59, § 4, a n d t it . 67, § 5, a n d
in t h e Ca pit u la r y of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e, a dded t o t h e la w of t h e
Ripu a r ia n s in t h e yea r 803, a r t . 22.
76. See t h a t la w.
77. Th e la w of t h e F r isia n s, Lom ba r ds, Ba va r ia n s, Sa xon s, Th u r in gia n s, a n d
Bu r gu n dia n s.
78. In t h e La w of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, t it . 8, §§ 1 a n d 2, on cr im in a l a ffa ir s; a n d t it .
45, wh ich ext en ds a lso t o civil a ffa ir s. See a lso t h e la w of t h e Th u r in gia n s,
t it . 1, § 31; t it . 7, § 6; a n d t it . 8; a n d t h e la w of t h e Alem a n s, t it . 89; t h e la w
of t h e Ba va r ia n s, t it . 8, ca p. ii, § 6, a n d ca p. iii, § 1, a n d t it . 9, ca p. iv, § 4; t h e
la w of t h e F r isia n s, t it . 2, § 3, a n d t it . 14, § 4; t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, i, t it .
32, § 3, a n d t it . 35, § 1, a n d ii, t it . 35, § 2.
79. See ca p. xviii, t owa r ds t h e en d.
80. As a lso som e ot h er la ws of t h e Ba r ba r ia n s.
81. Tit . 56.
82. Ibid.
83. Th is a ppea r s by wh a t Ta cit u s sa ys, Om n ibu s idem h a bit u s. — De Mor ibu s
Ger m a n or u m , 4.
84. Velleiu s P a t er cu lu s, ii. 118, sa ys t h a t t h e Ger m a n s decided a ll t h eir
dispu t es by t h e swor d.
85. See t h e codes of Ba r ba r ia n la ws, a n d in r espect t o less a n cien t t im es,
Bea u m a n oir , An cien t Cu st om of Bea u voisis.
86. La w of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, ca p. xlv.
87. See t h e wor ks of Agoba r d.
88. See Bea u m a n oir , An cien t Cu st om s of Bea u voisis, 61. See a lso t h e La w of t h e
An gli, ca p. xiv, wh er e t h e t r ia l by boilin g wa t er is on ly a su bsidia r y pr oof.
89. Tit . 14.
90. Ca p. xxxi, § 5.
91. See t h is la w, t it . 59, § 4, a n d t it . 67, § 5.
92. La w of t h e Lom ba r ds, ii, t it . 55, ca p. xxxiv.
93. Th e yea r 962.
95. It wa s h eld in t h e yea r 967, in t h e pr esen ce of P ope J oh n XIII a n d of t h e
E m per or Ot h o I.
96. Ot h o II’s u n cle, son t o Rodolph u s, a n d Kin g of Tr a n sju r ia n Bu r gu n dy.
97. In t h e yea r 988.
99. Ibid., § 33. In t h e copy t h a t Mu r a t or i m a de u se of it is a t t r ibu t ed t o t h e
E m per or Gu ido.
100. Ibid., § 23.
101. Ca ssiodor u s, iii. 23, 24.
102. Th e a n on ym ou s a u t h or of t h e life of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e.
103. See in t h e La w of t h e Lom ba r ds, i, t it . 4, a n d t it . 9, § 23, a n d ii, t it . 35 §§
4 a n d 5, a n d t it . 55 §§ 1,2,3. Th e r egu la t ion s of Rot h a r is; a n d in § 15, t h a t
of Lu it pr a n du s.
104. Ibid., ii, t it . 55, § 23.
105. Th e ju dicia l oa t h s wer e m a de a t t h a t t im e in t h e ch u r ch es, a n d du r in g t h e
fir st r a ce of ou r kin gs t h er e wa s a ch a pel set a pa r t in t h e r oya l pa la ce for t h e
a ffa ir s t h a t wer e t o be t h u s decided. See Ma r cu lfu s, F or m u la e i. 38. Th e La w

of t h e Ripu a r ia n s, t it . 59, § 4, t it . 65, § 5. Th e H ist or y of Gr egor y of Tou r s;
a n d t h e Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 803, a dded t o t h e Sa lic La w.
106. Ch a pt er 39, P . 212.
107. We fin d h is Con st it u t ion s in ser t ed in t h e La w of t h e Lom ba r ds, a n d a t t h e
en d of t h e Sa lic La ws.
108. In a con st it u t ion in ser t ed in t h e La w of t h e Lom ba r ds, ii, t it . 55, § 31.
109. In t h e yea r 1200.
110. An cien t Cu st om of Bea u voisis, 39.
111. Ibid., 61, pp. 309, 310.
112. Ch a r t er of Lou is t h e F a t in t h e yea r 1145, in t h e Collect ion of Or din a n ces.
113. Ibid.
114. Ch a r t er of Lou is t h e You n g, in 1168, in t h e Collect ion of Or din a n ces.
115. See Bea u m a n oir , 63, p. 325.
116. See t h e An cien t Cu st om of Bea u voisis, 28, p. 203.
117. Addit io sa pien t iu m Wilem a r i, t it . 5.
118. Book i, t it . 6, § 3.
119. Book ii, t it . 5, § 23.
120. Added t o t h e Sa lic la w in 819.
121. See Bea u m a n oir , 64, p. 328.
122. Ibid., p. 329.
123. See Bea u m a n oir , 3, p. 25 a n d 329.
124. See in r ega r d t o t h e a r m s of t h e com ba t a n t s, Bea u m a n oir , 61, p. 308, a n d
64, p. 328.
125. Ibid., 74, p. 328. See a lso t h e Ch a r t er s of St . Au bin of An jou , qu ot ed by
Ga lla n d, p. 263.
126. Am on g t h e Rom a n s, it wa s n ot in fa m ou s t o be bea t en wit h a st ick.
127. Th ey h a d on ly t h e ba st on a n d bu ckler . — Bea u m a n oir , 64, p. 328.
128. Book i, t it . 6, § 1.
129. Ibid.; § 2.
131. In t h e P a ct u s legis Sa lica e, 6.
132. We h a ve bot h t h e a n cien t la w a n d t h a t wh ich wa s a m en ded by t h is pr in ce.
133. Book ii, t it . 55, § 11.

134. See t h e Gr eek r om a n ces of t h e m iddle a ge.
135. In t h e yea r 1283.
136. Bea u m a n oir , 6, pp. 40, 41.
137. Ibid., 64, p. 328.
138. Ibid., p. 330.
139. Ibid.
140. Ibid.
141. Th e gr ea t va ssa ls h a d pa r t icu la r pr ivileges.
142. Bea u m a n oir , 64, p. 330, sa ys h e lost h is ju r isdict ion : t h ese wor ds in t h e
a u t h or s of t h ose da ys h a ve n ot a gen er a l sign ifica t ion , bu t a sign ifica t ion
lim it ed t o t h e a ffa ir in qu est ion . Défon t a in es, 21, a r t . 29.
143. Th is cu st om , wh ich we m eet wit h in t h e Ca pit u la r ies, wa s st ill su bsist in g
a t t h e t im e of Bea u m a n oir . See 61, p. 315.
144. Bea u m a n oir , 64, p. 330.
145. Ibid., 61, p. 309.
146. Ibid., p. 308; 43, p. 239.
147. Ibid., 61, p. 314. See a lso Défon t a in es, 22, a r t . 24.
148. Bea u m a n oir , 63, p. 322.
149. Ibid.
150. Ibid.
151. Ibid., p. 323.
152. Ibid., 63, p. 324.
153. Ibid., p. 325.
154. Ibid.
155. Ibid., p. 323. See a lso wh a t I h a ve sa id in book
156. Ibid., p. 327.
157. Défon t a in es, 22, a r t . 7.
158. Ch a r t er of Lou is t h e F a t , in t h e yea r 1118.
159. Ibid.
160. Ch a pt er 61, p. 315.
161. Ch a pt er 6, p. 40.
162. Bu t if t h e ba t t le wa s fou gh t by ch a m pion s, t h e ch a m pion t h a t wa s
over com e h a d h is h a n d cu t off.

163. Tit . 16, § 2.
164. Tit . 45.
165. Let t er t o Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e.
166. Life of St . Avit u s.
167. Bea u m a n oir , 2, p. 22.
168. Ibid., 61, p. 312, a n d 67, p. 338.
169. Book ii. 15.
170. Bea u m a n oir , 61, pp. 310 a n d 311, a n d 67, p. 337.
171. Ibid., 61, p. 313.
172. Ibid., p. 314.
173. Ibid.
174. Ch a pt er 22, a r t . 1, 10, a n d 11, h e sa ys on ly t h a t ea ch of t h em wa s a llowed
a sm a ll fin e.
175. Bea u m a n oir , 61, p. 314.
176. Ibid. Défon t a in es, 22, a r t . 9.
177. Ibid.
178. Bea u m a n oir , 61, p. 316, a n d Défon t a in es, 22, a r t . 21.
179. Bea u m a n oir , 61, p. 314.
180. Défon t a in es, 22, a r t . 7.
181. See Défon t a in es, 21, a r t s. 11 a n d 12, a n d followin g, wh o dist in gu ish es t h e
ca ses in wh ich t h e a ppella n t of fa lse ju dgm en t loses h is life, t h e poin t
con t est ed, or on ly t h e im pa r la n ce.
182. Bea u m a n oir , 62, p. 322. D "fon t a in es, 22, a r t . 3.
183. Th e cou n t wa s n ot obliged t o len d a n y. Bea u m a n oir , 67, p. 337.
184. Nobody ca n pa ss ju dgm en t in h is cou r t . Ibid., pp. 336, 337.
185. Ibid., 62, p. 322.
186. Défon t a in es, 21, a r t s. 27 a n d 28.
187. Ibid., a r t . 28.
188. Ch a pt er 21, a r t . 37.
189. Th is n u m ber a t lea st wa s n ecessa r y. Défon t a in es, 21, a r t . 36.
190. Bea u m a n oir , 67, p. 337.
191. Ibid.
192. Ibid., pp. 337, 338.

193. Défon t a in es, 22, a r t . 14.
194. Ibid.
195. Th ir d ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 812, a r t . 3, edit ion of Ba lu ziu s, p. 497, a n d of
Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, a dded t o t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, ii, a r t . 3.
196. Th ir d ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 812, a r t . 2, edit ion of Ba lu ziu s, p. 497.
197. Ca pit u la r y of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e, edit ion of Ba lu ziu s, p. 667.
198. See t h e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, a dded t o t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds,
ii, a r t . 3.
199. Th ir d ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 812, a r t . 8.
200. P la cit u m .
201. Th is a ppea r s by t h e for m u la s, ch a r t er s, a n d t h e ca pit u la r ies.
202. In t h e yea r 757, edit ion of Ba lu ziu s, p. 180, a r t s. 9 a n d 10, a n d t h e Syn od
a pu d Ver n a s, in t h e yea r 755, a r t . 29, edit ion of Ba lu ziu s, p. 175. Th ese t wo
ca pit u la r ies wer e m a de u n der Kin g P epin .
203. Th e officer s u n der t h e cou n t , Sca bin i.
204. See t h e La w of t h e Lom ba r ds, ii, t it . 52, a r t . 22.
205. Th er e a r e in st a n ces of a ppea ls of defa u lt of ju st ice a s ea r ly a s t h e t im e of
P h ilip Au gu st u s.
206. Ch a pt er 61, p. 315.
207. Ibid.
208. Défon t a in es, 21, a r t . 24.
209. Ibid., a r t . 32.
210. Bea u m a n oir , 61, p. 312.
211. Défon t a in es, 21, a r t . 29.
212. Th is wa s t h e ca se in t h e fa m ou s differ en ce bet ween t h e Lor d of Nesle a n d
J oa n , Cou n t ess of F la n der s, du r in g t h e r eign of Lou is VIII. H e ca lled u pon
h er t o h a ve it t r ied wit h in for t y da ys, a n d t h er eu pon ch a llen ged h er a t t h e
kin g’s cou r t wit h defa u lt of ju st ice. Sh e a n swer ed t h a t sh e wou ld h a ve it
t r ied by h er peer s in F la n der s. Th e kin g’s cou r t det er m in ed t h a t it sh ou ld
n ot be sen t t h er e a n d t h a t t h e cou n t ess sh ou ld be cit ed.
213. Défon t a in es, 21, a r t . 34.
214. Ibid., a r t . 9.
215. Bea u m a n oir , 61, p. 311.

216. Ibid., 61, p. 312. Bu t h e t h a t wa s n eit h er t en a n t n or va ssa l t o t h e lor d pa id
on ly a fin e of sixt y livr es. — Ibid.
217. Ibid., p. 318.
218. Ch a pt er 21, a r t . 35.
219. In t h e yea r 1260.
220. Book i. 2, 7, a n d ii. 10, 11.
221. As a ppea r s ever ywh er e in t h e In st it u t ion s, &c., a n d Bea u m a n oir , 61, p.
309.
222. In st it u t ion s, i. 6, ii. 15.
223. Ibid., ii. 15.
224. Ibid., i. 78, ii. 15.
225. Ibid., i. 78.
226. Ibid., ii. 15.
227. Ibid., i. 78.
228. Ibid., ii. 15.
229. Bu t if t h ey wa n t ed t o a ppea l wit h ou t fa lsifyin g t h e ju dgm en t , t h e a ppea l
wa s n ot a dm it t ed. — Ibid.
230. Ibid., i. 6, 67; ii. 15; a n d Bea u m a n oir , 11, p. 58.
231. Book i. 1-3.
232. Ch a pt er 22, a r t s. 16, 17.
233. Ch a pt er 61, p. 309.
234. Ibid.
235. See Bea u m a n oir , Défon t a in es, a n d t h e In st it u t ion s, ii. 10, 11, 15, a n d
ot h er s.
236. See t h e or din a n ces a t t h e begin n in g of t h e t h ir d r a ce, in t h e collect ion of
La u r i "r e, especia lly t h ose of P h ilip Au gu st u s, on ecclesia st ic ju r isdict ion ;
t h a t of Lou is VIII con cer n in g t h e J ews; a n d t h e ch a r t er s r ela t ed by Mr .
Br u ssel; pa r t icu la r ly t h a t of St . Lou is, on t h e r elea se a n d r ecover y of la n ds,
a n d t h e feoda l m a jor it y of you n g wom en , ii, book iii, p. 35, a n d ibid., t h e
or din a n ce of P h ilip Au gu st u s, p. 7.
237. Ch a pt er 63, p. 327: ch a pt er 61, p. 312.
238. See t h e In st it u t ion s of St . Lou is, ii. 15, a n d t h e Or din a n ce of Ch a r les VII
in t h e yea r 1453.
239. Ch a pt er 21, a r t s. 21, 22.
240. Book i. 136.
241. Ch a pt er 2, a r t . 8.
242. Ibid., 22, a r t . 7. Th is a r t icle, a n d t h e 21st of t h e 22n d ch a pt er of t h e sa m e
a u t h or , h a ve been h it h er t o ver y ba dly expla in ed. Défon t a in es does n ot
oppose t h e ju dgm en t of t h e lor d t o t h a t of t h e gen t lem a n , beca u se it wa s t h e
sa m e t h in g; bu t h e opposes t h e com m on villa in t o h im wh o h a d t h e pr ivilege
of figh t in g.
243. Gen t lem en m a y a lwa ys be a ppoin t ed ju dges. Ibid., 21, a r t . 48.
244. Ibid., 22, a r t . 14.
245. Ibid., 21, a r t . 33.
246. In t h e yea r 1332.
247. See t h e sit u a t ion of t h in gs in Bou t illier ’s t im e, wh o lived in t h e yea r 1402.
— Som m e Ru r a le, i, pp. 19, 20.
248. See ch a pt er 30.
249. Bea u m a n oir , 61, pp. 312 a n d 318.
250. Ibid.
251. Défon t a in es, 21, a r t . 14.
252. Of t h e P a r lia m en t s of F r a n ce, i. 16.
253. Ch a pt er 61, p. 315.
254. As Bea u m a n oir sa ys, ch a pt er 39, p. 209.
255. Th ey pr oved by wit n esses wh a t h a d been a lr ea dy don e, sa id, or decr eed in
cou r t .
256. Ch a pt er 39, p. 218.
257. Défon t a in es in h is cou n sel, ch a pt er 22, a r t s. 3, 8; a n d Bea u m a n oir , 33.
In st it u t ion s, i. 90.
258. Ch a pt er 22, a r t . 8.
259. At pr esen t wh en t h ey a r e so in clin ed t o a ppea l, sa ys Bou t illier — Som m e
Ru r a le, i, t it . 3, p. 16, P a r is, 1621.
260. In t h e yea r 1324.
261. Advoca t u s de pa r t e pu blicâ .
262. See t h is con st it u t ion a n d t h is for m u la , in t h e secon d volu m e of t h e
H ist or ia n s of It a ly, p. 175.

263. Collect ion of Mu r a t or i, p. 104. on t h e 88t h la w of Ch a r lem a gn e, i, t it . 26,
§ 78.
264. An ot h er for m u la , ibid., p. 87.
265. Ibid., p. 104.
266. Ibid., p. 95.
267. Ibid., p. 88.
268. Ibid., p. 98.
269. Ibid., p. 132.
270. Ibid.
271. Ibid., p. 137.
272. Ibid., p. 147.
273. Ibid.
274. Ibid., p. 168.
275. Ibid., p. 134.
276. Ibid., p. 107.
277. Book i, 1; ii, 11, 13.
278. Ch a pt er s 1,61.
279. See t h ese la ws in t h e Lives of t h e Sa in t s, of t h e m on t h of J u n e, iii, p. 26.
280. P r efa ce t o t h e In st it u t ion s.
281. Ch a pt er 29.
282. See a bove, ch a pt er 29.
283. Ch a pt er 61, p. 309.
284. As h e sa ys h im self, in h is pr ologu e.
285. Not h in g so va gu e a s t h e t it le a n d pr ologu e. At fir st t h ey a r e t h e cu st om s
of P a r is, Or lea n s, a n d t h e cou r t of Ba r on y; t h en t h ey a r e t h e cu st om s of a ll
t h e la y cou r t s of t h e kin gdom , a n d of t h e pr ovost sh ips of F r a n ce; a t len gt h ,
t h ey a r e t h e cu st om s of t h e wh ole kin gdom , An jou , a n d t h e cou r t of Ba r on y.
286. In st it u t ion s, ii. 15,
287. See Du Tillet on t h e cou r t of peer s. See a lso La r och e, F la vin , Bu deu s a n d
P a u lu s Æ m iliu s, i. 3.
288. Ot h er ca u ses wer e decided by t h e or din a r y t r ibu n a ls.
289. See t h e P r esiden t H en a u lt ’s excellen t a br idgm en t of t h e h ist or y of F r a n ce
in t h e yea r 1313.
290. Bea u m a n oir , 11, p. 58.
291. Widows, cr oises, &c. — Ibid.
292. See t h e wh ole eleven t h ch a pt er of Bea u m a n oir .
293. Th e spir it u a l t r ibu n a ls h a d even la id h old of t h ese, u n der t h e pr et ext of t h e
oa t h , a s m a y be seen by t h e fa m ou s Con cor da t bet ween P h ilip Au gu st u s, t h e
cler gy, a n d t h e ba r on s, wh ich is t o be fou n d in t h e or din a n ces of La u r ièr e.
294. Bea u m a n oir , 11, p. 60.
295. See Bou t illier , Som m e Ru r a le, t it . 9, wh a t per son s a r e in ca pa ble of su in g
in a t em por a l cou r t ; a n d Bea u m a n oir , 11, p. 56, a n d t h e r egu la t ion s of P h ilip
Au gu st u s u pon t h is su bject ; a s a lso t h e r egu la t ion bet ween P h ilip Au gu st u s,
t h e cler gy, a n d t h e ba r on s.
296. In t h e wor d “t est a m en t a r y E xecu t or s.”
297. Ma r ch 19, 1409.
298. In It a ly t h ey followed J u st in ia n ’s code; h en ce P ope J oh n VIII, in h is
con st it u t ion pu blish ed a ft er t h e Syn od of Tr oyes, m a kes m en t ion of t h is
code, n ot beca u se it wa s kn own in F r a n ce, bu t beca u se h e kn ew it h im self,
a n d h is con st it u t ion wa s gen er a l.
299. Th is em per or ’s code wa s pu blish ed t owa r ds t h e yea r 530.
300. Decr et a ls, v. t it . de pr ivilegiis, ca p. 28, su per specu la .
301. By a ch a r t er in t h e yea r 1312, in fa vou r of t h e u n iver sit y of Or lea n s,
qu ot ed by Du Tillet .
302. An cien t Cu st om of Bea u voisis, 1, “Of t h e Office of Ba iliffs.”
303. Am on g t h e com m on people t h e bu r gh er s wer e t r ied by bu r gh er s, a s t h e
feu da t or y t en a n t s wer e t r ied by on e a n ot h er . See La Th a u m a ssièr e, 19.
304. Th u s a ll r equ est s bega n wit h t h ese wor ds: “My lor d ju dge, it is cu st om a r y
t h a t in you r cou r t ,” &c, a s a ppea r s fr om t h e for m u la qu ot ed by Bou t illier ,
Som m e Ru r a le, i, t it . xxi.
305. Th e ch a n ge wa s in sen sible: we m eet wit h t r ia ls by peer s, even in
Bou t illier ’s t im e, wh o lived in t h e yea r 1402, wh ich is t h e da t e of h is will:
Yet n ot h in g bu t feoda l m a t t er s wer e t r ied a n y lon ger by t h e peer s. Ibid., i,
t it . i, p. 16.
306. As a ppea r s by t h e for m u la of t h e let t er s wh ich t h eir lor d u sed t o give t h em ,
qu ot ed by Bou t illier , Som m e Ru r a le, I, t it . xiv, wh ich is pr oved likewise by

Bea u m a n oir , An cien t Cu st om of Bea u voisis, 1, of t h e ba iliffs: t h ey on ly
dir ect ed t h e pr oceedin gs. “Th e ba iliff is obliged in t h e pr esen ce of t h e peer s
t o t a ke down t h e wor ds of t h ose wh o plea d, a n d t o a sk t h e pa r t ies wh et h er
t h ey a r e willin g t o h a ve ju dgm en t given a ccor din g t o t h e r ea son s a lleged;
a n d if t h ey sa y, yes, m y lor d; t h e ba iliff ou gh t t o oblige t h e peer s t o give
ju dgm en t .” See a lso t h e In st it u t ion s of St . Lou is, i. 105, ii. 15.
307. Bea u m a n oir , 67, p. 336, a n d 61, pp. 315 a n d 316. Th e In st it u t ion s, ii. 15.
308. It wa s pu blish ed in t h e yea r 1287.
309. See in wh a t m a n n er a ge a n d pa r en t a ge wer e pr oved. — In st it u t ion s, i. 71,
72.
310. P r ologu e t o t h e An cien t Cu st om of Bea u voisis.
311. Ch a pt er 12.
312. See t h e Collect ion of Or din a n ces, by La u r ièr e.
313. Th is wa s obser ved a t t h e digest in g of t h e cu st om s of Ber r y a n d of P a r is.
See La Th a u m a ssièr e, 3.
314. In t h e S pectator.
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I sa y it , a n d m et h in ks I h a ve u n der t a ken t h is wor k wit h n o ot h er view t h a n
t o pr ove it , t h e spir it of a legisla t or ou gh t t o be t h a t of m oder a t ion ; polit ica l, like
m or a l good, lyin g a lwa ys bet ween t wo ext r em es.1 Let u s pr odu ce a n exa m ple.
Th e set for m s of ju st ice a r e n ecessa r y t o liber t y, bu t t h e n u m ber of t h em
m igh t be so gr ea t a s t o be con t r a r y t o t h e en d of t h e ver y la ws t h a t est a blish ed
t h em ; pr ocesses wou ld h a ve n o en d; pr oper t y wou ld be u n cer t a in ; t h e goods of
on e of t h e pa r t ies wou ld be a dju dged t o t h e ot h er wit h ou t exa m in in g, or t h ey
wou ld bot h be r u in ed by exa m in in g t oo m u ch .
Th e cit izen s wou ld lose t h eir liber t y a n d secu r it y, t h e a ccu ser s wou ld n o
lon ger h a ve a n y m ea n s t o con vict , n or t h e a ccu sed t o ju st ify t h em selves.
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Ceciliu s, in Au lu s Gelliu s, 2 spea kin g of t h e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles wh ich
per m it t ed t h e cr edit or t o cu t t h e in solven t debt or in t o pieces, ju st ifies it even by
it s cr u elt y, wh ich h in der ed people fr om bor r owin g beyon d t h eir a bilit y of
pa yin g. 3 Sh a ll t h en t h e cr u ellest la ws be t h e best ? Sh a ll goodn ess con sist in
excess, a n d a ll t h e r ela t ion s of t h in gs be dest r oyed?
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Th e la w of Solon wh ich decla r ed t h ose per son s in fa m ou s wh o espou sed n o side
in a n in su r r ect ion seem ed ver y ext r a or din a r y; bu t we ou gh t t o con sider t h e
cir cu m st a n ces in wh ich Gr eece wa s a t t h a t t im e. It wa s divided in t o ver y sm a ll
st a t es; a n d t h er e wa s r ea son t o a ppr eh en d lest in a r epu blic t or n by in t est in e
division s t h e sober est pa r t sh ou ld keep r et ir ed, in con sequ en ce of wh ich t h in gs
m igh t be ca r r ied t o ext r em it y.

In t h e sedit ion s r a ised in t h ose pet t y st a t es t h e bu lk of t h e cit izen s eit h er
m a de or en ga ged in t h e qu a r r el. In ou r la r ge m on a r ch ies pa r t ies a r e for m ed by
a few, a n d t h e people ch oose t o live qu iet ly, In t h e la t t er ca se it is n a t u r a l t o ca ll
ba ck t h e sedit iou s t o t h e bu lk of t h e cit izen s, a n d n ot t h ese t o t h e sedit iou s; in
t h e ot h er it is n ecessa r y t o oblige t h e sm a ll n u m ber of pr u den t people t o en t er
a m on g t h e sedit iou s; it is t h u s t h e fer m en t a t ion of on e liqu or m a y be st opped
by a sin gle dr op of a n ot h er .
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Th er e a r e la ws so lit t le u n der st ood by t h e legisla t or a s t o be con t r a r y t o t h e
ver y en d h e pr oposed. Th ose wh o m a de t h is r egu la t ion a m on g t h e F r en ch , t h a t
wh en on e of t h e t wo com pet it or s died t h e ben efice sh ou ld devolve t o t h e
su r vivor , h a d in view, wit h ou t dou bt , t h e ext in ct ion of qu a r r els; bu t t h e ver y
r ever se fa lls ou t ; we see t h e cler gy a t va r ia n ce ever y da y, a n d like E n glish
m a st iffs wor r yin g on e a n ot h er t o dea t h .
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Th e la w I a m goin g t o spea k of is t o be fou n d in t h is oa t h pr eser ved by
Æ sch in es:4 “I swea r t h a t I will n ever dest r oy a t own of t h e Am ph ict yon es, a n d
t h a t I will n ot diver t t h e cou r se of it s r u n n in g wa t er s; if a n y n a t ion sh a ll
pr esu m e t o do su ch a t h in g, I will decla r e wa r a ga in st t h em a n d will dest r oy
t h eir t own s.” Th e la st a r t icle of t h is la w, wh ich seem s t o con fir m t h e fir st , is
r ea lly con t r a r y t o it . Am ph ict yon is willin g t h a t t h e Gr eek t own s sh ou ld n ever
be dest r oyed, a n d yet h is la w pa ves t h e wa y for t h eir dest r u ct ion . In or der t o
est a blish a pr oper la w of n a t ion s a m on g t h e Gr eeks, t h ey ou gh t t o h a ve been
a ccu st om ed ea r ly t o t h in k it a ba r ba r ou s t h in g t o dest r oy a Gr eek t own ;
con sequ en t ly t h ey ou gh t n ot even t o r u in t h e dest r oyer s. Am ph ict yon ’s la w wa s
ju st , bu t it wa s n ot pr u den t ; t h is a ppea r s even fr om t h e a bu se m a de of it . Did
n ot P h ilip a ssu m e t h e power of dem olish in g t own s, u n der t h e pr et en ce of t h eir
h a vin g in fr in ged t h e la ws of t h e Gr eeks? Am ph ict yon m igh t h a ve in flict ed ot h er
pu n ish m en t s; h e m igh t h a ve or da in ed, for exa m ple, t h a t a cer t a in n u m ber of t h e
m a gist r a t es of t h e dest r oyin g t own , or of t h e ch iefs of t h e in fr in gin g a r m y,
sh ou ld be pu n ish ed wit h dea t h ; t h a t t h e dest r oyin g n a t ion sh ou ld cea se for a

wh ile t o en joy t h e pr ivileges of t h e Gr eeks; t h a t t h ey sh ou ld pa y a fin e t ill t h e
t own wa s r ebu ilt . Th e la w ou gh t , a bove a ll t h in gs, t o a im a t t h e r epa r a t ion of
da m a ges.
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Ca esa r m a de a la w t o pr oh ibit people fr om k eepin g a bove sixt y sest er ces in
t h eir h ou ses. 5 Th is la w wa s con sider ed a t Rom e a s ext r em ely pr oper for
r econ cilin g t h e debt or s t o t h eir cr edit or s, beca u se, by obligin g t h e r ich t o len d
t o t h e poor , t h ey en a bled t h e la t t er t o pa y t h eir debt s. A la w of t h e sa m e n a t u r e
m a de in F r a n ce a t t h e t im e of t h e Syst em pr oved ext r em ely fa t a l, beca u se it wa s
en a ct ed u n der a m ost fr igh t fu l sit u a t ion . Aft er depr ivin g people of a ll possible
m ea n s of la yin g ou t t h eir m on ey, t h ey st r ipped t h em even of t h e la st r esou r ce
of keepin g it a t h om e, wh ich wa s t h e sa m e a s t a kin g it fr om t h em by open
violen ce. Ca esa r ’s la w wa s in t en ded t o m a ke t h e m on ey cir cu la t e; t h e F r en ch
m in ist er ’s design wa s t o dr a w a ll t h e m on ey in t o on e h a n d. Th e for m er ga ve
eit h er la n ds or m or t ga ges on pr iva t e people for t h e m on ey; t h e la t t er pr oposed
in lieu of m on ey n ot h in g bu t effect s wh ich wer e of n o va lu e, a n d cou ld h a ve n on e
by t h eir ver y n a t u r e, beca u se t h e la w com pelled people t o a ccept of t h em .
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Necessit y of com posin g La ws in a pr oper Ma n n er . Th e la w of ost r a cism wa s
est a blish ed a t At h en s, a t Ar gos, 6 a n d a t Syr a cu se. At Syr a cu se it wa s pr odu ct ive
of a t h ou sa n d m isch iefs, beca u se it wa s im pr u den t ly en a ct ed. Th e pr in cipa l
cit izen s ba n ish ed on e a n ot h er by h oldin g t h e lea f of a fig-t r ee in t h eir h a n ds, so
t h a t t h ose wh o h a d a n y kin d of m er it wit h dr ew fr om pu blic a ffa ir s. 7 At At h en s,
wh er e t h e legisla t or wa s sen sible of t h e pr oper ext en t a n d lim it s of h is la w,
ost r a cism pr oved a n a dm ir a ble r egu la t ion . Th ey n ever con dem n ed m or e t h a n
on e per son a t a t im e; a n d su ch a n u m ber of su ffr a ges wer e r equ isit e for pa ssin g
t h is sen t en ce t h a t it wa s ext r em ely difficu lt for t h em t o ba n ish a per son wh ose
a bsen ce wa s n ot n ecessa r y t o t h e st a t e.8
Th e power of ba n ish in g wa s exer cised on ly ever y fift h yea r : a n d in deed, a s t h e
ost r a cism wa s design ed a ga in st n on e bu t gr ea t per son a ges wh o t h r ea t en ed t h e
st a t e wit h da n ger , it ou gh t n ot t o h a ve been t h e t r a n sa ct ion of ever y da y.
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In F r a n ce t h ey h a ve r eceived m ost of t h e Rom a n la ws on su bst it u t ion s, bu t
t h r ou gh qu it e a differ en t m ot ive fr om t h e Rom a n s. Am on g t h e la t t er t h e
in h er it a n ce wa s a ccom pa n ied wit h cer t a in sa cr ifices 9 wh ich wer e t o be
per for m ed by t h e in h er it or a n d wer e r egu la t ed by t h e pon t ifica l la w; h en ce it
wa s t h a t t h ey r eckon ed it a dish on ou r t o die wit h ou t h eir s, t h a t t h ey m a de
sla ves t h eir h eir s, a n d t h a t t h ey devised su bst it u t ion s. Of t h is we h a ve a ver y
st r on g pr oof in t h e vu lga r su bst it u t ion , wh ich wa s t h e fir st in ven t ed, a n d t ook
pla ce on ly wh en t h e h eir a ppoin t ed did n ot a ccept of t h e in h er it a n ce. It s view
wa s n ot t o per pet u a t e t h e est a t e in a fa m ily of t h e sa m e n a m e, bu t t o fin d
som ebody t h a t wou ld a ccept of it .
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A m a n , sa ys P la t o, wh o h a s killed on e n ea r ly r ela t ed t o h im , t h a t is, h im self,
n ot by a n or der of t h e m a gist r a t e, n ot t o a void ign om in y, bu t t h r ou gh
pu silla n im it y sh a ll be pu n ish ed. 10 Th e Rom a n la w pu n ish ed t h is a ct ion wh en
it wa s n ot com m it t ed t h r ou gh pu silla n im it y, t h r ou gh wea r in ess of life, t h r ou gh
im pa t ien ce in pa in , bu t fr om a cr im in a l despa ir . Th e Rom a n la w a cqu it t ed
wh er e t h e Gr eek con dem n ed, a n d con dem n ed wh er e t h e ot h er a cqu it t ed.
P la t o’s la w wa s for m ed u pon t h e La ceda em on ia n in st it u t ion s, wh er e t h e
or der s of t h e m a gist r a t e wer e a bsolu t e, wh er e sh a m e wa s t h e gr ea t est of
m iser ies, a n d pu silla n im it y t h e gr ea t est of cr im es. Th e Rom a n s h a d n o lon ger
t h ose r efin ed idea s; t h eir s wa s on ly a fisca l la w.
Du r in g t h e t im e of t h e r epu blic, t h er e wa s n o la w a t Rom e a ga in st su icides;
t h is a ct ion is a lwa ys con sider ed by t h eir h ist or ia n s in a fa vou r a ble ligh t , a n d we
n ever m eet wit h a n y pu n ish m en t in flict ed u pon t h ose wh o com m it t ed it .
Un der t h e fir st em per or s, t h e gr ea t fa m ilies of Rom e wer e con t in u a lly
dest r oyed by cr im in a l pr osecu t ion s. Th e cu st om wa s t h en in t r odu ced of
pr even t in g ju dgm en t by a volu n t a r y dea t h . In t h is t h ey fou n d a gr ea t

a dva n t a ge: t h ey h a d a n h on ou r a ble in t er m en t , a n d t h eir wills wer e execu t ed,
beca u se t h er e wa s n o la w a ga in st su icides. 11 Bu t wh en t h e em per or s beca m e a s
a va r iciou s a s cr u el, t h ey depr ived t h ose wh o dest r oyed t h em selves of t h e m ea n s
of pr eser vin g t h eir est a t es by r en der in g it cr im in a l for a per son t o m a ke a wa y
wit h h im self t h r ou gh a cr im in a l r em or se.
Wh a t I h a ve been sa yin g of t h e m ot ive of t h e em per or s is so t r u e, t h a t t h ey
con sen t ed t h a t t h e est a t es of su icides sh ou ld n ot be con fisca t ed wh en t h e cr im e
for wh ich t h ey killed t h em selves wa s n ot pu n ish ed wit h con fisca t ion .12
BT1&!-"+&6"7,&7-59-&,%%<&9'*+.".H&4.'9%%0&,'<%+5<%,&(.'<&+-%
,"<%&345.5+1
In ou r t im e we give su m m on s t o people in t h eir own h ou ses; bu t t h is wa s n ot
per m it t ed a m on g t h e Rom a n s.13
A su m m on s wa s a violen t a ct ion , 14 a n d a kin d of wa r r a n t for seizin g t h e
body;15 h en ce it wa s n o m or e a llowed t o su m m on a per son in h is own h ou se t h a n
it is n ow a llowed t o a r r est a per son in h is own h ou se for debt .
Bot h t h e Rom a n a n d ou r la ws a dm it of t h is pr in ciple a like, t h a t ever y m a n
ou gh t t o h a ve h is own h ou se for a n a sylu m , wh er e h e sh ou ld su ffer n o violen ce. 16
BB1&R'7&+'&9'<4".%&+7'&05((%.%*+&3H,+%<,&'(&6"7,1
In F r a n ce t h e pu n ish m en t for fa lse wit n esses is ca pit a l; in E n gla n d it is n ot .
Now, t o be a ble t o ju dge wh ich of t h ese t wo la ws is t h e best , we m u st a dd t h a t
in F r a n ce t h e r a ck is u sed for cr im in a ls, bu t n ot in E n gla n d; t h a t in F r a n ce t h e
a ccu sed is n ot a llowed t o pr odu ce h is wit n esses, a n d t h a t t h ey ver y seldom
a dm it of wh a t a r e ca lled ju st ifyin g cir cu m st a n ces in fa vou r of t h e pr ison er ; in
E n gla n d t h ey a llow of wit n esses on bot h sides. Th ese t h r ee F r en ch la ws for m
a close a n d well-con n ect ed syst em ; a n d so do t h e t h r ee E n glish la ws. Th e la w
of E n gla n d, wh ich does n ot a llow of t h e r a ckin g of cr im in a ls, h a s bu t ver y lit t le
h ope of dr a win g fr om t h e a ccu sed a con fession of h is cr im e; for t h is r ea son it
in vit es wit n esses fr om a ll pa r t s, a n d does n ot ven t u r e t o discou r a ge t h em by t h e
fea r of a ca pit a l pu n ish m en t . Th e F r en ch la w, wh ich h a s on e r esou r ce m or e, is
n ot a fr a id of in t im ida t in g t h e wit n esses; on t h e con t r a r y, r ea son r equ ir es t h ey

sh ou ld be in t im ida t ed; it list en s on ly t o t h e wit n esses on on e side, wh ich a r e
t h ose pr odu ced by t h e a t t or n ey-gen er a l, a n d t h e fa t e of t h e a ccu sed depen ds
en t ir ely on t h eir t est im on y. 17 Bu t in E n gla n d t h ey a dm it of wit n esses on bot h
sides, a n d t h e a ffa ir is discu ssed in som e m ea su r e bet ween t h em ; con sequ en t ly
fa lse wit n ess is t h er e less da n ger ou s, t h e a ccu sed h a vin g a r em edy a ga in st t h e
fa lse wit n ess wh ich h e h a s n ot in F r a n ce. Wh er efor e, t o det er m in e wh ich of
t h ose syst em s is m ost a gr eea ble t o r ea son , we m u st t a ke t h em ea ch a s a wh ole
a n d com pa r e t h em in t h eir en t ir et y.
BE1&!-"+&6"7,&7-59-&"44%".&+-%&,"<%&".%&,'<%+5<%,&.%"$$H&05((%.%*+1
Th e Gr eek a n d Rom a n la ws in flict ed t h e sa m e pu n ish m en t on t h e r eceiver a s
on t h e t h ief;18 t h e F r en ch la w does t h e sa m e. Th e for m er a ct ed r a t ion a lly, bu t
t h e la t t er does n ot . Am on g t h e Gr eeks a n d Rom a n s t h e t h ief wa s con dem n ed t o
a pecu n ia r y pu n ish m en t , wh ich ou gh t a lso t o be in flict ed on t h e r eceiver ; for
ever y m a n t h a t con t r ibu t es in wh a t sh a pe soever t o a da m a ge is obliged t o
r epa ir it . Bu t a s t h e pu n ish m en t of t h eft is ca pit a l wit h u s, t h e r eceiver ca n n ot
be pu n ish ed like t h e t h ief wit h ou t ca r r yin g t h in gs t o excess. A r eceiver m a y a ct
in n ocen t ly on a t h ou sa n d occa sion s: t h e t h ief is a lwa ys cu lpa ble; on e h in der s t h e
con vict ion of a cr im e, t h e ot h er com m it s it ; in on e t h e wh ole is pa ssive, t h e ot h er
is a ct ive; t h e t h ief m u st su r m ou n t m or e obst a cles, a n d h is sou l m u st be m or e
h a r den ed a ga in st t h e la ws.
Th e civilia n s h a ve gon e fu r t h er ; t h ey look u pon t h e r eceiver a s m or e odiou s
t h a n t h e t h ief, 19 for wer e it n ot for t h e r eceiver t h e t h eft , sa y t h ey, cou ld n ot be
lon g con cea led. Bu t t h is a ga in m igh t be r igh t wh en t h er e wa s on ly a pecu n ia r y
pu n ish m en t ; t h e a ffa ir in qu est ion wa s a da m a ge don e, a n d t h e r eceiver wa s
gen er a lly bet t er a ble t o r epa ir it ; bu t wh en t h e pu n ish m en t beca m e ca pit a l, t h ey
ou gh t t o h a ve been dir ect ed by ot h er pr in ciples.
BG1&!-"+&7%&<F,+&*'+&,%4"."+%&6"7,&(.'<&+-%&U*0&('.&7-59-&+-%H
7%.%&<"0%a&'(&+-%&/'<"*&6"7,&'*&!-%(+1
Wh en a t h ief wa s ca u gh t in t h e a ct , t h is wa s ca lled by t h e Rom a n s a m a n ifest
t h eft ; wh en h e wa s n ot det ect ed t ill som e t im e a ft er wa r ds, it wa s a

n on -m a n ifest t h eft .
Th e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles or da in ed t h a t a m a n ifest t h ief sh ou ld be
wh ipped wit h r ods a n d con dem n ed t o sla ver y if h e h a d a t t a in ed t h e a ge of
pu ber t y; or on ly wh ipped if h e wa s n ot of r ipe a ge; bu t a s for t h e n on m a n ifest
t h ief, h e wa s on ly con dem n ed t o a fin e of dou ble t h e va lu e of wh a t h e h a d st olen .
Wh en t h e P or cia n la ws a bolish ed t h e cu st om of wh ippin g t h e cit izen s wit h
r ods, a n d of r edu cin g t h em t o sla ver y, t h e m a n ifest t h ief wa s con dem n ed t o a
pa ym en t of fou r fold, a n d t h ey st ill con t in u ed t o con dem n t h e n on -m a n ifest t h ief
t o a pa ym en t of dou ble.20
It seem s ver y odd t h a t t h ese la ws sh ou ld m a ke su ch a differ en ce in t h e qu a lit y
of t h ose t wo cr im es, a n d in t h e pu n ish m en t s t h ey in flict ed. An d, in deed,
wh et h er t h e t h ief wa s det ect ed eit h er befor e or a ft er h e h a d ca r r ied t h e st olen
goods t o t h e pla ce in t en ded, t h is wa s a cir cu m st a n ce wh ich did n ot a lt er t h e
n a t u r e of t h e cr im e. I do n ot a t a ll qu est ion t h a t t h e wh ole t h eor y of t h e Rom a n
la ws in r ela t ion t o t h eft wa s bor r owed fr om t h e La ceda em on ia n in st it u t ion s.
Lycu r gu s, wit h a view of r en der in g t h e cit izen s dext r ou s a n d cu n n in g, or da in ed
t h a t ch ildr en sh ou ld be pr a ct ised in t h ievin g, a n d t h a t t h ose wh o wer e ca u gh t
in t h e a ct sh ou ld be sever ely wh ipped. Th is occa sion ed a m on g t h e Gr eeks, a n d
a ft er wa r ds a m on g t h e Rom a n s, a gr ea t differ en ce bet ween a m a n ifest a n d a
n on -m a n ifest t h eft .21
Am on g t h e Rom a n s, a sla ve wh o h a d been gu ilt y of st ea lin g wa s t h r own fr om
t h e Ta r peia n r ock. H er e t h e La ceda em on ia n in st it u t ion s wer e ou t of t h e
qu est ion ; t h e la ws of Lycu r gu s in r ela t ion t o t h eft wer e n ot m a de for sla ves; t o
devia t e fr om t h em in t h is r espect wa s in r ea lit y con for m in g t o t h em .
At Rom e, wh en a per son of u n r ipe a ge h a ppen ed t o be ca u gh t in t h e a ct , t h e
pr a et or or der ed h im t o be wh ipped wit h r ods a ccor din g t o h is plea su r e, a s wa s
pr a ct ised a t Spa r t a . All t h is h a d a m or e r em ot e or igin . Th e La ceda em on ia n s
h a d der ived t h ese u sa ges fr om t h e Cr et a n s; a n d P la t o, 22 wh o wa n t s t o pr ove
t h a t t h e Cr et a n in st it u t ion s wer e design ed for wa r , cit es t h e followin g, n a m ely,
t h e power of bea r in g pa in in in dividu a l com ba t s, a n d in t h eft s wh ich h a ve t o be
con cea led.
As t h e civil la ws depen d on t h e polit ica l in st it u t ion s, beca u se t h ey a r e m a de
for t h e sa m e societ y, wh en ever t h er e is a design of a dopt in g t h e civil la w of

a n ot h er n a t ion , it wou ld be pr oper t o exa m in e befor eh a n d wh et h er t h ey h a ve
bot h t h e sa m e in st it u t ion s a n d t h e sa m e polit ica l la w.
Th u s wh en t h e Cr et a n la ws on t h eft wer e a dopt ed by t h e La ceda em on ia n s, a s
t h eir con st it u t ion a n d gover n m en t wer e a dopt ed a t t h e sa m e t im e, t h ese la ws
wer e equ a lly r ea son a ble in bot h n a t ion s. Bu t wh en t h ey wer e ca r r ied fr om
La ceda em on t o Rom e, a s t h ey did n ot fin d t h er e t h e sa m e con st it u t ion , t h ey
wer e a lwa ys t h ou gh t st r a n ge, a n d h a d n o m a n n er of con n ect ion wit h t h e ot h er
civil la ws of t h e Rom a n s.
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7-59-&+-%H&7%.%&<"0%1&
It wa s decr eed by a la w a t At h en s t h a t wh en t h e cit y wa s besieged, a ll t h e
u seless people sh ou ld be pu t t o dea t h .23 Th is wa s a n a bom in a ble polit ica l la w,
in con sequ en ce of a n a bom in a ble la w of n a t ion s. Am on g t h e Gr eeks, t h e
in h a bit a n t s of a t own t a ken lost t h eir civil liber t y a n d wer e sold a s sla ves. Th e
t a kin g of a t own im plied it s en t ir e dest r u ct ion , wh ich is t h e sou r ce n ot on ly of
t h ose obst in a t e defen ces, a n d of t h ose u n n a t u r a l a ct ion s, bu t likewise of t h ose
sh ockin g la ws wh ich t h ey som et im es en a ct ed.
Th e Rom a n la ws or da in ed t h a t ph ysicia n s sh ou ld be pu n ish ed for n eglect or
u n skilfu ln ess. 24 In t h ose ca ses, if t h e ph ysicia n wa s a per son of a n y for t u n e or
r a n k, h e wa s on ly con dem n ed t o depor t a t ion , bu t if h e wa s of a low con dit ion h e
wa s pu t t o dea t h . By ou r in st it u t ion s it is ot h er wise. Th e Rom a n la ws wer e n ot
m a de u n der t h e sa m e cir cu m st a n ces a s ou r s: a t Rom e ever y ign or a n t pr et en der
in t er m eddled wit h ph ysic; bu t a m on g u s, ph ysicia n s a r e obliged t o go t h r ou gh
a r egu la r cou r se of st u dy, a n d t o t a ke t h eir degr ees, for wh ich r ea son t h ey a r e
su pposed t o u n der st a n d t h eir pr ofession .
BL1&!-"+&,'<%+5<%,&5+&5,&4.'4%.&+-%&6"7&,-'F$0&"<%*0&5+,%$(1
Th e la w of t h e Twelve Ta bles a llowed people t o kill a n igh t -t h ief a s well a s a
da y-t h ief,25 if u pon bein g pu r su ed h e a t t em pt ed t o m a ke a defen ce; bu t it
r equ ir ed t h a t t h e per son wh o killed t h e t h ief sh ou ld cr y ou t a n d ca ll h is
fellow-cit izen s. Th is is in deed wh a t t h ose la ws, wh ich per m it people t o do ju st ice

t o t h em selves, ou gh t a lwa ys t o r equ ir e. It is t h e cr y of in n ocen ce wh ich in t h e
ver y m om en t of t h e a ct ion ca lls in wit n esses a n d a ppea ls t o ju dges. Th e people
ou gh t t o t a ke cogn iza n ce of t h e a ct ion , a n d a t t h e ver y in st a n t of it s bein g don e;
a n in st a n t wh en ever yt h in g spea ks, even a ir , cou n t en a n ce, pa ssion s, silen ce;
a n d wh en ever y wor d eit h er con dem n s or a bsolves. A la w wh ich m a y becom e so
opposed t o t h e secu r it y a n d liber t y of t h e cit izen s ou gh t t o be execu t ed in t h eir
pr esen ce. 26
BO1&!-5*D,&+'&#%&'#,%.;%0&5*&+-%&9'<4',5*D&'(&6"7,1
Th ey wh o h a ve a gen iu s su fficien t t o en a ble t h em t o give la ws t o t h eir own ,
or t o a n ot h er n a t ion , ou gh t t o be pa r t icu la r ly a t t en t ive t o t h e m a n n er of for m in g
t h em .
Th e st yle ou gh t t o be con cise. Th e la ws of t h e Twelve Ta bles a r e a m odel of
con cisen ess; t h e ver y ch ildr en u sed t o lea r n t h em by h ea r t . 27 J u st in ia n ’s
Novella e wer e so ver y diffu se t h a t t h ey wer e obliged t o a br idge t h em .28
Th e st yle sh ou ld a lso be pla in a n d sim ple, a dir ect expr ession bein g bet t er
u n der st ood t h a n a n in dir ect on e. Th er e is n o m a jest y a t a ll in t h e la ws of t h e
lower em pir e; pr in ces a r e m a de t o spea k like r h et or icia n s. Wh en t h e st yle of
la ws is in fla t ed, t h ey a r e looked u pon on ly a s a wor k of pa r a de a n d ost en t a t ion .
It is a n essen t ia l a r t icle t h a t t h e wor ds of t h e la ws sh ou ld excit e in ever ybody
t h e sa m e idea s. Ca r din a l Rich elieu 29 a gr eed t h a t a m in ist er m igh t be a ccu sed
befor e t h e kin g, bu t h e wou ld h a ve t h e a ccu ser pu n ish ed if t h e fa ct s h e pr oved
wer e n ot m a t t er s of m om en t . Th is wa s en ou gh t o h in der people fr om t ellin g a n y
t r u t h wh a t soever a ga in st t h e m in ist er , beca u se a m a t t er of m om en t is en t ir ely
r ela t ive, a n d wh a t m a y be of m om en t t o on e is n ot so t o a n ot h er .
Th e la w of H on or iu s pu n ish ed wit h dea t h a n y per son t h a t pu r ch a sed a
fr eedm a n a s a sla ve, or t h a t ga ve h im m olest a t ion .30 H e sh ou ld n ot h a ve m a de
u se of so va gu e a n expr ession ; t h e m olest a t ion given a m a n depen ds en t ir ely on
t h e degr ee of h is sen sibilit y.
Wh en t h e la w h a s t o im pose a pen a lt y, it sh ou ld a void a s m u ch a s possible t h e
est im a t in g it in m on ey. Th e va lu e of m on ey ch a n ges fr om a t h ou sa n d ca u ses,
a n d t h e sa m e den om in a t ion con t in u es wit h ou t t h e sa m e t h in g. E ver y on e kn ows
t h e st or y of t h a t im pu den t fellow a t Rom e 31 wh o u sed t o give t h ose h e m et a box

on t h e ea r , a n d a ft er wa r ds t en der ed t h em t h e five-a n d-t wen t y pen ce of t h e la w
of t h e Twelve Ta bles.
Wh en t h e la w h a s on ce fixed t h e idea of t h in gs, it sh ou ld n ever r et u r n t o
va gu e expr ession s. Th e or din a n ce of Lou is XIV32 con cer n in g cr im in a l m a t t er s,
a ft er a n exa ct en u m er a t ion of t h e ca u ses in wh ich t h e kin g is im m edia t ely
con cer n ed, a dds t h ese wor ds, “a n d t h ose wh ich in a ll t im es h a ve been su bject
t o t h e det er m in a t ion of t h e kin g’s ju dges”; t h is a ga in r en der s a r bit r a r y wh a t
h a d ju st been fixed. Ch a r les VII sa ys 33 h e h a s been in for m ed t h a t t h e pa r t ies
a ppea l t h r ee, fou r , a n d six m on t h s a ft er ju dgm en t , con t r a r y t o t h e cu st om of t h e
kin gdom in a cou n t r y wh er e cu st om pr eva iled; h e t h er efor e or da in s t h a t t h ey
sh a ll a ppea l for t h wit h , u n less t h er e h a ppen s t o be som e fr a u d or deceit on t h e
pa r t of t h e a t t or n ey,34 or u n less t h er e be a gr ea t or eviden t ca u se t o disch a r ge
t h e a ppea l. Th e en d of t h is la w dest r oys t h e begin n in g, a n d it dest r oys it so
effect u a lly, t h a t t h ey u sed a ft er wa r ds t o a ppea l du r in g t h e spa ce of t h ir t y
yea r s. 35
Th e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds does n ot a llow a wom a n t h a t h a s t a ken a r eligiou s
h a bit , 36 t h ou gh sh e h a s m a de n o vow, t o m a r r y; beca u se, sa ys t h is la w, “if a
spou se wh o h a s been con t r a ct ed t o a wom a n on ly by a r in g ca n n ot wit h ou t gu ilt
be m a r r ied t o a n ot h er , for a m u ch st r on ger r ea son t h e spou se of God or of t h e
blessed Vir gin .” Now, I sa y, t h a t in la ws t h e a r gu m en t s sh ou ld be dr a wn fr om
on e r ea lit y t o a n ot h er , a n d n ot fr om r ea lit y t o figu r e, or fr om figu r e t o r ea lit y.
A la w en a ct ed by Con st a n t in e 37 or da in s t h a t t h e sin gle t est im on y of a bish op
sh ou ld be su fficien t wit h ou t list en in g t o a n y ot h er wit n esses. Th is pr in ce t ook
a ver y sh or t m et h od; h e ju dged of a ffa ir s by per son s, a n d of per son s by dign it ies.
Th e la ws ou gh t n ot t o be su bt le; t h ey a r e design ed for people of com m on
u n der st a n din g, n ot a s a n a r t of logic, bu t a s t h e pla in r ea son of a fa t h er of a
fa m ily.
Wh en t h er e is n o n ecessit y for except ion s a n d lim it a t ion s in a la w, it is m u ch
bet t er t o om it t h em : det a ils of t h a t kin d t h r ow people in t o n ew det a ils.
N o a lt er a t ion sh ou ld be m a de in a la w wit h ou t su fficien t r ea son . J u st in ia n
or da in ed t h a t a h u sba n d m igh t be r epu dia t ed a n d yet t h e wife n ot lose h er
por t ion , if for t h e spa ce of t wo yea r s h e h a d been in ca pa ble of con su m m a t in g t h e
m a r r ia ge. 38 H e a lt er ed h is la w a ft er wa r ds, a n d a llowed t h e poor wr et ch t h r ee

yea r s. 39 Bu t in a ca se of t h a t n a t u r e t wo yea r s a r e a s good a s t h r ee, a n d t h r ee
a r e n ot wor t h m or e t h a n t wo.
Wh en a legisla t or con descen ds t o give t h e r ea son of h is la w it ou gh t t o be
wor t h y of it s m a jest y. A Rom a n la w decr ees t h a t a blin d m a n is in ca pa ble t o
plea d, beca u se h e ca n n ot see t h e or n a m en t s of t h e m a gist r a cy. 40 So ba d a r ea son
m u st h a ve been given on pu r pose, wh en su ch a n u m ber of good r ea son s wer e a t
h a n d.
P a u l, t h e ju r ist , sa ys 41 t h a t a ch ild gr ows per fect in t h e seven t h m on t h , a n d
t h a t t h e r a t io of P yt h a gor a s’ n u m ber s seem s t o pr ove it . It is ver y ext r a or din a r y
t h a t t h ey sh ou ld ju dge of t h ose t h in gs by t h e r a t io of P yt h a gor a s’ n u m ber s.
Som e F r en ch la wyer s h a ve a sser t ed t h a t wh en t h e kin g m a de a n a cqu isit ion
of a n ew cou n t r y, t h e ch u r ch es beca m e su bject t o t h e Rega le, beca u se t h e kin g’s
cr own is r ou n d. I sh a ll n ot exa m in e h er e in t o t h e k in g’s r igh t s, or wh et h er in
t h is ca se t h e r ea son of t h e civil or ecclesia st ic la w ou gh t t o su bm it t o t h a t of t h e
la w of polit ics; I sh a ll on ly sa y t h a t t h ose a u gu st r igh t s ou gh t t o be defen ded by
gr a ve m a xim s. Wa s t h er e ever su ch a t h in g kn own a s t h e r ea l r igh t s of a dign it y
fou n ded on t h e figu r e of t h a t dign it y’s sign ?
Da vila sa ys 42 t h a t Ch a r les IX wa s decla r ed of a ge in t h e pa r lia m en t of Rou en
a t t h e com m en cem en t of h is fou r t een t h yea r , beca u se t h e la ws r equ ir e ever y
m om en t of t h e t im e t o be r eckon ed, in ca ses r ela t in g t o t h e r est it u t ion a n d
a dm in ist r a t ion of a wa r d’s est a t e; wh er ea s it con sider s t h e yea r com m en ced a s
a yea r com plet e, wh en t h e ca se is con cer n in g t h e a cqu isit ion of h on ou r s. I a m
ver y fa r fr om cen su r in g a r egu la t ion wh ich h a s been h it h er t o a t t en ded wit h n o
in con ven ien ce; I sh a ll on ly n ot ice t h a t t h e r ea son a lleged is n ot t h e t r u e on e; it
is fa lse, t h a t t h e gover n m en t of a n a t ion is on ly a n h on ou r .
In poin t of pr esu m pt ion , t h a t of t h e la w is fa r pr efer a ble t o t h a t of t h e m a n .
Th e F r en ch la w con sider s ever y a ct of a m er ch a n t du r in g t h e t en da ys pr ecedin g
h is ba n kr u pt cy a s fr a u du len t :43 t h is is t h e pr esu m pt ion of t h e la w. Th e Rom a n
la w in flict ed pu n ish m en t s on t h e h u sba n d wh o kept h is wife a ft er sh e h a d been
gu ilt y of a du lt er y, u n less h e wa s in du ced t o do it t h r ou gh fea r of t h e even t of a
la wsu it , or t h r ou gh con t em pt of h is own sh a m e; t h is is t h e pr esu m pt ion of t h e
m a n . Th e ju dge m u st h a ve pr esu m ed t h e m ot ives of t h e h u sba n d’s con du ct , a n d
m u st h a ve det er m in ed a ver y obscu r e a n d a m bigu ou s poin t ; wh en t h e la w

pr esu m es, it gives a fixed r u le t o t h e ju dge.
P la t o’s la w,44 a s I h a ve obser ved a lr ea dy, r equ ir ed t h a t a pu n ish m en t sh ou ld
be in flict ed on t h e per son wh o killed h im self n ot wit h a design of a voidin g
sh a m e, bu t t h r ou gh pu silla n im it y. Th is la w wa s so fa r defect ive t h a t in t h e on ly
ca se in wh ich it wa s im possible t o dr a w fr om t h e cr im in a l a n a ckn owledgm en t
of t h e m ot ive u pon wh ich h e h a d a ct ed, it r equ ir ed t h e ju dge t o det er m in e
con cer n in g t h ese m ot ives.
As u seless la ws debilit a t e su ch a s a r e n ecessa r y, so t h ose t h a t m a y be ea sily
elu ded wea ken t h e legisla t ion . E ver y la w ou gh t t o h a ve it s effect , a n d n o on e
sh ou ld be su ffer ed t o devia t e fr om it by a pa r t icu la r except ion .
Th e F a lcidia n la w or da in ed a m on g t h e Rom a n s, t h a t t h e h eir sh ou ld a lwa ys
h a ve t h e fou r t h pa r t of t h e in h er it a n ce; a n ot h er la w su ffer ed t h e t est a t or t o
pr oh ibit t h e h eir fr om r et a in in g t h is fou r t h pa r t . 45 Th is is m a kin g a jest of t h e
la ws. Th e F a lcidia n la w beca m e u seless: for if t h e t est a t or h a d a m in d t o fa vou r
h is h eir , t h e la t t er h a d n o n eed of t h e F a lcidia n la w; a n d if h e did n ot in t en d t o
fa vou r h im , h e for ba d h im t o m a ke u se of it .
Ca r e sh ou ld be t a ken t h a t t h e la ws be wor ded in su ch a m a n n er a s n ot t o be
con t r a r y t o t h e ver y n a t u r e of t h in gs. In t h e pr oscr ipt ion of t h e P r in ce of
Or a n ge, P h ilip II pr om ises t o a n y m a n t h a t will kill t h e pr in ce t o give h im , or
h is h eir s, five-a n d-t wen t y t h ou sa n d cr own s, t oget h er wit h t h e t it le of n obilit y;
a n d t h is u pon t h e wor d of a kin g, a n d a s a ser va n t of God. To pr om ise n obilit y
for su ch a n a ct ion ! t o or da in su ch a n a ct ion in t h e qu a lit y of a ser va n t of God!
Th is is equ a lly su bver sive of t h e idea s of h on ou r , m or a lit y, a n d r eligion .
Th er e ver y seldom h a ppen s t o be a n ecessit y of pr oh ibit in g a t h in g wh ich is
n ot ba d u n der pr et en ce of som e im a gin a r y per fect ion .
Th er e ou gh t t o be a cer t a in sim plicit y a n d ca n dou r in t h e la ws; m a de t o
pu n ish t h e in iqu it y of m en , t h ey t h em selves sh ou ld be cla d wit h t h e r obes of
in n ocen ce. We fin d in t h e la w of t h e Visigot h s 46 t h a t r idicu lou s r equ est , by
wh ich t h e J ews wer e obliged t o ea t ever yt h in g dr essed wit h por k, pr ovided t h ey
did n ot ea t t h e por k it self. Th is wa s a ver y gr ea t cr u elt y: t h ey wer e obliged t o
su bm it t o a la w con t r a r y t o t h eir own ; a n d t h ey wer e obliged t o r et a in n ot h in g
m or e of t h eir own t h a n wh a t m igh t ser ve a s a m a r k t o dist in gu ish t h em .
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Th e Rom a n E m per or s m a n ifest ed t h eir will, like ou r pr in ces, by decr ees a n d
edict s; bu t t h ey per m it t ed, wh ich ou r pr in ces do n ot , bot h t h e ju dges a n d pr iva t e
people t o in t er r oga t e t h em by let t er s in t h eir sever a l differ en ces; a n d t h eir
a n swer s wer e ca lled r escr ipt s. Th e decr et a ls of t h e popes a r e r escr ipt s, st r ict ly
spea kin g. It is pla in t h a t t h is is a ba d m et h od of legisla t ion . Th ose wh o t h u s
a pply for la ws a r e im pr oper gu ides t o t h e legisla t or ; t h e fa ct s a r e a lwa ys
wr on gly st a t ed. J u liu s Ca pit olin u s sa ys 47 t h a t Tr a ja n oft en r efu sed t o give t h is
kin d of r escr ipt s, lest a sin gle decision , a n d fr equ en t ly a pa r t icu la r fa vou r ,
sh ou ld be ext en ded t o a ll ca ses. Ma cr in u s h a d r esolved t o a bolish a ll t h ose
r escr ipt s;48 h e cou ld n ot bea r t h a t t h e a n swer s of Com m odu s, Ca r a ca lla , a n d a ll
t h ose ot h er ign or a n t pr in ces, sh ou ld be con sider ed a s la ws. J u st in ia n t h ou gh t
ot h er wise, a n d h e filled h is com pila t ion wit h t h em .
I wou ld a dvise t h ose wh o r ea d t h e Rom a n la ws t o dist in gu ish ca r efu lly
bet ween t h is sor t of h ypot h esis, a n d t h e Sen a t u s Con su lt a , t h e P lebiscit a , t h e
gen er a l con st it u t ion s of t h e em per or s, a n d a ll t h e la ws fou n ded on t h e n a t u r e
of t h in gs, on t h e fr a ilt y of wom en , t h e wea kn ess of m in or s, a n d t h e pu blic
u t ilit y.
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Th er e a r e cer t a in idea s of u n ifor m it y, wh ich som et im es st r ike gr ea t gen iu ses
(for t h ey even affect ed Ch a r lem a gn e), bu t in fa llibly m a ke a n im pr ession on lit t le
sou ls. Th ey discover t h er ein a kin d of per fect ion , wh ich t h ey r ecogn ize beca u se
it is im possible for t h em n ot t o see it ; t h e sa m e a u t h or ized weigh t s, t h e sa m e
m ea su r es in t r a de, t h e sa m e la ws in t h e st a t e, t h e sa m e r eligion in a ll it s pa r t s.
Bu t is t h is a lwa ys r igh t a n d wit h ou t except ion ? Is t h e evil of ch a n gin g
con st a n t ly less t h a n t h a t of su ffer in g? An d does n ot a gr ea t n ess of gen iu s
con sist r a t h er in dist in gu ish in g bet ween t h ose ca ses in wh ich u n ifor m it y is
r equ isit e, a n d t h ose in wh ich t h er e is a n ecessit y for differ en ces? In Ch in a t h e
Ch in ese a r e gover n ed by t h e Ch in ese cer em on ia l a n d t h e Ta r t a r s by t h eir s; a n d
yet t h er e is n o n a t ion in t h e wor ld t h a t a im s so m u ch a t t r a n qu illit y. If t h e
people obser ve t h e la ws, wh a t sign ifies it wh et h er t h ese la ws a r e t h e sa m e?
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Ar ist ot le wa n t ed t o in du lge som et im es h is jea lou sy a ga in st P la t o, a n d
som et im es h is pa ssion for Alexa n der . P la t o wa s in cen sed a ga in st t h e t yr a n n y
of t h e people of At h en s. Ma ch ia vel wa s fu ll of h is idol, t h e Du ke of Va len t in ois.
Sir Th om a s Mor e, wh o spoke r a t h er of wh a t h e h a d r ea d t h a n of wh a t h e
t h ou gh t , wa n t ed t o gover n a ll st a t es wit h t h e sim plicit y of a Gr eek cit y. 49
H a r r in gt on wa s fu ll of t h e idea of h is fa vou r it e r epu blic of E n gla n d, wh ile a
cr owd of wr it er s sa w n ot h in g bu t con fu sion wh er e m on a r ch y is a bolish ed. Th e
la ws a lwa ys con for m t o t h e pa ssion s a n d pr eju dices of t h e legisla t or ; som et im es
t h e la t t er pa ss t h r ou gh , a n d on ly t in ct u r e t h em ; som et im es t h ey r em a in , a n d
a r e in cor por a t ed wit h t h em .
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1. Ar ist ot le, Politics, iv. 11.
2. Book xx. 1.
3. Ceciliu s sa ys t h a t h e n ever sa w n or r ea d of a n in st a n ce in wh ich t h is
pu n ish m en t h a d been in flict ed; bu t it is likely t h a t n o su ch pu n ish m en t wa s
ever est a blish ed: t h e opin ion of som e civilia n s, t h a t t h e la w of t h e Twelve
Ta bles m ea n t on ly t h e division of t h e m on ey a r isin g fr om t h e sa le of t h e
debt or , seem s ver y pr oba ble.
4. De F a lsa lega t ion e.
5. Dio, xli.
6. Ar ist ot le, Politics, v. 13.
7. P lu t a r ch , Dion ysiu s.
8. See xxvi. 17, a bove.
9. Wh en t h e in h er it a n ce wa s t oo m u ch en cu m ber ed t h ey elu ded t h e pon t ifica l
la w by cer t a in sa les, wh en ce com e t h e wor ds sin e sa cr is h a er edit a s.
10. La ws ix.
12. Rescr ipt of t h e E m per or P iu s in Leg. 3, §§ 1, 2, ff. de bon is eor u m qu i a n t e
sen t en t ia m m or t em sibi con sciver u n t .
13. Leg. 18, ff. de in fu s voca n do.
14. See t h e La w of t h e Twelve Ta bles.
15. Ra pit in ju s. — H or a ce, Sa t ., i. 9. H en ce t h ey cou ld n ot su m m on t h ose t o

wh om a pa r t icu la r r espect wa s du e.
16. See Leg. 18, ff. de in ju s voca n do.
17. By t h e a n cien t F r en ch la w, wit n esses wer e h ea r d on bot h sides; h en ce we
fin d in t h e In st it u t ion s of St . Lou is, i. 7, t h a t t h er e wa s on ly a pecu n ia r y
pu n ish m en t a ga in st fa lse wit n esses.
18. Leg. 1, ff. de r ecept a t or ibu s.
19. Ibid.
20. See wh a t F a vor in u s sa ys in Au lu s Gelliu s, xx. 1.
21. Com pa r e wh a t P lu t a r ch sa ys in t h e Lycu r gu s wit h t h e la ws of t h e Digest ,
t it le De fu r t is; a n d t h e In st it u t es, iv, t it . 1, §§ 1, 2, 3.
22. La ws, i.
23. Syr ia n ., in H er m og.
24. Th e Cor n elia n la w De Sica r iis, In st it u t es, iv, t it . 3, de lege Aqu ilia , § 7.
25. See Leg. 4, ff. a d leg. Aqu il.
26. Ibid.; see t h e decr ee of Ta ssillon a dded t o t h e la w of t h e Ba va r ia n s, de
popu la r ib. Legib. a r t . 4.
27. Ut ca r m en n ecessa r iu m . — Cicer o, De Leg. ii, 23.
28. It is t h e wor k of Ir n er iu s.
29. Test a m en t . P olit .
30. Appen dix t o t h e Th eodosia n code in t h e fir st volu m e of F a t h er Sir m on d’s
wor ks, p. 737.
31. Au lu s Gelliu s, xx. 1.
32. We fin d in t h e ver ba l pr ocess of t h is or din a n ce t h e m ot ives t h a t det er m in ed
h im .
33. In h is or din a n ce of Mon t el-les-Tou r s, in t h e yea r 1453.
34. Th ey m igh t pu n ish t h e a t t or n ey, wit h ou t t h er e bein g a n y n ecessit y of
dist u r bin g t h e pu blic or der .
35. Th e or din a n ce of t h e yea r 1667 h a s m a de som e r egu la t ion s u pon t h is h ea d.
36. Book ii, t it . 37.
37. In F a t h er Sir m on d’s a ppen dix t o t h e Th eodosia n code, i.
38. Leg. 1, Cod. de r epu diis.
39. See t h e a u t h en t ic sed h odie, in t h e Cod. de r epu diis.
40. Leg. 1, ff. de P ost u la n do.

41. Sen t en ces, iv. 9.
42. Della gu er r a civile di F r a n cia , p. 96.
43. It wa s m a de on Novem ber 18, 1702.
44. La ws, ix.
45. It is t h e a u t h en t ic sed cu m t est a t or .
46. Book xii, t it . 2, § 16.
47. See J u liu s Ca pit olin u s, in Ma cr in u s, 13.
48. Ibid.
49. In h is Utopia.
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I sh ou ld t h in k m y wor k im per fect wer e I t o pa ss over in silen ce a n even t
wh ich n ever a ga in , per h a ps, will h a ppen ; wer e I n ot t o spea k of t h ose la ws
wh ich su dden ly a ppea r ed over a ll E u r ope wit h ou t bein g con n ect ed wit h a n y of
t h e for m er in st it u t ion s; of t h ose la ws wh ich h a ve don e in fin it e good a n d in fin it e
m isch ief; wh ich h a ve su ffer ed r igh t s t o r em a in wh en t h e dem esn e h a s been
ceded; wh ich by vest in g sever a l wit h differ en t kin ds of seign or y over t h e sa m e
t h in gs or per son s h a ve dim in ish ed t h e weigh t of t h e wh ole seign or y; wh ich h a ve
est a blish ed differ en t lim it s in em pir es of t oo gr ea t ext en t ; wh ich h a ve been
pr odu ct ive of r u le wit h a bia s t o a n a r ch y, a n d of a n a r ch y wit h a t en den cy t o
or der a n d h a r m on y.
Th is wou ld r equ ir e a pa r t icu la r wor k t o it self; bu t con sider in g t h e n a t u r e of
t h e pr esen t u n der t a kin g, t h e r ea der will h er e m eet r a t h er wit h a gen er a l su r vey
t h a n wit h a com plet e t r ea t ise of t h ose la ws.
Th e feu da l la ws for m a ver y bea u t ifu l pr ospect . A ven er a ble old oa k r a ises it s
loft y h ea d t o t h e skies, t h e eye sees fr om a fa r it s spr ea din g lea ves; u pon
dr a win g n ea r er , it per ceives t h e t r u n k bu t does n ot discer n t h e r oot ; t h e gr ou n d
m u st be du g u p t o discover it .1
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Th e con qu er or s of t h e Rom a n em pir e ca m e fr om Ger m a n y. Th ou gh few
a n cien t a u t h or s h a ve descr ibed t h eir m a n n er s, yet we h a ve t wo of ver y gr ea t
weigh t . Ca esa r m a kin g wa r a ga in st t h e Ger m a n s descr ibes t h e m a n n er s of t h a t
n a t ion ;2 a n d u pon t h ese h e r egu la t ed som e of h is en t er pr ises. 3 A few pa ges of
Ca esa r u pon t h is su bject a r e equ a l t o wh ole volu m es.
Ta cit u s h a s wr it t en a n en t ir e wor k on t h e m a n n er s of t h e Ger m a n s. Th is wor k

is sh or t , bu t it com es fr om t h e pen of Ta cit u s, wh o wa s a lwa ys con cise, beca u se
h e sa w ever yt h in g a t on e gla n ce.
Th ese t wo a u t h or s a gr ee so per fect ly wit h t h e codes st ill ext a n t of t h e la ws of
t h e Ba r ba r ia n s, t h a t r ea din g Ca esa r a n d Ta cit u s we im a gin e we a r e per u sin g
t h ese codes, a n d per u sin g t h ese codes we fa n cy we a r e r ea din g Ca esa r a n d
Ta cit u s.
Bu t if in t h is r esea r ch in t o t h e feu da l la ws I sh ou ld fin d m yself en t a n gled a n d
lost in a da r k la byr in t h , I fa n cy I h a ve t h e clu e in m y h a n d, a n d t h a t I sh a ll be
a ble t o fin d m y wa y t h r ou gh .
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Ca esa r sa ys 4 t h a t , “Th e Ger m a n s n eglect ed a gr icu lt u r e; t h a t t h e gr ea t est pa r t
of t h em lived u pon m ilk, ch eese a n d flesh ; t h a t n o on e h a d la n ds or bou n da r ies
of h is own ; t h a t t h e pr in ces a n d m a gist r a t es of ea ch n a t ion a llot t ed wh a t
por t ion of la n d t h ey plea sed t o in dividu a ls, a n d obliged t h em t h e yea r followin g
t o r em ove t o som e ot h er pa r t .” Ta cit u s sa ys 5 t h a t , “E a ch pr in ce h a d a m u lt it u de
of m en , wh o wer e a t t a ch ed t o h is ser vice, a n d followed h im wh er ever h e wen t .”
Th is a u t h or gives t h em a n a m e in h is la n gu a ge in a ccor da n ce wit h t h eir st a t e,
wh ich is t h a t of com pa n ion s.6 Th ey h a d a st r on g em u la t ion t o obt a in t h e pr in ce’s
est eem ; a n d t h e pr in ces h a d t h e sa m e em u la t ion t o dist in gu ish t h em selves in
t h e br a ver y a n d n u m ber of t h eir com pa n ion s. “Th eir dign it y a n d power ,”
con t in u es Ta cit u s, “con sist in bein g con st a n t ly su r r ou n ded by a m u lt it u de of
you n g a n d ch osen people; t h is t h ey r eckon t h eir or n a m en t in pea ce, t h is t h eir
defen ce a n d su ppor t in wa r . Th eir n a m e becom es fa m ou s a t h om e, a n d a m on g
n eigh bou r in g n a t ion s, wh en t h ey excel a ll ot h er s in t h e n u m ber a n d cou r a ge of
t h eir com pa n ion s: t h ey r eceive pr esen t s a n d em ba ssies fr om a ll pa r t s.
Repu t a t ion fr equ en t ly decides t h e fa t e of wa r . In ba t t le it is in fa m y in t h e pr in ce
t o be su r pa ssed in cou r a ge; it is in fa m y in t h e com pa n ion s n ot t o follow t h e
br a ve exa m ple of t h eir pr in ce; it is a n et er n a l disgr a ce t o su r vive h im . To defen d
h im is t h eir m ost sa cr ed en ga gem en t . If a cit y be a t pea ce, t h e pr in ces go t o
t h ose wh o a r e a t wa r ; a n d it is t h u s t h ey r et a in a gr ea t n u m ber of fr ien ds. To
t h ese t h ey give t h e wa r h or se a n d t h e t er r ible ja velin . Th eir pa y con sist s in
coa r se bu t plen t ifu l r epa st s. Th e pr in ce su ppor t s h is liber a lit y m er ely by wa r

a n d plu n der . You m igh t m or e ea sily per su a de t h em t o a t t a ck a n en em y a n d t o
expose t h em selves t o t h e da n ger s of wa r , t h a n t o cu lt iva t e t h e la n d, or t o a t t en d
t o t h e ca r es of h u sba n dr y; t h ey r efu se t o a cqu ir e by swea t wh a t t h ey ca n
pu r ch a se wit h blood.”
Th u s, a m on g t h e Ger m a n s, t h er e wer e va ssa ls, bu t n o fiefs; t h ey h a d n o fiefs,
beca u se t h e pr in ces h a d n o la n ds t o give; or r a t h er t h eir fiefs con sist ed in h or ses
t r a in ed for wa r , in a r m s, a n d fea st in g. Th er e wer e va ssa ls, beca u se t h er e wer e
t r u st y m en wh o bein g bou n d by t h eir wor d en ga ged t o follow t h e pr in ce t o t h e
field, a n d did ver y n ea r ly t h e sa m e ser vice a s wa s a ft er wa r ds per for m ed for t h e
fiefs.
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Ca esa r sa ys 7 t h a t “wh en a n y of t h e pr in ces decla r ed t o t h e a ssem bly t h a t h e
in t en ded t o set ou t u pon a n expedit ion a n d a sked t h em t o follow h im , t h ose wh o
a ppr oved t h e lea der a n d t h e en t er pr ise st ood u p a n d offer ed t h eir a ssist a n ce.
Upon wh ich t h ey wer e com m en ded by t h e m u lt it u de. Bu t , if t h ey did n ot fu lfil
t h eir en ga gem en t s, t h ey lost t h e pu blic est eem , a n d wer e look ed u pon a s
deser t er s a n d t r a it or s.”
Wh a t Ca esa r sa ys in t h is pla ce, a n d wh a t we h a ve ext r a ct ed in t h e pr ecedin g
ch a pt er fr om Ta cit u s, a r e t h e su bst a n ce of t h e h ist or y of ou r pr in ces of t h e fir st
r a ce.
We m u st n ot t h er efor e be su r pr ised t h a t ou r kin gs sh ou ld h a ve n ew a r m ies t o
r a ise u pon ever y expedit ion , n ew t r oops t o en cou r a ge, n ew people t o en ga ge;
t h a t t o a cqu ir e m u ch t h ey wer e obliged t o in cu r gr ea t expen ses; t h a t t h ey
sh ou ld be con st a n t ga in er s by t h e division of la n ds a n d spoils, a n d yet give t h ese
la n ds a n d spoils in cessa n t ly a wa y: t h a t t h eir dem esn e sh ou ld con t in u a lly
in cr ea se a n d dim in ish ; t h a t a fa t h er u pon set t lin g a kin gdom on on e of h is
ch ildr en 8 sh ou ld a lwa ys give h im a t r ea su r e wit h it : t h a t t h e kin g’s t r ea su r e
sh ou ld be con sider ed a s n ecessa r y t o t h e m on a r ch y; a n d t h a t on e kin g cou ld n ot
give pa r t of it t o for eign er s, even in por t ion wit h h is da u gh t er , wit h ou t t h e
con sen t of t h e ot h er kin gs. 9 Th e m on a r ch y m oved by spr in gs, wh ich t h ey wer e
con t in u a lly obliged t o win d u p.
L1&@(&+-%&)'*XF%,+,&'(&+-%&Y."*>,1
It is n ot t r u e t h a t t h e F r a n ks u pon en t er in g Ga u l t ook possession of t h e wh ole
cou n t r y t o t u r n it in t o fiefs. Som e h a ve been of t h is opin ion beca u se t h ey sa w
t h e gr ea t est pa r t of t h e cou n t r y t owa r ds t h e en d of t h e secon d r a ce con ver t ed
in t o fiefs, r ea r -fiefs, or ot h er depen den cies; bu t su ch a disposit ion wa s owin g t o
pa r t icu la r ca u ses wh ich we sh a ll expla in h er ea ft er .
Th e con sequ en ce wh ich su n dr y wr it er s wou ld in fer t h en ce, t h a t t h e
ba r ba r ia n s m a de a gen er a l r egu la t ion for est a blish in g in a ll pa r t s t h e st a t e of
villa in a ge is a s fa lse a s t h e pr in ciple fr om wh ich it is der ived. If a t a t im e wh en
t h e fiefs wer e pr eca r iou s, a ll t h e la n ds of t h e kin gdom h a d been fiefs, or
depen den cies of fiefs; a n d a ll t h e m en in t h e kin gdom va ssa ls or bon dm en
su bor din a t e t o va ssa ls; a s t h e per son t h a t h a s pr oper t y is ever possessed of
power , t h e kin g, wh o wou ld h a ve con t in u a lly disposed of t h e fiefs, t h a t is, of t h e
on ly pr oper t y t h en exist in g; wou ld h a ve h a d a power a s a r bit r a r y a s t h a t of t h e
Su lt a n is in Tu r key; wh ich is con t r a dict or y t o a ll h ist or y.
O1&@(&+-%&A'+-,I&=F.DF*05"*,I&"*0&Y."*>,1&
Ga u l wa s in va ded by Ger m a n n a t ion s. Th e Visigot h s t ook possession of t h e
pr ovin ce of Na r bon n e, a n d of a lm ost a ll t h e sou t h ; t h e Bu r gu n dia n s set t led in
t h e ea st ; a n d t h e F r a n ks su bdu ed ver y n ea r ly a ll t h e r est .
No dou bt bu t t h ese Ba r ba r ia n s r et a in ed in t h eir r espect ive con qu est s t h e
m a n n er s, in clin a t ion s, a n d u sa ges of t h eir own cou n t r y; for n o n a t ion ca n
ch a n ge in a n in st a n t t h eir m a n n er of t h in kin g a n d a ct in g. Th ese people in
Ger m a n y n eglect ed a gr icu lt u r e. It seem s by Ca esa r a n d Ta cit u s t h a t t h ey
a pplied t h em selves gr ea t ly t o a pa st or a l life; h en ce t h e r egu la t ion s of t h e codes
of Ba r ba r ia n la ws a lm ost a ll r ela t e t o t h eir flocks. Ror icon , wh o wr ot e a h ist or y
a m on g t h e F r a n ks, wa s a sh eph er d.
P1&C5((%.%*+&W"H,&'(&05;505*D&+-%&6"*01&
Aft er t h e Got h s a n d Bu r gu n dia n s h a d, u n der va r iou s pr et en ces, pen et r a t ed
in t o t h e h ea r t of t h e em pir e, t h e Rom a n s, in or der t o pu t a st op t o t h eir
deva st a t ion s, wer e obliged t o pr ovide for t h eir su bsist en ce. At fir st t h ey a llowed
t h em cor n ,10 bu t a ft er wa r ds ch ose t o give t h em la n ds. Th e em per or s, or t h e

Rom a n m a gist r a t es, in t h eir n a m e, m a de pa r t icu la r con ven t ion s wit h t h em
con cer n in g t h e division of la n ds, 11 a s we fin d in t h e ch r on icles a n d in t h e codes
of t h e Visigot h s 12 a n d Bu r gu n dia n s.13
Th e F r a n ks did n ot follow t h e sa m e pla n . In t h e Sa lic a n d Ripu a r ia n la ws, we
fin d n ot t h e lea st vest ige of a n y su ch division of la n ds; t h ey h a d con qu er ed t h e
cou n t r y, a n d so t ook wh a t t h ey plea sed, m a kin g n o r egu la t ion s bu t a m on g
t h em selves.
Let u s, t h er efor e, dist in gu ish bet ween t h e con du ct of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s a n d
Visigot h s in Ga u l, of t h ose sa m e Visigot h s in Spa in , of t h e a u xilia r y t r oops
u n der Au gu st u lu s a n d Odoa cer in It a ly,14 a n d t h a t of t h e F r a n ks in Ga u l, a s
a lso of t h e Va n da ls in Afr ica . 15 Th e for m er en t er ed in t o con ven t ion s wit h t h e
a n cien t in h a bit a n t s, a n d in con sequ en ce t h er eof m a de a division of la n ds
bet ween t h em ; t h e la t t er did n o su ch t h in g.
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Wh a t h a s in du ced som e t o t h in k t h a t t h e Rom a n la n ds wer e en t ir ely u su r ped
by t h e Ba r ba r ia n s is t h eir fin din g in t h e la ws of t h e Visigot h s a n d t h e
Bu r gu n dia n s t h a t t h ese t wo n a t ion s h a d t wo-t h ir ds of t h e la n ds; bu t t h is t h ey
t ook on ly in cer t a in qu a r t er s or dist r ict s a ssign ed t h em .
Gu n deba ld sa ys, in t h e la w of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, t h a t h is people a t t h eir
est a blish m en t h a d t wo-t h ir ds of t h e la n ds a llowed t h em ;16 a n d t h e secon d
su pplem en t t o t h is la w n ot ices t h a t on ly a m oiet y wou ld be a llowed t o t h ose wh o
sh ou ld h er ea ft er com e t o live in t h a t cou n t r y.17 Th er efor e, a ll t h e la n ds h a d n ot
been divided in t h e begin n in g bet ween t h e Rom a n s a n d t h e Bu r gu n dia n s.
In t h ose t wo r egu la t ion s we m eet wit h t h e sa m e expr ession s in t h e t ext ,
con sequ en t ly t h ey expla in on e a n ot h er ; a n d a s t h e la t t er ca n n ot m ea n a
u n iver sa l division of la n ds, n eit h er ca n t h is sign ifica t ion be given t o t h e for m er .
Th e F r a n ks a ct ed wit h t h e sa m e m oder a t ion a s t h e Bu r gu n dia n s; t h ey did n ot
st r ip t h e Rom a n s wh er ever t h ey ext en ded t h eir con qu est s. Wh a t wou ld t h ey
h a ve don e wit h so m u ch la n d? Th ey t ook wh a t su it ed t h em , a n d left t h e
r em a in der .
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N5,5D'+-,I&5*&.%$"+5'*&+'&+-%&C5;5,5'*&'(&6"*0,1&
It is t o be con sider ed t h a t t h ose division s of la n d wer e n ot m a de wit h a
t yr a n n ica l spir it ; bu t wit h a view of r elievin g t h e r ecipr oca l wa n t s of t wo
n a t ion s t h a t wer e t o in h a bit t h e sa m e cou n t r y.
Th e la w of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s or da in s t h a t a Bu r gu n dia n sh a ll be r eceived in
a n h ospit a ble m a n n er by a Rom a n . Th is is a gr eea ble t o t h e m a n n er s of t h e
Ger m a n s, wh o, a ccor din g t o Ta cit u s,18 wer e t h e m ost h ospit a ble people in t h e
wor ld.
By t h e la w of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, it is or da in ed t h a t t h e Bu r gu n dia n s sh a ll h a ve
t wo-t h ir ds of t h e la n ds, a n d on e-t h ir d of t h e bon dm en . In t h is it con sider ed t h e
gen iu s of t wo n a t ion s, a n d con for m ed t o t h e m a n n er in wh ich t h ey pr ocu r ed
t h eir su bsist en ce. As t h e Bu r gu n dia n s kept h er ds a n d flocks, t h ey wa n t ed a
gr ea t dea l of la n d a n d few bon dm en , a n d t h e Rom a n s, fr om t h eir a pplica t ion t o
a gr icu lt u r e, h a d n eed of less la n d, a n d of a gr ea t er n u m ber of bon dm en . Th e
woods wer e equ a lly divided, beca u se t h eir wa n t s in t h is r espect wer e t h e sa m e.
We fin d in t h e code of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s 19 t h a t ea ch Ba r ba r ia n wa s pla ced n ea r
a Rom a n . Th e division t h er efor e wa s n ot gen er a l; bu t t h e Rom a n s wh o ga ve t h e
division wer e equ a l in n u m ber t o t h e Bu r gu n dia n s wh o r eceived it . Th e Rom a n
wa s in ju r ed lea st . Th e Bu r gu n dia n s a s a m a r t ia l people, fon d of h u n t in g a n d of
a pa st or a l life, did n ot r efu se t o a ccept of t h e fa llow gr ou n ds; wh ile t h e Rom a n s
kept su ch la n ds a s wer e pr oper est for cu lt u r e: t h e Bu r gu n dia n ’s flock fa t t en ed
t h e Rom a n ’s field.
BT1&@(&3%.;5+F0%,1&
Th e la w of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s n ot ices 20 t h a t wh en t h ose people set t led in Ga u l,
t h ey wer e a llowed t wo-t h ir ds of t h e la n d, a n d on e-t h ir d of t h e bon dm en . Th e
st a t e of villa in a ge wa s t h er efor e est a blish ed in t h a t pa r t of Ga u l befor e it wa s
in va ded by t h e Bu r gu n dia n s. 21
Th e la w of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, in poin t s r ela t in g t o t h e t wo n a t ion s, m a k es a
for m a l dist in ct ion in bot h , bet ween t h e n obles, t h e fr eebor n a n d t h e bon dm en . 22
Ser vit u de wa s n ot t h er efor e a t h in g pecu lia r t o t h e Rom a n s; n or liber t y a n d
n obilit y t o t h e Ba r ba r ia n s.
Th is ver y sa m e la w sa ys, 23 t h a t if a Bu r gu n dia n fr eedm a n h a d n ot given a
cer t a in su m t o h is m a st er , n or r eceived a t h ir d sh a r e of a Rom a n , h e wa s a lwa ys
su pposed t o belon g t o h is m a st er ’s fa m ily. Th e Rom a n pr opr iet or wa s t h er efor e
fr ee, sin ce h e did n ot belon g t o a n ot h er per son ’s fa m ily; h e wa s fr ee, beca u se h is
t h ir d por t ion wa s a m a r k of liber t y.
We n eed on ly open t h e Sa lic a n d Ripu a r ia n la ws t o be sa t isfied t h a t t h e
Rom a n s wer e n o m or e in a st a t e of ser vit u de a m on g t h e F r a n ks t h a n a m on g t h e
ot h er con qu er or s of Ga u l.
Th e Cou n t de Bou la in villier s is m ist a ken in t h e ca pit a l poin t of h is syst em : h e
h a s n ot pr oved t h a t t h e F r a n ks m a de a gen er a l r egu la t ion wh ich r edu ced t h e
Rom a n s in t o a kin d of ser vit u de.
As t h is a u t h or ’s wor k is pen n ed wit h ou t a r t , a n d a s h e spea k s wit h t h e
sim plicit y, fr a n kn ess, a n d ca n dou r of t h a t a n cien t n obilit y wh en ce h e descen ds,
ever y on e is ca pa ble of ju dgin g of t h e good t h in gs h e sa ys, a n d of t h e er r or s in t o
wh ich h e h a s fa llen . I sh a ll n ot , t h er efor e, u n der t a ke t o cr it icise h im ; I sh a ll
on ly obser ve t h a t h e h a d m or e wit t h a n en ligh t en m en t , m or e en ligh t en m en t
t h a n lea r n in g; t h ou gh h is lea r n in g wa s n ot con t em pt ible, for h e wa s well
a cqu a in t ed wit h t h e m ost va lu a ble pa r t of ou r h ist or y a n d la ws.
Th e Cou n t de Bou la in villier s a n d t h e Abbé du Bos h a ve for m ed t wo differ en t
syst em s, on e of wh ich seem s t o be a con spir a cy a ga in st t h e com m on s, a n d t h e
ot h er a ga in st t h e n obilit y. Wh en t h e su n ga ve lea ve t o P h a et on t o dr ive h is
ch a r iot , h e sa id t o h im , “If you a scen d t oo h igh , you will bu r n t h e h ea ven ly
m a n sion s; if you descen d t oo low, you will r edu ce t h e ea r t h t o a sh es; do n ot
dr ive t o t h e r igh t , you will m eet t h er e wit h t h e con st ella t ion of t h e Ser pen t ;
a void goin g t oo m u ch t o t h e left , you will t h er e fa ll in wit h t h a t of t h e Alt a r :
keep in t h e m iddle.”24
BB1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01&
Wh a t fir st ga ve r ise t o t h e n ot ion of a gen er a l r egu la t ion m a de a t t h e t im e of
t h e con qu est wa s ou r m eet in g wit h a n im m en se n u m ber of for m s of ser vit u de
in F r a n ce, t owa r ds t h e begin n in g of t h e t h ir d r a ce; a n d a s t h e con t in u a l
pr ogr ession of t h ese for m s of ser vit u de wa s n ot per ceived, people im a gin ed in
a n a ge of obscu r it y a gen er a l la w wh ich wa s n ever fr a m ed.

Towa r ds t h e com m en cem en t of t h e fir st r a ce we m eet wit h a n in fin it e n u m ber
of fr eem en , bot h a m on g t h e F r a n ks a n d t h e Rom a n s; bu t t h e n u m ber of
bon dm en in cr ea sed t o t h a t degr ee, t h a t a t t h e begin n in g of t h e t h ir d r a ce a ll t h e
h u sba n dm en a n d a lm ost a ll t h e in h a bit a n t s of t own s h a d becom e bon dm en :25
a n d wh er ea s, a t t h e fir st per iod, t h er e wa s ver y n ea r ly t h e sa m e a dm in ist r a t ion
in t h e cit ies a s a m on g t h e Rom a n s, n a m ely, a cor por a t ion , a sen a t e, a n d cou r t s
of ju dica t u r e; a t t h e ot h er we h a r dly m eet wit h a n yt h in g bu t a lor d a n d h is
bon dm en .
Wh en t h e F r a n ks, Bu r gu n dia n s, a n d Got h s m a de t h eir sever a l in va sion s, t h ey
seized u pon gold, silver , m ova bles, clot h es, m en , wom en , boys, a n d wh a t ever t h e
a r m y cou ld ca r r y; t h e wh ole wa s br ou gh t t o on e pla ce, a n d divided a m on g t h e
a r m y. 26 H ist or y sh ows t h a t a ft er t h e fir st set t lem en t , t h a t is, a ft er t h e fir st
deva st a t ion , t h ey en t er ed in t o a n a gr eem en t wit h t h e in h a bit a n t s, a n d left t h em
a ll t h eir polit ica l a n d civil r igh t s. Th is wa s t h e la w of n a t ion s in t h ose da ys; t h ey
plu n der ed ever yt h in g in t im e of wa r , a n d gr a n t ed ever yt h in g in t im e of pea ce.
Wer e it n ot so, h ow sh ou ld we fin d bot h in t h e Sa lic a n d Bu r gu n dia n la ws su ch
a n u m ber of r egu la t ion s a bsolu t ely con t r a r y t o a gen er a l ser vit u de of t h e
people?
Bu t t h ou gh t h e con qu est wa s n ot im m edia t ely pr odu ct ive of ser vit u de, it a r ose
n ever t h eless fr om t h e sa m e la w of n a t ion s wh ich su bsist ed a ft er t h e con qu est . 27
Opposit ion , r evolt s a n d t h e t a kin g of t own s wer e followed by t h e sla ver y of t h e
in h a bit a n t s. An d, n ot t o m en t ion t h e wa r s wh ich t h e con qu er in g n a t ion s m a de
a ga in st on e a n ot h er , a s t h er e wa s t h is pecu lia r it y a m on g t h e F r a n ks, t h a t t h e
differ en t pa r t it ion s of t h e m on a r ch y ga ve r ise con t in u a lly t o civil wa r s bet ween
br ot h er s or n eph ews, in wh ich t h is la w of n a t ion s wa s con st a n t ly pr a ct ised,
ser vit u des, of cou r se, beca m e m or e gen er a l in F r a n ce t h a n in ot h er cou n t r ies:
a n d t h is is, I believe, on e of t h e ca u ses of t h e differ en ce bet ween ou r F r en ch
la ws a n d t h ose of It a ly a n d Spa in , in r espect t o t h e r igh t of seign ior ies.
Th e con qu est wa s soon over , a n d t h e la w of n a t ion s t h en in for ce wa s
pr odu ct ive of som e ser vile depen den ces. Th e cu st om of t h e sa m e la w of n a t ion s,
wh ich obt a in ed for m a n y a ges, ga ve a pr odigiou s ext en t t o t h ose ser vit u des.
Th eodor ic28 im a gin in g t h a t t h e people of Au ver gn e wer e n ot fa it h fu l t o h im ,
t h u s a ddr essed t h e F r a n ks of h is division : “F ollow m e, a n d I will ca r r y you in t o

a cou n t r y wh er e you sh a ll h a ve gold, silver , ca pt ives, clot h es, a n d flocks in
a bu n da n ce; a n d you sh a ll r em ove a ll t h e people in t o you r own cou n t r y.”
Aft er t h e con clu sion of t h e pea ce bet ween Gon t r a m a n d Ch ilper ic, t h e t r oops
em ployed in t h e siege of Bou r ges, h a vin g h a d or der s t o r et u r n , ca r r ied su ch a
con sider a ble boot y a wa y wit h t h em t h a t t h ey h a r dly left eit h er m en or ca t t le in
t h e cou n t r y. 29
Th eodor ic, Kin g of It a ly, wh ose spir it a n d policy it wa s ever t o dist in gu ish
h im self fr om t h e ot h er ba r ba r ia n kin gs, u pon sen din g a n a r m y in t o Ga u l, wr ot e
t h u s t o t h e gen er a l:30 “It is m y will t h a t t h e Rom a n la ws be followed, a n d t h a t
you r est or e t h e fu git ive sla ves t o t h eir r igh t own er s. Th e defen der of liber t y
ou gh t n ot t o en cou r a ge ser va n t s t o deser t t h eir m a st er s. Let ot h er kin gs deligh t
in t h e plu n der a n d deva st a t ion of t h e t own s wh ich t h ey h a ve su bdu ed; we a r e
desir ou s t o con qu er in su ch a m a n n er t h a t ou r su bject s sh a ll la m en t t h eir
h a vin g fa llen t oo la t e u n der ou r gover n m en t .” It is eviden t t h a t h is in t en t ion
wa s t o ca st odiu m on t h e kin gs of t h e F r a n ks a n d t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, a n d t h a t h e
a llu ded in t h e a bove pa ssa ge t o t h eir pa r t icu la r la w of n a t ion s. Yet t h is la w of
n a t ion s con t in u ed in for ce u n der t h e secon d r a ce. Kin g P epin ’s a r m y, h a vin g
pen et r a t ed in t o Aqu it a in e, r et u r n ed t o F r a n ce loa ded wit h a n im m en se boot y,
a n d wit h a n u m ber of bon dm en , a s we a r e in for m ed by t h e a n n a ls of Met z.31
H er e m igh t I qu ot e n u m ber less a u t h or it ies;32 a n d a s t h e pu blic com pa ssion
wa s r a ised a t t h e sigh t of t h ose m iser ies, a s sever a l h oly pr ela t es, beh oldin g t h e
ca pt ives in ch a in s, em ployed t h e t r ea su r e belon gin g t o t h e ch u r ch , a n d sold even
t h e sa cr ed u t en sils, t o r a n som a s m a n y a s t h ey cou ld; a n d a s sever a l h oly m on ks
exer t ed t h em selves on t h a t occa sion , it is in t h e Lives of t h e Sa in t s t h a t we m eet
wit h t h e best expla n a t ion s on t h e su bject . 33 An d, a lt h ou gh it m a y be object ed t o
t h e a u t h or s of t h ose lives t h a t t h ey h a ve been som et im es a lit t le t oo cr edu lou s
in r espect t o t h in gs wh ich God h a s cer t a in ly per for m ed, if t h ey wer e in t h e or der
of h is pr oviden ce; yet we dr a w con sider a ble ligh t t h en ce wit h r ega r d t o t h e
m a n n er s a n d u sa ges of t h ose t im es.
Wh en we ca st a n eye u pon t h e m on u m en t s of ou r h ist or y a n d la ws, t h e wh ole
seem s t o be a n im m en se expa n se, a bou n dless ocea n ;34 a ll t h ose fr igid, dr y,
in sipid, a n d h a r d wr it in gs m u st be r ea d a n d devou r ed in t h e sa m e m a n n er a s
Sa t u r n is fa bled t o h a ve devou r ed t h e st on es.

A va st qu a n t it y of la n d wh ich h a d been in t h e h a n ds of fr eem en 35 wa s ch a n ged
in t o m or t m a in . Wh en t h e cou n t r y wa s st r ipped of it s fr ee in h a bit a n t s, t h ose
wh o h a d a gr ea t m u lt it u de of bon dm en eit h er t ook la r ge t er r it or ies by for ce, or
h a d t h em yielded by a gr eem en t , a n d bu ilt villa ges, a s m a y be seen in differ en t
ch a r t er s. On t h e ot h er h a n d, t h e fr eem en wh o cu lt iva t ed t h e a r t s fou n d
t h em selves r edu ced t o exer cise t h ose a r t s in a st a t e of ser vit u de; t h u s t h e
ser vit u des r est or ed t o t h e a r t s a n d t o a gr icu lt u r e wh a t ever t h ey h a d lost .
It wa s a cu st om a r y t h in g wit h t h e pr opr iet or s of la n ds, t o give t h em t o t h e
ch u r ch es, in or der t o h old t h em t h em selves by a qu it -r en t , t h in kin g t o pa r t a ke
by t h eir ser vit u de of t h e sa n ct it y of t h e ch u r ch es.
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*'&!"V%,1
A people r em a r ka ble for t h eir sim plicit y a n d pover t y, a fr ee a n d m a r t ia l
people, wh o lived wit h ou t a n y ot h er in du st r y t h a n t h a t of t en din g t h eir flocks,
a n d wh o h a d n ot h in g bu t r u sh cot t a ges t o a t t a ch t h em t o t h eir la n ds,36 su ch a
people, I sa y, m u st h a ve followed t h eir ch iefs for t h e sa ke of boot y, a n d n ot t o
pa y or t o r a ise t a xes. Th e a r t of t a x-ga t h er in g wa s in ven t ed la t er , a n d wh en
m en bega n t o en joy t h e blessin gs of ot h er a r t s.
Th e t em por a r y t a x of a pit ch er of win e for ever y a cr e, 37 wh ich wa s on e of t h e
exa ct ion s of Ch ilper ic a n d F r edegon da , r ela t ed on ly t o t h e Rom a n s. An d in deed
it wa s n ot t h e F r a n ks t h a t t or e t h e r olls of t h ose t a xes, bu t t h e cler gy, wh o in
t h ose da ys wer e a ll Rom a n s. 38 Th e bu r den of t h is t a x la y ch iefly on t h e
in h a bit a n t s of t h e t own s;39 n ow t h ese wer e a lm ost a ll in h a bit ed by Rom a n s.
Gr egor y of Tou r s r ela t es 40 t h a t a cer t a in ju dge wa s obliged, a ft er t h e dea t h of
Ch ilper ic, t o t a ke r efu ge in a ch u r ch , for h a vin g u n der t h e r eign of t h a t pr in ce
or der ed t a xes t o be levied on sever a l F r a n ks wh o in t h e r eign of Ch ildeber t wer e
in gen u i, or fr ee-bor n : Mu lt os de F r a n cis, qu i t em por e Ch ildeber t i r egis in gen u i
fu er a n t , pu blico t r ibu t o su begit . Th er efor e t h e F r a n ks wh o wer e n ot bon dm en
pa id n o t a xes.
Th er e is n ot a gr a m m a r ia n bu t wou ld t u r n pa le t o see h ow t h e Abbé du Bos
h a s in t er pr et ed t h is pa ssa ge. 41 H e obser ves t h a t in t h ose da ys t h e fr eedm en
wer e a lso ca lled in gen u i. Upon t h is su pposit ion h e r en der s t h e La t in wor d

in gen u i, by t h e wor ds “fr eed fr om t a xes”; a ph r a se wh ich we in deed m a y u se in
F r en ch , a s we sa y “fr eed fr om ca r es,” “fr eed fr om pu n ish m en t s”; bu t in t h e La t in
t on gu e su ch expr ession s a s in gen u i a t r ibu t is, liber t in i a t r ibu t is, m a n u m issi
t r ibu t or u m , wou ld be qu it e m on st r ou s.
P a r t h en iu s, sa ys Gr egor y of Tou r s, 42 h a d like t o h a ve been pu t t o dea t h by t h e
F r a n ks for su bject in g t h em t o t a xes. Th e Abbé du Bos fin din g h im self h a r d
pr essed by t h is pa ssa ge 43 ver y coolly a ssu m es t h e t h in g in qu est ion ; it wa s, sa ys
h e, a su r ch a r ge.
We fin d in t h e la w of t h e Visigot h s 44 t h a t wh en a Ba r ba r ia n h a d seized u pon
t h e est a t e of a Rom a n , t h e ju dge obliged h im t o sell it , t o t h e en d t h a t t h is est a t e
m igh t con t in u e t o be t r ibu t a r y; con sequ en t ly t h e Ba r ba r ia n s pa id n o la n d
t a xes. 45
Th e Abbé du Bos, 46 wh o wou ld fa in h a ve t h e Visigot h s su bject ed t o t a xes,47
qu it s t h e lit er a l a n d spir it u a l sen se of t h e la w, a n d pr et en ds, u pon n o ot h er
in deed t h a n a n im a gin a r y fou n da t ion , t h a t bet ween t h e est a blish m en t of t h e
Got h s a n d t h is la w, t h er e h a d been a n a u gm en t a t ion of t a xes wh ich r ela t ed on ly
t o t h e Rom a n s. Bu t n on e bu t F a t h er H a r du in a r e a llowed t h u s t o exer cise a n
a r bit r a r y power over fa ct s.
Th is lea r n ed a u t h or 48 h a s r u m m a ged J u st in ia n ’s Code 49 in sea r ch of la ws t o
pr ove t h a t , a m on g t h e Rom a n s, t h e m ilit a r y ben efices wer e su bject t o t a xes.
Wh en ce h e wou ld in fer t h a t t h e sa m e h eld good wit h r ega r d t o fiefs or ben efices
a m on g t h e F r a n ks. Bu t t h e opin ion t h a t ou r fiefs der ive t h eir or igin fr om t h a t
In st it u t ion of t h e Rom a n s is a t pr esen t exploded; it obt a in ed on ly a t a t im e
wh en t h e Rom a n h ist or y, n ot ou r s, wa s well u n der st ood, a n d ou r a n cien t
r ecor ds la y bu r ied in obscu r it y a n d du st .
Bu t t h e Abbé is in t h e wr on g t o qu ot e Ca ssiodor u s, a n d t o m a ke u se of wh a t
wa s t r a n sa ct in g in It a ly, a n d in t h e pa r t of Ga u l su bject t o Th eodor ic, in or der
t o a cqu a in t u s wit h t h e pr a ct ice est a blish ed a m on g t h e F r a n ks; t h ese a r e t h in gs
wh ich m u st n ot be con fou n ded. I pr opose t o sh ow, som e t im e or ot h er , in a
cer t a in wor k, t h a t t h e pla n of t h e m on a r ch y of t h e Ost r ogot h s wa s en t ir ely
differ en t fr om t h a t of a n y ot h er gover n m en t fou n ded in t h ose da ys by t h e ot h er
Ba r ba r ia n n a t ion s; a n d t h a t so fa r fr om ou r bein g en t it led t o a ffir m t h a t a
pr a ct ice obt a in ed a m on g t h e F r a n ks beca u se it wa s est a blish ed a m on g t h e

Ost r ogot h s, we h a ve on t h e con t r a r y ju st r ea son t o t h in k t h a t a cu st om of t h e
Ost r ogot h s wa s n ot in for ce a m on g t h e F r a n ks.
Th e h a r dest t a sk for per son s of ext en sive er u dit ion is t o seek t h eir pr oofs in
su ch pa ssa ges a s bea r u pon t h e su bject , a n d t o fin d, if we m a y be a llowed t o
expr ess ou r selves in a st r on om ica l t er m s, t h e posit ion of t h e su n .
Th e sa m e a u t h or m a kes a wr on g u se of t h e ca pit u la r ies, a s well a s of t h e
h ist or ia n s a n d la ws of t h e ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s. Wh en h e wa n t s t h e F r a n ks t o pa y
t a xes, h e a pplies t o fr eem en wh a t ca n be u n der st ood on ly of bon dm en ;50 wh en
h e spea ks of t h eir m ilit a r y ser vice, h e a pplies t o bon dm en wh a t ca n n ever r ela t e
bu t t o fr eem en .51
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Y."*>,1
I m igh t h er e exa m in e wh et h er , a ft er t h e Ga u ls a n d Rom a n s wer e con qu er ed,
t h ey con t in u ed t o pa y t h e t a xes t o wh ich t h ey wer e su bject u n der t h e em per or s.
Bu t , for t h e sa ke of br evit y, I sh a ll be sa t isfied wit h obser vin g t h a t , if t h ey pa id
t h em in t h e begin n in g, t h ey wer e soon a ft er exem pt ed, a n d t h a t t h ose t a xes
wer e ch a n ged in t o a m ilit a r y ser vice. F or , I con fess, I ca n h a r dly con ceive h ow
t h e F r a n ks sh ou ld h a ve been a t fir st su ch gr ea t fr ien ds, a n d a ft er wa r ds su ch
su dden a n d violen t en em ies, t o t a xes.
A ca pit u la r y 52 of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e expla in s ext r em ely well t h e sit u a t ion
of t h e fr eem en in t h e m on a r ch y of t h e F r a n ks. Som e t r oops of Got h s or Iber ia n s,
flyin g fr om t h e oppr ession of t h e Moor s, wer e r eceived in t o Lou is’ dom in ion s.
Th e a gr eem en t m a de wit h t h em wa s t h a t , like ot h er fr eem en , t h ey sh ou ld follow
t h eir cou n t t o t h e a r m y; a n d t h a t u pon a m a r ch t h ey sh ou ld m ou n t gu a r d a n d
pa t r ol u n der t h e com m a n d a lso of t h eir cou n t ; a n d t h a t t h ey sh ou ld fu r n ish
h or ses a n d ca r r ia ges for ba gga ge t o t h e kin g’s com m issa r ies,53 a n d t o t h e
a m ba ssa dor s in t h eir wa y t o or fr om cou r t ; a n d t h a t t h ey sh ou ld n ot be
com pelled t o pa y a n y fu r t h er im post , bu t sh ou ld be t r ea t ed a s t h e ot h er
fr eem en .
It ca n n ot be sa id t h a t t h ese wer e n ew u sa ges in t r odu ced a t t h e
com m en cem en t of t h e secon d r a ce. Th is m u st be r efer r ed a t lea st t o t h e m iddle
or t o t h e en d of t h e fir st . A ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 864 54 sa ys in expr ess t er m s

t h a t it wa s t h e a n cien t cu st om for fr eem en t o per for m m ilit a r y ser vice, a n d t o
fu r n ish likewise t h e h or ses a n d ca r r ia ges a bove-m en t ion ed; du t ies pa r t icu la r
t o t h em selves, a n d fr om wh ich t h ose wh o possessed t h e fiefs wer e exem pt , a s
I sh a ll pr ove h er ea ft er .
Th is is n ot a ll; t h er e wa s a r egu la t ion wh ich h a r dly per m it t ed t h e im posin g
of t a xes on t h ose fr eem en . 55 H e wh o h a d fou r m a n or s wa s obliged t o m a r ch
a ga in st t h e en em y:56 h e wh o h a d bu t t h r ee wa s join ed wit h a fr eem a n t h a t h a d
on ly on e; t h e la t t er bor e t h e fou r t h pa r t of t h e ot h er ’s ch a r ges, a n d st a yed a t
h om e. In like m a n n er , t h ey join ed t wo fr eem en wh o h a d ea ch t wo m a n or s; h e
wh o wen t t o t h e a r m y h a d h a lf h is ch a r ges bor n e by h im wh o st a yed a t h om e.
Aga in , we h a ve a n in fin it e n u m ber of ch a r t er s, in wh ich t h e pr ivileges of fiefs
a r e gr a n t ed t o la n ds or dist r ict s possessed by fr eem en , a n d of wh ich I sh a ll
m a ke fu r t h er m en t ion h er ea ft er .57 Th ese la n ds a r e exem pt ed fr om a ll t h e du t ies
or ser vices wh ich wer e r equ ir ed of t h em by t h e cou n t s, a n d by t h e r est of t h e
kin g’s officer s; a n d a s a ll t h ese ser vices a r e pa r t icu la r ly en u m er a t ed wit h ou t
m a k in g a n y m en t ion of t a xes, it is m a n ifest t h a t n o t a xes wer e im posed u pon
t h em .
It wa s ver y n a t u r a l t h a t t h e Rom a n syst em of t a xa t ion sh ou ld of it self fa ll ou t
of u se in t h e m on a r ch y of t h e F r a n ks; it wa s a m ost com plica t ed device, fa r
a bove t h e con cept ion , a n d wide fr om t h e pla n of t h ose sim ple people. Wer e t h e
Ta r t a r s t o over r u n E u r ope, we sh ou ld fin d it ver y difficu lt t o m a ke t h em
com pr eh en d wh a t is m ea n t by ou r fin a n cier s.
Th e a n on ym ou s a u t h or of t h e life of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e, 58 spea kin g of t h e
cou n t s a n d ot h er officer s of t h e n a t ion of t h e F r a n ks, wh om Ch a r lem a gn e
est a blish ed in Aqu it a n ia , sa ys, t h a t h e en t r u st ed t h em wit h t h e ca r e of
defen din g t h e fr on t ier s, a s a lso wit h t h e m ilit a r y power a n d t h e dir ect ion of t h e
dem esn es belon gin g t o t h e cr own . Th is sh ows t h e st a t e of t h e r oya l r even u es
u n der t h e secon d r a ce. Th e pr in ce h a d kept h is dem esn es in h is own h a n ds, a n d
em ployed h is bon dm en in im pr ovin g t h em . Bu t t h e in dict ion s, t h e ca pit a t ion s
a n d ot h er im post s r a ised a t t h e t im e of t h e em per or s on t h e per son s or goods of
fr eem en h a d been ch a n ged in t o a n obliga t ion of defen din g t h e fr on t ier s a n d
m a r ch in g a ga in st t h e en em y.
In t h e sa m e h ist or y, 59 we fin d t h a t Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e, h a vin g been t o wa it

u pon h is fa t h er in Ger m a n y, t h is pr in ce a sked h im , wh y h e, wh o wa s a cr own ed
h ea d, ca m e t o be so poor : t o wh ich Lou is m a de a n swer t h a t h e wa s on ly a
n om in a l kin g, a n d t h a t t h e gr ea t lor ds wer e possessed of a lm ost a ll h is
dem esn es; t h a t Ch a r lem a gn e, bein g a ppr eh en sive lest t h is you n g pr in ce sh ou ld
for feit t h eir a ffect ion , if h e a t t em pt ed h im self t o r esu m e wh a t h e h a d
in con sider a t ely gr a n t ed, a ppoin t ed com m issa r ies t o r est or e t h in gs t o t h eir
for m er sit u a t ion .
Th e bish ops, wr it in g 60 t o Lou is, br ot h er of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, u sed t h ese wor ds:
“Ta ke ca r e of you r la n ds, t h a t you m a y n ot be obliged t o t r a vel con t in u a lly by
t h e h ou ses of t h e cler gy, a n d t o t ir e t h eir bon dm en wit h ca r r ia ges. Ma n a ge you r
a ffa ir s,” con t in u e t h ey, “in su ch a m a n n er t h a t you m a y h a ve en ou gh t o live
u pon , a n d t o r eceive em ba ssies.” It is eviden t t h a t t h e kin g’s r even u es in t h ose
da ys con sist ed of t h eir dem esn es.61
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Aft er t h e Ba r ba r ia n s h a d qu it t ed t h eir own cou n t r y, t h ey wer e desir ou s of
r edu cin g t h eir u sa ges in t o wr it in g; bu t a s t h ey fou n d difficu lt y in wr it in g
Ger m a n wor ds wit h Rom a n let t er s, t h ey pu blish ed t h ese la ws in La t in .
In t h e con fu sion a n d r a pidit y of t h e con qu est , m ost t h in gs ch a n ged t h eir
n a t u r e; in or der , h owever , t o expr ess t h em , t h ey wer e obliged t o m a k e u se of
su ch old La t in wor ds a s wer e m ost a n a logou s t o t h e n ew u sa ges. Th u s,
wh a t ever wa s likely t o r evive t h e idea of t h e a n cien t cen su s of t h e Rom a n s t h ey
ca lled by t h e n a m e of cen su s t r ibu t u m , 62 a n d wh en t h in gs h a d n o r ela t ion a t a ll
t o t h e Rom a n cen su s, t h ey expr essed, a s well a s t h ey cou ld, t h e Ger m a n wor ds
by Rom a n let t er s; t h u s t h ey for m ed t h e wor d fr edu m , on wh ich I sh a ll h a ve
occa sion t o desca n t in t h e followin g ch a pt er s.
Th e wor ds cen su s a n d t r ibu t u m h a vin g been em ployed in a n a r bit r a r y
m a n n er , t h is h a s t h r own som e obscu r it y on t h e sign ifica t ion in wh ich t h ese
wor ds wer e u sed u n der ou r pr in ces of t h e fir st a n d secon d r a ce. An d m oder n
a u t h or s 63 wh o h a ve a dopt ed pa r t icu la r syst em s, h a vin g fou n d t h ese wor ds in t h e
wr it in gs of t h ose da ys, im a gin ed t h a t wh a t wa s t h en ca lled cen su s wa s exa ct ly
t h e cen su s of t h e Rom a n s; a n d t h en ce t h ey in fer r ed t h is con sequ en ce, t h a t ou r
kin gs of t h e fir st t wo r a ces h a d pu t t h em selves in t h e pla ce of t h e Rom a n

em per or s, a n d m a de n o ch a n ge in t h eir a dm in ist r a t ion . 64 Besides, a s pa r t icu la r
du t ies r a ised u n der t h e secon d r a ce wer e by ch a n ge a n d by cer t a in r est r ict ion s
con ver t ed in t o ot h er s, 65 t h ey in fer r ed t h en ce t h a t t h ese du t ies wer e t h e cen su s
of t h e Rom a n s; a n d a s, sin ce t h e m oder n r egu la t ion s, t h ey fou n d t h a t t h e cr own
dem esn es wer e a bsolu t ely u n a lien a ble, t h ey pr et en ded t h a t t h ose du t ies wh ich
r epr esen t ed t h e Rom a n cen su s, a n d did n ot for m a pa r t of t h e dem esn es, wer e
m er e u su r pa t ion . I om it t h e ot h er con sequ en ces.
To a pply t h e idea s of t h e pr esen t t im e t o dist a n t a ges is t h e m ost fr u it fu l
sou r ce of er r or . To t h ose people wh o wa n t t o m oder n ize a ll t h e a n cien t a ges, I
sh a ll sa y wh a t t h e E gypt ia n pr iest s sa id t o Solon , “O At h en ia n s, you a r e m er e
ch ildr en !”66
BL1&!-"+&7-"+&+-%H&9"$$%0&)%*,F,&7",&."5,%0&'*$H&'*&+-%&='*0<%*
"*0&*'+&'*&+-%&Y.%%<%*1
Th e kin g, t h e cler gy, a n d t h e lor ds r a ised r egu la r t a xes, ea ch on t h e bon dm en
of t h eir r espect ive dem esn es. I pr ove it wit h r espect t o t h e kin g, by t h e
ca pit u la r y de Villis; wit h r ega r d t o t h e cler gy, by t h e codes of t h e la ws of t h e
Ba r ba r ia n s 67 a n d in r ela t ion t o t h e lor ds, by t h e r egu la t ion s wh ich Ch a r lem a gn e
m a de con cer n in g t h is su bject .68
Th ese t a xes wer e ca lled cen su s; t h ey wer e econ om ica l a n d n ot fisca l cla im s,
en t ir ely pr iva t e du es a n d n ot pu blic t a xes.
I a ffir m t h a t wh a t t h ey ca lled cen su s a t t h a t t im e wa s a t a x r a ised u pon t h e
bon dm en . Th is I pr ove by a for m u la r y of Ma r cu lfu s con t a in in g a per m ission
fr om t h e kin g t o en t er in t o h oly or der s, pr ovided t h e per son s be fr eebor n , 69 a n d
n ot en r olled in t h e r egist er of t h e cen su s. I pr ove it a lso by a com m ission fr om
Ch a r lem a gn e t o a cou n t 70 wh om h e h a d sen t in t o Sa xon y, wh ich con t a in s t h e
en fr a n ch isem en t of t h e Sa xon s for h a vin g em br a ced Ch r ist ia n it y, a n d is
pr oper ly a ch a r t er of fr eedom . 71 Th is pr in ce r est or es t h em t o t h eir for m er civil
liber t y, 72 a n d exem pt s t h em fr om pa yin g t h e cen su s, It wa s, t h er efor e, t h e sa m e
t h in g t o be a bon dm a n a s t o pa y t h e cen su s, t o be fr ee a s n ot t o pa y it .
By a kin d of let t er s pa t en t of t h e sa m e pr in ce in fa vou r of t h e Spa n ia r ds, 73
wh o h a d been r eceived in t o t h e m on a r ch y, t h e cou n t s a r e for bidden t o dem a n d
a n y cen su s of t h em , or t o depr ive t h em of t h eir la n ds. Th a t st r a n ger s u pon t h eir

com in g t o F r a n ce wer e t r ea t ed a s bon dm en is a t h in g well kn own ; a n d
Ch a r lem a gn e bein g desir ou s t h ey sh ou ld be con sider ed a s fr eem en , sin ce h e
wou ld h a ve t h em be pr opr iet or s of t h eir la n ds, for ba d t h e dem a n din g a n y
cen su s of t h em .
A ca pit u la r y of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, 74 given in fa vou r of t h ose ver y Spa n ia r ds,
or der s t h em t o be t r ea t ed like t h e ot h er F r a n ks, a n d for bids t h e r equ ir in g a n y
cen su s of t h em ; con sequ en t ly t h is cen su s wa s n ot pa id by fr eem en .
Th e t h ir t iet h a r t icle of t h e edict of P ist es r efor m s t h e a bu se by wh ich sever a l
of t h e h u sba n dm en belon gin g t o t h e kin g or t o t h e ch u r ch sold t h e la n ds
depen den t on t h eir m a n or s t o ecclesia st ics or t o people of t h eir con dit ion ,
r eser vin g on ly a sm a ll cot t a ge t o t h em selves; by wh ich m ea n s t h ey a voided
pa yin g t h e cen su s; a n d it or da in s t h a t t h in gs sh ou ld be r est or ed t o t h eir
pr im it ive sit u a t ion : t h e cen su s wa s, t h er efor e, a t a x pecu lia r t o bon dm en .
Th en ce a lso it follows t h a t t h er e wa s n o gen er a l cen su s in t h e m on a r ch y; a n d
t h is is clea r fr om a gr ea t n u m ber of pa ssa ges. F or wh a t cou ld be t h e m ea n in g
of t h is ca pit u la r y?75 “We or da in t h a t t h e r oya l cen su s sh ou ld be levied in a ll
pla ces wh er e for m er ly it wa s la wfu lly levied.”76 Wh a t cou ld be t h e m ea n in g of
t h a t in wh ich Ch a r lem a gn e 77 or der s h is com m issa r ies in t h e pr ovin ces t o m a ke
a n exa ct in qu ir y in t o a ll t h e cen su s t h a t belon ged in for m er t im es t o t h e kin g’s
dem esn e?78 An d of t h a t 79 in wh ich h e disposes of t h e cen su s pa id by t h ose 80 of
wh om t h ey a r e dem a n ded? Wh a t ca n t h a t ot h er ca pit u la r y m ea n 81 in wh ich we
r ea d, “If a n y per son h a s a cqu ir ed a t r ibu t a r y la n d 82 on wh ich we wer e
a ccu st om ed t o levy t h e cen su s?” An d t h a t ot h er , in fin e, 83 in wh ich Ch a r les t h e
Ba ld 84 m a kes m en t ion of feu da l la n ds wh ose cen su s h a d fr om t im e im m em or ia l
belon ged t o t h e kin g.
Obser ve .t h a t t h er e a r e som e pa ssa ges wh ich seem a t fir st sigh t t o be con t r a r y
t o wh a t I h a ve sa id, a n d yet con fir m it . We h a ve a lr ea dy seen t h a t t h e fr eem en
in t h e m on a r ch y wer e obliged on ly t o fu r n ish pa r t icu la r ca r r ia ges; t h e
ca pit u la r y ju st n ow cit ed gives t o t h is t h e n a m e of cen su s, a n d opposes it t o t h e
cen su s pa id by t h e bon dm en .
Besides, t h e edict of P ist es 85 n ot ices t h ose fr eem en wh o a r e obliged t o pa y t h e
r oya l cen su s for t h eir h ea d a n d for t h eir cot t a ges,86 a n d wh o h a d sold
t h em selves du r in g t h e fa m in e. Th e kin g or der s t h em t o be r a n som ed. Th is is

beca u se t h ose wh o wer e m a n u m it t ed by t h e kin g’s let t er s 87 did n ot , gen er a lly
spea kin g, a cqu ir e a fu ll a n d per fect liber t y. 88 bu t t h ey pa id cen su m in capite;
a n d t h ese a r e t h e people h er e m ea n t .
We m u st , t h er efor e, wa ive t h e idea of a gen er a l a n d u n iver sa l cen su s, der ived
fr om t h a t of t h e Rom a n s, fr om wh ich t h e r igh t s of t h e lor ds a r e a lso su pposed
t o h a ve been der ived by u su r pa t ion . Wh a t wa s ca lled cen su s in t h e F r en ch
m on a r ch y, in depen den t ly of t h e a bu se m a de of t h a t wor d, wa s a pa r t icu la r t a x
im posed on t h e bon dm en by t h eir m a st er s.
I beg t h e r ea der t o excu se t h e t r ou ble I m u st give h im wit h su ch a n u m ber of
cit a t ion s. I sh ou ld be m or e con cise did I n ot m eet wit h t h e Abbé du Bos’ book on
t h e est a blish m en t of t h e F r en ch m on a r ch y in Ga u l, con t in u a lly in m y wa y.
Not h in g is a gr ea t er obst a cle t o ou r pr ogr ess in kn owledge t h a n a ba d
per for m a n ce of a celebr a t ed a u t h or ; beca u se, befor e we in st r u ct , we m u st begin
wit h u n deceivin g.
BO1&@(&+-%&(%F0"$&6'.0,&'.&N",,"$,1
I h a ve n ot iced t h ose volu n t eer s a m on g t h e Ger m a n s, wh o h a ve followed t h eir
pr in ces in t h eir sever a l expedit ion s. Th e sa m e u sa ge con t in u ed a ft er t h e
con qu est . Ta cit u s m en t ion s t h em by t h e n a m e of com pa n ion s;89 t h e Sa lic la w by
t h a t of m en wh o h a ve vowed fea lt y t o t h e kin g;90 t h e for m u la r ies of Ma r cu lfu s 91
by t h a t of t h e kin g’s An t r u st ios;92 t h e ea r liest F r en ch h ist or ia n s by t h a t of
Leu des, 93 fa it h fu l a n d loya l; a n d t h ose of la t er da t e by t h a t of va ssa ls a n d
lor ds. 94
In t h e Sa lic a n d Ripu a r ia n la ws we m eet wit h a n in fin it e n u m ber of
r egu la t ion s in r ega r d t o t h e F r a n ks, a n d on ly wit h a few for t h e An t r u st ios. Th e
r egu la t ion s con cer n in g t h e An t r u st ios ar e differ en t fr om t h ose wh ich wer e m a de
for t h e ot h er F r a n ks; t h ey a r e fu ll of wh a t r ela t es t o t h e set t lin g of t h e pr oper t y
of t h e F r a n ks, bu t m en t ion n ot a wor d con cer n in g t h a t of t h e An t r u st ios. Th is
is beca u se t h e pr oper t y of t h e la t t er wa s r egu la t ed r a t h er by t h e polit ica l t h a n
by t h e civil la w, a n d wa s t h e sh a r e t h a t fell t o a n a r m y, a n d n ot t h e pa t r im on y
of a fa m ily.
Th e goods r eser ved for t h e feu da l lor ds wer e ca lled fisca l goods, ben efices,
h on ou r s, a n d fiefs, by differ en t a u t h or s, a n d in differ en t t im es.95

Th er e is n o dou bt bu t t h e fiefs a t fir st wer e a t will. 96 We fin d in Gr egor y of
Tou r s 97 t h a t Su n egisilu s a n d Ga llom a n u s wer e depr ived of a ll t h ey h eld of t h e
exch equ er , a n d n o m or e wa s left t h em t h a n t h eir r ea l pr oper t y. Wh en Gon t r a m
r a ised h is n eph ew Ch ildeber t t o t h e t h r on e, h e h a d a pr iva t e con fer en ce wit h
h im , in wh ich h e n a m ed t h e per son s wh o ou gh t t o be h on ou r ed wit h , a n d t h ose
wh o ou gh t t o be depr ived of, t h e fiefs. 98 In a for m u la r y of Ma r cu lfu s, 99 t h e kin g
gives in exch a n ge, n ot on ly t h e ben efices h eld by h is exch equ er , bu t likewise
t h ose wh ich h a d been h eld by a n ot h er . Th e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds opposes t h e
ben efices t o pr oper t y.100 In t h is, ou r h ist or ia n s, t h e for m u la r ies, t h e codes of t h e
differ en t ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s a n d a ll t h e m on u m en t s of t h ose da ys a r e
u n a n im ou s. In fin e, t h e wr it er s of t h e book of fiefs in for m u s 101 t h a t a t fir st t h e
lor ds cou ld t a ke t h em ba ck wh en t h ey plea sed, t h a t a ft er wa r ds t h ey gr a n t ed
t h em for t h e spa ce of a yea r ,102 a n d t h a t a t len gt h t h ey ga ve t h em for life.
BP1&@(&+-%&<5$5+".H&3%.;59%&'(&Y.%%<%*1
Two sor t s of people wer e bou n d t o m ilit a r y ser vice; t h e gr ea t a n d lesser
va ssa ls, wh o wer e obliged in con sequ en ce of t h eir fief; a n d t h e fr eem en , wh et h er
F r a n ks, Rom a n s, or Ga u ls, wh o ser ved u n der t h e cou n t a n d wer e com m a n ded
by h im a n d h is officer s.
Th e n a m e of fr eem en wa s given t o t h ose, wh o on t h e on e h a n d h a d n o ben efit s
or fiefs, a n d on t h e ot h er wer e n ot su bject t o t h e ba se ser vices of villa in a ge; t h e
la n ds t h ey possessed wer e wh a t t h ey ca lled a llodia l est a t es.
Th e cou n t s a ssem bled t h e fr eem en ,103 a n d led t h em a ga in st t h e en em y; t h ey
h a d officer s u n der t h em wh o wer e ca lled vica r s;104 a n d a s a ll t h e fr eem en wer e
divided in t o h u n dr eds, wh ich con st it u t ed wh a t t h ey ca lled a bor ou gh , t h e cou n t s
h a d a lso officer s u n der t h em , wh o wer e den om in a t ed cen t en a r ii, a n d led t h e
fr eem en of t h e bor ou gh , or t h eir h u n dr eds, t o t h e field.105
Th is division in t o h u n dr eds is post er ior t o t h e est a blish m en t of t h e F r a n ks in
Ga u l. It wa s m a de by Clot h a r iu s a n d Ch ildeber t , wit h a view of obligin g ea ch
dist r ict t o a n swer for t h e r obber ies com m it t ed in t h eir division ; t h is we fin d in
t h e decr ees of t h ose pr in ces. 106 A r egu la t ion of t h is kin d is t o t h is ver y da y
obser ved in E n gla n d.
As t h e cou n t s led t h e fr eem en a ga in st t h e en em y, t h e feu da l lor ds com m a n ded

a lso t h eir va ssa ls or r ea r -va ssa ls; a n d t h e bish ops, a bbot s, or t h eir a dvoca t es 107
likewise com m a n ded t h eir s. 108
Th e bish ops wer e gr ea t ly em ba r r a ssed a n d in con sist en t wit h t h em selves;109
t h ey r equ est ed Ch a r lem a gn e n ot t o oblige t h em a n y lon ger t o m ilit a r y ser vice;
a n d wh en h e gr a n t ed t h eir r equ est , t h ey com pla in ed t h a t h e h a d depr ived t h em
of t h e pu blic est eem ; so t h a t t h is pr in ce wa s obliged t o ju st ify h is in t en t ion s
u pon t h is h ea d. Be t h a t a s it m a y, wh en t h ey wer e exem pt ed fr om m a r ch in g
a ga in st t h e en em y, I do n ot fin d t h a t t h eir va ssa ls wer e led by t h e cou n t s; on t h e
con t r a r y, we see t h a t t h e kin gs or t h e bish ops ch ose on e of t h eir feu da t or ies t o
con du ct t h em .110
In a Ca pit u la r y of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e, 111 t h is pr in ce dist in gu ish es t h r ee
sor t s of va ssa ls, t h ose belon gin g t o t h e kin g, t h ose t o t h e bish ops, a n d t h ose t o
t h e cou n t s. Th e va ssa ls of a feu da l lor d wer e n ot led a ga in st t h e en em y by t h e
cou n t , except som e em ploym en t in t h e k in g’s h ou seh old h in der ed t h e lor d
h im self fr om com m a n din g t h em .112
Bu t wh o is it t h a t led t h e feu da l lor ds in t o t h e field? No dou bt t h e kin g
h im self, wh o wa s a lwa ys a t t h e h ea d of h is fa it h fu l va ssa ls. H en ce we
con st a n t ly fin d in t h e ca pit u la r ies a dist in ct ion m a de bet ween t h e kin g’s va ssa ls
a n d t h ose of t h e bish ops, 113 Su ch br a ve a n d m a gn a n im ou s pr in ces a s ou r kin gs
did n ot t a ke t h e field t o pu t t h em selves a t t h e h ea d of a n ecclesia st ic m ilit ia ;
t h ese wer e n ot t h e m en t h ey ch ose t o con qu er or t o die wit h .
Bu t t h ese lor ds likewise ca r r ied t h eir va ssa ls a n d r ea r -va ssa ls wit h t h em , a s
we ca n pr ove by t h e ca pit u la r y in wh ich Ch a r lem a gn e or da in s t h a t ever y
fr eem a n wh o h a s fou r m a n or s, eit h er in h is own pr oper t y or a s a ben efice fr om
som ebody else, sh ou ld m a r ch a ga in st t h e en em y or follow h is lor d. 114 It is
eviden t t h a t Ch a r lem a gn e m ea n s t h a t t h e per son wh o h a d a m a n or of h is own
sh ou ld m a r ch u n der t h e cou n t a n d h e wh o h eld a ben efice of a lor d sh ou ld set
ou t a lon g wit h h im .
An d yet t h e Abbé du Bos pr et en ds 115 t h a t , wh en m en t ion is m a de in t h e
ca pit u la r ies of t en a n t s wh o depen ded on a pa r t icu la r lor d, n o ot h er s a r e m ea n t
t h a n bon dm en ; a n d h e gr ou n ds h is opin ion on t h e la w of t h e Visigot h s a n d t h e
pr a ct ice of t h a t n a t ion . It is m u ch bet t er t o r ely on t h e ca pit u la r ies t h em selves;
t h a t wh ich I h a ve ju st qu ot ed sa ys expr essly t h e con t r a r y. Th e t r ea t y bet ween

Ch a r les t h e Ba ld a n d h is br ot h er s n ot ices a lso t h ose fr eem en wh o m igh t ch oose
t o follow eit h er a lor d or t h e kin g; a n d t h is r egu la t ion is con for m a ble t o a gr ea t
m a n y ot h er s.
We m a y, t h er efor e, con clu de t h a t t h er e wer e t h r ee sor t s of m ilit a r y ser vices;
t h a t of t h e kin g’s va ssa ls, wh o h a d ot h er va ssa ls u n der t h em ; t h a t of t h e bish ops
or of t h e ot h er cler gy a n d t h eir va ssa ls, a n d, in fin e, t h a t of t h e cou n t , wh o
com m a n ded t h e fr eem en .
Not bu t t h e va ssa ls m igh t be a lso su bject t o t h e cou n t ; a s t h ose wh o h a ve a
pa r t icu la r com m a n d a r e su bor din a t e t o h im wh o is in vest ed wit h a m or e gen er a l
a u t h or it y.
We even fin d t h a t t h e cou n t a n d t h e kin g’s com m issa r ies m igh t oblige t h em
t o pa y t h e fin e wh en t h ey h a d n ot fu lfilled t h e en ga gem en t s of t h eir fief. In like
m a n n er , if t h e kin g’s va ssa ls com m it t ed a n y ou t r a ge 116 t h ey wer e su bject t o t h e
cor r ect ion of t h e cou n t , u n less t h ey ch oose t o su bm it r a t h er t o t h a t of t h e kin g.
BQ1&@(&+-%&0'F#$%&3%.;59%1
It wa s a fu n da m en t a l pr in ciple of t h e m on a r ch y t h a t wh osoever wa s su bject
t o t h e m ilit a r y power of a n ot h er per son wa s su bject a lso t o h is civil ju r isdict ion .
Th u s t h e Ca pit u la r y of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e, 117 in t h e yea r 815, m a k es t h e
m ilit a r y power of t h e cou n t a n d h is civil ju r isdict ion over t h e fr eem en k eep
a lwa ys a n equ a l pa ce. Th u s t h e pla cit a 118 of t h e cou n t wh o ca r r ied t h e fr eem en
a ga in st t h e en em y wer e ca lled t h e pla cit a of t h e fr eem en ;119 wh en ce
u n dou bt edly ca m e t h is m a xim , t h a t t h e qu est ion s r ela t in g t o liber t y cou ld be
decided on ly in t h e cou n t ’s pla cit a , a n d n ot in t h ose of h is officer s. Th u s t h e
cou n t n ever led t h e va ssa ls 120 belon gin g t o t h e bish ops, or t o t h e a bbot s, a ga in st
t h e en em y, beca u se t h ey wer e n ot su bject t o h is civil ju r isdict ion . Th u s h e n ever
com m a n ded t h e r ea r -va ssa ls belon gin g t o t h e kin g’s va ssa ls. Th u s t h e glossa r y
of t h e E n glish la ws in for m s u s 121 t h a t t h ose t o wh om t h e Sa xon s ga ve t h e n a m e
of Coples 122 wer e by t h e Nor m a n s ca lled cou n t s, or com pa n ion s, beca u se t h ey
sh a r ed t h e ju st icia r y fin es wit h t h e kin g. Th u s we see t h a t a t a ll t im es t h e du t y
of a va ssa l t owa r ds h is lor d 123 wa s t o bea r a r m s 124 a n d t o t r y h is peer s in h is
cou r t .
On e of t h e r ea son s wh ich pr odu ced t h is con n ect ion bet ween t h e ju dicia r y r igh t
a n d t h a t of lea din g t h e for ces a ga in st t h e en em y wa s beca u se t h e per son wh o
led t h em exa ct ed a t t h e sa m e t im e t h e pa ym en t of t h e fisca l du t ies, wh ich
con sist ed in som e ca r r ia ge ser vices du e by t h e fr eem en , a n d in gen er a l, in
cer t a in ju dicia r y pr ofit s, of wh ich we sh a ll t r ea t h er ea ft er .
Th e lor ds h a d t h e r igh t of a dm in ist er in g ju st ice in t h eir fief, by t h e sa m e
pr in ciple a s t h e cou n t s h a d it in t h eir cou n t ies. An d, in deed, t h e cou n t ies in t h e
sever a l va r ia t ion s t h a t h a ppen ed a t differ en t t im es a lwa ys followed t h e
va r ia t ion s of t h e fiefs; bot h wer e gover n ed by t h e sa m e pla n , a n d by t h e sa m e
pr in ciples. In a wor d, t h e cou n t s in t h eir cou n t ies wer e lor ds, a n d t h e lor ds in
t h eir seign ior ies wer e cou n t s.
It h a s been a m ist a ke t o con sider t h e cou n t s a s civil officer s, a n d t h e du kes a s
m ilit a r y com m a n der s. Bot h wer e equ a lly civil a n d m ilit a r y officer s:125 t h e wh ole
differ en ce con sist ed in t h e du k e’s h a vin g sever a l cou n t s u n der h im , t h ou gh
t h er e wer e cou n t s wh o h a d n o du ke over t h em , a s we lea r n fr om F r edega r iu s. 126
It will be im a gin ed, per h a ps, t h a t t h e gover n m en t of t h e F r a n ks m u st h a ve
been ver y sever e a t t h a t t im e, sin ce t h e sa m e officer s wer e in vest ed wit h a
m ilit a r y a n d civil power , n a y, even wit h a fisca l a u t h or it y, over t h e su bject s;
wh ich in t h e pr ecedin g book s I h a ve obser ved t o be dist in gu ish in g m a r ks of
despot ism .
Bu t we m u st n ot believe t h a t t h e cou n t s pr on ou n ced ju dgm en t by t h em selves,
a n d a dm in ist er ed ju st ice in t h e sa m e m a n n er a s t h e ba sh a ws in Tu r key; in
or der t o ju dge a ffa ir s, t h ey a ssem bled a kin d of a ssizes, wh er e t h e pr in cipa l m en
a ppea r ed.
To t h e en d we m a y t h or ou gh ly u n der st a n d wh a t r ela t es t o t h e ju dicia l
pr oceedin gs in t h e for m u la s, in t h e la ws of t h e Ba r ba r ia n s a n d in t h e
ca pit u la r ies, it is pr oper t o obser ve t h a t t h e fu n ct ion s of t h e cou n t , of t h e Gr a fio
or fisca l ju dge a n d t h e Cen t en a r iu s wer e t h e sa m e; t h a t t h e ju dges, t h e
Ra t h im bu r gh er s, a n d t h e a lder m en wer e t h e sa m e per son s u n der differ en t
n a m es. Th ese wer e t h e cou n t ’s a ssist a n t s, a n d wer e gen er a lly seven in n u m ber ;
a n d a s h e wa s obliged t o h a ve t welve per son s t o ju dge, 127 h e filled u p t h e
n u m ber wit h t h e pr in cipa l m en .128
Bu t wh oever h a d t h e ju r isdict ion , t h e kin g, t h e cou n t , t h e Gr a fio, t h e
Cen t en a r iu s, t h e lor ds, or t h e cler gy, t h ey n ever t r ied ca u ses a lon e; a n d t h is

u sa ge, wh ich der ived it s or igin fr om t h e for est s of Ger m a n y, wa s st ill con t in u ed
even a ft er t h e fiefs h a d a ssu m ed a n ew for m .
Wit h r ega r d t o t h e fisca l power , it s n a t u r e wa s su ch t h a t t h e cou n t cou ld
h a r dly a bu se it . Th e r igh t s of t h e pr in ce in r espect t o t h e fr eem en wer e so
sim ple t h a t t h ey con sist ed on ly, a s we h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved, in cer t a in
ca r r ia ges wh ich wer e dem a n ded of t h em on som e pu blic occa sion s. 129 An d a s for
t h e ju dicia r y r igh t s, t h er e wer e la ws wh ich pr even t ed m isdem ea n or s.130
BS1&@(&)'<4',5+5'*,&"<'*D&+-%&#".#".'F,&2"+5'*,1&
Sin ce it is im possible t o ga in a n y in sigh t in t o ou r polit ica l la w u n less we a r e
t h or ou gh ly a cqu a in t ed wit h t h e la ws a n d m a n n er s of t h e Ger m a n n a t ion s, I
sh a ll, t h er efor e, pa u se h er e a wh ile, in or der t o in qu ir e in t o t h ose m a n n er s a n d
la ws.
It a ppea r s by Ta cit u s t h a t t h e Ger m a n s kn ew on ly t wo ca pit a l cr im es; t h ey
h a n ged t r a it or s, a n d dr own ed cowa r ds; t h ese wer e t h e on ly pu blic cr im es a m on g
t h a t people. Wh en a m a n h a d in ju r ed a n ot h er , t h e r ela t ives of t h e per son
in ju r ed t ook sh a r e in t h e qu a r r el, a n d t h e offen ce wa s ca n celled by a
sa t isfa ct ion . 131 Th is sa t isfa ct ion wa s m a de t o t h e per son offen ded, wh en ca pa ble
of r eceivin g it ; or t o t h e r ela t ives if t h ey h a d been in ju r ed in com m on , or if by
t h e decea se of t h e pa r t y a ggr ieved or in ju r ed t h e sa t isfa ct ion h a d devolved t o
t h em .
In t h e m a n n er m en t ion ed by Ta cit u s, t h ese sa t isfa ct ion s wer e m a de by t h e
m u t u a l a gr eem en t of t h e pa r t ies; h en ce in t h e codes of t h e ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s
t h ese sa t isfa ct ion s a r e ca lled com posit ion s.
Th e la w of t h e F r isia n s 132 is t h e on ly on e I fin d t h a t h a s left t h e people in t h a t
sit u a t ion in wh ich ever y fa m ily a t va r ia n ce wa s in som e m ea su r e in t h e st a t e
of n a t u r e, a n d in wh ich , bein g u n r est r a in ed eit h er by a polit ica l or civil la w,
t h ey m igh t give fr eedom t o t h eir r even ge t ill t h ey h a d obt a in ed sa t isfa ct ion .
E ven t h is la w wa s m oder a t ed; a r egu la t ion wa s m a de 133 t h a t t h e per son wh ose
life wa s sou gh t a ft er sh ou ld be u n m olest ed in h is own h ou se, a s a lso in goin g
a n d com in g fr om ch u r ch a n d t h e cou r t wh er e ca u ses wer e t r ied. Th e com piler s
of t h e Sa lic la w 134 cit e a n a n cien t u sa ge of t h e F r a n ks, by wh ich a per son wh o
h a d du g a cor pse ou t of t h e gr ou n d, in or der t o st r ip it , sh ou ld be ba n ish ed fr om

societ y t ill t h e r ela t ives h a d con sen t ed t o h is bein g r e-a dm it t ed. An d a s befor e
t h a t t im e st r ict or der s wer e issu ed t o ever y on e, even t o t h e offen der ’s own wife,
n ot t o give h im a m or sel of br ea d, or t o r eceive h im u n der t h eir r oofs, su ch a
per son wa s in r espect t o ot h er s, a n d ot h er s in r espect t o h im , in a st a t e of
sa va ger y t ill a n en d wa s pu t t o t h is st a t e by a com posit ion .
Th is except ed, we fin d t h a t t h e sa ges of t h e differ en t ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s
t h ou gh t of det er m in in g by t h em selves wh a t wou ld h a ve been t oo lon g a n d t oo
da n ger ou s t o expect fr om t h e m u t u a l a gr eem en t of t h e pa r t ies. Th ey t ook ca r e
t o fix t h e va lu e of t h e com posit ion wh ich t h e pa r t y wr on ged or in ju r ed wa s t o
r eceive. All t h ose ba r ba r ia n la ws a r e in t h is r espect m ost a dm ir a bly exa ct ; t h e
sever a l ca ses a r e m in u t ely dist in gu ish ed, 135 t h e cir cu m st a n ces a r e weigh ed, t h e
la w su bst it u t es it self in t h e pla ce of t h e per son in ju r ed a n d in sist s u pon t h e
sa m e sa t isfa ct ion a s h e h im self wou ld h a ve dem a n ded in cold blood.
By t h e est a blish in g of t h ose la ws, t h e Ger m a n n a t ion s qu it t ed t h a t st a t e of
n a t u r e in wh ich t h ey seem ed t o h a ve lived in Ta cit u s’ t im e.
Rot h a r is decla r es, in t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds,136 t h a t h e h a d in cr ea sed t h e
com posit ion s a llowed by a n cien t cu st om for wou n ds, t o t h e en d t h a t , t h e
wou n ded per son bein g fu lly sa t isfied, a ll en m it ies sh ou ld cea se. An d in deed a s
t h e Lom ba r ds, fr om a ver y poor people h a d gr own r ich by t h e con qu est of It a ly,
t h e a n cien t com posit ion s h a d becom e fr ivolou s, a n d r econ cilem en t s pr even t ed.
I do n ot qu est ion bu t t h is wa s t h e m ot ive wh ich obliged t h e ot h er ch iefs of t h e
con qu er in g n a t ion s t o m a ke t h e differ en t codes of la ws n ow ext a n t .
Th e pr in cipa l com posit ion wa s t h a t wh ich t h e m u r der er pa id t o t h e r ela t ives
of t h e decea sed. Th e differ en ce of con dit ion s pr odu ced a differ en ce in t h e
com posit ion s. 137 Th u s in t h e la w of t h e An gli, t h er e wa s a com posit ion of six
h u n dr ed sou s for t h e m u r der of a n a delin g, t wo h u n dr ed for t h a t of a fr eem a n ,
a n d t h ir t y for killin g a bon dm a n . Th e la r gen ess t h er efor e of t h e com posit ion for
t h e life of a m a n wa s on e of h is ch ief pr ivileges; for besides t h e dist in ct ion it
m a de of h is per son , it likewise est a blish ed a gr ea t er secu r it y in h is fa vou r
a m on g r u de a n d boist er ou s n a t ion s.
Th is we a r e m a de sen sible of by t h e la w of t h e Ba va r ia n s:138 it gives t h e n a m es
of t h e Ba va r ia n fa m ilies wh o r eceived a dou ble com posit ion , beca u se t h ey wer e
t h e fir st a ft er t h e Agilolfin gs. 139 Th e Agilolfin gs wer e of t h e du ca l r a ce, a n d it

wa s cu st om a r y wit h t h is n a t ion t o ch oose a du ke ou t of t h a t fa m ily; t h ese h a d
a qu a dr u ple com posit ion . Th e com posit ion for a du ke exceeded by a t h ir d t h a t
wh ich h a d been est a blish ed for t h e Agilolfin gs. “Beca u se h e is a du ke,” sa ys t h e
la w, “a gr ea t er h on ou r is pa id t o h im t h a n t o h is r ela t ives.”
All t h ese com posit ion s wer e va lu ed in m on ey. Bu t a s t h ose people, especia lly
wh en t h ey lived in Ger m a n y, h a d ver y lit t le specie, t h ey m igh t pa y it in ca t t le,
cor n , m ova bles, a r m s, dogs, h a wks, la n ds, &c. 140 Th e la w it self fr equ en t ly
det er m in ed t h e va lu e of t h ose t h in gs; wh ich expla in s h ow it wa s possible for
t h em t o h a ve su ch a n u m ber of pecu n ia r y pu n ish m en t s wit h so ver y lit t le
m on ey. 141
Th ese la ws wer e t h er efor e em ployed in exa ct ly det er m in in g t h e differ en ce of
wr on gs, in ju r ies a n d cr im es; t o t h e en d t h a t ever y on e m igh t kn ow h ow fa r h e
h a d been in ju r ed or offen ded, t h e r epa r a t ion h e wa s t o r eceive, a n d especia lly
t h a t h e wa s t o r eceive n o m or e.
In t h is ligh t it is ea sy t o con ceive t h a t a per son wh o h a d t a ken r even ge a ft er
h a vin g r eceived sa t isfa ct ion wa s gu ilt y of a h ein ou s cr im e. Th is con t a in ed a
pu blic a s well a s a pr iva t e offen ce; it wa s a con t em pt of t h e la w of it self; a cr im e
wh ich t h e legisla t or s n ever fa iled t o pu n ish .142
Th er e wa s a n ot h er cr im e wh ich a bove a ll ot h er s wa s con sider ed a s da n ger ou s,
wh en t h ose people lost som et h in g of t h eir spir it of in depen den ce, a n d wh en t h e
kin gs en dea vou r ed t o est a blish a bet t er civil a dm in ist r a t ion ; t h is wa s t h e
r efu sin g t o give or t o r eceive sa t isfa ct ion . 143 We fin d in t h e differ en t codes of t h e
la ws of t h e Ba r ba r ia n s t h a t t h e legisla t or s wer e per em pt or y on t h is a r t icle.144
In effect , a per son wh o r efu sed t o r eceive sa t isfa ct ion wa n t ed t o pr eser ve h is
r igh t of pr osecu t ion ; h e wh o r efu sed t o give it left t h e r igh t of pr osecu t ion t o t h e
per son in ju r ed; a n d t h is is wh a t t h e sa ges h a d r efor m ed in t h e in st it u t ion s of
t h e Ger m a n s, wh er eby people wer e in cit ed bu t n ot com pelled t o com posit ion s.
I h a ve ju st n ow m a de m en t ion of a t ext of t h e Sa lic la w, in wh ich t h e legisla t or
left t h e pa r t y offen ded a t liber t y t o r eceive or t o r efu se sa t isfa ct ion ; it is t h e la w
by wh ich a per son wh o h a d st r ipped a dea d body wa s expelled fr om societ y t ill
t h e r ela t ives u pon r eceivin g sa t isfa ct ion pet it ion ed for h is bein g r e-a dm it t ed. 145
It wa s owin g t o t h e r espect t h ey h a d for sa cr ed t h in gs t h a t t h e com piler s of t h e
Sa lic la ws did n ot m eddle wit h t h e a n cien t u sa ge.

It wou ld h a ve been a bsolu t ely u n ju st t o gr a n t a com posit ion t o t h e r ela t ives
of a r obber killed in t h e a ct , or t o t h e r ela t ives of a wom a n wh o h a d been
r epu dia t ed for t h e cr im e of a du lt er y. Th e la w of t h e Ba va r ia n s a llowed n o
com posit ion s in t h e like ca ses, bu t pu n ish ed t h e r ela t ives wh o sou gh t r even ge. 146
It is n o r a r e t h in g t o m eet wit h com posit ion s for in volu n t a r y a ct ion s in t h e
codes of t h e la ws of t h e Ba r ba r ia n s. Th e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds is gen er a lly ver y
pr u den t ; it or da in ed 147 t h a t in t h ose ca ses t h e com posit ion s sh ou ld be a ccor din g
t o t h e per son ’s gen er osit y; a n d t h a t t h e r ela t ives sh ou ld n o lon ger be per m it t ed
t o pu r su e t h eir r even ge.
Clot h a r iu s II m a de a ver y wise decr ee; h e for ba d t h e per son r obbed t o r eceive
a n y cla n dest in e com posit ion , a n d wit h ou t a n or der fr om t h e ju dge. 148 We sh a ll
pr esen t ly see t h e m ot ive of t h is la w.
ET1&@(&7-"+&7",&"(+%.7".0,&9"$$%0&+-%&[F.5,059+5'*&'(&+-%&6'.0,1&
Besides t h e com posit ion wh ich t h ey wer e obliged t o pa y t o t h e r ela t ives for
m u r der s or in ju r ies, t h ey wer e a lso u n der a n ecessit y of pa yin g a cer t a in du t y
wh ich t h e codes of t h e ba r ba r ia n la ws ca lled fr edu m . 149 I in t en d t o t r ea t of it a t
la r ge; a n d in or der t o give a n idea of it , I begin wit h defin in g it a s a r ecom pen se
for t h e pr ot ect ion gr a n t ed a ga in st t h e r igh t of ven gea n ce. E ven t o t h is da y, fr ed
in t h e Swedish la n gu a ge sign ifies pea ce.
Th e a dm in ist r a t ion of ju st ice a m on g t h ose r u de a n d u n polish ed n a t ion s wa s
n ot h in g m or e t h a n gr a n t in g t o t h e per son wh o h a d com m it t ed a n offen ce a
pr ot ect ion a ga in st t h e ven gea n ce of t h e pa r t y offen ded, a n d obligin g t h e la t t er
t o a ccept of t h e sa t isfa ct ion du e t o h im : in som u ch t h a t a m on g t h e Ger m a n s,
con t r a r y t o t h e pr a ct ice of a ll ot h er n a t ion s, ju st ice wa s a dm in ist er ed in or der
t o pr ot ect t h e cr im in a l a ga in st t h e pa r t y in ju r ed.
Th e codes of t h e Ba r ba r ia n la ws h a ve given u s t h e ca ses in wh ich t h e fr eda
m igh t be dem a n ded. Wh en t h e r ela t ives cou ld n ot pr osecu t e, t h ey a llowed of n o
fr edu m ; a n d in deed, wh en t h er e wa s n o pr osecu t ion t h er e cou ld be n o
com posit ion for a pr ot ect ion a ga in st it . Th u s, in t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, 150 if
a per son h a ppen ed t o kill a fr eem a n by a cciden t , h e pa id t h e va lu e of t h e m a n
killed, wit h ou t t h e fr edu m ; beca u se, a s h e h a d killed h im in volu n t a r ily, it wa s
n ot t h e ca se in wh ich t h e r ela t ives wer e a llowed t h e r igh t of pr osecu t ion . Th u s

in t h e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s, 151 wh en a per son wa s killed wit h a piece of wood,
or wit h a n y in st r u m en t m a de by m a n , t h e in st r u m en t or t h e wood wer e deem ed
cu lpa ble, a n d t h e r ela t ives seized u pon t h em for t h eir own u se, bu t wer e n ot
a llowed t o dem a n d t h e fr edu m .
In like m a n n er , wh en a bea st h a ppen ed t o kill a m a n , t h e sa m e la w
est a blish ed a com posit ion wit h ou t t h e fr edu m , beca u se t h e r ela t ives of t h e
decea sed wer e n ot offen ded. 152
In fin e, it wa s or da in ed by t h e Sa lic la w,153 t h a t a ch ild wh o h a d com m it t ed a
fa u lt befor e t h e a ge of t welve sh ou ld pa y t h e com posit ion wit h ou t t h e fr edu m :
a s h e wa s n ot yet a ble t o bea r a r m s, h e cou ld n ot be in t h e ca se in wh ich t h e
pa r t y in ju r ed, or h is r ela t ives, h a d a r igh t t o dem a n d sa t isfa ct ion .
It wa s t h e cr im in a l t h a t pa id t h e fr edu m for t h e pea ce a n d secu r it y of wh ich
h e h a d been depr ived by h is cr im e, a n d wh ich h e m igh t r ecover by pr ot ect ion .
Bu t a ch ild did n ot lose t h is secu r it y; h e wa s n ot a m a n , a n d con sequ en t ly cou ld
n ot be expelled fr om h u m a n societ y.
Th is fr edu m wa s a loca l r igh t in fa vou r of t h e per son wh o wa s ju dge of t h e
dist r ict . 154 Yet t h e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s 155 for ba de h im t o dem a n d it h im self:
it or da in ed t h a t t h e pa r t y wh o h a d ga in ed t h e ca u se sh ou ld r eceive it a n d ca r r y
it t o t h e exch equ er , t o t h e en d t h a t t h er e m igh t be a la st in g pea ce, sa ys t h e la w
a m on g t h e Ripu a r ia n s.
Th e gr ea t n ess of t h e fr edu m wa s pr opor t ion ed t o t h e degr ee of pr ot ect ion : t h u s
t h e fr edu m for t h e kin g’s pr ot ect ion wa s gr ea t er t h a n wh a t wa s gr a n t ed for t h e
pr ot ect ion of t h e cou n t , or of t h e ot h er ju dges.156
H er e I see t h e or igin of t h e ju r isdict ion of t h e lor ds. Th e fiefs com pr ised ver y
la r ge t er r it or ies, a s a ppea r s fr om a va st n u m ber of r ecor ds. I h a ve a lr ea dy
pr oved t h a t t h e kin gs r a ised n o t a xes on t h e la n ds belon gin g t o t h e division of
t h e F r a n ks; m u ch less cou ld t h ey r eser ve t o t h em selves a n y du t ies on t h e fiefs.
Th ose wh o obt a in ed t h em h a d in t h is r espect a fu ll a n d per fect en joym en t ,
r ea pin g ever y possible em olu m en t fr om t h em . An d a s on e of t h e m ost
con sider a ble em olu m en t s wa s t h e ju st icia r y pr ofit s (fr eda ), 157 wh ich wer e
r eceived a ccor din g t o t h e u sa ge of t h e F r a n ks, it followed t h en ce t h a t t h e per son
seized of t h e fief wa s a lso seized of t h e ju r isdict ion , t h e exer cise of wh ich
con sist ed of t h e com posit ion s m a de t o t h e r ela t ives, a n d of t h e pr ofit s a ccr u in g

t o t h e lor d; it wa s n ot h in g m or e t h a n or der in g t h e pa ym en t of t h e com posit ion s
of t h e la w, a n d dem a n din g t h e lega l fin es. We fin d by t h e for m u la r ies con t a in in g
con fir m a t ion of t h e per pet u it y of a fief in fa vou r of a feu da l lor d, 158 or of t h e
pr ivileges of fiefs in fa vou r of ch u r ch es,159 t h a t t h e fiefs wer e possessed of t h is
r igh t . Th is a ppea r s a lso fr om a n in fin it e n u m ber of ch a r t er s 160 m en t ion in g a
pr oh ibit ion t o t h e kin g’s ju dges or officer s of en t er in g u pon t h e t er r it or y in or der
t o exer cise a n y a ct of ju dica t u r e wh a t soever , or t o dem a n d a n y ju dicia r y
em olu m en t . Wh en t h e kin g’s ju dges cou ld n o lon ger m a ke a n y dem a n d in a
dist r ict , t h ey n ever en t er ed it ; a n d t h ose t o wh om t h is dist r ict wa s left
per for m ed t h e sa m e fu n ct ion s a s h a d been exer cised befor e by t h e ju dges.
Th e kin g’s ju dges a r e for bidden a lso t o oblige t h e pa r t ies t o give secu r it y for
t h eir a ppea r in g befor e t h em ; it belon ged t h er efor e t o t h e per son wh o h a d
r eceived t h e t er r it or y in fief t o dem a n d t h is secu r it y. Th ey m en t ion a lso t h a t t h e
kin g’s com m issa r ies sh a ll n ot in sist u pon bein g a ccom m oda t ed wit h a lodgin g;
in effect , t h ey n o lon ger exer cised a n y fu n ct ion in t h ose dist r ict s.
Th e a dm in ist r a t ion t h er efor e of ju st ice, bot h in t h e old a n d n ew fiefs, wa s a
r igh t in h er en t in t h e ver y fief it self, a lu cr a t ive r igh t wh ich con st it u t ed a pa r t
of it . F or t h is r ea son it h a d been con sider ed a t a ll t im es in t h is ligh t ; wh en ce
t h is m a xim a r ose, t h a t ju r isdict ion s a r e pa t r im on ia l in F r a n ce.
Som e h a ve t h ou gh t t h a t t h e ju r isdict ion s der ived t h eir or igin fr om t h e
m a n u m ission s m a de by t h e kin gs a n d lor ds in fa vou r of t h eir bon dm en . Bu t t h e
Ger m a n n a t ion s, a n d t h ose descen ded fr om t h em , a r e n ot t h e on ly people wh o
m a n u m it t ed t h eir bon dm en , a n d yet t h ey a r e t h e on ly people t h a t est a blish ed
pa t r im on ia l ju r isdict ion s. Besides, we fin d by t h e for m u la r ies of Ma r cu lfu s 161
t h a t t h er e wer e fr eem en depen den t on t h ese ju r isdict ion s in t h e ea r liest t im es:
t h e bon dm en wer e t h er efor e su bject t o t h e ju r isdict ion , beca u se t h ey wer e u pon
t h e t er r it or y; a n d t h ey did n ot give r ise t o t h e fiefs for h a vin g been a n n exed t o
t h e fief.
Ot h er s h a ve t a ken a sh or t er cu t ; t h e lor ds, sa y t h ey (a n d t h is is a ll t h ey sa y),
u su r ped t h e ju r isdict ion s. Bu t a r e t h e n a t ion s descen ded fr om Ger m a n y t h e
on ly people in t h e wor ld t h a t u su r ped t h e r igh t s of pr in ces? We a r e su fficien t ly
in for m ed by h ist or y t h a t sever a l ot h er n a t ion s h a ve en cr oa ch ed u pon t h eir
sover eign s, a n d yet we fin d n o ot h er in st a n ce of wh a t we ca ll t h e ju r isdict ion of

t h e lor ds. Th e or igin of it is t h er efor e t o be t r a ced in t h e u sa ges a n d cu st om s of
t h e Ger m a n s.
Wh oever h a s t h e cu r iosit y t o look in t o Loysea u 162 will be su r pr ised a t t h e
m a n n er in wh ich t h is a u t h or su pposes t h e lor ds t o h a ve pr oceeded in or der t o
for m a n d u su r p t h eir differ en t ju r isdict ion s. Th ey m u st h a ve been t h e m ost
a r t fu l people in t h e wor ld; t h ey m u st h a ve r obbed a n d plu n der ed, n ot a ft er t h e
m a n n er of a m ilit a r y n a t ion , bu t a s t h e cou n t r y ju st ices a n d t h e a t t or n ies r ob
on e a n ot h er . Th ose br a ve wa r r ior s m u st be sa id t o h a ve for m ed a gen er a l
syst em of polit ics t h r ou gh ou t a ll t h e pr ovin ces of t h e kin gdom , a n d in so m a n y
ot h er cou n t r ies in E u r ope; Loysea u m a kes t h em r ea son a s h e h im self r ea son ed
in h is closet .
On ce m or e; if t h e ju r isdict ion wa s n ot a depen den ce of t h e fief, h ow com e we
ever ywh er e t o fin d t h a t t h e ser vice of t h e fief wa s t o a t t en d t h e kin g or t h e lor d,
bot h in t h eir cou r t s a n d in t h e a r m y?163
EB1&@(&+-%&!%..5+'.5"$&[F.5,059+5'*&'(&+-%&)-F.9-%,1
Th e ch u r ch es a cqu ir ed ver y con sider a ble pr oper t y. We fin d t h a t ou r kin gs
ga ve t h em gr ea t seign ior ies, t h a t is, gr ea t fiefs; a n d we fin d ju r isdict ion s
est a blish ed a t t h e sa m e t im e in t h e dem esn es of t h ose ch u r ch es. Wh en ce cou ld
so ext r a or din a r y a pr ivilege der ive it s or igin ? it m u st cer t a in ly h a ve been in t h e
n a t u r e of t h e gr a n t . Th e ch u r ch la n d h a d t h is pr ivilege beca u se it h a d n ot been
t a ken fr om it . A seign ior y wa s given t o t h e ch u r ch ; a n d it wa s a llowed t o en joy
t h e sa m e pr ivileges a s if it h a d been gr a n t ed t o a va ssa l, it wa s a lso su bject ed
t o t h e sa m e ser vice a s it wou ld h a ve pa id t o t h e st a t e if it h a d been given t o a
la ym a n , a ccor din g t o wh a t we h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved.
Th e ch u r ch es h a d t h er efor e t h e r igh t of dem a n din g t h e pa ym en t of
com posit ion s in t h eir t er r it or y, a n d of in sist in g u pon t h e fr edu m ; a n d a s t h ose
r igh t s n ecessa r ily im plied t h a t of h in der in g t h e kin g’s officer s fr om en t er in g
u pon t h e t er r it or y t o dem a n d t h ese fr eda a n d t o exer cise a ct s of ju dica t u r e, t h e
r igh t wh ich ecclesia st ics h a d of a dm in ist er in g ju st ice in t h eir own t er r it or y wa s
ca lled im m u n it y, in t h e st yle of t h e for m u la r ies, of t h e ch a r t er s, a n d of t h e
ca pit u la r ies.164
Th e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s 165 for bids t h e fr eedom of t h e ch u r ch es 166 t o h old t h e

a ssem bly for a dm in ist er in g ju st ice in a n y ot h er pla ce t h a n in t h e ch u r ch wh er e
t h ey wer e m a n u m it t ed.167 Th e ch u r ch es h a d t h er efor e ju r isdict ion s even over
fr eem en , a n d h eld t h eir pla cit a in t h e ea r liest t im es of t h e m on a r ch y.
I fin d in t h e Lives of t h e Sa in t s 168 t h a t Clovis ga ve t o a cer t a in h oly per son
power over a dist r ict of six lea gu es, a n d exem pt ed it fr om a ll m a n n er of
ju r isdict ion . Th is, I believe, is a fa lsit y, bu t it is a fa lsit y of a ver y a n cien t da t e;
bot h t h e t r u t h a n d t h e fict ion con t a in ed in t h a t life a r e in r ela t ion t o t h e
cu st om s a n d la ws of t h ose t im es, a n d it is t h ese cu st om s a n d la ws we a r e
in vest iga t in g. 169
Clot h a r iu s II or der s t h e bish ops or t h e n obilit y wh o a r e possessed of est a t es
in dist a n t pa r t s, t o ch oose u pon t h e ver y spot t h ose wh o a r e t o a dm in ist er
ju st ice, or t o r eceive t h e ju dicia r y em olu m en t s.170
Th e sa m e pr in ce r egu la t es t h e ju dicia r y power bet ween t h e ecclesia st ic cou r t s
a n d h is officer s. 171 Th e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r lem a gn e in t h e yea r 802 pr escr ibes t o
t h e bish ops a n d a bbot s t h e qu a lifica t ion s n ecessa r y for t h eir officer s of ju st ice.
An ot h er ca pit u la r y of t h e sa m e pr in ce in h ibit s t h e r oya l officer s 172 t o exer cise
a n y ju r isdict ion over t h ose wh o a r e em ployed in cu lt iva t in g ch u r ch la n ds, except
t h ey en t er ed in t o t h a t st a t e by fr a u d, a n d t o exem pt t h em selves fr om
con t r ibu t in g t o t h e pu blic ch a r ges. 173 Th e bish ops a ssem bled a t Rh eim s m a de
a decla r a t ion t h a t t h e va ssa ls belon gin g t o t h e r espect ive ch u r ch es a r e wit h in
t h eir im m u n it y.174 Th e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r lem a gn e in t h e yea r 806 or da in s t h a t
t h e ch u r ch es sh ou ld h a ve bot h cr im in a l a n d civil ju r isdict ion over t h ose wh o live
u pon t h eir la n ds. 175 In fin e, a s t h e ca pit u la r y of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld 176
dist in gu ish es bet ween t h e kin g’s ju r isdict ion , t h a t of t h e lor ds, a n d t h a t of t h e
ch u r ch , I sh a ll sa y n ot h in g fu r t h er u pon t h is su bject .
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It h a s been pr et en ded t h a t t h e va ssa ls u su r ped t h e ju r isdict ion in t h eir
seign ior ies, du r in g t h e con fu sion of t h e secon d r a ce. Th ose wh o ch oose r a t h er
t o for m a gen er a l pr oposit ion t h a n t o exa m in e it fou n d it ea sier t o sa y t h a t t h e
va ssa ls did n ot possess t h a n t o discover h ow t h ey ca m e t o possess. Bu t t h e
ju r isdict ion s do n ot owe t h eir or igin t o u su r pa t ion s; t h ey a r e der ived fr om t h e

pr im it ive est a blish m en t , a n d n ot fr om it s cor r u pt ion .
“H e wh o k ills a fr eem a n ,” sa ys t h e la w of t h e Ba va r ia n s, “sh a ll pa y a
com posit ion t o h is r ela t ives if h e h a s a n y; if n ot , h e sh a ll pa y it t o t h e du ke, or
t o t h e per son u n der wh ose pr ot ect ion h e h a d pu t h im self in h is lifet im e.”177 it is
well kn own wh a t it wa s t o pu t on eself u n der t h e pr ot ect ion of a n ot h er for a
ben efice.
“H e wh o h a d been r obbed of h is bon dm a n ,” sa ys t h e la w of t h e Alem a n s, “sh a ll
h a ve r ecou r se t o t h e pr in ce t o wh om t h e r obber is su bject ; t o t h e en d t h a t h e
m a y obt a in a com posit ion .”178
“If a cen t en a r iu s,” sa ys t h e decr ee of Ch ildeber t , “fin ds a r obber in a n ot h er
h u n dr ed t h a n h is own , or in t h e lim it s of ou r fa it h fu l va ssa ls, a n d does n ot dr ive
h im ou t , h e sh a ll be a n swer a ble for t h e r obber , or pu r ge h im self by oa t h .”179
Th er e wa s t h er efor e a differ en ce bet ween t h e dist r ict of t h e cen t en a r ii a n d t h a t
of t h e va ssa ls.
Th is decr ee of Ch ildeber t 180 expla in s t h e con st it u t ion of Clot h a r iu s of t h e sa m e
yea r , wh ich bein g given for t h e sa m e occa sion a n d on t h e sa m e m a t t er differ s
on ly in t h e t er m s; t h e con st it u t ion ca llin g in t r u st e wh a t by t h e decr ee is st yled
in t er m in is fideliu m n ost r or u m . Messieu r s Bign on a n d Du ca n ge, wh o pr et en d
t h a t in t r u st e sign ified a n ot h er kin g’s dem esn e, a r e m ist a k en in t h eir
con ject u r e. 181
P epin , Kin g of It a ly, in a con st it u t ion t h a t h a d been m a de a s well for t h e
F r a n ks a s for t h e Lom ba r ds, 182 a ft er im posin g pen a lt ies on t h e cou n t s a n d ot h er
r oya l officer s for pr eva r ica t ion s or dela ys in t h e a dm in ist r a t ion of ju st ice,
or da in s t h a t if it h a ppen s t h a t a F r a n k or a Lom ba r d, possessed of a fief, is
u n willin g t o a dm in ist er ju st ice, t h e ju dge t o wh ose dist r ict h e belon gs sh a ll
su spen d t h e exer cise of h is fief, a n d in t h e m ea n t im e, eit h er t h e ju dge or h is
com m issa r y sh a ll a dm in ist er ju st ice.183
It a ppea r s by a Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r lem a gn e, 184 t h a t t h e kin gs did n ot levy t h e
fr eda in a ll pla ces. An ot h er ca pit u la r y of t h e sa m e pr in ce sh ows t h e feu da l
la ws 185 a n d feu da l cou r t t o h a ve been a lr ea dy est a blish ed. An ot h er of Lou is t h e
Debon n a ir e or da in s t h a t wh en a per son possessed of a fief does n ot a dm in ist er
ju st ice, 186 or bin der s it fr om bein g a dm in ist er ed, t h e kin g’s com m issa r ies sh a ll
live in h is h ou se a t discr et ion , t ill ju st ice be a dm in ist er ed. I sh a ll likewise qu ot e

t wo ca pit u la r ies of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld; on e of t h e yea r 861, 187 wh er e we fin d t h e
pa r t icu la r ju r isdict ion s est a blish ed, wit h ju dges a n d su bor din a t e officer s; a n d
t h e ot h er of t h e yea r 864, 188 wh er e h e m a kes a dist in ct ion bet ween h is own
seign ior ies a n d t h ose of pr iva t e per son s.
We h a ve n ot t h e or igin a l gr a n t s of t h e fiefs, beca u se t h ey wer e est a blish ed by
t h e pa r t it ion wh ich is kn own t o h a ve been m a de a m on g t h e con qu er or s. It
ca n n ot , t h er efor e, be pr oved by or igin a l con t r a ct s t h a t t h e ju r isdict ion s wer e a t
fir st a n n exed t o t h e fiefs: bu t if in t h e for m u la r ies of t h e con fir m a t ion s, or of t h e
t r a n sla t ion s of t h ose fiefs in per pet u it y, we fin d, a s a lr ea dy h a s been obser ved,
t h a t t h e ju r isdict ion wa s t h er e est a blish ed, t h is ju dicia r y r igh t m u st cer t a in ly
h a ve been in h er en t in t h e fief a n d on e of it s ch ief pr ivileges.
We h a ve a fa r gr ea t er n u m ber of r ecor ds t h a t est a blish t h e pa t r im on ia l
ju r isdict ion of t h e cler gy in t h eir dist r ict s t h a n t h er e a r e t o pr ove t h a t of t h e
ben efices or fiefs of t h e feu da l lor ds; for wh ich t wo r ea son s m a y be a ssign ed.
Th e fir st , t h a t m ost of t h e r ecor ds n ow ext a n t wer e pr eser ved or collect ed by t h e
m on ks, for t h e u se of t h eir m on a st er ies. Th e secon d, t h a t t h e pa t r im on y of t h e
sever a l ch u r ch es h a vin g been for m ed by pa r t icu la r gr a n t s, a n d by a kin d of
der oga t ion fr om t h e or der est a blish ed, t h ey wer e obliged t o h a ve ch a r t er s
gr a n t ed t o t h em ; wh er ea s t h e con cession s m a de t o t h e feu da l lor ds bein g
con sequ en ces of t h e polit ica l or der , t h ey h a d n o occa sion t o dem a n d, a n d m u ch
less t o pr eser ve, a pa r t icu la r ch a r t er . Na y t h e kin gs wer e oft en t im es sa t isfied
wit h m a kin g a sim ple deliver y wit h t h e scept r e, a s a ppea r s fr om t h e Life of St .
Ma u r .
Bu t t h e t h ir d for m u la r y of Ma r cu lfu s su fficien t ly pr oves t h a t t h e pr ivileges of
im m u n it y, a n d con sequ en t ly t h a t of ju r isdict ion , wer e com m on t o t h e cler gy a n d
t h e la it y, sin ce it is m a de for bot h . 189 Th e sa m e m a y be sa id of t h e con st it u t ion
of Clot h a r iu s II.190
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Befor e I fin ish t h is book, it will n ot be im pr oper t o wr it e a few st r ict u r es on
t h e Abbé du Bos’ per for m a n ce, beca u se m y n ot ion s a r e per pet u a lly con t r a r y t o
h is; a n d if h e h a s h it on t h e t r u t h , I m u st h a ve m issed it .
Th is per for m a n ce h a s im posed u pon a gr ea t m a n y beca u se it is pen n ed wit h
a r t ; beca u se t h e poin t in qu est ion is con st a n t ly su pposed; beca u se t h e m or e it
is deficien t in pr oofs t h e m or e it a bou n ds in pr oba bilit ies; a n d, in fin e, beca u se
a n in fin it e n u m ber of con ject u r es a r e la id down a s pr in ciples, a n d t h en ce ot h er
con ject u r es a r e in fer r ed a s con sequ en ces. Th e r ea der for get s h e h a s been
dou bt in g in or der t o begin t o believe. An d a s a pr odigiou s fu n d of er u dit ion is
in t er sper sed, n ot in t h e syst em bu t a r ou n d it , t h e m in d is t a ken u p wit h t h e
a ppen da ges, a n d n eglect s t h e pr in cipa l. Besides, su ch a va st m u lt it u de of
r esea r ch es h a r dly per m it s on e t o im a gin e t h a t n ot h in g h a s been fou n d; t h e
len gt h of t h e wa y m a kes u s t h in k t h a t we h a ve a r r ived a t ou r jou r n ey’s en d.
Bu t wh en we exa m in e t h e m a t t er t h or ou gh ly, we fin d a n im m en se colossu s
wit h ea r t h en feet ; a n d it is t h e ea r t h en feet t h a t r en der t h e colossu s im m en se.
If t h e Abbé du Bos’ syst em h a d been well gr ou n ded, h e wou ld n ot h a ve been
obliged t o wr it e t h r ee t ediou s volu m es t o pr ove it ; h e wou ld h a ve fou n d
ever yt h in g wit h in h is su bject , a n d wit h ou t wa n der in g on ever y side in qu est of
wh a t wa s ext r em ely for eign t o it ; even r ea son it self wou ld h a ve u n der t a ken t o
r a n ge t h is in t h e sa m e ch a in wit h t h e ot h er t r u t h s. Ou r h ist or y a n d la ws wou ld
h a ve t old h im , “Do n ot t a ke so m u ch t r ou ble, we sh a ll be you r vou ch er s.”
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Reflect ion on t h e m a in P a r t of t h e Syst em . Th e Abbé du Bos en dea vou r s by a ll
m ea n s t o explode t h e opin ion t h a t t h e F r a n ks m a de t h e con qu est of Ga u l.
Accor din g t o h is syst em . Ou r kin gs wer e in vit ed by t h e people, a n d on ly
su bst it u t ed t h em selves in t h e pla ce a n d su cceeded t o t h e r igh t s of t h e Rom a n
E m per or s.
Th is pr et en sion ca n n ot be a pplied t o t h e t im e wh en Clovis, u pon h is en t er in g
Ga u l, t ook a n d plu n der ed t h e t own s; n eit h er is it a pplica ble t o t h e per iod wh en
h e defea t ed Sya gr iu s, t h e Rom a n com m a n der , a n d con qu er ed t h e cou n t r y wh ich
h e h eld; it ca n , t h er efor e, be r efer r ed on ly t o t h e per iod wh en Clovis, a lr ea dy
m a st er of a gr ea t pa r t of Ga u l by open for ce, wa s ca lled by t h e ch oice a n d
a ffect ion of t h e people t o t h e sover eign t y over t h e r est . An d it is n ot en ou gh t h a t
Clovis wa s r eceived, h e m u st h a ve been ca lled; t h e Abbé du Bos m u st pr ove t h a t
t h e people ch ose r a t h er t o live u n der Clovis t h a n u n der t h e dom in a t ion of t h e

Rom a n s or u n der t h eir own la ws. Now t h e Rom a n s belon gin g t o t h a t pa r t of
Ga u l n ot yet in va ded by t h e Ba r ba r ia n s wer e, a ccor din g t o t h is a u t h or , of t wo
sor t s: t h e fir st wer e of t h e Ar m or ica n con feder a cy, wh o h a d dr iven a wa y t h e
em per or ’s officer s in or der t o defen d t h em selves a ga in st t h e Ba r ba r ia n s, a n d t o
be gover n ed by t h eir own la ws; t h e secon d wer e su bject t o t h e Rom a n officer s.
Now, does t h e Abbé pr odu ce a n y con vin cin g pr oofs t h a t t h e Rom a n s, wh o wer e
st ill su bject t o t h e em pir e, ca lled in Clovis? Not on e. Does h e pr ove t h a t t h e
r epu blic of t h e Ar m or ica n s in vit ed Clovis; or even con clu ded a n y t r ea t y wit h
h im ? Not a t a ll. So fa r fr om bein g a ble t o t ell u s t h e fa t e of t h is r epu blic, h e
ca n n ot even so m u ch a s pr ove it s exist en ce; a n d n ot wit h st a n din g h e pr et en ds
t o t r a ce it fr om t h e t im e of H on or iu s t o t h e con qu est of Clovis, n ot wit h st a n din g
h e r ela t es wit h m ost a dm ir a ble exa ct n ess a ll t h e even t s of t h ose t im es; st ill t h is
r epu blic r em a in s in visible in a n cien t a u t h or s. F or t h er e is a wide differ en ce
bet ween pr ovin g by a pa ssa ge of Zozim u s 191 t h a t u n der t h e E m per or H on or iu s,
t h e cou n t r y of Ar m or ica 192 a n d t h e ot h er pr ovin ces of Ga u l r evolt ed a n d for m ed
a k in d of r epu blic, a n d sh owin g u s t h a t n ot wit h st a n din g t h e differ en t
pa cifica t ion s of Ga u l, t h e Ar m or ica n s for m ed a lwa ys a pa r t icu la r r epu blic,
wh ich con t in u ed t ill t h e con qu est of Clovis; a n d yet t h is is wh a t h e sh ou ld h a ve
dem on st r a t ed by st r on g a n d su bst a n t ia l pr oofs, in or der t o est a blish h is syst em .
F or wh en we beh old a con qu er or en t er in g a cou n t r y, a n d su bdu in g a gr ea t pa r t
of it by for ce a n d open violen ce, a n d soon a ft er fin d t h e wh ole cou n t r y su bdu ed,
wit h ou t a n y m en t ion in h ist or y of t h e m a n n er of it s bein g effect ed, we h a ve
su fficien t r ea son t o believe t h a t t h e a ffa ir en ded a s it bega n .
Wh en we fin d h e h a s m ist a ken t h is poin t , it is ea sy t o per ceive t h a t h is wh ole
syst em fa lls t o t h e gr ou n d; a n d a s oft en a s h e in fer s a con sequ en ce fr om t h ese
pr in ciples t h a t Ga u l wa s n ot con qu er ed by t h e F r a n ks, bu t t h a t t h e F r a n ks wer e
in vit ed by t h e Rom a n s, we m a y sa fely den y it .
Th is a u t h or pr oves h is pr in ciple by t h e Rom a n dign it ies wit h wh ich Clovis
wa s in vest ed: h e in sist s t h a t Clovis su cceeded t o Ch ilder ic h is fa t h er in t h e
office of m a gist er m ilit ia e. Bu t t h ese t wo offices a r e m er ely of h is own cr ea t ion .
St . Rem igiu s’ let t er t o Clovis, on wh ich h e gr ou n ds h is opin ion , is on ly a
con gr a t u la t ion u pon h is a ccession t o t h e cr own . 193 Wh en t h e in t en t of a wr it in g
is so well kn own , wh y sh ou ld we give it a n ot h er t u r n ?

Clovis, t owa r ds t h e en d of t h e r eign , wa s m a de con su l by t h e E m per or
An a st a siu s: bu t wh a t r igh t cou ld h e r eceive fr om a n a u t h or it y t h a t la st ed on ly
on e yea r ? it is ver y pr oba ble, sa ys ou r a u t h or , t h a t in t h e sa m e diplom a t h e
E m per or An a st a siu s m a de Clovis pr ocon su l. An d, I sa y, it is ver y pr oba ble h e
did n ot . Wit h r ega r d t o a fa ct for wh ich t h er e is n o fou n da t ion , t h e a u t h or it y of
h im wh o den ies is equ a l t o t h a t of h im wh o a ffir m s. Bu t I h a ve a lso a r ea son for
den yin g it . Gr egor y of Tou r s, wh o m en t ion s t h e con su la t e, sa ys n ever a wor d
con cer n in g t h e pr ocon su la t e. An d even t h is pr ocon su la t e cou ld h a ve la st ed on ly
a bou t six m on t h s. Clovis died a yea r a n d a h a lf a ft er h e wa s cr ea t ed con su l; a n d
we ca n n ot pr et en d t o m a ke t h e pr o-con su la t e a n h er edit a r y office. In fin e, wh en
t h e con su la t e, a n d, if you will, t h e pr ocon su la t e, wer e con fer r ed u pon h im , h e
wa s a lr ea dy m a st er of t h e m on a r ch y, a n d a ll h is r igh t s wer e est a blish ed.
Th e secon d pr oof a lleged by t h e Abbé du Bos is t h e r en u n cia t ion m a de by t h e
E m per or J u st in ia n , in fa vou r of t h e ch ildr en a n d gr a n dch ildr en of Clovis, of a ll
t h e r igh t s of t h e em pir e over Ga u l. I cou ld sa y a gr ea t dea l con cer n in g t h is
r en u n cia t ion . We m a y ju dge of t h e r ega r d sh own t o it by t h e kin gs of t h e
F r a n ks, fr om t h e m a n n er in wh ich t h ey per for m ed t h e con dit ion s of it . Besides,
t h e kin gs of t h e F r a n ks wer e m a st er s a n d pea cea ble sover eign s of Ga u l;
J u st in ia n h a d n ot on e foot of gr ou n d in t h a t cou n t r y; t h e west er n em pir e h a d
been dest r oyed a lon g t im e befor e, a n d t h e ea st er n em pir e h a d n o r igh t t o Ga u l,
bu t a s r epr esen t in g t h e em per or of t h e west . Th ese wer e r igh t s u pon r igh t s; t h e
m on a r ch y of t h e F r a n ks wa s a lr ea dy fou n ded; t h e r egu la t ion of t h eir
est a blish m en t wa s m a de; t h e r ecipr oca l r igh t s of t h e per son s a n d of t h e
differ en t n a t ion s wh o lived in t h e m on a r ch y wer e a dm it t ed, t h e la ws of ea ch
n a t ion wer e given a n d even r edu ced t o wr it in g. Wh a t , t h er efor e, cou ld t h a t
for eign r en u n cia t ion a va il t o a gover n m en t a lr ea dy est a blish ed?
Wh a t ca n t h e Abbé m ea n by m a kin g su ch a pa r a de of t h e decla m a t ion s of a ll
t h ose bish ops, wh o, a m idst t h e con fu sion a n d t ot a l su bver sion of t h e st a t e,
en dea vou r t o fla t t er t h e con qu er or ? Wh a t else is im plied by fla t t er in g bu t t h e
wea kn ess of h im wh o is obliged t o fla t t er ? Wh a t do r h et or ic a n d poet r y pr ove
bu t t h e u se of t h ose ver y a r t s? Is it possible t o h elp bein g su r pr ised a t Gr egor y
of Tou r s, wh o, a ft er m en t ion in g t h e a ssa ssin a t ion s com m it t ed by Clovis, sa ys
t h a t God la id h is en em ies ever y da y a t h is feet , beca u se h e wa lked in h is wa ys?

Wh o dou bt s bu t t h e cler gy wer e gla d of Clovis’s con ver sion , a n d t h a t t h ey even
r ea ped gr ea t a dva n t a ges fr om it ? Bu t wh o dou bt s a t t h e sa m e t im e t h a t t h e
people exper ien ced a ll t h e m iser ies of con qu est a n d t h a t t h e Rom a n gover n m en t
su bm it t ed t o t h a t of t h e F r a n ks? Th e F r a n ks wer e n eit h er willin g n or a ble t o
m a ke a t ot a l ch a n ge; a n d few con qu er or s wer e ever seized wit h so gr ea t a
degr ee of m a dn ess. Bu t t o r en der a ll t h e Abbé du Bos’ con sequ en ces t r u e, t h ey
m u st n ot on ly h a ve m a de n o ch a n ge a m on g t h e Rom a n s, bu t t h ey m u st even
h a ve ch a n ged t h em selves.
I cou ld u n der t a ke t o pr ove, by followin g t h is a u t h or ’s m et h od, t h a t t h e Gr eeks
n ever con qu er ed P er sia . I sh ou ld set ou t wit h m en t ion in g t h e t r ea t ies wh ich
som e of t h eir cit ies con clu ded wit h t h e P er sia n s; I sh ou ld m en t ion t h e Gr eeks
wh o wer e in P er sia n pa y, a s t h e F r a n ks wer e in t h e pa y of t h e Rom a n s. An d if
Alexa n der en t er ed t h e P er sia n t er r it or ies, besieged, t ook, a n d dest r oyed t h e cit y
of Tyr e, it wa s on ly a pa r t icu la r a ffa ir like t h a t of Sya gr iu s. Bu t , beh old t h e
J ewish pon t iff goes for t h t o m eet h im . List en t o t h e or a cle of J u pit er Am m on .
Recollect h ow h e h a d been pr edict ed a t Gor diu m . See wh a t a n u m ber of t own s
cr owd, a s it wer e, t o su bm it t o h im ; a n d h ow a ll t h e sa t r a ps a n d gr a n dees com e
t o pa y h im obeisa n ce. H e pu t on t h e P er sia n dr ess; t h is is Clovis’ con su la r r obe.
Does n ot Da r iu s offer h im on e h a lf of h is kin gdom ? Is n ot Da r iu s a ssa ssin a t ed
like a t yr a n t ? Do n ot t h e m ot h er a n d wife of Da r iu s weep a t t h e dea t h of
Alexa n der ? Wer e Qu in t iu s Cu r t iu s, Ar r ia n , or P lu t a r ch , Alexa n der ’s
con t em por a r ies? H a s n ot t h e in ven t ion of pr in t in g a ffor ded u s gr ea t ligh t wh ich
t h ose a u t h or s wa n t ed?194 Su ch is t h e h ist or y of t h e E st a blish m en t of t h e F r en ch
Mon a r ch y in Ga u l.
EL1&@(&+-%&Y.%*9-&2'#5$5+H1
Th e Abbé du Bos m a in t a in s t h a t a t t h e com m en cem en t of ou r m on a r ch y t h er e
wa s on ly on e or der of cit izen s a m on g t h e F r a n ks. Th is a sser t ion , so in ju r iou s t o
t h e n oble blood of ou r pr in cipa l fa m ilies, is equ a lly a ffr on t in g t o t h e t h r ee gr ea t
h ou ses wh ich su ccessively gover n ed t h is r ea lm . Th e or igin of t h eir gr a n deu r
wou ld n ot , t h er efor e, h a ve been lost in t h e obscu r it y of t im e. H ist or y m igh t
poin t ou t t h e a ges wh en t h ey wer e plebeia n fa m ilies; a n d t o m a ke Ch ilder ic,
P epin , a n d H u gh Ca pet gen t lem en , we sh ou ld be obliged t o t r a ce t h eir pedigr ee

a m on g t h e Rom a n s or Sa xon s, t h a t is, a m on g t h e con qu er ed n a t ion s.
Th is a u t h or gr ou n ds h is opin ion on t h e Sa lic la w.195 By t h a t la w, h e sa ys, it
pla in ly a ppea r s t h a t t h er e wer e n ot t wo differ en t or der s of cit izen s a m on g t h e
F r a n ks: it a llowed a com posit ion of t wo h u n dr ed sou s for t h e m u r der of a n y
F r a n k wh a t soever ;196 bu t a m on g t h e Rom a n s it dist in gu ish ed t h e kin g’s gu est ,
for wh ose dea t h it ga ve a com posit ion of t h r ee h u n dr ed sou s, fr om t h e Rom a n
pr opr iet or t o wh om it gr a n t ed a h u n dr ed, a n d fr om t h e Rom a n t r ibu t a r y t o
wh om it ga ve on ly a com posit ion of for t y-five. An d a s t h e differ en ce of t h e
com posit ion s for m ed t h e pr in cipa l dist in ct ion , h e con clu des t h a t t h er e wa s bu t
on e or der of cit izen s a m on g t h e F r a n ks, a n d t h r ee a m on g t h e Rom a n s.
It is a st on ish in g t h a t h is ver y m ist a ke did n ot set h im r igh t . An d, in deed, it
wou ld h a ve been ver y ext r a or din a r y t h a t t h e Rom a n n obilit y wh o lived u n der
t h e dom in a t ion of t h e F r a n ks sh ou ld h a ve h a d a la r ger com posit ion , a n d been
per son s of m u ch gr ea t er im por t a n ce t h a n t h e m ost illu st r iou s a m on g t h e
F r a n ks, a n d t h eir gr ea t est gen er a ls. Wh a t pr oba bilit y is t h er e t h a t t h e
con qu er in g n a t ion sh ou ld h a ve so lit t le r espect for t h em selves, a n d so gr ea t a
r ega r d for t h e con qu er ed people? Besides, ou r a u t h or qu ot es t h e la ws of ot h er
ba r ba r ou s n a t ion s wh ich pr ove t h a t t h ey h a d differ en t or der s of cit izen s. Now
it wou ld be a m a t t er of a st on ish m en t t h a t t h is gen er a l r u le sh ou ld h a ve fa iled
on ly a m on g t h e F r a n ks. H en ce h e ou gh t t o h a ve con clu ded eit h er t h a t h e did n ot
r igh t ly u n der st a n d or t h a t h e m isa pplied t h e pa ssa ges of t h e Sa lic la w, wh ich
is a ct u a lly t h e ca se.
Upon open in g t h is la w, we fin d t h a t t h e com posit ion for t h e dea t h of a n
An t r u st io. 197 t h a t is, of t h e kin g’s va ssa l, wa s six h u n dr ed sou s; a n d t h a t for t h e
dea t h of a Rom a n , wh o wa s t h e kin g’s gu est , wa s on ly t h r ee h u n dr ed. 198 We fin d
t h er e likewise t h a t t h e com posit ion 199 for t h e dea t h of a n or din a r y F r a n k wa s
t wo h u n dr ed sou s;200 a n d for t h e dea t h of a n or din a r y Rom a n , wa s on ly on e
h u n dr ed. 201 F or t h e dea t h of a Rom a n t r ibu t a r y, 202 wh o wa s a kin d of bon dm a n
or fr eedm a n , t h ey pa id a com posit ion of for t y-five sou s: bu t I sh a ll t a ke n o n ot ice
of t h is, a n y m or e t h a n of t h e com posit ion for t h e m u r der of a F r a n k bon dm a n
or of a F r a n k fr eedm a n , beca u se t h is t h ir d or der of per son s is ou t of t h e
qu est ion .
Wh a t does ou r a u t h or do? H e is qu it e silen t wit h r espect t o t h e fir st or der of

per son s a m on g t h e F r a n ks, t h a t is t h e a r t icle r ela t in g t o t h e An t r u st ios; a n d
a ft er wa r ds u pon com pa r in g t h e or din a r y F r a n k, for wh ose dea t h t h ey pa id a
com posit ion of t wo h u n dr ed sou s, wit h t h ose wh om h e dist in gu ish es u n der t h r ee
or der s a m on g t h e Rom a n s, a n d for wh ose dea t h t h ey pa id differ en t
com posit ion s, h e fin ds t h a t t h er e wa s on ly on e or der of cit izen s a m on g t h e
F r a n ks, a n d t h a t t h er e wer e t h r ee a m on g t h e Rom a n s.
As t h e Abbé is of opin ion t h a t t h er e wa s on ly on e or der of cit izen s a m on g t h e
F r a n ks, it wou ld h a ve been lu cky for h im t h a t t h er e h a d been on ly on e or der
a lso a m on g t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, beca u se t h eir kin gdom con st it u t ed on e of t h e
pr in cipa l br a n ch es of ou r m on a r ch y. Bu t in t h eir codes we fin d t h r ee sor t s of
com posit ion s, on e for t h e Bu r gu n dia n s or Rom a n n obilit y, t h e ot h er for t h e
Bu r gu n dia n s or Rom a n s of a m iddlin g con dit ion , a n d t h e t h ir d for t h ose of a
lower r a n k in bot h n a t ion s.203 H e h a s n ot qu ot ed t h is la w.
It is ver y ext r a or din a r y t o see in wh a t m a n n er h e eva des t h ose pa ssa ges
wh ich pr ess h im h a r d on a ll sides. 204 If you spea k t o h im of t h e gr a n dees, lor ds,
a n d t h e n obilit y, t h ese, h e sa ys, a r e m er e dist in ct ion s of r espect , a n d n ot of
or der ; t h ey a r e t h in gs of cou r t esy, a n d n ot lega l pr ivileges; or else, h e sa ys,
t h ose people belon ged t o t h e kin g’s cou n cil; n a y, t h ey possibly m igh t be Rom a n s:
bu t st ill t h er e wa s on ly on e or der of cit izen s a m on g t h e F r a n ks. On t h e ot h er
h a n d, if you spea k t o h im of som e F r a n ks of a n in fer ior r a n k, 205 h e sa ys t h ey a r e
bon dm en ; a n d t h u s h e in t er pr et s t h e decr ee of Ch ildeber t . Bu t I m u st st op h er e
a lit t le, t o in qu ir e fa r t h er in t o t h is decr ee. Ou r a u t h or h a s r en der ed it fa m ou s
by a va ilin g h im self of it in or der t o pr ove t wo t h in gs: t h e on e t h a t a ll t h e
com posit ion s we m eet wit h in t h e la ws of t h e Ba r ba r ia n s wer e on ly civil fin es
a dded t o cor por a l pu n ish m en t s, wh ich en t ir ely su bver t s a ll t h e a n cien t
r ecor ds;206 t h e ot h er , t h a t a ll fr eem en wer e ju dged dir ect ly a n d im m edia t ely by
t h e kin g. 207 wh ich is con t r a dict ed by a n in fin it e n u m ber of pa ssa ges a n d
a u t h or it ies in for m in g u s of t h e ju dicia r y or der of t h ose t im es.208
Th is decr ee, wh ich wa s m a de in a n a ssem bly of t h e n a t ion , 209 sa ys t h a t , if t h e
ju dge fin ds a n ot or iou s r obber , h e m u st com m a n d h im t o be t ied, in or der t o be
ca r r ied befor e t h e kin g, si F r a n cu s fu er it ; bu t if h e is a wea ker per son (debilior
per son a ), h e sh a ll be h a n ged on t h e spot . Accor din g t o t h e Abbé du Bos, F r a n cu s
is a fr eem a n , debilior per son a is a bon dm a n . I sh a ll defer en t er in g for a m om en t

in t o t h e sign ifica t ion of t h e wor d F r a n cu s, a n d begin wit h exa m in in g wh a t ca n
be u n der st ood by t h ese wor ds, a wea ker per son , In a ll la n gu a ges wh a t soever ,
ever y com pa r ison n ecessa r ily su pposes t h r ee t er m s, t h e gr ea t est , t h e less
degr ee, a n d t h e lea st . If n on e wer e h er e m ea n t bu t fr eem en a n d bon dm en , t h ey
wou ld h a ve sa id a bon dm a n , a n d n ot a m a n of less power . Th er efor e debilior
per son a does n ot sign ify a bon dm a n , bu t a per son of a su per ior con dit ion t o a
bon dm a n . Upon t h is su pposit ion , F r a n cu s ca n n ot m ea n a fr eem a n , bu t a
power fu l m a n ; a n d t h is wor d is t a ken h er e in t h a t a ccept a t ion , beca u se a m on g
t h e F r a n ks t h er e wer e a lwa ys m en wh o h a d gr ea t er power t h a n ot h er s in t h e
st a t e, a n d it wa s m or e difficu lt for t h e ju dge or cou n t t o ch a st ise t h em . Th is
con st r u ct ion a gr ees ver y well wit h m a n y ca pit u la r ies 210 wh er e we fin d t h e ca ses
in wh ich t h e cr im in a ls wer e t o be ca r r ied befor e t h e kin g, a n d t h ose in wh ich it
wa s ot h er wise.
It is m en t ion ed in t h e Life of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e, 211 wr it t en by Tega n , t h a t
t h e bish ops wer e t h e pr in cipa l ca u se of t h e h u m ilia t ion of t h a t em per or ,
especia lly t h ose wh o h a d been bon dm en a n d su ch a s wer e bor n a m on g t h e
Ba r ba r ia n s. Tega n t h u s a ddr esses H ebo, wh om t h is pr in ce h a d dr a wn fr om t h e
st a t e of ser vit u de, a n d m a de Ar ch bish op of Rh eim s: “Wh a t r ecom pen se did t h e
E m per or r eceive fr om you for so m a n y ben efit s? H e m a de you a fr eem a n , bu t did
n ot en n oble you , beca u se h e cou ld n ot give you n obilit y a ft er h a vin g given you
you r liber t y.”212
Th is pa ssa ge, wh ich pr oves so st r on gly t h e t wo or der s of cit izen s, does n ot a t
a ll con fou n d t h e Abbé du Bos. H e a n swer s t h u s:213 “Th e m ea n in g of t h is pa ssa ge
is n ot t h a t Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e wa s in ca pa ble of in t r odu cin g H ebo in t o t h e
or der of t h e n obilit y. H ebo, a s Ar ch bish op of Rh eim s, m u st h a ve been of t h e fir st
or der , su per ior t o t h a t of t h e n obilit y.” I lea ve t h e r ea der t o ju dge wh et h er t h is
be n ot t h e m ea n in g of t h a t pa ssa ge; I lea ve h im t o ju dge wh et h er t h er e be a n y
qu est ion h er e con cer n in g a pr eceden ce of t h e cler gy over t h e n obilit y. “Th is
pa ssa ge pr oves on ly,” con t in u es t h e sa m e wr it er , 214 “t h a t t h e fr ee-bor n su bject s
wer e qu a lified a s n oblem en ; in t h e com m on a ccept a t ion , n oblem en a n d m en wh o
a r e fr ee-bor n h a ve for t h is lon g t im e sign ified t h e sa m e t h in g.” Wh a t ! beca u se
som e of ou r bu r gh er s h a ve la t ely a ssu m ed t h e qu a lit y of n oblem en , sh a ll a
pa ssa ge of t h e Life of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e be a pplied t o t h is sor t of people?

“An d per h a ps,” con t in u es h e st ill, 215 “H ebo h a d n ot been a bon dm a n a m on g t h e
F r a n ks, bu t a m on g t h e Sa xon s, or som e ot h er Ger m a n n a t ion , wh er e t h e people
wer e divided in t o sever a l or der s.” Th en , beca u se of t h e Abbé du Bos’ “per h a ps,”
t h er e m u st h a ve been n o n obilit y a m on g t h e n a t ion of t h e F r a n ks. Bu t h e n ever
a pplied a “per h a ps” so ba dly. We h a ve seen t h a t Tega n dist in gu ish es t h e
bish ops, 216 wh o h a d opposed Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e, som e of wh om h a d been
bon dm en , a n d ot h er s of a ba r ba r ou s n a t ion . H ebo belon ged t o t h e for m er a n d
n ot t o t h e la t t er . Besides, I do n ot see h ow a bon dm a n , su ch a s H ebo, ca n be
sa id t o h a ve been a Sa xon or a Ger m a n ; a bon dm a n h a s n o fa m ily, a n d
con sequ en t ly n o n a t ion . Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e m a n u m it t ed H ebo; a n d a s
bon dm en a ft er t h eir m a n u m ission em br a ced t h e la w of t h eir m a st er , H ebo h a d
becom e a F r a n k, a n d n ot a Sa xon or Ger m a n .
I h a ve been h it h er t o a ct in g offen sively; it is n ow t im e t o defen d m yself. It will
be object ed t o m e t h a t in deed t h e body of t h e An t r u st ios for m ed a dist in ct or der
in t h e st a t e fr om t h a t of t h e fr eem en ; bu t a s t h e fiefs wer e a t fir st pr eca r iou s,
a n d a ft er wa r ds for life, t h is cou ld n ot for m a n oblen ess of descen t , sin ce t h e
pr ivileges wer e n ot a n n exed t o a n h er edit a r y fief. Th is is t h e object ion wh ich
in du ced M. de Va lois t o t h in k t h a t t h er e wa s on ly on e or der of cit izen s a m on g
t h e F r a n ks; a n opin ion wh ich t h e Abbé du Bos h a s bor r owed of h im , a n d wh ich
h e h a s a bsolu t ely spoiled wit h so m a n y ba d a r gu m en t s. Be t h a t a s it m a y, it is
n ot t h e Abbé du Bos t h a t cou ld m a ke t h is object ion . F or a ft er h a vin g given t h r ee
or der s of Rom a n n obilit y, a n d t h e qu a lit y of t h e kin g’s gu est for t h e fir st , h e
cou ld n ot pr et en d t o sa y t h a t t h is t it le wa s a gr ea t er m a r k of a n oble descen t
t h a n t h a t of An t r u st io. Bu t I m u st give a dir ect a n swer . Th e An t r u st ios or
t r u st y m en wer e n ot su ch beca u se t h ey wer e possessed of a fief, bu t t h a t t h ey
h a d a fief given t h em beca u se t h ey wer e An t r u st ios or t r u st y m en . Th e r ea der
m a y plea se t o r ecollect wh a t h a s been sa id in t h e begin n in g of t h is book. Th ey
h a d n ot a t t h a t t im e, a s t h ey h a d a ft er wa r ds, t h e sa m e fief: bu t if t h ey h a d n ot
t h a t , t h ey h a d a n ot h er , beca u se t h e fiefs wer e given a t t h eir bir t h , a n d beca u se
t h ey wer e oft en gr a n t ed in t h e a ssem blies of t h e n a t ion , a n d, in fin e, beca u se a s
it wa s t h e in t er est of t h e n obilit y t o r eceive t h em it wa s likewise t h e kin g’s
in t er est t o gr a n t t h em . Th ese fa m ilies wer e dist in gu ish ed by t h eir dign it y of
t r u st y m en , a n d by t h e pr ivilege of bein g qu a lified t o swea r a llegia n ce for a fief.

In t h e followin g book 217 I sh a ll dem on st r a t e h ow, fr om t h e cir cu m st a n ces of t h e
t im e, t h er e wer e fr eem en wh o wer e per m it t ed t o en joy t h is gr ea t pr ivilege, a n d
con sequ en t ly t o en t er in t o t h e or der of n obilit y. Th is wa s n ot t h e ca se a t t h e
t im e of Gon t r a m , a n d h is n eph ew Ch ildeber t ; bu t so it wa s a t t h e t im e of
Ch a r lem a gn e. Bu t t h ou gh in t h a t pr in ce’s r eign t h e fr eem en wer e n ot in ca pa ble
of possessin g fiefs, yet it a ppea r s, by t h e a bove-cit ed pa ssa ge of Tega n , t h a t t h e
em a n cipa t ed ser fs wer e a bsolu t ely exclu ded. Will t h e Abbé du Bos, wh o ca r r ies
u s t o Tu r key t o give u s a n idea of t h e a n cien t F r en ch n obilit y;218 will h e, I sa y,
pr et en d t h a t t h ey ever com pla in ed a m on g t h e Tu r ks of t h e eleva t ion of people
of low bir t h t o t h e h on ou r s a n d dign it ies of t h e st a t e, a s t h ey com pla in ed u n der
Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e a n d Ch a r les t h e Ba ld? Th er e wa s n o com pla in t of t h a t
kin d u n der Ch a r lem a gn e, beca u se t h is pr in ce a lwa ys dist in gu ish ed t h e a n cien t
fr om t h e n ew fa m ilies; wh ich Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e, a n d Ch a r les t h e Ba ld did
n ot .
Th e pu blic sh ou ld n ot for get t h e obliga t ion it owes t o t h e Abbé du Bos for
sever a l excellen t per for m a n ces. It is by t h ese wor ks, a n d n ot by h is h ist or y of
t h e E st a blish m en t of t h e F r en ch Mon a r ch y, we ou gh t t o ju dge of h is m er it . H e
com m it t ed ver y gr ea t m ist a kes, beca u se h e h a d m or e in view t h e Cou n t of
Bou la in villier s’ wor k t h a n h is own su bject .
F r om a ll t h ese st r ict u r es I sh a ll dr a w on ly on e r eflect ion : if so gr ea t a m a n
wa s m ist a ken , h ow ca u t iou sly ou gh t I t o t r ea d?
2'+%,1
1. Qu a n t u m ver t ice a d or a s Æ t h er ea s, t a n t u m r a dice a d Ta r t a r a t en dit —
Vir gil, Geor g., ii. 292; Æ n eid, iv. 446.
2. Book iv.
3. F or in st a n ce, h is r et r ea t fr om Ger m a n y. — Ibid.
4. De Bello Ga ll., vi. 21; Ta cit u s, De Mor ibu s Ger m a n or u m , 31.
6. Com it es.
7. De B ello Gall., vi. 22.
8. See t h e L ife of Dagobert.
9. See Gr egor y of Tou r s, vi, on t h e m a r r ia ge of t h e da u gh t er of Ch ilper ic.

Ch ildeber t sen ds a m ba ssa dor s t o t ell h im t h a t h e sh ou ld n ot give t h e cit ies
of h is fa t h er ’s kin gdom t o h is da u gh t er , n or h is t r ea su r es, n or h is bon dm en ,
n or h or ses, n or h or sem en , n or t ea m s of oxen , &c.
10. Th e Rom a n s obliged t h em selves t o t h is by t r ea t ies. See Zozim u s, v, u pon t h e
dist r ibu t ion of cor n dem a n ded by Ala r ic. — E D .
11. Ma r iu s’ Ch r on icle in t h e yea r 456.
12. Book x, t it . 1, §§ 8, 9, & 16.
13. Ch a pt er 54, §§ 1, 2. Th is division wa s st ill su bsist in g in t h e t im e of Lou is t h e
Debon n a ir e, a s a ppea r s by h is Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 829, wh ich h a s been
in ser t ed in t h e la w of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, t it . 79, § 1.
14. See P r ocopiu s, War of th e Goth s.
15. See P r ocopiu s, War of th e Van d als.
16. L aw of th e B u rgu n d ian s, t it . 54, § 1.
17. Ar t . 11.
19. An d in t h a t of t h e Visigot h s.
20. Tit . 54.
21. Th is is con fir m ed by t h e wh ole t it le of t h e code de Agr icolis et Cen sit is, et
Colon is.
22. Tit . 26, §§ 1, a .
23. Tit . 57.
24. Ovid, Met . ii. 134.
25. Wh ile Ga u l wa s u n der t h e dom in ion of t h e Rom a n s t h ey for m ed pa r t icu la r
bodies; t h ese wer e gen er a lly fr eedm en , or t h e descen da n t s of fr eedm en .
26. See Gr egor y of Tou r s, ii, 27. Aim oin , i. 12.
27. See t h e Lives of t h e Sa in t s, foot n ot e 7, below.
28. Gr egor y of Tou r s, ii.
29. Ibid., vi. 31.
30. Ca ssiodor u s, iii. 43.
31. In t h e yea r 763.
32. See t h e a n n a ls of F u ld, in t h e yea r 739, P a u lu s Dia con u s, De gest is
Lon goba r dor u m , iii. 30, iv. 1, a n d t h e Lives of t h e Sa in t s in t h e n ext
foot n ot e.
33. See t h e lives of St . E piph a n iu s, St . E pt a diu s, St . Ca esa r iu s, St . F idolu s, St .
P or cia n , St . Tr ever iu s, St . E u sich iu s, a n d of St . Leger ; t h e m ir a cles of St .
J u lia n , &c.
34. Ovid, Met ., i. 293.
35. E ven t h e h u sba n dm en t h em selves wer e n ot a ll sla ves; see t h e Leg. 18, 23,
Cod. de Agr icolis, et Cen sit is, et Colon is, a n d Leg. 20 of t h e sa m e t it le.
36. See Gr egor y of Tou r s, ii.
37. Ibid., v. 28.
38. Ibid., viii. 36.
39. Life of St . Ar idiu s.
40. Book vii.
41. E st a blish m en t of t h e F r en ch Mon a r ch y, iii. 14, p. 515. See Ba lu ziu s, ii, p.
187.
42. Book iii. 36.
43. Book iii, p. 514.
44. Book x, t it . 1, ca p. xiv.
45. Th e Va n da ls pa id n on e in Afr ica . — P r ocopiu s, Wa r of t h e Va n da ls, i, ii.
H ist or ia Miscella , xvi, p. 106. Obser ve t h a t t h e con qu er or s of Afr ica wer e a
m ixt u r e of Va n da ls, Ala n s, a n d F r a n ks. H ist or ia Miscella , xiv, p. 94.
46. E st a blish m en t of t h e F r a n ks in Ga u l, iii. 14, p. 510.
47. H e la ys a st r ess u pon a n ot h er la w of t h e Visigot h s, x, t it . 1, a r t . 11, wh ich
pr oves n ot h in g a t a ll; it sa ys on ly t h a t h e wh o h a s r eceived of a lor d a piece
of la n d on con dit ion of a r en t or ser vice ou gh t t o pa y it .
48. Book iii, p. 511.
49. Leg. 3, xi, t it . 74.
50. E st a blish m en t of t h e F r en ch Mon a r ch y, iii. 14, p. 513, wh er e h e qu ot es t h e
28t h a r t icle of t h e edict of P ist es. See fa r t h er on .
51. Ibid. iii. 4, p. 298.
52. In t h e yea r 815, ca p. i, wh ich is a gr eea ble t o t h e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r les t h e
Ba ld, in t h e yea r 844, a r t s. 1, 2.
53. Th ey wer e n ot obliged t o fu r n ish a n y t o t h e cou n t . --Ibid., a r t . 5.
54. Th e cou n t s a r e for bidden t o depr ive t h em of t h eir h or ses, u t h ost em fa cer e,
et debit os pa r a ver edos secu n du m a n t equ a m con su et u din em exsolver e

possin t . — E dict of P ist es, in Ba lu ziu s, p. 186.
55. Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r lem a gn e, 1, in t h e yea r 812. E dict of P ist es in t h e yea r
864, a r t . 27.
56. Qu a t u or m a n sos. I fa n cy t h a t wh a t t h ey ca lled Afa n su s wa s a pa r t icu la r
por t ion of la n d belon gin g t o a fa r m wh er e t h er e wer e bon dm en ; wit n ess t h e
ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 853, a pu d Sylva cu m , t it . 14, a ga in st t h ose wh o dr ove
t h e bon dm en fr om t h eir Ma n su s.
57. See below, ch a pt er 20 of t h is book.
58. In Du ch esn e, ii, p. 287.
59. Ibid., p. 89.
60. See t h e Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 858, a r t . 14.
61. Th ey levied a lso som e du t ies on r iver s, wh er e t h er e h a ppen ed t o be a br idge
or a pa ssa ge.
62. Th e cen su s wa s so gen er ica l a wor d, t h a t t h ey m a de u se of it t o expr ess t h e
t olls of r iver s, wh en t h er e wa s a br idge or fer r y t o pa ss. See t h e t h ir d
Ca pit u la r y, in t h e yea r 803, edit ion of Ba lu ziu s, p. 395, a r t . 1; a n d t h e 5t h
in t h e yea r 819, p. 616. Th ey ga ve likewise t h is n a m e t o t h e ca r r ia ges
fu r n ish ed by t h e fr eem en t o t h e kin g, or t o h is com m issa r ies, a s a ppea ls by
t h e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld in t h e yea r 865, a r t . 8.
63. Th e Abbé du Bos, a n d h is follower s.
64. See t h e wea kn ess of t h e a r gu m en t s pr odu ced by t h e Abb " du Bos, in t h e
E st a blish m en t of t h e F r en ch Mon a r ch y, iii, book VI. 14; especia lly in t h e
in fer en ce h e dr a ws fr om a pa ssa ge of Gr egor y of Tou r s, con cer n in g a dispu t e
bet ween h is ch u r ch a n d Kin g Ch a r iber t .
65. F or in st a n ce, by en fr a n ch isem en t s.
66. P la t o, Tim a eu s. — E D.
67. La w of t h e Alem a n s, ca p. xxii; a n d t h e La w of t h e Ba va r ia n s, t it . 1, ca p. iv.,
wh er e t h e r egu la t ion s a r e t o be fou n d wh ich t h e cler gy m a de con cer n in g
t h eir or der .
68. Ca pit u la r ies, v. 303.
69. Book i, for m . 19.
70. In t h e yea r 789, edit ion of t h e Ca pit u la r ies by Ba lu ziu s, i, p. 250.
71. Ibid.
72. Ibid.
73. P r a ecept u m pr o H ispa n is, in t h e yea r 812, ed. Ba lu ziu s, i, p. 500.
74. In t h e yea r 844, ed. Ba lu ziu s, ii, a r t s. 1 a n d 2, p. 27.
75. Th ir d Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 805, a r t s. 20 a n d 22, in ser t ed in t h e Collect ion
of An gezise, iii, a r t . 15. Th is is a gr eea ble t o t h a t of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, in t h e
yea r 854, a pu d At t in ia cu m , a r t . 6.
76. Ibid.
77. In t h e yea r 812, a r t s. 10 a n d 11, ed. Ba lu ziu s, i, p. 498.
78. Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 812, a r t s. 10 a n d 11.
79. In t h e yea r 813, a r t . 6, ed. Ba lu ziu s, i, p. 508.
80. Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 813, a r t . 6.
81. Book iv of t h e Ca pit u la r ies, a r t . 37, a n d in ser t ed in t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds.
82. Book iv of t h e Ca pit u la r ies, a r t . 37.
83. In t h e yea r 805, a r t . 8.
84. Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 805, a r t . 8.
85. In t h e yea r 864, a r t . 34, ed. Ba lu ziu s, p. 192.
86. Ibid.
87. Th e 28t h a r t icle of t h e sa m e edict expla in s t h is ext r em ely well; it even
m a kes a dist in ct ion bet ween a Rom a n fr eedm a n a n d a F r a n k fr eedm a n : a n d
we likewise see t h er e t h a t t h e cen su s wa s n ot gen er a l; it deser ves t o be r ea d.
88. As a ppea r s by t h e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r lem a gn e in t h e yea r 813, wh ich we
h a ve a lr ea dy qu ot ed.
89. Com it es. De Mor ibu s Ger m a n or u m , 13.
90. Qu i su n t in t r u st e r egis, t it . 44, a r t . 4.
91. Book i, for m . 18.
92. F r om t h e wor d t r ew, wh ich sign ifies fa it h fu l a m on g t h e Ger m a n s.
93. Leu des, fideles.
94. Va ssa lli, sen ior es.
95. F isca lia . See Ma r cu lfu s, i. for m . 14. It is m en t ion ed in t h e Life of St . Ma u r ,
dedit fiscu m u n u m : a n d in t h e a n n a ls of Met z, in t h e yea r 747, dedit illi
com it a t u s et fiscos plu r im os. Th e goods design ed for t h e su ppor t of t h e r oya l
fa m ily wer e ca lled r ega lia .
96. See i, t it . 1, of t h e fiefs; a n d Cu ja s on t h a t book.

97. Book ix. 38.
98. Ibid., vii.
99. Book i, for m . 30.
100. Book iii, t it . 8, § 3.
101. F eu dor u m , i, t it . 1.
102. It wa s a kin d of pr eca r iou s t en u r e wh ich t h e lor d con sen t ed or r efu sed t o
r en ew ever y yea r ; a s Cu ja s h a s obser ved.
103. See t h e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r lem a gn e in t h e yea r 812, a r t s. 3 a n d 4, ed.
Ba lu ziu s, i, p. 491; a n d t h e edict of P ist es in t h e yea r 864, a r t . 26, ii, p. 186.
104. Book ii of t h e Ca pit u la r ies, a r t . 28.
105. Th ey wer e ca lled Com pa gen ses.
106. P u blish ed in t h e yea r 595, a r t . 1. See t h e Ca pit u la r ies, ed. Ba lu ziu s, p. 20.
Th ese r egu la t ion s wer e u n dou bt edly m a de by a gr eem en t .
107. Advoca t i.
108. Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r lem a gn e, in t h e yea r 812, a r t . 1 a n d 5, ed. Ba lu ziu s, i,
p. 490.
109. See t h e Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 803, pu blish ed a t Wor m s, ed Ba lu ziu s, pp.
408, 410.
110. Ca pit u la r y of Wor m s in t h e yea r 803, edit ion of Ba lu ziu s, p. 409; a n d t h e
cou n cil in t h e yea r 845, u n der Ch a r les, t h e Ba ld, in ver n o pa la t io, edit ion of
Ba lu ziu s, ii, p. 17, a r t . 8.
111. Th e fift h Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 819, a r t . 27, edit ion of Ba lu ziu s, p. 618.
112. Ca pit u la r y 11 in t h e yea r 812, a r t . 7, edit ion of Ba lu ziu s, i, p. 494.
113. Ca pit u la r y i of t h e yea r 812, a r t . 5, edit ion of Ba lu ziu s, i, p. 490.
114. In t h e yea r 812, ca p. i, edit ion of Ba lu ziu s, p. 490.
115. E st a blish m en t of t h e F r en ch Mon a r ch y, iii, book VI, ca p. iv, p. 299.
116. Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 882, a r t . 11, a pu d ver n is pa la t iu m , edit ion of
Ba lu ziu s, ii, p. 289.
117. Ar t . 1, 2, a n d t h e cou n cil in ver n o pa la t io of t h e yea r 845, a r t . 8, edit ion of
Ba lu ziu s, ii, p. 17.
118. Or a ssizes.
119. Ca pit u la r ies, book iv of t h e Collect ion of An gezise, a r t . 57; a n d t h e fift h
ca pit u la r y of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e, in t h e yea r 819, a r t . 14, edit ion of

Ba lu ziu s, i, p. 615.
120. See t h e 8t h n ot e of t h e pr ecedin g ch a pt er .
121. It is t o be fou n d in t h e Collect ion of Willia m La r a ba r d, De P r iscis
An glor u m legibu s.
122. In t h e wor d Sa t r a pia .
123. Th is is well expla in ed by t h e a ssizes of J er u sa lem , 221, 222.
124. Th e a dvowees of t h e ch u r ch (a dvoca t i) wer e equ a lly a t t h e h ea d of t h eir
pla cit a a n d of t h eir m ilit ia .
125. See Ma r cu lfu s, i, for m . 8, wh ich con t a in s t h e let t er s given t o a du ke,
pa t r icia n , or cou n t ; a n d in vest s t h em wit h t h e civil ju r isdict ion , a n d t h e
fisca l a dm in ist r a t ion .
126. Ch r on icle, 78, in t h e yea r 636.
127. See con cer n in g t h is su bject t h e ca pit u la r ies of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e a dded
t o t h e Sa lic la w, a r t . 2, a n d t h e for m u la of ju dgm en t s given by Du Ca n ge in
t h e wor d bon i h om in es.
128. P er bon os h om in es, som et im es t h er e wer e n on e bu t pr in cipa l m en . See t h e
a ppen dix t o t h e for m u la r ies of Ma r cu lfu s, 51.
129. An d som e t olls on r iver s, of wh ich I h a ve spoken a lr ea dy.
130. See t h e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s, t it . 89; a n d t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, ii, t it .
52, § 9.
131. Ta cit u s, De Mor ibu s Ger m a n or u m , 21.
132. See t h is la w in t h e 2n d t it le on m u r der s; a n d Vu lem a r ’s a ddit ion on
r obber ies.
133. Tit . i, § 1.
134. Sa lic La w, t it . 8, § 1; t it . 17, § 3.
135. Th e Sa lic la ws a r e a dm ir a ble in t h is r espect , see especia lly t h e t it les 3, 4,
5, 6, a n d 7, wh ich r ela t ed t o t h e st ea lin g of ca t t le.
136. Book i, t it . 7, § 15.
137. See t h e la w of t h e An gli, t it . 1, §§ 1,2, a n d 4; ibid. t it . 5, § 6; t h e la w of t h e
Ba va r ia n s, t it . 1, ca p. 8, 9, a n d t h e la w of t h e F r isia n s, t it . 15.
138. Tit . 2, ca p. xx.
139. H ozidr a , Ozza , Sa ga n a , H a ba lin gu a , An n ien a . — Ibid.
140. Th u s t h e la w of In a va lu ed life by a cer t a in su m of m on ey, or by a cer t a in

por t ion of la n d. Leges In a e r egis, t it u lo de villico r egio de pr iscis An glor u m
legibu s. — Ca m br idge, 1644.
141. See t h e la w of t h e Sa xon s, wh ich m a k es t h is sa m e r egu la t ion for sever a l
people, ca p. xviii. See a lso t h e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s, t it . 36, § 11; t h e la w of
t h e Ba va r ia n s, t it . 1, §§ 10 a n d 11.
142. See t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, i, t it . 25 § 21; ibid., i, t it . 9, §§ 8, 34; ibid., §
38, a n d t h e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r lem a gn e in t h e yea r 802, ca p. xxxii,
con t a in in g a n in st r u ct ion given t o t h ose wh om h e sen t in t o t h e pr ovin ces.
143. See in Gr egor y of Tou r s, vii. 47, t h e det a il of a pr ocess, wh er ein a pa r t y
loses h a lf t h e com posit ion t h a t h a d been a dju dged t o h im , for h a vin g don e
ju st ice t o h im self, in st ea d of r eceivin g sat isfa ct ion , wh a t ever in ju r y h e m igh t
h a ve a ft er wa r ds r eceived.
144. See t h e la w of t h e Sa xon s, ca p. iii, § 4; t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, i, t it . 37,
§§ 1 a n d 2; a n d t h e la w of t h e Alem a n s, t it . 45, §§ 1 a n d 2. Th is la st la w ga ve
lea ve t o t h e pa r t y in ju r ed t o r igh t h im self u pon t h e spot , a n d in t h e fir st
t r a n spor t of pa ssion . See a lso t h e Ca pit u la r ies of Ch a r lem a gn e in t h e yea r
779, ca p. xxii, in t h e yea r 802, ca p. xxxii, a n d a lso t h a t of t h e yea r 805, ca p.
v.
145. Th e com piler s of t h e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s seem t o h a ve soft en ed t h is. See
t h e 85t h t it le of t h ose la ws.
146. See t h e decr ee of Ta ssillon , De P opu la r ibu s legibu s, a r t . 3, 4, 10, 16, 19; t h e
la w of t h e An gli, t it . vii. § 4.
147. Book i, t it . ix, § 4.
148. P a ct u s pr o t en or e pa ds in t er Ch ildeber t u m et Clot a r iu m , a n n o 593, et
decr et io Clot a r ii 2 r egis, cir ca a n n u m 595, ca p. xi.
149. Wh en it wa s n ot det er m in ed by t h e la w, it wa s gen er a lly t h e t h ir d of wh a t
wa s given for t h e com posit ion , a s a ppea r s in t h e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s, ca p.
lxxxix, wh ich is expla in ed by t h e t h ir d Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 813. — E dit ion
of Ba lu ziu s, i, p. 512.
150. Book i, t it . 9, § 17, ed. Lin dem br ock.
151. Tit . 70.
152. Tit . 46. See a lso t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, i. ca p. xxi, § 3, Lin dem br ock’s
edit ion , si ca ba llu s cu m pede, &c.

153. Tit . 28, § 6.
154. As a ppea r s by t h e decr ee of Clot h a r iu s II in t h e yea r 595.
155. Tit . 89.
156. Ca pit u la r e in cer t i a n n i, 57, in Ba lu ziu s, i p. 515, a n d it is t o be obser ved,
t h a t wh a t wa s ca lled fr edu m or fa ida , in t h e m on u m en t s of t h e fir st r a ce, is
kn own by t h e n a m e of ba n n u m in t h ose of t h e secon d r a ce, a s a ppea r s fr om
t h e Ca pit u la r y de pa r t ibu s Sa xon ia e, in t h e yea r 789.
157. See t h e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r lem a gn e, de villis, wh er e h e r a n ks t h ese fr eda
a m on g t h e gr ea t r even u es of wh a t wa s ca lled villa , or t h e kin g’s dem esn es.
158. See Ma r cu lfu s, i, for m . 3, 4, 17.
159. See Ma r cu lfu s, i, for m . 2, 3, 4.
160. See t h e Collect ion s of t h ose ch a r t er s, especia lly t h a t a t t h e en d of t h e 5t h
volu m e of t h e h ist or ia n s of F r a n ce, pu blish ed by t h e Ben edict in e m on ks.
161. See t h e 3r d, 4t h , a n d 14t h of t h e fir st book, a n d t h e ch a r t er of
Ch a r lem a gn e, in t h e yea r 771, in Ma r t en e, An ecdot . collect ., i, ii.
162. Tr ea t ise of villa ge ju r isdict ion s, Loysea u .
163. See Du Ca n ge on t h e wor d h om in iu m .
164. See Ma r cu lfu s, i, for m . 3, 4.
165. Ne a liu bi n isi a d ecclesia m , u bi r ela xa t i su n t , m a llu m t en ea n t , t it . 58, § i.
See a lso § 19. Lin dem br ock’s edit ion .
166. Ta bu la r iis.
167. Ma llu m .
168. Vit a S. Ger m er i, E piscopi Tolosa n i a pu d Bolla n dia n os 16 Ma ii.
169. See a lso t h e life of St . Mela n iu s, a n d t h a t of St . Deicola .
170. In t h e cou n cil of P a r is, in t h e yea r 615, a r t . 19. See a lso a r t . 12.
171. Ibid., a r t . 5.
172. In t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, ii, t it . 44, ca p ii. Lin dem br ock’s edit ion .
173. Ibid.
174. Let t er in t h e yea r 858, a r t . 7 in t h e Ca pit u la r ies, p. 108.
175. It is a dded t o t h e la w of t h e Ba va r ia n s, a r t . 7. See a lso a r t . 3.
Lin dem br ock’s edit ion , p. 444.
176. In t h e yea r 857, in syn odo a pu d Ca r isia cu m , a r t . 4, edit ion of Ba lu ziu s, p.
96.
177. Tit . 3, ca p. xiii. Lin dem br ock’s edit ion .
178. Tit . 85.
179. In t h e yea r 595, a r t s. 11 a n d 12, edit ion of t h e Ca pit u la r ies by Ba lu ziu s, p.
19.
180. Ar t s. 2 a n d 3.
181. See Du Ca n ge, Glossa r y, on t h e wor d t r u st is.
182. In ser t ed in t h e La w of t h e Lom ba r ds, ii. t it . 52, §14. It is t h e Ca pit u la r y of
t h e yea r 793, in Ba lu ziu s, p. 544, a r t . 10.
183. See a lso t h e sa m e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, ii, t it . 52, § 2, wh ich r ela t es t o t h e
Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r lem a gn e of t h e yea r 779, a r t . 21.
184. Th e t h ir d of t h e yea r 812, a r t . 10.
185. Th e secon d of t h e yea r 813, a r t s. 14, 20, Ba lu ziu s’ edit ion , p. 509.
186. Ca pit u la r e qu in t u m a n n i 819 a r t . 23, Ba lu ziu s’ edit ion , p. 617.
187. E dict u m in Ca r isia co in Ba lu ziu s, ii, p. 152.
188. E dict u m P ist en se, a r t . 18, Ba lu ziu s’ edit ion , ii, p. 181.
189. Lib. 1.
190. I h a ve a lr ea dy qu ot ed it in t h e pr ecedin g ch a pt er , E piscopi vel pa t en t es.
191. H ist or y, vi.
192. Ibid.
193. Vol. ii, book III, 18, p. 270.
194. See t h e pr elim in a r y discou r se of t h e Abb " du Bos.
195. See t h e E st a blish m en t of t h e F r en ch Mon a r ch y, iii, book VI, 4, p. 301.
196. H e cit es t h e 44t h t it le of t h is la w, a n d t h e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s, t it . 7 a n d
36.
197. Qu i in t r u st e dom in icâ est , t it . 44, § 4, a n d t h is r ela t es t o t h e 13t h
for m u la r y of Ma r cu lfu s, de r egis An t r u st ion e. See a lso t it . 66, of t h e Sa lic
la w, §§ 3 a n d 4, a n d t it . 74; a n d t h e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s, it . 11, a n d t h e
Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, a pu d Ca r isia cu m , in t h e yea r 877, ca p. xx.
198. Sa lic la w, t it . 44, § 6.
199. Tit . 44, § 4.
200. Tit . 44, § 1.
201. Tit . 44, § 15.
202. Tit . 44, § 7.

203. Ar t s. 1, 2, a n d 3, of t it . 26, of t h e la w of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s.
204. E st a blish m en t of t h e F r en ch Mon a r ch y, iii, book VI. 4, 5
205. Ibid.; iii. 5, pp. 319, 320.
206. Ibid., iii, book VI, 4, pp. 307, 308.
207. Ibid., p. 309, a n d in t h e followin g ch a pt er , pp. 310,320.
208. See xxviii. 28 of t h is wor k; a n d xxxi. 8.
209. Ca pit u la r y, Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , i, p. 19.
210. See xxviii. 28 of t h is wor k; a n d xxxi. 8.
211. Ch a pt er s 43, 44.
212. Ibid.
213. E st a blish m en t of t h e F r en ch Mon a r ch y, iii, book VI, 4, p. 316.
214. Ibid., p. 316.
215. Ibid.
216. De Gest is Lu dovici P ii, 43, 44.
217. Ch a pt er 23.
218. E stablish m en t of th e Fren ch M on arch y, iii, book VI. 4, p. 302.
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Th e cou n t s a t fir st wer e sen t in t o t h eir dist r ict s on ly for a yea r ; bu t t h ey soon
pu r ch a sed t h e con t in u a t ion of t h eir offices. Of t h is we h a ve a n exa m ple in t h e
r eign of Clovis’ gr a n dch ildr en . A per son n a m ed P eon iu s wa s cou n t in t h e cit y of
Au xer r e;1 h e sen t h is son Mu m m olu s wit h m on ey t o Gon t r a m , t o pr eva il u pon
h im t o con t in u e h im in h is em ploym en t ; t h e son ga ve t h e m on ey for h im self, a n d
obt a in ed t h e fa t h er ’s pla ce. Th e kin gs h a d a lr ea dy begu n t o spoil t h eir own
fa vou r s.
Th ou gh by t h e la ws of t h e kin gdom t h e fiefs wer e pr eca r iou s, yet t h ey wer e
n eit h er given n or t a ken a wa y in a ca pr iciou s a n d a r bit r a r y m a n n er : n a y, t h ey
wer e gen er a lly on e of t h e pr in cipa l su bject s deba t ed in t h e n a t ion a l a ssem blies.
It is n a t u r a l, h owever , t o im a gin e t h a t cor r u pt ion cr ept in t o t h is a s well a s t h e
ot h er ca se; a n d t h a t t h e possession of t h e fiefs, like t h a t of t h e cou n t ies, wa s
con t in u ed for m on ey.
I sh a ll sh ow in t h e cou r se of t h is book, 2 t h a t , in depen den t ly of t h e gr a n t s
wh ich t h e pr in ces m a de for a cer t a in t im e, t h er e wer e ot h er s in per pet u it y. Th e
cou r t wa n t ed t o r evoke t h e for m er gr a n t s; t h is occa sion ed a gen er a l discon t en t
in t h e n a t ion , a n d wa s soon followed by t h a t fa m ou s r evolu t ion in F r en ch
h ist or y, wh ose fir st epoch wa s t h e a m a zin g spect a cle of t h e execu t ion of
Br u n eh a u lt .
Th a t t h is qu een , wh o wa s da u gh t er , sist er a n d m ot h er of so m a n y kin gs, a
qu een t o t h is ver y da y celebr a t ed for pu blic m on u m en t s wor t h y of a Rom a n
a edile or pr ocon su l, bor n wit h a n a dm ir a ble gen iu s for a ffa ir s, a n d en dowed
wit h qu a lit ies so lon g r espect ed, sh ou ld see h er self of a su dden exposed t o so
slow, so ign om in iou s a n d cr u el a t or t u r e, 3 by a kin g wh ose a u t h or it y wa s bu t
in differ en t ly est a blish ed in t h e n a t ion , 4 wou ld a ppea r ver y ext r a or din a r y, h a d

sh e n ot in cu r r ed t h a t n a t ion ’s displea su r e for som e pa r t icu la r ca u se. Clot h a r iu s
r epr oa ch ed h er wit h t h e m u r der of t en kin gs; bu t t wo of t h em h e h a d pu t t o
dea t h h im self; t h e dea t h of som e of t h e ot h er s wa s owin g t o ch a n ce, or t o t h e
villa in y of a n ot h er qu een ;5 a n d a n a t ion t h a t h a d per m it t ed F r edegu n da t o die
in h er bed, 6 t h a t h a d even opposed t h e pu n ish m en t of h er fla git iou s cr im es,
ou gh t t o h a ve been ver y differ en t wit h r espect t o t h ose of Br u n eh a u lt .
Sh e wa s pu t u pon a ca m el, a n d led ign om in iou sly t h r ou gh t h e a r m y; a cer t a in
sign t h a t sh e h a d given gr ea t offen ce t o t h ose t r oops. F r edega r iu s r ela t es t h a t
P r ot a r iu s,7 Br u n eh a u lt ’s fa vou r it e, st r ipped t h e lor ds of t h eir pr oper t y, a n d
filled t h e exch equ er wit h t h e plu n der ; t h a t h e h u m bled t h e n obilit y, a n d t h a t n o
per son cou ld be su r e of con t in u in g in a n y office or em ploym en t . Th e a r m y
con spir ed a ga in st h im , a n d h e wa s st a bbed in h is t en t ; bu t Br u n eh a u lt , eit h er
by r even gin g h is dea t h , or by pu r su in g t h e sa m e pla n , 8 beca m e ever y da y m or e
odiou s t o t h e n a t ion .9
Clot h a r iu s, a m bit iou s of r eign in g a lon e, in fla m ed m or eover wit h t h e m ost
fu r iou s r even ge, a n d su r e of per ish in g if Br u n eh a u lt ’s ch ildr en got t h e u pper
h a n d, en t er ed in t o a con spir a cy a ga in st h im self; a n d wh et h er it wa s owin g t o
ign or a n ce, or t o t h e n ecessit y of h is cir cu m st a n ces, h e beca m e Br u n eh a u lt ’s
a ccu ser , a n d m a de a t er r ible exa m ple of t h a t pr in cess.
Wa r n a ch a r iu s h a d been t h e ver y sou l of t h e con spir a cy for m ed a ga in st
Br u n eh a u lt . Bein g a t t h a t t im e m a yor of Bu r gu n dy, h e m a de Clot h a r iu s con sen t
t h a t h e sh ou ld n ot be displa ced wh ile h e lived. 10 By t h is st ep t h e m a yor cou ld
n o lon ger be in t h e sa m e ca se a s t h e F r en ch lor ds befor e t h a t per iod; a n d t h is
a u t h or it y bega n t o r en der it self in depen den t of t h e r ega l dign it y.
It wa s Br u n eh a u lt ’s u n h a ppy r egen cy wh ich h a d exa sper a t ed t h e n a t ion . So
lon g a s t h e la ws su bsist ed in t h eir fu ll for ce, n o on e cou ld gr u m ble a t h a vin g
been depr ived of a fief, sin ce t h e la w did n ot best ow it u pon h im in per pet u it y.
Bu t wh en fiefs ca m e t o be a cqu ir ed by a va r ice, by ba d pr a ct ices a n d cor r u pt ion ,
t h ey com pla in ed of bein g divest ed, by ir r egu la r m ea n s, of t h in gs t h a t h a d been
ir r egu la r ly a cqu ir ed. P er h a ps if t h e pu blic good h a d been t h e m ot ive of t h e
r evoca t ion of t h ose gr a n t s, n ot h in g wou ld h a ve been sa id; bu t t h ey pr et en ded
a r ega r d for or der wh ile t h ey wer e open ly a bet t in g t h e pr in ciples of cor r u pt ion ;
t h e fisca l r igh t s wer e cla im ed in or der t o la vish t h e pu blic t r ea su r e; a n d gr a n t s

wer e n o lon ger t h e r ewa r d or t h e en cou r a gem en t of ser vices. Br u n eh a u lt , fr om
a cor r u pt spir it , wa n t ed t o r efor m t h e a bu ses of t h e a n cien t cor r u pt ion . H er
ca pr ices wer e n ot owin g t o wea k n ess; t h e va ssa ls a n d t h e gr ea t officer s,
t h in kin g t h em selves in da n ger , pr even t ed t h eir own by h er r u in .
We a r e fa r fr om h a vin g a ll t h e r ecor ds of t h e t r a n sa ct ion s of t h ose da ys; a n d
t h e wr it er s of ch r on icles, wh o u n der st ood ver y n ea r ly a s m u ch of t h e h ist or y of
t h eir t im e a s ou r pea sa n t s kn ow of ou r s, a r e ext r em ely ba r r en . Yet we h a ve a
con st it u t ion of Clot h a r iu s, given in t h e cou n cil of P a r is, 11 for t h e r efor m a t ion of
a bu ses, 12 wh ich sh ows t h a t t h is pr in ce pu t a st op t o t h e com pla in t s t h a t h a d
occa sion ed t h e r evolu t ion . On t h e on e h a n d, h e con fir m s a ll t h e gr a n t s t h a t h a d
been m a de or con fir m ed by t h e kin gs h is pr edecessor s;13 a n d on t h e ot h er , h e
or da in s t h a t wh a t ever h a d been t a ken fr om h is va ssa ls sh ou ld be r est or ed t o
t h em . 14
Th is wa s n ot t h e on ly con cession t h e k in g m a de in t h a t cou n cil; h e en join ed
t h a t wh a t ever h a d been in n ova t ed, in opposit ion t o t h e pr ivileges of t h e cler gy,
sh ou ld be r edr essed; a n d h e m oder a t ed t h e in flu en ce of t h e cou r t in t h e elect ion
of bish ops. 15 H e even r efor m ed t h e fisca l a ffa ir s, or da in in g t h a t a ll t h e n ew
cen su ses sh ou ld be a bolish ed, 16 a n d t h a t t h ey sh ou ld n ot levy a n y t oll
est a blish ed sin ce t h e dea t h s of Gon t r a m , Sigeber t , a n d Ch ilper ic;17 t h a t is, h e
a bolish ed wh a t ever h a d been don e du r in g t h e r egen cies of F r edegu n da a n d
Br u n eh a u lt . H e for ba d t h e dr ivin g of h is ca t t le t o gr a ze in pr iva t e people’s
gr ou n ds;18 a n d we sh a ll pr esen t ly see t h a t t h e r efor m a t ion wa s st ill m or e
gen er a l, so a s t o ext en d even t o civil a ffa ir s.
E1&R'7&+-%&)5;5$&A';%.*<%*+&7",&.%('.<%01
H it h er t o t h e n a t ion h a d given m a r ks of im pa t ien ce a n d levit y wit h r ega r d t o
t h e ch oice or con du ct of h er m a st er s; sh e h a d r egu la t ed t h eir differ en ces a n d
obliged t h em t o com e t o a n a gr eem en t a m on g t h em selves. Bu t n ow sh e did wh a t
befor e wa s qu it e u n exa m pled; sh e ca st h er eyes on h er a ct u a l sit u a t ion ,
exa m in ed t h e la ws coolly, pr ovided a ga in st t h eir in su fficien cy, r epr essed
violen ce, a n d m oder a t ed t h e r ega l power .
Th e bold a n d in solen t r egen cies of F r edegu n da a n d Br u n eh a u lt h a d less
su r pr ised t h a n r ou sed t h e n a t ion . F r edegu n da h a d defen ded h er h or r ied

cr u elt ies, h er poison in gs a n d a ssa ssin a t ion s, by a r epet it ion of t h e sa m e cr im es;
a n d h a d beh a ved in su ch a m a n n er t h a t h er ou t r a ges wer e r a t h er of a pr iva t e
t h a n pu blic n a t u r e. F r edegu n da did m or e m isch ief: Br u n eh a u lt t h r ea t en ed
m or e. In t h is cr isis t h e n a t ion wa s n ot sa t isfied wit h r ect ifyin g t h e feu da l
syst em ; sh e wa s a lso det er m in ed t o secu r e h er civil gover n m en t . F or t h e la t t er
wa s r a t h er m or e cor r u pt t h a n t h e for m er ; a cor r u pt ion t h e m or e da n ger ou s a s
it wa s m or e in vet er a t e, a n d con n ect ed r a t h er wit h t h e a bu se of m a n n er s t h a n
wit h t h a t of la ws.
Th e h ist or y of Gr egor y of Tou r s exh ibit s, on t h e on e h a n d, a fier ce a n d
ba r ba r ou s n a t ion ; a n d on t h e ot h er , kin gs r em a r ka ble for t h e sa m e fer ocit y of
t em per . Th ose pr in ces wer e bloody, in iqu it ou s a n d cr u el, beca u se su ch wa s t h e
ch a r a ct er of t h e wh ole n a t ion . If Ch r ist ia n it y a ppea r ed som et im es t o soft en
t h eir m a n n er s, it wa s on ly by t h e cir cu m st a n ces of t er r or wit h wh ich t h is
r eligion a la r m s t h e sin n er ; t h e ch u r ch su ppor t ed h er self a ga in st t h em by t h e
m ir a cu lou s oper a t ion s of h er sa in t s. Th e kin gs wou ld n ot com m it sa cr ilege,
beca u se t h ey dr ea ded t h e pu n ish m en t s in flict ed on t h a t species of gu ilt : bu t t h is
except ed, eit h er in t h e r iot of pa ssion or in t h e cooln ess of deliber a t ion , t h ey
per pet r a t ed t h e m ost h or r id cr im es a n d ba r ba r it ies wh er e divin e ven gea n ce did
n ot a ppea r so im m edia t ely t o over t a ke t h e cr im in a l. Th e F r a n ks, a s I h a ve
a lr ea dy obser ved, bor e wit h cr u el kin gs, beca u se t h ey wer e of t h e sa m e
disposit ion t h em selves; t h ey wer e n ot sh ocked a t t h e in iqu it y a n d ext or t ion s of
t h eir pr in ces, beca u se t h is wa s t h e n a t ion a l ch a r a ct er ist ic. Th er e h a d been
m a n y la ws est a blish ed, bu t it wa s u su a l for t h e kin g t o defea t t h em a ll, by a
kin d of let t er ca lled pr ecept s,19 wh ich r en der ed t h em of n o effect ; t h ey wer e
som ewh a t sim ila r t o t h e r escr ipt s of t h e Rom a n E m per or s; wh et h er it be t h a t
ou r kin gs bor r owed t h is u sa ge fr om t h ose pr in ces, or wh et h er it wa s owin g t o
t h eir own n a t u r a l t em per . We see in Gr egor y of Tou r s, t h a t t h ey per pet r a t ed
m u r der in cool blood, a n d pu t t h e a ccu sed t o dea t h u n h ea r d; h ow t h ey ga ve
pr ecept s for illicit m a r r ia ges;20 for t r a n sfer r in g su ccession s; for depr ivin g
r ela t ives of t h eir r igh t ; a n d, in fin e, m a r r yin g con secr a t ed vir gin s. Th ey did n ot ,
in deed, a ssu m e t h e wh ole legisla t ive power , bu t t h ey dispen sed wit h t h e
execu t ion of t h e la ws.
Clot h a r iu s’ con st it u t ion r edr essed a ll t h ese gr ieva n ces: n o on e cou ld a n y

lon ger be con dem n ed wit h ou t bein g h ea r d:21 r ela t ives wer e m a de t o su cceed,
a ccor din g t o t h e or der est a blish ed by la w;22 a ll pr ecept s for m a r r yin g r eligiou s
wom en wer e decla r ed n u ll;23 a n d t h ose wh o h a d obt a in ed a n d m a de u se of t h em
wer e sever ely pu n ish ed. We m igh t kn ow per h a ps m or e exa ct ly h is
det er m in a t ion s wit h r ega r d t o t h ese pr ecept s, if t h e t h ir t een t h a n d t h e n ext t wo
a r t icles of t h is decr ee h a d n ot been lost t h r ou gh t h e in ju r y of t im e. We h a ve on ly
t h e fir st wor ds of t h is t h ir t een t h a r t icle, or da in in g t h a t t h e pr ecept s sh a ll be
obser ved, wh ich ca n n ot be u n der st ood of t h ose h e h a d ju st a bolish ed by t h e
sa m e la w. We h a ve a n ot h er con st it u t ion by t h e sa m e pr in ce, 24 wh ich is in
r ela t ion t o h is decr ee, a n d cor r ect s in t h e sa m e m a n n er ever y a r t icle of t h e
a bu ses of t h e pr ecept s.
Tr u e it is t h a t Ba lu ziu s, fin din g t h is con st it u t ion wit h ou t da t e a n d wit h ou t
t h e n a m e of t h e pla ce wh er e it wa s given , a t t r ibu t es it t o Clot h a r iu s I. Bu t I sa y
it belon gs t o Clot h a r iu s II, for t h r ee r ea son s:
1. It sa ys t h a t t h e kin g will pr eser ve t h e im m u n it ies gr a n t ed t o t h e ch u r ch es
by h is fa t h er a n d gr a n dfa t h er .25 Wh a t im m u n it ies cou ld t h e ch u r ch es r eceive
fr om Ch ilder ic, gr a n dfa t h er of Clot h a r iu s I, wh o wa s n ot a Ch r ist ia n , a n d wh o
lived even befor e t h e fou n da t ion of t h e m on a r ch y? Bu t if we a t t r ibu t e t h is
decr ee t o Clot h a r iu s II, we sh a ll fin d h is gr a n dfa t h er t o h a ve been t h is ver y
Clot h a r iu s I, wh o m a de im m en se don a t ion s t o t h e ch u r ch wit h a view of
expia t in g t h e m u r der of h is son Cr a m n e, wh om h e h a d or der ed t o be bu r n ed,
t oget h er wit h h is wife a n d ch ildr en .
2. Th e a bu ses r edr essed by t h is con st it u t ion wer e st ill su bsist in g a ft er t h e
dea t h of Clot h a r iu s I a n d wer e even ca r r ied t o t h eir h igh est ext r a va ga n ce
du r in g t h e wea k r eign of Gon t r a m , t h e cr u el a dm in ist r a t ion of Ch ilper ic, a n d
t h e execr a ble r egen cies of F r edegu n da a n d Br u n eh a u lt .
Now, ca n we im a gin e t h a t t h e n a t ion wou ld h a ve bor n e wit h gr ieva n ces so
solem n ly pr oscr ibed, wit h ou t com pla in in g of t h eir con t in u a l r epet it ion ? Ca n we
im a gin e sh e wou ld n ot h a ve t a ken t h e sa m e st ep a s sh e did a ft er wa r ds u n der
Ch ilder ic II, 26 wh en , u pon a r epet it ion of t h e old gr ieva n ces, sh e pr essed h im t o
or da in t h a t la w a n d cu st om s in r ega r d t o ju dicia l pr oceedin gs sh ou ld be
com plied wit h a s for m er ly. 27
In fin e, a s t h is con st it u t ion wa s m a de t o r edr ess gr ieva n ces, it ca n n ot r ela t e

t o Clot h a r iu s I, sin ce t h er e wer e n o com pla in t s of t h a t kin d in h is r eign , a n d h is
a u t h or it y wa s per fect ly est a blish ed t h r ou gh ou t t h e kin gdom , especia lly a t t h e
t im e in wh ich t h ey pla ce t h is con st it u t ion ; wh er ea s it a gr ees ext r em ely well
wit h t h e even t s t h a t h a ppen ed du r in g t h e r eign of Clot h a r iu s II, wh ich pr odu ced
a r evolu t ion in t h e polit ica l st a t e of t h e kin gdom . H ist or y m u st be illu st r a t ed by
t h e la ws, a n d t h e la ws by h ist or y.
G1&:F+-'.5+H&'(&+-%&K"H'.,&'(&+-%&8"$"9%1
I n ot iced t h a t Clot h a r iu s II h a d pr om ised n ot t o depr ive Wa r n a ch a r iu s of h is
m a yor ’s pla ce du r in g life; a r evolu t ion pr odu ct ive of a n ot h er effect . Befor e t h a t
t im e t h e m a yor wa s t h e kin g’s officer , bu t n ow h e beca m e t h e officer of t h e
people; h e wa s ch osen befor e by t h e kin g, a n d n ow by t h e n a t ion . Befor e t h e
r evolu t ion P r ot a r iu s h a d been m a de m a yor by Th eodor ic, a n d La n der ic by
F r edegu n da ;28 bu t a ft er t h a t t h e m a yor s 29 wer e ch osen by t h e n a t ion .30
We m u st n ot t h er efor e con fou n d, a s som e a u t h or s h a ve don e, t h ese m a yor s of
t h e pa la ce wit h su ch a s wer e possessed of t h is dign it y befor e t h e dea t h of
Br u n eh a u lt ; t h e kin g’s m a yor s wit h t h ose of t h e kin gdom . We see by t h e la w of
t h e Bu r gu n dia n s t h a t a m on g t h em t h e office of m a yor wa s n ot on e of t h e m ost
r espect a ble in t h e st a t e;31 n or wa s it on e of t h e m ost em in en t u n der t h e fir st
Kin gs of t h e F r a n ks.32
Clot h a r iu s r em oved t h e a ppr eh en sion s of t h ose wh o wer e possessed of
em ploym en t s a n d fiefs; a n d wh en , a ft er t h e dea t h of Wa r n a ch a r iu s, 33 h e a sked
t h e lor ds a ssem bled a t Tr oyes, wh o is it t h ey wou ld pu t in h is pla ce, t h ey cr ied
ou t t h ey wou ld ch oose n o on e, bu t su in g for h is fa vou r com m it t ed t h em selves
en t ir ely in t o h is h a n ds.
Da gober t r eu n it ed t h e wh ole m on a r ch y in t h e sa m e m a n n er a s h is fa t h er ; t h e
n a t ion h a d a t h or ou gh con fiden ce in h im , a n d a ppoin t ed n o m a yor . Th is pr in ce,
fin din g h im self a t liber t y a n d ela t ed by h is vict or ies, r esu m ed Br u n eh a u lt ’s
pla n . Bu t h e su cceeded so ill t h a t t h e va ssa ls of Au st r a sia let t h em selves be
bea t en by t h e Scla von ia n s, a n d r et u r n ed h om e; so t h a t t h e m a r ch es of Au st r a sia
wer e left t o pr ey t o t h e ba r ba r ia n s.34
H e det er m in ed t h en t o m a ke a n offer t o t h e Au st r a sia n s of r esign in g t h a t
cou n t r y, t oget h er wit h a pr ovin cia l t r ea su r e, t o h is son Sigeber t , a n d t o pu t t h e

gover n m en t of t h e kin gdom a n d of t h e pa la ce in t o t h e h a n ds of Cu n iber t , Bish op
of Cologn e, a n d of t h e Du ke Ada lgisu s. F r edega r iu s does n ot en t er in t o t h e
pa r t icu la r s of t h e con ven t ion s t h en m a de; bu t t h e kin g con fir m ed t h em a ll by
ch a r t er s, a n d Au st r a sia wa s im m edia t ely secu r ed fr om da n ger . 35
Da gober t , fin din g h im self n ea r h is en d, r ecom m en ded h is wife Nen t ech ildis
a n d h is son Clovis t o t h e ca r e of Æ ga . Th e va ssa ls of Neu st r ia a n d Bu r gu n dy
ch ose t h is you n g pr in ce for t h eir kin g. 36 Æ ga a n d Nen t ech ildis h a d t h e
gover n m en t of t h e pa la ce;37 t h ey r est or ed wh a t ever Da gober t h a d t a ken ;38 a n d
com pla in t s cea sed in Neu st r ia a n d Bu r gu n dy, a s t h ey h a d cea sed in Au st r a sia .
Aft er t h e dea t h of Æ ga , Qu een Nen t ech ildis en ga ged t h e lor ds of Bu r gu n dy t o
ch oose F loa ch a t u s for t h eir m a yor . 39 Th e la t t er dispa t ch ed let t er s t o t h e bish ops
a n d ch ief lor ds of t h e kin gdom of Bu r gu n dy, by wh ich h e pr om ised t o pr eser ve
t h eir h on ou r s a n d dign it ies for ever , t h a t is, du r in g life. 40 H e con fir m ed h is wor d
by oa t h . Th is is t h e per iod a t wh ich t h e a u t h or of t h e Tr ea t ise on t h e Ma yor s of
t h e P a la ce fixes t h e a dm in ist r a t ion of t h e kin gdom by t h ose officer s.41
F r edega r iu s, bein g a Bu r gu n dia n , h a s en t er ed in t o a m or e m in u t e det a il a s t o
wh a t con cer n s t h e Ma yor s of Bu r gu n dy a t t h e t im e of t h e r evolu t ion of wh ich
we a r e spea kin g, t h a n wit h r ega r d t o t h e m a yor s of Au st r a sia a n d Neu st r ia . Bu t
t h e con ven t ion s m a de in Bu r gu n dy wer e, for t h e ver y sa m e r ea son s, a gr eed t o
in Neu st r ia a n d Au st r a sia .
Th e n a t ion t h ou gh t it sa fer t o lodge t h e power in t h e h a n ds of a m a yor wh om
sh e ch ose h er self, a n d t o wh om sh e m igh t pr escr ibe con dit ion s, t h a n in t h ose of
a kin g wh ose power wa s h er edit a r y.
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A gover n m en t in wh ich a n a t ion t h a t h a d a n h er edit a r y kin g ch ose a per son
t o exer cise t h e r ega l a u t h or it y seem s ver y ext r a or din a r y; bu t , in depen den t ly of
t h e cir cu m st a n ces of t h e t im es, I a ppr eh en d t h a t t h e n ot ion s of t h e F r a n ks in
t h is r espect wer e der ived fr om a r em ot e sou r ce.
Th e F r a n ks wer e descen ded fr om t h e Ger m a n s, of wh om Ta cit u s sa ys 42 t h a t
in t h e ch oice of t h eir kin g t h ey wer e det er m in ed by h is n oble ext r a ct ion , a n d in
t h a t of t h eir lea der , by h is va lou r . Th is gives u s a n idea of t h e kin gs of t h e fir st
r a ce, a n d of t h e m a yor s of t h e pa la ce; t h e for m er wer e h er edit a r y, t h e la t t er

elect ive.
No dou bt bu t t h ose pr in ces wh o st ood u p in t h e n a t ion a l a ssem bly a n d offer ed
t h em selves a s t h e con du ct or s of a pu blic en t er pr ise t o su ch a s wer e willin g t o
follow t h em , u n it ed gen er a lly in t h eir own per son bot h t h e power of t h e m a yor
a n d t h e kin g’s a u t h or it y. By t h e splen dou r of t h eir descen t t h ey h a d a t t a in ed
t h e r ega l dign it y; a n d t h eir m ilit a r y a bilit ies h a vin g r ecom m en ded t h em t o t h e
com m a n d of a r m ies, t h ey r ose t o t h e power of m a yor . By t h e r ega l dign it y, ou r
fir st kin gs pr esided in t h e cou r t s a n d a ssem blies, a n d en a ct ed la ws wit h t h e
n a t ion a l con sen t ; by t h e dign it y of du ke or lea der , t h ey u n der t ook expedit ion s
a n d com m a n ded t h e a r m ies.
In or der t o be a cqu a in t ed wit h t h e gen iu s of t h e pr im it ive F r a n ks in t h is
r espect , we h a ve on ly t o ca st a n eye on t h e con du ct of Ar goba st es, 43 a F r a n k by
n a t ion , on wh om Va len t in ia n h a d con fer r ed t h e com m a n d of t h e a r m y. H e
con fin ed t h e em per or t o h is own pa la ce, wh er e h e wou ld su ffer n obody t o spea k
t o h im , con cer n in g eit h er civil or m ilit a r y a ffa ir s. Ar goba st es did a t t h a t t im e
wh a t wa s a ft er wa r ds pr a ct ised by t h e P epin s.
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So lon g a s t h e kin gs com m a n ded t h eir a r m ies in per son , t h e n a t ion n ever
t h ou gh t of ch oosin g a lea der . Clovis a n d h is fou r son s wer e a t t h e h ea d of t h e
F r a n ks, a n d led t h em on t h r ou gh a ser ies of vict or ies. Th eoba ld, son of
Th eodober t , a you n g, wea k, a n d sick ly pr in ce, wa s t h e fir st of ou r kin gs wh o
con fin ed h im self t o h is pa la ce.44 H e r efu sed t o u n der t a ke a n expedit ion in t o
It a ly a ga in st Na r ses, a n d h a d t h e m or t ifica t ion of seein g t h e F r a n ks ch oose for
t h em selves t wo ch iefs, wh o led t h em a ga in st t h e en em y. 45 Of t h e fou r son s of
Clot h a r iu s I, Gon t r a m wa s t h e lea st fon d of com m a n din g h is a r m ies;46 t h e ot h er
kin gs followed t h is exa m ple; a n d, in or der t o en t r u st t h e com m a n d wit h ou t
da n ger in t o ot h er h a n ds, t h ey con fer r ed it u pon sever a l ch iefs or du kes.47
In n u m er a ble wer e t h e in con ven ien ces wh ich t h en ce a r ose; a ll disciplin e wa s
lost , n o on e wou ld a n y lon ger obey. Th e a r m ies wer e dr ea dfu l on ly t o t h eir own
cou n t r y; t h ey wer e la den wit h spoils befor e t h ey h a d r ea ch ed t h e en em y. Of
t h ese m iser ies we h a ve a ver y lively pict u r e in Gr egor y of Tou r s.48 “H ow sh a ll
we be a ble t o obt a in a vict or y,” sa id Gon t r a m , 49 “we wh o do n ot so m u ch a s keep

wh a t ou r a n cest or s a cqu ir ed? Ou r n a t ion is n o lon ger t h e sa m e.” ... St r a n ge t h a t
it sh ou ld be on t h e declin e so ea r ly a s t h e r eign of Clovis’ gr a n dch ildr en !
It wa s t h er efor e n a t u r a l t h ey sh ou ld det er m in e a t la st u pon a n on ly du ke, a
du ke in vest ed wit h a n a u t h or it y over t h is pr odigiou s m u lt it u de of feu da l lor ds
a n d va ssa ls wh o h a d n ow becom e st r a n ger s t o t h eir own en ga gem en t s; a du ke
wh o wa s t o est a blish t h e m ilit a r y disciplin e, a n d t o pu t h im self a t t h e h ea d of
a n a t ion u n h a ppily pr a ct ised in m a kin g wa r a ga in st it self. Th is power wa s
con fer r ed on t h e m a yor s of t h e pa la ce.
Th e or igin a l fu n ct ion of t h e m a yor s of t h e pa la ce wa s t h e m a n a gem en t of t h e
kin g’s h ou seh old. Th ey h a d a ft er wa r ds, in con ju n ct ion wit h ot h er officer s, t h e
polit ica l gover n m en t of fiefs; a n d a t len gt h t h ey obt a in ed t h e sole disposa l of
t h em . 50 Th ey h a d a lso t h e a dm in ist r a t ion of m ilit a r y a ffa ir s, a n d t h e com m a n d
of t h e a r m ies; em ploym en t s n ecessa r ily con n ect ed wit h t h e ot h er t wo. In t h ose
da ys it wa s m u ch m or e difficu lt t o r a ise t h a n t o com m a n d t h e a r m ies; a n d wh o
bu t t h e dispen ser of fa vou r s cou ld h a ve t h is a u t h or it y? In t h is m a r t ia l a n d
in depen den t n a t ion , it wa s pr u den t t o in vit e r a t h er t h a n t o com pel; pr u den t t o
give a wa y or t o pr om ise t h e fiefs t h a t sh ou ld h a ppen t o be va ca n t by t h e dea t h
of t h e possessor ; pr u den t , in fin e, t o r ewa r d con t in u a lly, a n d t o r a ise a jea lou sy
wit h r ega r d t o pr efer en ces. It wa s t h er efor e r igh t t h a t t h e per son wh o h a d t h e
su per in t en den ce of t h e pa la ce sh ou ld a lso be gen er a l of t h e a r m y.
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Aft er t h e execu t ion of Br u n eh a u lt , t h e m a yor s wer e a dm in ist r a t or s of t h e
kin gdom u n der t h e sover eign s; a n d t h ou gh t h ey h a d t h e con du ct of t h e wa r , t h e
kin gs wer e a lwa ys a t t h e h ea d of t h e a r m ies, wh ile t h e m a yor a n d t h e n a t ion
fou gh t u n der t h eir com m a n d. Bu t t h e vict or y of Du ke P epin over Th eodor ic a n d
h is m a yor 51 com plet ed t h e degr a da t ion of ou r pr in ces;52 a n d t h a t wh ich Ch a r les
Ma r t el obt a in ed over Ch ilper ic a n d h is m a yor Ra in fr oy con fir m ed it . 53 Au st r a sia
t r iu m ph ed t wice over Neu st r ia a n d Bu r gu n dy; a n d t h e m a yor a lt y of Au st r a sia
bein g a n n exed a s it wer e t o t h e fa m ily of t h e P epin s, t h is m a yor a lt y a n d fa m ily
beca m e gr ea t ly su per ior t o a ll t h e r est . Th e con qu er or s wer e t h en a fr a id lest
som e per son of cr edit sh ou ld seize t h e kin g’s per son , in or der t o excit e
dist u r ba n ces. F or t h is r ea son t h ey kept t h em in t h e r oya l pa la ce a s in a kin d of

pr ison , a n d on ce a yea r sh owed t h em t o t h e people. 54 Th er e t h ey m a de
or din a n ces, bu t t h ese wer e su ch a s wer e dict a t ed by t h e m a yor ;55 t h ey a n swer ed
a m ba ssa dor s, bu t t h e m a yor m a de t h e a n swer s. Th is is t h e t im e m en t ion ed by
h ist or ia n s of t h e gover n m en t of t h e m a yor s over t h e k in gs wh om t h ey h eld in
su bject ion . 56
Th e ext r a va ga n t pa ssion of t h e n a t ion for P epin ’s fa m ily wen t so fa r t h a t t h ey
ch ose on e of h is gr a n dson s, wh o wa s yet a n in fa n t , for m a yor ;57 a n d pu t h im
over on e Da gober t , t h a t is, on e ph a n t om over a n ot h er .
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Th e m a yor s of t h e pa la ce wer e lit t le disposed t o est a blish t h e u n cer t a in t en u r e
of pla ces a n d offices; for , in deed, t h ey r u led on ly by t h e pr ot ect ion wh ich in t h is
r espect t h ey gr a n t ed t o t h e n obilit y. H en ce t h e gr ea t offices con t in u ed t o be
given for life, a n d t h is u sa ge wa s ever y da y m or e fir m ly est a blish ed.
Bu t I h a ve som e pa r t icu la r r eflect ion s t o m a ke h er e in r espect of fiefs: I do n ot
qu est ion bu t m ost of t h em beca m e h er edit a r y fr om t h is t im e.
In t h e t r ea t y of An deli, 58 Gon t r a m a n d h is n eph ew Ch ildeber t en ga ge t o
m a in t a in t h e don a t ion s m a de t o t h e va ssa ls a n d ch u r ch es by t h e kin gs t h eir
pr edecessor s; a n d lea ve is given t o t h e wives, da u gh t er s, a n d widows of kin gs
t o dispose by will, a n d in per pet u it y, of wh a t ever t h ey h old of t h e exch equ er .
Ma r cu lfu s wr ot e h is for m u la r ies a t t h e t im e of t h e m a yor s. 59 We fin d sever a l
in wh ich t h e kin gs m a ke don a t ion s bot h t o t h e per son a n d t o h is h eir s:60 a n d a s
t h e for m u la r ies r epr esen t t h e com m on a ct ion s of life, t h ey pr ove t h a t pa r t of t h e
fiefs h a d becom e h er edit a r y t owa r ds t h e en d of t h e fir st r a ce. Th ey wer e fa r
fr om h a vin g in t h ose da ys t h e idea of a n u n a lien a ble dem esn e; t h is is a m oder n
t h in g, wh ich t h ey kn ew n eit h er in t h eor y n or pr a ct ice.
In pr oof h er eof we sh a ll pr esen t ly pr odu ce posit ive fa ct ; a n d if we ca n poin t
ou t a t im e in wh ich t h er e wer e n o lon ger a n y ben efices for t h e a r m y, n or a n y
fu n ds for it s su ppor t , we m u st cer t a in ly con clu de t h a t t h e a n cien t ben efices h a d
been a lien a t ed. Th e t im e I m ea n is t h a t of Ch a r les Ma r t el, wh o fou n ded som e
n ew fiefs, wh ich we sh ou ld ca r efu lly dist in gu ish fr om t h ose of t h e ea r liest da t e.
Wh en t h e kin gs bega n t o m a ke gr a n t s in per pet u it y, eit h er t h r ou gh t h e
cor r u pt ion wh ich cr ept in t o t h e gover n m en t or by r ea son of t h e con st it u t ion

it self, wh ich con t in u a lly obliged t h ose pr in ces t o con fer r ewa r ds, it wa s n a t u r a l
t h ey sh ou ld begin wit h givin g t h e per pet u it y of t h e fiefs, r a t h er t h a n of t h e
cou n t ies. F or t o depr ive t h em selves of som e a cr es of la n d wa s n o gr ea t m a t t er ;
bu t t o r en ou n ce t h e r igh t of disposin g of t h e gr ea t offices wa s divest in g
t h em selves of t h eir ver y power .
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Th e m a n n er of ch a n gin g a n a llodia l est a t e in t o a fief m a y be seen in a
for m u la r y of Ma r cu lfu s. 61 Th e own er of t h e la n d ga ve it t o t h e kin g, wh o
r est or ed it t o t h e don or by wa y of u su fr u ct , or ben efice, a n d t h en t h e don or
n om in a t ed h is h eir s t o t h e kin g.
In or der t o fin d ou t t h e r ea son s wh ich in du ced t h em t h u s t o ch a n ge t h e n a t u r e
of t h e a llodia , I m u st t r a ce t h e sou r ce of t h e a n cien t pr ivileges of ou r n obilit y,
a n obilit y wh ich for t h ese eleven cen t u r ies h a s been en veloped wit h du st , wit h
blood, a n d wit h t h e m a r ks of t oil.
Th ey wh o wer e seized of fiefs en joyed ver y gr ea t a dva n t a ges. Th e com posit ion
for t h e in ju r ies don e t h em wa s gr ea t er t h a n t h a t of fr eem en . It a ppea r s by t h e
for m u la r ies of Ma r cu lfu s t h a t it wa s a pr ivilege belon gin g t o a k in g’s va ssa l,
t h a t wh oever killed h im sh ou ld pa y a com posit ion of six h u n dr ed sou s. Th is
pr ivilege wa s est a blish ed by t h e Sa lic la w,62 a n d by t h a t of t h e Ripu a r ia n s;63 a n d
wh ile t h ese t wo la ws or da in ed a com posit ion of six h u n dr ed sou s for t h e m u r der
of a kin g’s va ssa l, t h ey ga ve bu t t wo h u n dr ed sou s for t h e m u r der of a per son
fr eebor n , if h e wa s a F r a n k or Ba r ba r ia n , or a m a n livin g u n der , t h e Sa lic la w;64
a n d on ly a h u n dr ed for a Rom a n .
Th is wa s n ot t h e on ly pr ivilege belon gin g t o t h e kin g’s va ssa ls. We ou gh t t o
kn ow t h a t wh en a m a n wa s su m m on ed in cou r t , a n d did n ot m a ke h is
a ppea r a n ce n or obey t h e ju dge’s or der s, h e wa s ca lled befor e t h e kin g;65 a n d if
h e per sist ed in h is con t u m a cy, h e wa s exclu ded fr om t h e r oya l pr ot ect ion , 66 a n d
n o on e wa s a llowed t o en t er t a in h im , n or even t o give h im a m or sel of br ea d.
Now, if h e wa s a per son of a n or din a r y con dit ion , h is goods wer e con fisca t ed;67
bu t if h e wa s t h e kin g’s va ssa l, t h ey wer e n ot .68 Th e fir st by h is con t u m a cy wa s
deem ed su fficien t ly con vict ed of t h e cr im e, t h e secon d wa s n ot ; t h e for m er for
t h e sm a llest cr im es wa s obliged t o u n der go t h e t r ia l by boilin g wa t er , 69 t h e

la t t er wa s con dem n ed t o t h is t r ia l on ly in t h e ca se of m u r der . 70 In fin e, t h e
kin g’s va ssa l cou ld n ot be com pelled t o swea r in cou r t a ga in st a n ot h er va ssa l. 71
Th ese pr ivileges wer e con t in u a lly in cr ea sin g, a n d t h e Ca pit u la r y of Ca r lom a n
does t h is h on ou r t o t h e kin g’s va ssa ls, t h a t t h ey sh ou ld n ot be obliged t o swea r
in per son , bu t on ly by t h e m ou t h of t h eir own va ssa ls. 72 Mor eover , wh en a
per son , h a vin g t h ese h on ou r s, did n ot r epa ir t o t h e a r m y, h is pu n ish m en t wa s
t o a bst a in fr om flesh -m ea t a n d win e a s lon g a s h e h a d been a bsen t fr om t h e
ser vice; bu t a fr eem a n 73 wh o n eglect ed t o follow h is cou n t wa s fin ed sixt y sou s, 74
a n d wa s r edu ced t o a st a t e of ser vit u de t ill h e h a d pa id it .
It is ver y n a t u r a l, t h er efor e, t o believe t h a t t h ose F r a n k s wh o wer e n ot t h e
kin g’s va ssa ls, a n d m u ch m or e t h e Rom a n s, beca m e fon d of en t er in g in t o t h e
st a t e of va ssa la ge: a n d t h a t t h ey m igh t n ot be depr ived of t h eir dem esn es, t h ey
devised t h e u sa ge of givin g t h eir a llodiu m t o t h e kin g, of r eceivin g it fr om h im
a ft er wa r ds a s a fief, a n d of n om in a t in g t h eir h eir s. Th is u sa ge wa s con t in u ed,
a n d t ook pla ce especia lly du r in g t h e t im es of con fu sion u n der t h e secon d r a ce,
wh en ever y m a n bein g in wa n t of a pr ot ect or wa s desir ou s of in cor por a t in g
h im self wit h t h e ot h er lor ds, a n d of en t er in g, a s it wer e, in t o t h e feu da l
m on a r ch y, beca u se t h e polit ica l n o lon ger exist ed. 75
Th is con t in u ed u n der t h e t h ir d r a ce, a s we fin d by sever a l ch a r t er s;76 wh et h er
t h ey ga ve t h eir a llodiu m , a n d r esu m ed it by t h e sa m e a ct ; or wh et h er it wa s
decla r ed a n a llodiu m , a n d a ft er wa r ds a ckn owledged a s a fief. Th ese wer e ca lled
fiefs of r esu m pt ion .
Th is does n ot im ply t h a t t h ose wh o wer e seized of fiefs a dm in ist er ed t h em a s
a pr u den t fa t h er of a fa m ily wou ld; for t h ou gh t h e fr eem en gr ew desir ou s of
bein g possessed of fiefs, yet t h ey m a n a ged t h is sor t of est a t es a s u su fr u ct s a r e
m a n a ged in ou r da ys. Th is is wh a t in du ced Ch a r lem a gn e, t h e m ost vigila n t a n d
con sider a t e pr in ce we ever h a d, t o m a k e a gr ea t m a n y r egu la t ion s in or der t o
h in der t h e fiefs fr om bein g dem ea n ed in fa vou r of a llodia l est a t es. 77 It pr oves
on ly t h a t in h is t im e m ost ben efices wer e bu t for life, a n d con sequ en t ly t h a t
t h ey t ook m or e ca r e of t h e fr eeh olds t h a n of t h e ben efices; a n d yet for a ll t h a t ,
t h ey did n ot ch oose r a t h er t o be t h e kin g’s va ssa ls t h a n fr eem en . Th ey m igh t
h a ve r ea son s for disposin g of som e pa r t icu la r pa r t of a fief, bu t t h ey wer e n ot
willin g t o be st r ipped of t h eir dign it y likewise.

I kn ow, likewise, t h a t Ch a r lem a gn e la m en t s in a cer t a in ca pit u la r y, t h a t in
som e pla ces t h er e wer e people wh o ga ve a wa y t h eir fiefs in pr oper t y, a n d
r edeem ed t h em a ft er wa r ds in t h e sa m e m a n n er . 78 Bu t I do n ot sa y t h a t t h ey
wer e n ot fon der of t h e pr oper t y t h a n of t h e u su fr u ct ; I m ea n on ly, t h a t wh en
t h ey cou ld con ver t a n a llodiu m in t o a fief, wh ich wa s t o descen d t o t h eir h eir s,
a s is t h e ca se of t h e for m u la r y a bove-m en t ion ed, t h ey h a d ver y gr ea t a dva n t a ges
in doin g it .
S1&R'7&+-%&)-F.9-&6"*0,&7%.%&9'*;%.+%0&5*+'&Y5%(,1
Th e u se of t h e fisca l la n ds sh ou ld h a ve been on ly t o ser ve a s a don a t ion by
wh ich t h e kin gs wer e t o en cou r a ge t h e F r a n ks t o u n der t a ke n ew expedit ion s,
a n d by wh ich , on t h e ot h er h a n d, t h ese fisca l la n ds wer e in cr ea sed. Th is, a s I
h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved, wa s t h e spir it of t h e n a t ion ; bu t t h ese don a t ion s t ook
a n ot h er t u r n . Th er e is st ill ext a n t a speech of Ch ilper ic, 79 gr a n dson of Clovis, in
wh ich h e com pla in s t h a t a lm ost a ll t h ese la n ds h a d been a lr ea dy given a wa y t o
t h e ch u r ch . “Ou r exch equ er ,” sa ys h e, “is im pover ish ed, a n d ou r r ich es a r e
t r a n sfer r ed t o t h e cler gy;80 n on e r eign n ow bu t t h e bish ops, wh o live in gr a n deu r
wh ile we a r e qu it e eclipsed.”
Th is wa s t h e r ea son t h a t t h e m a yor s, wh o du r st n ot a t t a ck t h e lor ds, st r ipped
t h e ch u r ch es; a n d on e of t h e m ot ives a lleged by P epin for en t er in g Neu st r ia 81
wa s h is h a vin g been in vit ed t h it h er by t h e cler gy t o pu t a st op t o t h e
en cr oa ch m en t s of t h e kin gs, t h a t is, of t h e m a yor s, wh o depr ived t h e ch u r ch of
a ll h er possession s.
Th e Ma yor s of Au st r a sia , t h a t is t h e fa m ily of t h e P epin s, h a d beh a ved
t owa r ds t h e cler gy wit h m or e m oder a t ion t h a n t h ose of Neu st r ia a n d Bu r gu n dy.
Th is is eviden t fr om ou r ch r on icles, 82 in wh ich we see t h e m on ks per pet u a lly
ext ollin g t h e devot ion a n d liber a lit y of t h e P epin s. Th ey t h em selves h a d been
possessed of t h e fir st pla ces in t h e ch u r ch . “On e cr ow does n ot pu ll ou t t h e eyes
of a n ot h er ”; a s Ch ilper ic sa id t o t h e bish ops.83
P epin su bdu ed Neu st r ia a n d Bu r gu n dy; bu t a s h is pr et en ce for dest r oyin g t h e
m a yor s a n d kin gs wa s t h e gr ieva n ces of t h e cler gy, h e cou ld n ot st r ip t h e la t t er
wit h ou t a ct in g in con sist en t ly wit h h is ca u se, a n d sh owin g t h a t h e m a de a jest
of t h e n a t ion . H owever , t h e con qu est of t wo gr ea t kin gdom s a n d t h e dest r u ct ion

of t h e opposit e pa r t y a ffor ded h im su fficien t m ea n s of sa t isfyin g h is gen er a ls.
P epin m a de h im self m a st er of t h e m on a r ch y by pr ot ect in g t h e cler gy; h is son ,
Ch a r les Ma r t el, cou ld n ot m a in t a in h is power bu t by oppr essin g t h em . Th is
pr in ce, fin din g t h a t pa r t of t h e r ega l a n d fisca l la n ds h a d been given eit h er for
life, or in per pet u it y, t o t h e n obilit y, a n d t h a t t h e ch u r ch by r eceivin g bot h fr om
r ich a n d poor h a d a cqu ir ed a gr ea t pa r t even of t h e a llodia l est a t es, h e r esolved
t o st r ip t h e cler gy; a n d a s t h e fiefs of t h e fir st division wer e n o lon ger in bein g,
h e for m ed a secon d. 84 H e t ook for h im self a n d for h is officer s t h e ch u r ch -la n ds
a n d t h e ch u r ch es t h em selves; t h u s h e r em edied a n evil wh ich differ ed fr om
or din a r y disea ses, a s it s ext r em it y r en der ed it t h e m or e ea sy t o cu r e.
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So gr ea t wer e t h e don a t ion s m a de t o t h e cler gy t h a t u n der t h e t h r ee r a ces of
ou r pr in ces t h ey m u st h a ve sever a l t im es r eceived t h e fu ll pr oper t y of a ll t h e
la n ds of t h e kin gdom . Bu t if ou r kin gs, t h e n obilit y, a n d t h e people fou n d t h e
wa y of givin g t h em a ll t h eir est a t es, t h ey fou n d a lso t h e m et h od of get t in g t h em
ba ck a ga in . Th e spir it of devot ion est a blish ed a gr ea t n u m ber of ch u r ch es u n der
t h e fir st r a ce; bu t t h e m ilit a r y spir it wa s t h e ca u se of t h eir bein g given a wa y
a ft er wa r ds t o t h e soldier y, wh o divided t h em a m on g t h eir ch ildr en . Wh a t a
n u m ber of la n ds m u st h a ve t h en been t a ken fr om t h e cler gy’s m en sa lia , Th e
kin gs of t h e secon d r a ce open ed t h eir h a n ds, a n d m a de n ew don a t ion s t o t h em ;
bu t t h e Nor m a n s, wh o ca m e a ft er wa r ds, plu n der ed a n d r a va ged a ll befor e t h em ,
wr ea kin g t h eir ven gea n ce ch iefly on t h e pr iest s a n d m on ks, a n d devot in g ever y
r eligiou s h ou se t o dest r u ct ion . F or t h ey ch a r ged t h ose ecclesia st ics wit h t h e
dest r u ct ion of t h eir idols, a n d wit h a ll t h e oppr essive m ea su r es of Ch a r lem a gn e
by wh ich t h ey h a d been su ccessively obliged t o t a ke sh elt er in t h e n or t h . Th ese
wer e a n im osit ies wh ich t h e spa ce of for t y or fift y yea r s h a d n ot been a ble t o
oblit er a t e. In t h is sit u a t ion , wh a t losses m u st t h e cler gy h a ve su st a in ed! Th er e
wer e h a r dly ecclesia st ics left t o dem a n d t h e est a t es of wh ich t h ey h a d been
depr ived. Th er e r em a in ed, t h er efor e, for t h e r eligiou s piet y of t h e t h ir d r a ce,
fou n da t ion s en ou gh t o m a ke, a n d la n ds t o best ow. Th e opin ion s wh ich wer e
spr ea d a br oa d a n d believed in t h ose da ys wou ld h a ve depr ived t h e la it y of a ll
t h eir est a t es, if t h ey h a d been bu t vir t u ou s en ou gh . Bu t if t h e cler gy wer e

a ct u a t ed by a m bit ion , t h e la it y wer e n ot wit h ou t t h eir s; if dyin g per son s ga ve
t h eir est a t es t o t h e ch u r ch , t h eir h eir s wou ld fa in r esu m e t h em . We m eet wit h
con t in u a l qu a r r els bet ween t h e lor ds a n d t h e bish ops, t h e gen t lem en a n d t h e
a bbot s; a n d t h e cler gy m u st h a ve been ver y h a r d pr essed, sin ce t h ey wer e
obliged t o pu t t h em selves u n der t h e pr ot ect ion of cer t a in lor ds, wh o gr a n t ed
t h em a m om en t a r y defen ce, a n d a ft er wa r ds join ed t h eir oppr essor s.
Bu t a bet t er a dm in ist r a t ion h a vin g been est a blish ed u n der t h e t h ir d r a ce ga ve
t h e cler gy lea ve t o a u gm en t t h eir possession s; wh en t h e Ca lvin ist s st a r t ed u p,
a n d h a vin g plu n der ed t h e ch u r ch es, t h ey t u r n ed a ll t h e sa cr ed pla t e in t o specie.
H ow cou ld t h e cler gy be su r e of t h eir est a t es, wh en t h ey wer e n ot even sa fe in
t h eir per sons? Th ey wer e deba t in g on con t r over sia l su bject s wh ile t h eir a r ch ives
wer e in fla m es. Wh a t did it a va il t h em t o dem a n d ba ck of a n im pover ish ed
n obilit y t h ose est a t es wh ich wer e n o lon ger in possession of t h e la t t er , bu t h a d
been con veyed in t o ot h er h a n ds by differ en t m or t ga ges? Th e cler gy h a ve been
lon g a cqu ir in g, a n d h a ve oft en r efu n ded, a n d st ill t h er e is n o en d of t h eir
a cqu isit ion s.
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Ch a r les Ma r t el, wh o u n der t ook t o st r ip t h e cler gy, fou n d h im self in a m ost
h a ppy sit u a t ion . H e wa s bot h fea r ed a n d beloved by t h e soldier y; h e wor ked for
t h em , h a vin g t h e pr et ext of h is wa r s a ga in st t h e Sa r a cen s. H e wa s h a t ed,
in deed, by t h e cler gy, bu t h e h a d n o n eed of t h eir a ssist a n ce.85 Th e P ope, t o
wh om h e wa s n ecessa r y, st r et ch ed ou t h is a r m s t o h im . E ver y on e kn ows t h e
fa m ou s em ba ssy h e r eceived fr om Gr egor y III. 86 Th ese t wo power s wer e st r ict ly
u n it ed, beca u se t h ey cou ld n ot do wit h ou t ea ch ot h er : t h e P ope st ood in n eed of
t h e F r a n ks t o a ssist h im a ga in st t h e Lom ba r ds a n d t h e Gr eeks; Ch a r les Ma r t el
h a d occa sion for t h e P ope, t o h u m ble t h e Gr eeks, t o em ba r r a ss t h e Lom ba r ds,
t o m a ke h im self m or e r espect a ble a t h om e, a n d t o gu a r a n t ee t h e t it les wh ich h e
h a d, a n d t h ose wh ich h e or h is ch ildr en m igh t t a k e. It wa s im possible,
t h er efor e, for h is en t er pr ise t o m isca r r y.
St . E u ch er iu s, Bish op of Or lea n s, h a d a vision wh ich fr igh t en ed a ll t h e pr in ces
of t h a t t im e. I sh a ll pr odu ce on t h is occa sion t h e let t er wr it t en by t h e bish ops
a ssem bled a t Rh eim s t o Lou is, Kin g of Ger m a n y, wh o h a d in va ded t h e

t er r it or ies of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld;87 beca u se it will give u s a n in sigh t in t o t h e
sit u a t ion of t h in gs in t h ose t im es, a n d t h e t em per of t h e people. Th ey sa y 88 t h a t
“St . E u ch er iu s, h a vin g been sn a t ch ed u p in t o h ea ven , sa w Ch a r les Ma r t el
t or m en t ed in t h e bot t om of h ell by or der of t h e sa in t s, wh o a r e t o sit wit h Ch r ist
a t t h e la st ju dgm en t ; t h a t h e h a d been con dem n ed t o t h is pu n ish m en t befor e h is
t im e, for h a vin g st r ipped t h e ch u r ch of h er possession s a n d t h er eby ch a r ged
h im self wit h t h e sin s of a ll t h ose wh o fou n ded t h ese livin gs; t h a t Kin g P epin
h eld a cou n cil u pon t h is occa sion , a n d h a d or der ed a ll t h e ch u r ch -la n ds h e cou ld
r ecover t o be r est or ed; t h a t a s h e cou ld get ba ck on ly a pa r t of t h em , beca u se of
h is dispu t es wit h Va ifr e, Du ke of Acqu it a in e, h e issu ed let t er s ca lled pr eca r ia 89
for t h e r em a in der , a n d m a de a la w t h a t t h e la it y sh ou ld pa y a t en t h pa r t of t h e
ch u r ch -la n ds t h ey possessed, a n d t welve den ier s for ea ch h ou se; t h a t
Ch a r lem a gn e did n ot give t h e ch u r ch -la n ds a wa y; on t h e con t r a r y, t h a t h e
pu blish ed a ca pit u la r y, by wh ich h e en ga ged bot h for h im self a n d for h is
su ccessor s n ever t o m a ke a n y su ch gr a n t ; t h a t a ll t h ey sa y is com m it t ed t o
wr it in g, a n d t h a t a gr ea t m a n y of t h em h ea r d t h e wh ole r ela t ed by Lou is t h e
Debon n a ir e, t h e fa t h er of t h ose t wo kin gs.”
Kin g P epin ’s r egu la t ion , m en t ion ed by t h e bish ops, wa s m a de in t h e cou n cil
h eld a t Lept in es. 90 Th e ch u r ch fou n d t h is a dva n t a ge in it , t h a t su ch a s h a d
r eceived t h ose la n ds h eld t h em n o lon ger bu t in a pr eca r iou s m a n n er ; a n d
m or eover t h a t sh e r eceived t h e t it h e or t en t h pa r t , a n d t welve den ier s for ever y
h ou se t h a t h a d belon ged t o h er . Bu t t h is wa s on ly a pa llia t ive, a n d did n ot
r em ove t h e disor der .
Na y, it m et wit h opposit ion , a n d P epin wa s obliged t o m a ke a n ot h er
ca pit u la r y, 91 in wh ich h e en join s t h ose wh o h eld a n y of t h ose ben efices t o pa y
t h is t it h e a n d du t y, a n d even t o keep u p t h e h ou ses belon gin g t o t h e bish opr ic
or m on a st er y, u n der t h e pen a lt y of for feit in g t h ose possession s. Ch a r lem a gn e
r en ewed t h e r egu la t ion s of P epin .92
Th a t pa r t of t h e sa m e let t er wh ich sa ys t h a t Ch a r lem a gn e pr om ised bot h for
h im self a n d for h is su ccessor s n ever t o divide a ga in t h e ch u r ch -la n ds a m on g t h e
soldier y is a gr eea ble t o t h e ca pit u la r y of t h is pr in ce, given a t Aix-la -Ch a pelle in
t h e yea r 803, wit h a view of r em ovin g t h e a ppr eh en sion s of t h e cler gy u pon t h is
su bject . Bu t t h e don a t ion s a lr ea dy m a de wer e st ill in for ce.93 Th e bish ops ver y
ju st ly a dd t h a t Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e followed t h e exa m ple of Ch a r lem a gn e, a n d
did n ot give a wa y t h e ch u r ch -la n ds t o t h e soldier y.
An d yet t h e old a bu ses wer e ca r r ied t o su ch a pit ch , t h a t t h e la it y u n der t h e
ch ildr en of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e pr efer r ed ecclesia st ics t o ben efices, or t u r n ed
t h em ou t of t h eir livin gs 94 wit h ou t t h e con sen t of t h e bish ops. Th e ben efices
wer e divided a m on g t h e n ext h eir s, 95 a n d wh en t h ey wer e h eld in a n in decen t
m a n n er t h e bish ops h a d n o ot h er r em edy left t h a n t o r em ove t h e r elics. 96
By t h e Ca pit u la r y of Com piègn e 97 it is en a ct ed t h a t t h e kin g’s com m issa r y
sh a ll h a ve a r igh t t o visit ever y m on a st er y, t oget h er wit h t h e bish op, by t h e
con sen t a n d in pr esen ce of t h e per son wh o h olds it ; a n d t h is sh ows t h a t t h e
a bu se wa s gen er a l.
Not t h a t t h er e wer e la ws wa n t in g for t h e r est it u t ion of t h e ch u r ch -la n ds. Th e
P ope h a vin g r epr im a n ded t h e bish ops for t h eir n eglect in r ega r d t o t h e
r e-est a blish m en t of t h e m on a st er ies, t h ey wr ot e t o Ch a r les t h e Ba ld t h a t t h ey
wer e n ot a ffect ed by t h is r epr oa ch , beca u se t h ey wer e n ot cu lpa ble;98 a n d t h ey
r em in ded h im of wh a t h a d been pr om ised, r esolved a n d decr eed in so m a n y
n a t ion a l a ssem blies. In poin t of fa ct , t h ey qu ot ed n in e.
St ill t h ey wen t on dispu t in g; t ill t h e Nor m a n s ca m e a n d m a de t h em a ll a gr ee.
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Th e r egu la t ion s m a de u n der Kin g P epin h a d given t h e ch u r ch r a t h er h opes of
r elief t h a n effect u a lly r elieved h er ; a n d a s Ch a r les Ma r t el fou n d a ll t h e la n ded
est a t es of t h e k in gdom in t h e h a n ds of t h e cler gy, Ch a r lem a gn e fou n d a ll t h e
ch u r ch -la n ds in t h e h a n ds of t h e soldier y. Th e la t t er cou ld n ot be com pelled t o
r est or e a volu n t a r y don a t ion , a n d t h e cir cu m st a n ces of t h a t t im e r en der ed t h e
t h in g st ill m or e im pr a ct ica ble t h a n it seem ed t o be of it s own n a t u r e. On t h e
ot h er h a n d, Ch r ist ia n it y ou gh t n ot t o h a ve been lost for wa n t of m in ist er s,
ch u r ch es, a n d in st r u ct ion .99
Th is wa s t h e r ea son of Ch a r lem a gn e’s est a blish in g t h e t it h es, 100 a n ew kin d
of pr oper t y wh ich h a d t h is a dva n t a ge in fa vou r of t h e cler gy, t h a t a s t h ey wer e
given pa r t icu la r ly t o t h e ch u r ch , it wa s ea sier in pr ocess of t im e t o kn ow wh en
t h ey wer e u su r ped.
Som e h a ve a t t em pt ed t o m a ke t h is in st it u t ion of a st ill r em ot er da t e, bu t t h e

a u t h or it ies t h ey pr odu ce seem r a t h er , I t h in k, t o pr ove t h e con t r a r y. Th e
con st it u t ion of Clot h a r iu s sa ys 101 on ly t h a t t h ey sh a ll n ot r a ise cer t a in t it h es on
ch u r ch -la n ds;102 so fa r t h en wa s t h e ch u r ch fr om exa ct in g t it h es a t t h a t t im e,
t h a t it s wh ole pr et en sion wa s t o be exem pt ed fr om pa yin g t h em . Th e secon d
cou n cil of Ma econ , 103 wh ich wa s h eld in 585, a n d or da in s t h e pa ym en t of t it h es,
sa ys, in deed, t h a t t h ey wer e pa id in a n cien t t im es, bu t it sa ys a lso t h a t t h e
cu st om of pa yin g t h em wa s t h en a bolish ed.
No on e qu est ion s bu t t h a t t h e cler gy open ed t h e Bible befor e Ch a r lem a gn e’s
t im e, a n d pr ea ch ed t h e gift s a n d offer in gs in Levit icu s. Bu t I sa y t h a t befor e
t h a t pr in ce’s r eign , t h ou gh t h e t it h es m igh t h a ve been pr ea ch ed, t h ey wer e
n ever est a blish ed.
I n ot iced t h a t t h e r egu la t ion s m a de u n der Kin g P epin h a d su bject ed t h ose wh o
wer e seized of ch u r ch la n ds in fief t o t h e pa ym en t of t it h es, a n d t o t h e r epa ir in g
of t h e ch u r ch es. It wa s a gr ea t dea l t o in du ce by a la w, wh ose equ it y cou ld n ot
be dispu t ed, t h e pr in cipa l m en of t h e n a t ion t o set t h e exa m ple.
Ch a r lem a gn e did m or e; a n d we fin d by t h e ca pit u la r y de Villis 104 t h a t h e
obliged h is own dem esn es t o t h e pa ym en t of t h e t it h es; t h is wa s a st ill m or e
st r ikin g exa m ple.
Bu t t h e com m on a lt y a r e r a r ely in flu en ced by exa m ple t o sa cr ifice t h eir
in t er est s. Th e syn od of F r a n kfor t fu r n ish ed t h em wit h a m or e cogen t m ot ive t o
pa y t h e t it h es. 105 A ca pit u la r y wa s m a de in t h a t syn od, wh er ein it is sa id t h a t
in t h e la st fa m in e t h e spikes of cor n wer e fou n d t o con t a in n o seed,106 t h e
in fer n a l spir it s h a vin g devou r ed it a ll, a n d t h a t t h ose spir it s h a d been h ea r d t o
r epr oa ch t h em wit h n ot h a vin g pa id t h e t it h es; in con sequ en ce of wh ich it wa s
or da in ed t h a t a ll t h ose wh o wer e seized of ch u r ch la n ds sh ou ld pa y t h e t it h es;
a n d t h e n ext con sequ en ce wa s t h a t t h e obliga t ion ext en ded t o a ll.
Ch a r lem a gn e’s pr oject did n ot su cceed a t fir st , for it seem ed t oo h ea vy a
bu r den . 107 Th e pa ym en t of t h e t it h es a m on g t h e J ews wa s con n ect ed wit h t h e
pla n of t h e fou n da t ion of t h eir r epu blic; bu t h er e it wa s a bu r den qu it e
in depen den t of t h e ot h er ch a r ges of t h e est a blish m en t of t h e m on a r ch y. We fin d
by t h e r egu la t ion s a dded t o t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds 108 t h e difficu lt y t h er e wa s
in ca u sin g t h e t it h es t o be a ccept ed by t h e civil la ws; a n d a s for t h e opposit ion
t h ey m et wit h befor e t h ey wer e a dm it t ed by t h e ecclesia st ic la ws, we m a y ea sily

ju dge of it fr om t h e differ en t ca n on s of t h e cou n cils.
Th e people con sen t ed a t len gt h t o pa y t h e t it h es, u pon con dit ion t h a t t h ey
m igh t h a ve t h e power of r edeem in g t h em . Th is t h e con st it u t ion of Lou is t h e
Debon n a ir e 109 a n d t h a t of t h e E m per or Lot h a r iu s, h is son , wou ld n ot a llow.110
Th e la ws of Ch a r lem a gn e, in r ega r d t o t h e est a blish m en t of t it h es, wer e a
wor k of n ecessit y, n ot of su per st it ion — a wor k, in sh or t , in wh ich r eligion on ly
wa s con cer n ed. H is fa m ou s division of t h e t it h es in t o fou r pa r t s, for t h e
r epa ir in g of t h e ch u r ch es, for t h e poor , for t h e bish op, a n d for t h e cler gy,
m a n ifest ly pr oves t h a t h e wish ed t o give t h e ch u r ch t h a t fixed a n d per m a n en t
st a t u s wh ich sh e h a d lost .
H is will sh ows t h a t h e wa s desir ou s of r epa ir in g t h e m isch ief don e by h is
gr a n dfa t h er , Ch a r les Ma r t el. 111 H e m a de t h r ee equ a l sh a r es of h is m ova ble
goods; t wo of t h ese h e wou ld h a ve divided ea ch in t o on e-a n d-t wen t y pa r t s, for
t h e on e-a n d-t wen t y m et r opolit a n sees of h is em pir e; ea ch pa r t wa s t o be
su b-divided bet ween t h e m et r opolit a n a n d t h e depen den t bish opr ics. Th e
r em a in in g t h ir d h e dist r ibu t ed in t o fou r pa r t s; on e h e ga ve t o h is ch ildr en a n d
gr a n dch ildr en , a n ot h er wa s a dded t o t h e t wo-t h ir ds a lr ea dy bequ ea t h ed, a n d
t h e ot h er t wo wer e a ssign ed t o ch a r it a ble u ses. It seem s a s if h e looked u pon t h e
im m en se don a t ion h e wa s m a kin g t o t h e ch u r ch less a s a r eligiou s a ct t h a n a s
a polit ica l dist r ibu t ion .
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As t h e ch u r ch h a d gr own poor , t h e kin gs r esign ed t h e r igh t of n om in a t in g t o
bish opr ics a n d ot h er ecclesia st ic ben efices. 112 Th e pr in ces ga ve t h em selves less
t r ou ble a bou t t h e ecclesia st ic m in ist er s; a n d t h e ca n dida t es wer e less solicit ou s
in a pplyin g t o t h eir a u t h or it ies. Th u s t h e ch u r ch r eceived a kin d of
com pen sa t ion for t h e possession s sh e h a d lost .
H en ce, if Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e left t h e people of Rom e in possession of t h e
r igh t of ch oosin g t h eir popes, it wa s owin g t o t h e gen er a l spir it t h a t pr eva iled
in h is t im e;113 h e beh a ved in t h e sa m e m a n n er t o t h e see of Rom e a s t o ot h er
bish opr ics.
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I sh a ll n ot pr et en d t o det er m in e wh et h er Ch a r les Ma r t el, in givin g t h e
ch u r ch -la n ds in fief, m a de a gr a n t of t h em for life or in per pet u it y. All I kn ow
is t h a t u n der Ch a r lem a gn e 114 a n d Lot h a r iu s I 115 t h er e wer e possession s of t h a t
kin d wh ich descen ded t o t h e n ext h eir s, a n d wer e divided a m on g t h em .
I fin d, m or eover , t h a t on e pa r t of t h em wa s given a s a llodia , a n d t h e ot h er a s
fiefs. 116
I n ot iced t h a t t h e pr opr iet or s of t h e a llodia wer e su bject t o ser vice a ll t h e
sa m e a s t h e possessor s of t h e fiefs. Th is, wit h ou t dou bt , wa s pa r t ly t h e r ea son
t h a t Ch a r les Ma r t el m a de gr a n t s of a llodia l la n ds a s well a s of fiefs.
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We m u st obser ve t h a t t h e fiefs h a vin g been ch a n ged in t o ch u r ch -la n ds, a n d
t h ese a ga in in t o fiefs, t h ey bor r owed som et h in g of ea ch ot h er . Th u s t h e
ch u r ch -la n ds h a d t h e pr ivileges of fiefs, a n d t h ese h a d t h e pr ivileges of
ch u r ch -la n ds. Su ch wer e t h e h on or a r y r igh t s of ch u r ch es, wh ich bega n a t t h a t
t im e. 117 An d a s t h ose r igh t s h a ve ever been a n n exed t o t h e ju dicia r y power , in
pr efer en ce t o wh a t is st ill ca lled t h e fief, it follows t h a t t h e pa t r im on ia l
ju r isdict ion s wer e est a blish ed a t t h e sa m e t im e a s t h ose ver y r igh t s.
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Th e Secon d Ra ce. Th e con n ect ion of m y su bject h a s m a de m e in ver t t h e or der
of t im e, so a s t o spea k of Ch a r lem a gn e befor e I h a d m en t ion ed t h e fa m ou s epoch
of t h e t r a n sla t ion of t h e cr own t o t h e Ca r lovin gia n s u n der Kin g P epin ; a
r evolu t ion , wh ich , con t r a r y t o t h e n a t u r e of or din a r y even t s, is m or e r em a r ked
per h a ps in ou r da ys t h a n wh en it h a ppen ed.
Th e kin gs h a d n o a u t h or it y; t h ey h a d on ly a n em pt y n a m e. Th e r ega l t it le wa s
h er edit a r y, a n d t h a t of m a yor elect ive. Th ou gh it wa s la t t er ly in t h e power of
t h e m a yor s t o pla ce a n y of t h e Mer ovin gia n s on t h e t h r on e, t h ey h a d n ot yet
t a ken a kin g of a n ot h er fa m ily; a n d t h e a n cien t la w wh ich fixed t h e cr own in a
pa r t icu la r fa m ily wa s n ot yet er a sed fr om t h e h ea r t s of t h e F r a n ks. Th e kin g’s
per son wa s a lm ost u n kn own in t h e m on a r ch y; bu t r oya lt y wa s n ot . P epin , son
of Ch a r les Ma r t el, t h ou gh t it wou ld be pr oper t o con fou n d t h ose t wo t it les, a

con fu sion wh ich wou ld lea ve it a m oot poin t wh et h er t h e n ew r oya lt y wa s
h er edit a r y or n ot ; a n d t h is wa s su fficien t for h im wh o t o t h e r ega l dign it y h a d
join ed a gr ea t power . Th e m a yor ’s a u t h or it y wa s t h en blen ded wit h t h a t of t h e
kin g. In t h e m ixt u r e of t h ese t wo a u t h or it ies a kin d of r econ cilia t ion wa s m a de;
t h e m a yor h a d been elect ive, a n d t h e kin g h er edit a r y; t h e cr own a t t h e
begin n in g of t h e secon d r a ce wa s elect ive, beca u se t h e people ch ose; it wa s
h er edit a r y, beca u se t h ey a lwa ys ch ose in t h e sa m e fa m ily.118
F a t h er le Coin t e, in spit e of t h e a u t h or it y of a ll a n cien t r ecor ds 119 den ies t h a t
t h e P ope a u t h or ised t h is gr ea t ch a n ge; a n d on e of h is r ea son s is t h a t h e wou ld
h a ve com m it t ed a n in ju st ice. 120 A fin e t h in g t o see a h ist or ia n ju dge of t h a t
wh ich m en h a ve don e by t h a t wh ich t h ey ou gh t t o h a ve don e; by t h is m ode of
r ea son in g we sh ou ld h a ve n o m or e h ist or y.
Be t h a t a s it m a y, it is ver y cer t a in t h a t im m edia t ely a ft er Du ke P epin ’s
vict or y, t h e Mer ovin gia n s cea sed t o be t h e r eign in g fa m ily. Wh en h is gr a n dson ,
P epin , wa s cr own ed kin g, it wa s on ly on e cer em on y m or e, a n d on e ph a n t om less;
h e a cqu ir ed n ot h in g t h er eby bu t t h e r oya l or n a m en t s; t h er e wa s n o ch a n ge
m a de in t h e n a t ion .
Th is I h a ve sa id in or der t o fix t h e m om en t of t h e r evolu t ion , t h a t we m a y n ot
be m ist a ken in lookin g u pon t h a t a s a r evolu t ion wh ich wa s on ly a con sequ en ce
of it .
Wh en H u gh Ca pet wa s cr own ed kin g a t t h e begin n in g of t h e t h ir d r a ce, t h er e
wa s a m u ch gr ea t er ch a n ge, beca u se t h e kin gdom pa ssed fr om a st a t e of
a n a r ch y t o som e kin d of gover n m en t ; bu t wh en P epin t ook t h e cr own , t h er e wa s
on ly a t r a n sit ion fr om on e gover n m en t t o a n ot h er , wh ich wa s iden t ica l.
Wh en P epin wa s cr own ed kin g t h er e wa s on ly a ch a n ge of n a m e; bu t wh en
H u gh Ca pet wa s cr own ed t h er e wa s a ch a n ge in t h e n a t u r e of t h e t h in g, beca u se
by u n it in g a gr ea t fief t o t h e cr own t h e a n a r ch y cea sed.
Wh en P epin wa s cr own ed t h e t it le of kin g wa s u n it ed t o t h e h igh est office;
wh en H u gh Ca pet wa s cr own ed it wa s a n n exed t o t h e gr ea t est fief.
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We fin d by t h e for m u la r y of P epin ’s cor on a t ion t h a t Ch a r les a n d Ca r lom a n
wer e a lso a n oin t ed, 121 a n d blessed, a n d t h a t t h e F r en ch n obilit y bou n d
t h em selves, on pa in of in t er dict ion a n d excom m u n ica t ion , n ever t o ch oose a
pr in ce of a n ot h er fa m ily.122
It a ppea r s by t h e wills of Ch a r lem a gn e a n d Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e, t h a t t h e
F r a n ks m a de a ch oice a m on g t h e kin g’s ch ildr en , wh ich a gr ees wit h t h e
a bove-m en t ion ed cla u se. An d wh en t h e em pir e wa s t r a n sfer r ed fr om
Ch a r lem a gn e’s fa m ily, t h e elect ion , wh ich befor e h a d been r est r ict ed a n d
con dit ion a l, beca m e pu r e a n d sim ple, so t h a t t h e a n cien t con st it u t ion wa s
depa r t ed fr om .
P epin , per ceivin g h im self n ea r h is en d, a ssem bled t h e lor ds, bot h t em por a l
a n d spir it u a l, a t St . Den is, a n d divided h is kin gdom bet ween h is t wo son s,
Ch a r les a n d Ca r lom a n . 123 We h a ve n ot t h e a ct s of t h is a ssem bly, bu t we fin d
wh a t wa s t h er e t r a n sa ct ed in t h e a u t h or of t h e a n cien t h ist or ica l collect ion ,
pu blish ed by Ca n isiu s, a n d in t h e wr it er of t h e a n n a ls of Met z, 124 a ccor din g t o
t h e obser va t ion of Ba lu ziu s. 125 H er e I m eet wit h t wo t h in gs in som e m ea su r e
con t r a dict or y; t h a t h e m a de t h is division wit h t h e con sen t of t h e n obilit y, a n d
a ft er wa r ds t h a t h e m a de it by h is pa t er n a l a u t h or it y. Th is pr oves wh a t I sa id,
t h a t t h e people’s r igh t in t h e secon d r a ce wa s t o ch oose in t h e sa m e fa m ily; it
wa s, pr oper ly spea kin g, r a t h er a r igh t of exclu sion t h a n t h a t of elect ion .
Th is kin d of elect ive r igh t is con fir m ed by t h e r ecor ds of t h e secon d r a ce. Su ch
is t h is ca pit u la r y of t h e division of t h e em pir e m a de by Ch a r lem a gn e a m on g h is
t h r ee ch ildr en , in wh ich , a ft er set t lin g t h eir sh a r es, h e sa ys,126 “Th a t if on e of
t h e t h r ee br ot h er s h a ppen s t o h a ve a son , su ch a s t h e people sh a ll be willin g t o
ch oose a s a fit per son t o su cceed t o h is fa t h er ’s kin gdom , h is u n cles sh a ll
con sen t t o it .”
Th is sa m e r egu la t ion is t o be m et wit h in t h e pa r t it ion wh ich Lou is t h e
Debon n a ir e m a de a m on g h is t h r ee ch ildr en , P epin , Lou is, a n d Ch a r les, in t h e
yea r 837, a t t h e a ssem bly of Aix-la -Ch a pelle;127 a n d likewise in a n ot h er
pa r t it ion , m a de t wen t y yea r s befor e, by t h e sa m e em per or , in fa vou r of
Lot h a r iu s, P epin , a n d Lou is. 128 We m a y likewise see t h e oa t h wh ich Lou is t h e
St a m m er er t ook a t Com piègn e a t h is cor on a t ion . “I, Lou is, by t h e divin e m er cy,
a n d t h e people’s elect ion , a ppoin t ed kin g, do pr om ise”129 ... Wh a t I sa y is
con fir m ed by t h e a ct s of t h e Cou n cil of Va len ce, h eld in t h e yea r 890, for t h e
elect ion of Lou is, son of Boson , t o t h e k in gdom of Ar les. 130 Lou is wa s t h er e
elect ed, a n d t h e pr in cipa l r ea son t h ey ga ve for ch oosin g h im is t h a t h e wa s of
t h e im per ia l fa m ily, 131 t h a t Ch a r les t h e F a t h a d con fer r ed u pon h im t h e dign it y
of kin g, a n d t h a t t h e E m per or Ar n old h a d in vest ed h im by t h e scept r e, a n d by
t h e m in ist r y of h is a m ba ssa dor s. Th e kin gdom of Ar les, like t h e ot h er
dism em ber ed or depen den t kin gdom s of Ch a r lem a gn e, wa s elect ive a n d
h er edit a r y.
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Ch a r lem a gn e’s in t en t ion wa s t o r est r a in t h e power of t h e n obilit y wit h in
pr oper bou n ds, a n d t o h in der t h em fr om oppr essin g t h e fr eem en a n d t h e cler gy.
H e ba la n ced t h e sever a l or der s of t h e st a t e, a n d r em a in ed per fect m a st er of
t h em a ll. Th e wh ole wa s u n it ed by t h e st r en gt h of h is gen iu s. H e led t h e n obilit y
con t in u a lly fr om on e expedit ion t o a n ot h er , givin g t h em n o t im e t o for m
con spir a cies, bu t em ployin g t h em en t ir ely in t h e execu t ion of h is design s. Th e
em pir e wa s su ppor t ed by t h e gr ea t n ess of it s ch ief; t h e pr in ce wa s gr ea t , bu t t h e
m a n wa s gr ea t er . Th e kin gs, h is ch ildr en , wer e h is fir st su bject s, t h e
in st r u m en t s of h is power a n d pa t t er n s of obedien ce. H e m a de a dm ir a ble la ws;
a n d, wh a t is m or e, h e t ook ca r e t o see t h em execu t ed. H is gen iu s diffu sed it self
t h r ou gh ever y pa r t of t h e em pir e. We fin d in t h is pr in ce’s la ws a com pr eh en sive
spir it of for esigh t , a n d a cer t a in for ce wh ich ca r r ies a ll befor e it . All pr et ext s for
eva din g t h e du t ies a r e r em oved, n eglect s a r e cor r ect ed, a bu ses r efor m ed or
pr even t ed. 132 H e kn ew h ow t o pu n ish , bu t h e u n der st ood m u ch bet t er h ow t o
pa r don . H e wa s gr ea t in h is design s, a n d sim ple in t h e execu t ion of t h em . No
pr in ce ever possessed in a h igh er degr ee t h e a r t of per for m in g t h e gr ea t est
t h in gs wit h ea se, a n d t h e m ost difficu lt wit h expedit ion . H e wa s con t in u a lly
visit in g t h e sever a l pa r t s of h is va st em pir e, a n d m a de t h em feel t h e weigh t of
h is h a n d wh er ever it fell. New difficu lt ies spr a n g u p on ever y side, a n d on ever y
side h e r em oved t h em . Never pr in ce h a d m or e r esolu t ion in fa cin g da n ger s;
n ever pr in ce kn ew bet t er h ow t o a void t h em . H e m ocked a ll m a n n er of per ils,
a n d pa r t icu la r ly t h ose t o wh ich gr ea t con qu er or s a r e gen er a lly su bject , n a m ely,

con spir a cies. Th is won der fu l pr in ce wa s ext r em ely m oder a t e, of a ver y m ild
ch a r a ct er , pla in a n d sim ple in h is beh a viou r . H e loved t o con ver se fr eely wit h
t h e lor ds of h is cou r t . H e in du lged, per h a ps, t oo m u ch h is pa ssion for t h e fa ir
sex; a fa ilin g, h owever , wh ich in a pr in ce wh o a lwa ys gover n ed by h im self; a n d
wh o spen t h is life in a con t in u a l ser ies of t oils; m a y m er it som e a llowa n ce. H e
wa s won der fu lly exa ct in h is expen ses, a dm in ist er in g h is dem esn es wit h
pr u den ce, a t t en t ion , a n d econ om y. A fa t h er m igh t lea r n fr om h is la ws h ow t o
gover n h is fa m ily; a n d we fin d in h is ca pit u la r ies t h e pu r e a n d sa cr ed sou r ce
wh en ce h e der ived h is r ich es. 133 I sh a ll a dd on ly on e wor d m or e: h e ga ve or der s
t h a t t h e eggs in t h e ba r t on s on h is dem esn es, a n d t h e su per flu ou s ga r den -st u ff,
sh ou ld be sold;134 h e dist r ibu t ed a m on g h is people a ll t h e r ich es of t h e
Lom ba r ds, a n d t h e im m en se t r ea su r es of t h ose H u n s t h a t h a d plu n der ed t h e
wh ole wor ld.
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Ch a r lem a gn e a n d h is im m edia t e su ccessor s wer e a fr a id lest t h ose wh om t h ey
pla ced in dist a n t pa r t s sh ou ld be in clin ed t o r evolt , a n d t h ou gh t t h ey sh ou ld
fin d m or e docilit y a m on g t h e cler gy. F or t h is r ea son t h ey er ect ed a gr ea t
n u m ber of bish opr ics in Ger m a n y a n d en dowed t h em wit h ver y la r ge fiefs. 135 It
a ppea r s by som e ch a r t er s t h a t t h e cla u ses con t a in in g t h e pr er oga t ives of t h ose
fiefs wer e n ot differ en t fr om su ch a s wer e com m on ly in ser t ed in t h ose gr a n t s, 136
t h ou gh a t pr esen t we fin d t h e pr in cipa l ecclesia st ics of Ger m a n y in vest ed wit h
a sover eign power . Be t h a t a s it m a y, t h ese wer e som e of t h e con t r iva n ces t h ey
u sed a ga in st t h e Sa xon s. Th a t wh ich t h ey cou ld n ot expect fr om t h e in dolen ce
or su pin en ess of va ssa ls t h ey t h ou gh t t h ey ou gh t t o expect fr om t h e sedu lou s
a t t en t ion of a bish op. Besides, a va ssa l of t h a t kin d, fa r fr om m a kin g u se of t h e
con qu er ed people a ga in st t h em , wou ld r a t h er st a n d in n eed of t h eir a ssist a n ce
t o su ppor t t h em selves a ga in st t h eir own people.
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Wh en Au gu st u s Ca esa r wa s in E gypt h e or der ed Alexa n der ’s t om b t o be
open ed; a n d u pon t h eir a skin g h im wh et h er h e wa s willin g t h ey sh ou ld open t h e
t om bs of t h e P t olem ies, h e m a de a n swer t h a t h e wa n t ed t o see t h e kin g, a n d n ot
t h e dea d. Th u s, in t h e h ist or y of t h e secon d r a ce, we a r e con t in u a lly lookin g for
P epin a n d Ch a r lem a gn e; we wa n t t o see t h e kin gs, a n d n ot t h e dea d.
A pr in ce wh o wa s t h e spor t of h is pa ssion s, a n d a du pe even t o h is vir t u es; a
pr in ce wh o n ever u n der st ood r igh t ly eit h er h is own st r en gt h or wea kn ess; a
pr in ce wh o wa s in ca pa ble of m a kin g h im self eit h er fea r ed or beloved; a pr in ce,
in fin e, wh o wit h few vices in h is h ea r t h a d a ll m a n n er of defect s in h is
u n der st a n din g, t ook in t o h is h a n ds t h e r ein s of t h e em pir e wh ich h a d been h eld
by Ch a r lem a gn e.
At a t im e wh en t h e wh ole wor ld is in t ea r s for t h e dea t h of h is fa t h er , a t a
t im e of su r pr ise a n d a la r m , wh en t h e su bject s of t h a t ext en sive em pir e a ll ca ll
u pon Ch a r les a n d fin d h im n o m or e; a t a t im e wh en h e is a dva n cin g wit h a ll
expedit ion t o t a ke possession of h is fa t h er ’s t h r on e, h e sen ds som e t r u st y
officer s befor e h im in or der t o seize t h e per son s of t h ose wh o h a d con t r ibu t ed t o
t h e ir r egu la r con du ct of h is sist er s. Th is st ep wa s pr odu ct ive of t h e m ost t er r ible
ca t a st r oph es. 137 It wa s im pr u den t a n d pr ecipit a t e. H e bega n wit h pu n ish in g
dom est ic cr im es befor e h e r ea ch ed t h e pa la ce; a n d wit h a lien a t in g t h e m in ds of
h is su bject s befor e h e a scen ded t h e t h r on e.
H is n eph ew, Ber n a r d, Kin g of It a ly, h a vin g com e t o im plor e h is clem en cy, h e
or der ed h is eyes t o be pu t ou t , wh ich pr oved t h e ca u se of t h a t pr in ce’s dea t h a
few da ys a ft er , a n d cr ea t ed Lou is a gr ea t m a n y en em ies. H is a ppr eh en sion of
t h e con sequ en ce in du ced h im t o sh u t h is br ot h er s u p in a m on a st er y; by wh ich
m ea n s t h e n u m ber of h is en em ies in cr ea sed. Th ese t wo la st t r a n sa ct ion s wer e
a ft er wa r ds la id t o h is ch a r ge in a ju dicia l m a n n er , 138 a n d h is a ccu ser s did n ot
fa il t o t ell h im t h a t h e h a d viola t ed h is oa t h a n d t h e solem n pr om ises wh ich h e
h a d m a de t o h is fa t h er on t h e da y of h is cor on a t ion .139
Aft er t h e dea t h of t h e E m pr ess H er m en ga r de, by wh om h e h a d t h r ee ch ildr en ,
h e m a r r ied J u dit h , a n d h a d a son by t h a t pr in cess; bu t soon m ixin g a ll t h e
in du lgen ce of a n old h u sba n d, wit h a ll t h e wea kn ess of a n old kin g, h e flu n g h is
fa m ily in t o a disor der wh ich wa s followed by t h e down fa ll of t h e m on a r ch y.
H e wa s con t in u a lly a lt er in g t h e pa r t it ion s h e h a d m a de a m on g h is ch ildr en .

An d yet t h ese pa r t it ion s h a d been con fir m ed ea ch in t h eir t u r n by h is own oa t h ,
a n d by t h ose of h is ch ildr en a n d t h e n obilit y. Th is wa s a s if h e wa n t ed t o t r y t h e
fidelit y of h is su bject s; it wa s en dea vou r in g by con fu sion , scr u ples, a n d
equ ivoca t ion , t o pu zzle t h eir obedien ce; it wa s con fou n din g t h e differ en t r igh t s
of t h ose pr in ces, a n d r en der in g t h eir t it les du biou s, especia lly a t a t im e wh en
t h er e wer e bu t few for t r esses, a n d wh en t h e pr in cipa l bu lwa r k of a u t h or it y wa s
t h e fea lt y swor n a n d a ccept ed.
Th e E m per or ’s ch ildr en , in or der t o pr eser ve t h eir sh a r es, cou r t ed t h e cler gy,
a n d gr a n t ed t h em pr ivileges t ill t h en u n h ea r d. Th ese pr ivileges wer e speciou s;
a n d t h e cler gy in r et u r n wer e m a de t o wa r r a n t t h e r evolu t ion in fa vou r of t h ose
pr in ces. Agoba r d 140 r epr esen t s t o Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e h is h a vin g sen t
Lot h a r iu s t o Rom e, in or der t o h a ve h im decla r ed em per or ; a n d t h a t h e h a d
m a de a division of h is dom in ion s a m on g h is ch ildr en , a ft er h a vin g con su lt ed
h ea ven by t h r ee da ys fa st in g a n d pr a yin g. Wh a t defen ce cou ld su ch a wea k
pr in ce m a ke a ga in st t h e a t t a ck of su per st it ion ? It is ea sy t o per ceive t h e sh ock
wh ich t h e su pr em e a u t h or it y m u st h a ve t wice r eceived fr om h is im pr ison m en t ,
a n d fr om h is pu blic pen a n ce; t h ey wou ld fa in degr a de t h e kin g, a n d t h ey
degr a ded t h e r ega l dign it y.
We fin d difficu lt y a t fir st in con ceivin g h ow a pr in ce wh o wa s possessed of
sever a l good qu a lit ies, wh o h a d som e kn owledge, wh o h a d a n a t u r a l disposit ion
t o vir t u e, a n d wh o in sh or t wa s t h e son of Ch a r lem a gn e, cou ld h a ve su ch a
n u m ber of en em ies. 141 So im pet u ou s a n d im pla ca ble a s even t o in su lt h im in h is
h u m ilia t ion a n d t o be det er m in ed u pon h is r u in : a n d, in deed t h ey wou ld h a ve
u t t er ly com plet ed it , if h is ch ildr en , wh o in t h e m a in wer e m or e h on est t h a n
t h ey, h a d been st ea dy in t h eir design , a n d cou ld h a ve a gr eed a m on g t h em selves.
EB1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Th e st r en gt h a n d solidit y for wh ich t h e kin gdom wa s in debt ed t o
Ch a r lem a gn e st ill su bsist ed u n der Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e in su ch a degr ee a s
en a bled t h e st a t e t o su ppor t it s gr a n deu r , a n d t o com m a n d r espect fr om for eign
n a t ion s. Th e pr in ce’s u n der st a n din g wa s wea k, bu t t h e n a t ion wa s wa r like. H is
a u t h or it y declin ed a t h om e, t h ou gh t h er e seem ed t o be n o dim in u t ion of power
a br oa d.
Ch a r les Ma r t el, P epin , a n d Ch a r lem a gn e wer e in su ccession r u ler s of t h e
m on a r ch y. Th e fir st fla t t er ed t h e a va r ice of t h e soldier s: t h e ot h er t wo t h a t of
t h e cler gy. Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e displea sed bot h .
In t h e F r en ch con st it u t ion , t h e wh ole power of t h e st a t e wa s lodged in t h e
h a n ds of t h e kin g, t h e n obilit y, a n d cler gy. Ch a r les Ma r t el, P epin , a n d
Ch a r lem a gn e join ed som et im es t h eir in t er est wit h on e of t h ose pa r t ies t o ch eck
t h e ot h er a n d gen er a lly wit h bot h ; bu t Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e cou ld ga in t h e
a ffect ion of n eit h er . H e disobliged t h e bish ops by pu blish in g r egu la t ion s wh ich
h a d t h e a ir of sever it y, beca u se h e ca r r ied t h in gs t o a gr ea t er len gt h t h a n wa s
a gr eea ble t o t h eir in clin a t ion . Ver y good la ws m a y be ill-t im ed. Th e bish ops in
t h ose da ys, bein g a ccu st om ed t o t a ke t h e field a ga in st t h e Sa r a cen s a n d t h e
Sa xon s, h a d ver y lit t le of t h e spir it of r eligion . 142 On t h e ot h er h a n d, a s h e h a d
n o lon ger a n y con fiden ce in t h e n obilit y, h e pr om ot ed m ea n people, 143 t u r n in g
t h e n obles ou t of t h eir em ploym en t s a t cou r t t o m a ke r oom for st r a n ger s a n d
u pst a r t s. 144 By t h is m ea n s t h e a ffect ion s of t h e t wo gr ea t bodies of t h e n obilit y
a n d cler gy wer e a lien a t ed fr om t h eir pr in ce, t h e con sequ en ce of wh ich wa s a
t ot a l deser t ion .
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Bu t wh a t ch iefly con t r ibu t ed t o wea ken t h e m on a r ch y wa s t h e ext r a va ga n ce
of t h is pr in ce in a lien a t in g t h e cr own dem esn es. 145 An d h er e it is t h a t we ou gh t
t o list en t o t h e a ccou n t of N it a r d, on e of ou r m ost ju diciou s h ist or ia n s, a
gr a n dson of Ch a r lem a gn e, st r on gly a t t a ch ed t o Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e a n d wh o
wr ot e h is h ist or y by or der of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld.
H e sa ys, “t h a t on e Adelh a r d for som e t im e ga in ed su ch a n a scen da n t over t h e
E m per or , t h a t t h is pr in ce con for m ed t o h is will in ever yt h in g; t h a t a t t h e
in st iga t ion of t h is fa vou r it e, h e h a d gr a n t ed t h e cr own la n ds t o ever ybody t h a t
a sked t h em , 146 by wh ich m ea n s t h e st a t e wa s r u in ed.”147 Th u s h e did t h e sa m e
m isch ief t h r ou gh ou t t h e em pir e a s I obser ved h e h a d don e in Aqu it a in e;148 t h e
for m er Ch a r lem a gn e r edr essed, bu t t h e la t t er wa s pa st a ll r em edy.
Th e st a t e wa s r edu ced t o t h e sa m e debilit y in wh ich Ch a r les Ma r t el fou n d it .
u pon h is a ccession t o t h e m a yor a lt y; a n d so desper a t e wer e it s cir cu m st a n ces
t h a t n o exer t ion of a u t h or it y wa s a n y lon ger ca pa ble of sa vin g it .

Th e t r ea su r y wa s so exh a u st ed t h a t in t h e r eign of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, n o on e
cou ld con t in u e in h is em ploym en t s, n or be sa fe in h is per son wit h ou t pa yin g for
it . 149 Wh en t h ey h a d it in t h eir power t o dest r oy t h e Nor m a n s, t h ey t ook m on ey
t o let t h em esca pe:150 a n d t h e fir st a dvice wh ich H in cm a r gives t o Lou is t h e
St a m m er er is t o a sk of t h e a ssem bly of t h e n a t ion a su fficien t a llowa n ce t o
defr a y t h e expen ses of h is h ou seh old.
EG1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01&
Th e cler gy h a d r ea son t o r epen t t h e pr ot ect ion t h ey h a d gr a n t ed t o t h e
ch ildr en of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e. Th is pr in ce, a s I h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved, h a d
n ever given a n y of t h e ch u r ch -la n ds by pr ecept s t o t h e la it y;151 bu t it wa s n ot
lon g befor e Lot h a r iu s in It a ly, a n d P epin in Aqu it a in e, qu it t ed Ch a r lem a gn e’s
pla n , a n d r esu m ed t h a t of Ch a r les Ma r t el. Th e cler gy h a d r ecou r se t o t h e
E m per or a ga in st h is ch ildr en , bu t t h ey t h em selves h a d wea ken ed t h e a u t h or it y
t o wh ich t h ey a ppea led. In Aqu it a in e som e con descen sion wa s sh own , bu t n on e
in It a ly.
Th e civil wa r s wit h wh ich t h e life of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e h a d been em br oiled
wer e t h e seed of t h ose wh ich followed h is dea t h . Th e t h r ee br ot h er s, Lot h a r iu s,
Lou is, a n d Ch a r les, en dea vou r ed ea ch t o br in g over t h e n obilit y t o t h eir pa r t y
a n d t o m a ke t h em t h eir t ools. To su ch a s wer e willin g t h er efor e t o follow t h em
t h ey gr a n t ed ch u r ch -la n ds by pr ecept s; so t h a t t o ga in t h e n obilit y, t h ey
sa cr ificed t h e cler gy.
We fin d in t h e Ca pit u la r ies 152 t h a t t h ose pr in ces wer e obliged t o yield t o t h e
im por t u n it y of dem a n ds, a n d t h a t wh a t t h ey wou ld n ot oft en h a ve fr eely
gr a n t ed wa s ext or t ed fr om t h em : we fin d t h a t t h e cler gy t h ou gh t t h em selves
m or e oppr essed by t h e n obilit y t h a n by t h e kin gs, It a ppea r s t h a t Ch a r les t h e
Ba ld 153 beca m e t h e gr ea t est en em y of t h e pa t r im on y of t h e cler gy, wh et h er h e
wa s m ost in cen sed a ga in st t h em for h a vin g degr a ded h is fa t h er on t h eir
a ccou n t , or wh et h er h e wa s t h e m ost t im or ou s. Be t h a t a s it m a y, we m eet wit h
con t in u a l qu a r r els in t h e Ca pit u la r ies, 154 bet ween t h e cler gy wh o dem a n ded
t h eir est a t es, a n d t h e n obilit y wh o r efu sed or defer r ed t o r est or e t h em ; a n d t h e
kin gs a ct in g a s m edia t or s.
Th e sit u a t ion of a ffa ir s a t t h a t t im e is a spect a cle r ea lly deser vin g of pit y.

Wh ile Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e m a de im m en se don a t ion s ou t of h is dem esn es t o
t h e cler gy, h is ch ildr en dist r ibu t ed t h e ch u r ch -la n ds a m on g t h e la it y. Th e sa m e
pr in ce wit h on e h a n d fou n ded n ew a bbeys a n d despoiled old on es. Th e cler gy
h a d n o fixed st a t e; on e m om en t t h ey wer e plu n der ed, a n ot h er t h ey r eceived
sa t isfa ct ion ; bu t t h e cr own wa s con t in u a lly losin g.
Towa r d t h e close of t h e r eign of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, a n d fr om t h a t t im e for wa r d,
t h er e wa s a n en d of t h e dispu t es of t h e cler gy a n d la it y con cer n in g t h e
r est it u t ion of ch u r ch -la n ds. Th e bish ops in deed br ea t h ed ou t st ill a few sigh s in
t h eir r em on st r a n ces t o Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, wh ich we fin d in t h e Ca pit u la r y of t h e
yea r 856, a n d in t h e let t er t h ey wr ot e t o Lou is, Kin g of Ger m a n y, in t h e yea r
858, 155 bu t t h ey pr oposed t h in gs, a n d ch a llen ged pr om ises, so oft en elu ded, t h a t
we pla in ly see t h ey h a d n o lon ger a n y h opes of obt a in in g t h eir desir e.
All t h a t cou ld be expect ed t h en wa s t o r epa ir in gen er a l t h e in ju r ies don e bot h
t o ch u r ch a n d st a t e. 156 Th e k in gs en ga ged n ot t o depr ive t h e n obilit y of t h eir
fr eem en , a n d n ot t o give a wa y a n y m or e ch u r ch -la n ds by pr ecept s, 157 so t h a t t h e
in t er est s of t h e cler gy a n d n obilit y seem ed t h en t o be u n it ed.
Th e dr ea dfu l depr eda t ion s of t h e Nor m a n s, a s I h a ve a lr ea dy obser ved,
con t r ibu t ed gr ea t ly t o pu t a n en d t o t h ose qu a r r els.
Th e a u t h or it y of ou r kin gs dim in ish in g ever y da y, bot h for t h e r ea son s a lr ea dy
given a n d t h ose wh ich I sh a ll m en t ion h er ea ft er , t h ey im a gin ed t h ey h a d n o
bet t er r esou r ce left , t h a n t o r esign t h em selves in t o t h e h a n ds of t h e cler gy. Bu t
t h e ecclesia st ics h a d wea ken ed t h e power of t h e k in gs, a n d t h ese h a d
dim in ish ed t h e in flu en ce of t h e ecclesia st ics. In va in did Ch a r les t h e Ba ld a n d
h is su ccessor s ca ll in t h e ch u r ch t o su ppor t t h e st a t e, a n d t o pr even t it s r u in ; in
va in did t h ey m a ke u se of t h e. r espect wh ich t h e com m on a lt y h a d for t h a t
body, 158 t o m a in t a in t h a t wh ich t h ey sh ou ld a lso h a ve for t h eir pr in ce;159 in va in
did t h ey en dea vou r t o give a n a u t h or it y t o t h eir la ws by t h a t of t h e ca n on s; in
va in did t h ey join t h e ecclesia st ic wit h t h e civil pu n ish m en t s;160 in va in t o
cou n t er ba la n ce t h e a u t h or it y of t h e cou n t did t h ey give t o ea ch bish op t h e t it le
of t h eir com m issa r y in t h e sever a l pr ovin ces;161 it wa s im possible t o r epa ir t h e
m isch ief t h ey h a d don e; a n d a t er r ible m isfor t u n e, wh ich I sh a ll pr esen t ly
m en t ion , pr oved t h e r u in of t h e m on a r ch y.
EJ1&!-"+&+-%&Y.%%<%*&7%.%&.%*0%.%0&9"4"#$%&'(&-'$05*D&Y5%(,1
I sa id t h a t t h e fr eem en wer e led a ga in st t h e en em y by t h eir cou n t , a n d t h e
va ssa ls by t h eir lor d. Th is wa s t h e r ea son t h a t t h e sever a l or der s of t h e st a t e
ba la n ced ea ch ot h er , a n d t h ou gh t h e kin g’s va ssa ls h a d ot h er va ssa ls u n der
t h em , yet t h ey m igh t be over a wed by t h e cou n t , wh o wa s a t t h e h ea d of a ll t h e
fr eem en of t h e m on a r ch y.
Th e fr eem en wer e n ot a llowed a t fir st t o do h om a ge for a fief; bu t in pr ocess
of t im e t h is wa s per m it t ed:162 a n d I fin d t h a t t h is ch a n ge wa s m a de du r in g t h e
per iod t h a t ela psed fr om t h e r eign of Gon t r a m t o t h a t of Ch a r lem a gn e. Th is I
pr ove by t h e com pa r ison wh ich m a y be m a de bet ween t h e t r ea t y of An delot , 163
by Gon t r a m , Ch ildeber t , a n d Qu een Br u n eh a u lt , a n d t h e pa r t it ion m a de by
Ch a r lem a gn e a m on g h is ch ildr en , a s well a s a like pa r t it ion by Lou is t h e
Debonnaire.164 Th ese t h r ee a ct s con t a in n ea r ly t h e sa m e r egu la t ion s wit h r egar d
t o t h e va ssa ls; a n d a s t h ey det er m in e t h e ver y sa m e poin t s, u n der a lm ost t h e
sa m e cir cu m st a n ces, t h e spir it a s well a s t h e let t er of t h ose t h r ee t r ea t ies in
t h is r espect a r e ver y m u ch a like.
Bu t a s t o wh a t con cer n s t h e fr eem en , t h er e is a vit a l differ en ce. Th e t r ea t y of
An delot does n ot sa y t h a t t h ey m igh t do h om a ge for a fief; wh er ea s we fin d in
t h e division s of Ch a r lem a gn e a n d Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e expr ess cla u ses t o
em power t h em t o do h om a ge. Th is sh ows t h a t a n ew u sa ge h a d been in t r odu ced
a ft er t h e t r ea t y of An delot , wh er eby t h e fr eem en h a d becom e ca pa ble of t h is
gr ea t pr ivilege.
Th is m u st h a ve h a ppen ed wh en Ch a r les Ma r t el, a ft er dist r ibu t in g t h e
ch u r ch -la n ds t o h is soldier s, pa r t ly in fief, a n d pa r t ly a s a llodia , m a de a kin d of
r evolu t ion in t h e feu da l la ws. It is ver y pr oba ble t h a t t h e n obilit y wh o wer e
seized a lr ea dy of fiefs fou n d a gr ea t er a dva n t a ge in r eceivin g t h e n ew gr a n t s a s
a llodia ; a n d t h a t t h e fr eem en t h ou gh t t h em selves h a ppy in a ccept in g t h em a s
fiefs.
!-%&8.5*954"$&)"F,%&'(&!-%&RF<5$5"+5'*&'(&!-%&3%9'*0&/"9%1
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Ch a r lem a gn e in t h e pa r t it ion 165 m en t ion ed in t h e pr ecedin g ch a pt er or da in ed
t h a t a ft er h is dea t h t h e va ssa ls belon gin g t o ea ch kin g sh ou ld be per m it t ed t o
r eceive ben efices in t h eir own sover eign ’s dom in ion , a n d n ot in t h ose of
a n ot h er ;166 wh er ea s t h ey m a y keep t h eir a llodia l est a t es in a n y of t h eir
dom in ion s.167 Bu t h e a dds 168 t h a t ever y fr eem a n m igh t , a ft er t h e dea t h of h is
lor d, do h om a ge in a n y of t h r ee kin gdom s h e plea sed, a s well a s h e t h a t n ever
h a d been su bject t o a lor d. We fin d t h e sa m e r egu la t ion s in t h e pa r t it ion wh ich
Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e m a de a m on g h is ch ildr en in t h e yea r 817.
Bu t t h ou gh t h e fr eem a n h a d don e h om a ge for a fief, yet t h e cou n t ’s m ilit ia wa s
n ot t h er eby wea ken ed: t h e fr eem a n wa s st ill obliged t o con t r ibu t e for h is
a llodiu m , a n d t o get people r ea dy for t h e ser vice belon gin g t o it , a t t h e
pr opor t ion of on e m a n t o fou r m a n or s; or else t o pr ocu r e a m a n t h a t sh ou ld do
t h e du t y of t h e fief in h is st ea d. An d wh en som e a bu ses h a d been in t r odu ced
u pon t h is h ea d, t h ey wer e r edr essed, a s a ppea r s by t h e con st it u t ion s of
Ch a r lem a gn e, 169 a n d by t h a t of P epin , Kin g of It a ly, wh ich expla in ea ch ot h er .170
Th e r em a r k m a de by h ist or ia n s t h a t t h e ba t t le of F on t en a y wa s t h e r u in of t h e
m on a r ch y, is ver y t r u e; bu t I beg lea ve t o ca st a n eye on t h e u n h a ppy
con sequ en ces of t h a t da y.
Som e t im e a ft er t h e ba t t le, t h e t h r ee br ot h er s, Lot h a ir iu s, Lou is, a n d Ch a r les,
m a de a t r ea t y, 171 wh er ein I fin d som e cla u ses wh ich m u st h a ve a lt er ed t h e
wh ole polit ica l syst em of t h e F r en ch gover n m en t .
1. In t h e decla r a t ion 172 wh ich Ch a r les m a de t o t h e people of t h e pa r t of t h e
t r ea t y r ela t in g t o t h em , h e sa ys t h a t ever y fr eem a n m igh t ch oose wh om h e
plea sed for h is lor d, 173 wh et h er t h e kin g or a n y of t h e n obilit y. Befor e t h is t r ea t y
t h e fr eem a n m igh t do h om a ge for a fief; bu t h is a llodiu m st ill con t in u ed u n der
t h e im m edia t e power of t h e kin g, t h a t is, u n der t h e cou n t ’s ju r isdict ion ; a n d h e
depen ded on t h e lor d t o wh om h e vowed fea lt y, on ly on a ccou n t of t h e fief wh ich
h e h a d obt a in ed. Aft er t h a t t r ea t y ever y fr eem a n h a d a r igh t t o su bject h is
a llodiu m t o t h e kin g, or t o a n y ot h er lor d, a s h e t h ou gh t pr oper . Th e qu est ion
is r iot in r ega r d t o t h ose wh o pu t t h em selves u n der t h e pr ot ect ion of a n ot h er for
a fief, bu t t o su ch a s ch a n ged t h eir a llodia l in t o a feu da l la n d, a n d wit h dr ew
t h em selves, a s it wer e, fr om t h e civil ju r isdict ion t o en t er u n der t h e power of t h e

kin g, or of t h e lor d wh om t h ey t h ou gh t pr oper t o ch oose.
Th u s it wa s t h a t t h ose wh o for m er ly wer e on ly u n der t h e kin g’s power , a s
fr eem en u n der ‘t h e cou n t , beca m e in sen sibly va ssa ls on e of a n ot h er , sin ce ever y
fr eem a n m igh t ch oose wh om h e plea sed for h is lor d, t h e k in g or a n y of t h e
n obilit y.
2. If a m a n ch a n ged a n est a t e wh ich h e possessed in per pet u it y in t o a fief, t h is
n ew fief cou ld n o lon ger be on ly for life. H en ce we see, a sh or t t im e a ft er , a
gen er a l la w for givin g t h e fiefs t o t h e ch ildr en of t h e pr esen t possessor :174 it wa s
m a de by Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, on e of t h e t h r ee con t r a ct in g pr in ces.
Wh a t h a s been sa id con cer n in g t h e liber t y ever y fr eem a n h a d in t h e
m on a r ch y, a ft er t h e t r ea t y of t h e t h r ee br ot h er s, of ch oosin g wh om h e plea sed
for h is lor d, t h e kin g or a n y of t h e n obilit y, is con fir m ed by t h e a ct s su bsequ en t
t o t h a t t im e.
In t h e r eign of Ch a r lem a gn e, 175 wh en t h e va ssa l h a d r eceived a pr esen t of a
lor d, wer e it wor t h on ly a sou , h e cou ld n ot a ft er wa r ds qu it h im . Bu t u n der
Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, t h e va ssa ls m igh t follow wh a t wa s a gr eea ble t o t h eir in t er est s
or t h eir in clin a t ion wit h en t ir e sa fet y;176 a n d so st r on gly does t h is pr in ce expla in
h im self on t h e su bject t h a t h e seem s r a t h er t o en cou r a ge t h em in t h e en joym en t
of t h is liber t y t h a n t o r est r a in it . In Ch a r lem a gn e’s t im e, ben efices wer e r a t h er
per son a l t h a n r ea l; a ft er wa r ds t h ey beca m e r a t h er r ea l t h a n per son a l.
EO1&)-"*D%,&5*&+-%&Y5%(,1
Th e sa m e ch a n ges h a ppen ed in t h e fiefs a s in t h e a llodia . We fin d by t h e
Ca pit u la r y of Com piègn e, 177 u n der Kin g P epin , t h a t t h ose wh o h a d r eceived a
ben efice fr om t h e kin g ga ve a pa r t of t h is ben efice t o differ en t bon dm en ; bu t
t h ese pa r t s wer e n ot dist in ct fr om t h e wh ole. Th e kin g r evoked t h em wh en h e
r evoked t h e wh ole; a n d a t t h e dea t h of t h e kin g’s va ssa l, t h e r ea r -va ssa l lost
a lso h is r ea r -fief: a n d a n ew ben eficia r y su cceeded, wh o likewise est a blish ed
n ew r ea r -va ssa ls. Th u s it wa s t h e per son a n d n ot t h e r ea r -fief t h a t depen ded on
t h e fief; on t h e on e h a n d, t h e r ea r -va ssa l r et u r n ed t o t h e kin g beca u se h e wa s
n ot t ied for ever t o t h e va ssa l; a n d t h e r ea r -fief r et u r n ed a lso t o t h e kin g
beca u se it wa s t h e fief it self a n d n ot a depen den ce of it .
Su ch wa s t h e r ea r -va ssa la ge, wh ile t h e fiefs wer e du r in g plea su r e; a n d su ch

wa s it a lso wh ile t h ey wer e for life. Th is wa s a lt er ed wh en t h e fiefs descen ded
t o t h e n ext h eir s, a n d t h e r ea r -fiefs t h e sa m e. Th a t wh ich wa s h eld befor e
im m edia t ely of t h e kin g wa s h eld n ow m edia t ely; a n d t h e r ega l power wa s
t h r own ba ck, a s it wer e, on e degr ee, som et im es t wo; a n d oft en t im es m or e.
We fin d in t h e books of fiefs 178 t h a t , t h ou gh t h e kin g’s va ssa ls m igh t give a wa y
in fief, t h a t is, in r ea r -fief, t o t h e kin g, yet t h ese r ea r -va ssa ls, or pet t y va va sor s,
cou ld n ot give a lso in fief; so t h a t wh a t ever t h ey h a d given , t h ey m igh t a lwa ys
r esu m e. Besides, a gr a n t of t h a t kin d did n ot descen d t o t h e ch ildr en like t h e
fiefs, beca u se it wa s n ot su pposed t o h a ve been m a de a ccor din g t o t h e feu da l
la ws.
If we com pa r e t h e sit u a t ion in wh ich t h e r ea r -va ssa la ge wa s a t t h e t im e wh en
t h e t wo Mila n ese sen a t or s wr ot e t h ose books, wit h wh a t it wa s u n der Kin g
P epin , we sh a ll fin d t h a t t h e r ea r -fiefs pr eser ved t h eir pr im it ive n a t u r e lon ger
t h a n t h e fiefs. 179
Bu t wh en t h ose sen a t or s wr ot e, su ch gen er a l except ion s h a d been m a de t o t h is
r u le a s h a d a lm ost a bolish ed it . F or if a per son wh o h a d r eceived a fief of a
r ea r -va ssa l h a ppen ed t o follow h im u pon a n expedit ion t o Rom e, h e wa s en t it led
t o a ll t h e pr ivileges of a va ssa l. 180 In like m a n n er , if h e h a d given m on ey t o t h e
r ea r -va ssa l t o obt a in t h e fief, t h e la t t er cou ld n ot t a ke it fr om h im , n or h in der
h im fr om t r a n sm it t in g it t o h is son , t ill h e r et u r n ed h im h is m on ey: in fin e, t h is
r u le wa s n o lon ger obser ved by t h e sen a t e of Mila n .181
EP1&:*'+-%.&9-"*D%&7-59-&-"44%*%0&5*&+-%&Y5%(,1
In Ch a r lem a gn e’s t im e t h ey wer e obliged,182 u n der gr ea t pen a lt ies, t o r epa ir
t o t h e gen er a l m eet in g in ca se of a n y wa r wh a t soever ; t h ey a dm it t ed of n o
excu ses, a n d if t h e cou n t exem pt ed a n y on e, h e wa s lia ble h im self t o be
pu n ish ed. Bu t t h e t r ea t y of t h e t h r ee br ot h er s 183 m a de a r est r ict ion u pon t h is
h ea d wh ich r escu ed t h e n obilit y, a s it wer e, ou t of t h e kin g’s h a n ds; t h ey wer e
n o lon ger obliged t o ser ve h im in t im e of wa r , except wh en t h e wa r wa s
defen sive. 184 In ot h er s, t h ey wer e a t liber t y t o follow t h eir lor d, or t o m in d t h eir
own bu sin ess. Th is t r ea t y r ela t es t o a n ot h er , 185 con clu ded, five yea r s befor e,
bet ween t h e t wo br ot h er s, Ch a r les t h e Ba ld a n d Lou is, Kin g of Ger m a n y, by
wh ich t h ese pr in ces r elea se t h eir va ssa ls fr om ser vin g t h em in wa r , in ca se t h ey

sh ou ld a t t em pt h ost ilit ies a ga in st ea ch ot h er ; a n a gr eem en t wh ich t h e t wo
pr in ces con fir m ed by oa t h , a n d a t t h e sa m e t im e m a de t h eir a r m ies swea r t o it .
Th e dea t h of a h u n dr ed t h ou sa n d F r en ch , a t t h e ba t t le of F on t en a y, m a de t h e
r em a in s of t h e n obilit y im a gin e t h a t by t h e pr iva t e qu a r r els of t h eir kin gs a bou t
t h eir r espect ive sh a r es, t h eir wh ole body wou ld be ext er m in a t ed, a n d t h a t t h e
a m bit ion a n d jea lou sy of t h ose pr in ces wou ld en d in t h e dest r u ct ion of a ll t h e
best fa m ilies of t h e kin gdom . A la w wa s t h er efor e pa ssed t h a t t h e n obilit y
sh ou ld n ot be obliged t o ser ve t h eir pr in ces in wa r u n less it wa s t o defen d t h e
st a t e a ga in st a for eign in va sion . Th is la w obt a in ed for sever a l a ges. 186
EQ1&)-"*D%,&7-59-&-"44%*%0&5*&+-%&D.%"+&@((59%,I&"*0&5*&+-%&Y5%(,1&
Th e m a n y ch a n ges in t r odu ced in t o t h e fiefs in pa r t icu la r ca ses seem ed t o
spr ea d so widely a s t o be pr odu ct ive of gen er a l cor r u pt ion . I n ot iced t h a t in t h e
begin n in g sever a l fiefs h a d been a lien a t ed in per pet u it y; bu t t h ose wer e
pa r t icu la r ca ses, a n d t h e fiefs in gen er a l pr eser ved t h eir n a t u r e; so t h a t if t h e
cr own lost som e fiefs it su bst it u t ed ot h er s in t h eir st ea d. I obser ved, likewise,
t h a t t h e cr own h a d n ever a lien a t ed t h e gr ea t offices in per pet u it y.187
Bu t Ch a r les t h e Ba ld m a de a gen er a l r egu la t ion , wh ich equ a lly a ffect ed t h e
gr ea t offices a n d t h e fiefs. H e or da in ed, in h is ca pit u la r ies, t h a t t h e cou n t ies
sh ou ld be given t o t h e ch ildr en of t h e cou n t , a n d t h a t t h is r egu la t ion sh ou ld a lso
t a ke pla ce in r espect t o t h e fiefs. 188
We sh a ll see pr esen t ly t h a t t h is r egu la t ion r eceived a wider ext en sion ,
in som u ch t h a t t h e gr ea t offices a n d fiefs wen t even t o dist a n t r ela t ives. Th en ce
it followed t h a t m ost of t h e lor ds wh o befor e t h is t im e h a d h eld im m edia t ely of
t h e cr own , h eld n ow m edia t ely. Th ose cou n t s wh o for m er ly a dm in ist er ed ju st ice
in t h e kin g’s pla cit a , a n d wh o led t h e fr eem en a ga in st t h e en em y, fou n d
t h em selves sit u a t ed bet ween t h e kin g a n d h is fr eem en ; a n d t h e kin g’s power
wa s r em oved fa r t h er off a n ot h er degr ee.
Aga in , it a ppea r s fr om t h e ca pit u la r ies, 189 t h a t t h e cou n t s h a d ben efices
a n n exed t o t h eir cou n t ies, a n d va ssa ls u n der t h em . Wh en t h e cou n t ies beca m e
h er edit a r y, t h e cou n t ’s va ssa ls wer e n o lon ger t h e im m edia t e va ssa ls of t h e
kin g; a n d t h e ben efices a n n exed t o t h e cou n t ies wer e n o lon ger t h e kin g’s
ben efices; t h e cou n t s gr ew power fu l beca u se t h e va ssa ls wh om t h ey h a d a lr ea dy

u n der t h em en a bled t h em t o pr ocu r e ot h er s.
In or der t o be con vin ced h ow m u ch t h e m on a r ch y wa s t h er eby wea ken ed
t owa r ds t h e en d of t h e secon d r a ce we h a ve on ly t o ca st a n eye on wh a t
h a ppen ed a t t h e begin n in g of t h e t h ir d, wh en t h e m u lt iplicit y of r ea r -fiefs flu n g
t h e gr ea t va ssa ls in t o despa ir .
It wa s a cu st om of t h e kin gdom 190 t h a t wh en t h e elder br ot h er s h a d given
sh a r es t o t h eir you n ger br ot h er s, t h e la t t er pa id h om a ge t o t h e elder ; so t h a t
t h ose sh a r es wer e h eld of t h e lor d pa r a m ou n t on ly a s a r ea r -fief. P h ilip
Au gu st u s, t h e Du ke of Bu r gu n dy, t h e Cou n t s of Never s, Bou logn e, St . P a u l,
Da m pier r e, a n d ot h er lor ds decla r ed 191 t h a t h en cefor wa r d, wh et h er t h e fiefs
wer e divided by su ccession or ot h er wise, t h e wh ole sh ou ld be a lwa ys of t h e sa m e
lor d, wit h ou t a n y in t er m edia t ion . Th is or din a n ce wa s n ot gen er a lly followed;
for , a s I h a ve elsewh er e obser ved, it wa s im possible t o m a ke gen er a l or din a n ces
a t t h a t t im e; bu t m a n y of ou r cu st om s wer e r egu la t ed by t h em .
ES1&@(&+-%&2"+F.%&'(&+-%&Y5%(,&"(+%.&+-%&/%5D*&'(&)-".$%,&+-%&="$01&
We h a ve obser ved t h a t Ch a r les t h e Ba ld or da in ed t h a t wh en t h e possessor of
a gr ea t office or of a fief left a son a t h is dea t h , t h e office or fief sh ou ld devolve
t o h im . It wou ld be a difficu lt m a t t er t o t r a ce t h e pr ogr ess of t h e a bu ses wh ich
t h en ce r esu lt ed, a n d of t h e ext en sion given t o t h a t la w in ea ch cou n t r y. I fin d
in t h e books of fiefs, 192 t h a t t owa r ds t h e begin n in g of t h e r eign of t h e E m per or
Con r a d II, t h e fiefs sit u a t ed in h is dom in ion s did n ot descen d t o t h e
gr a n dch ildr en : t h ey descen ded on ly t o on e of t h e la st possessor ’s ch ildr en , wh o
h a d been ch osen by t h e lor d:193 t h u s t h e fiefs wer e given by a kin d of elect ion ,
wh ich t h e lor d m a de a m on g t h e ch ildr en .
In t h e seven t een t h ch a pt er of t h is book we h a ve expla in ed in wh a t m a n n er t h e
cr own wa s in som e r espect s elect ive, a n d in ot h er s h er edit a r y u n der t h e secon d
r a ce. It wa s h er edit a r y, beca u se t h e kin gs wer e a lwa ys t a ken fr om t h a t fa m ily,
a n d beca u se t h e ch ildr en su cceeded; it wa s elect ive, by r ea son t h a t t h e people
ch ose fr om a m on g t h e ch ildr en . As t h in gs pr oceed st ep by st ep, a n d on e polit ica l
la w h a s con st a n t ly som e r ela t ion t o a n ot h er polit ica l la w, t h e sa m e spir it wa s
followed in t h e su ccession of fiefs, a s h a d been obser ved in t h e su ccession t o t h e
cr own . 194 Th u s t h e fiefs wer e t r a n sm it t ed t o t h e ch ildr en by t h e r igh t of

su ccession , a s well a s of elect ion ; a n d ea ch fief beca m e bot h elect ive a n d
h er edit a r y, like t h e cr own .
Th is r igh t of elect ion 195 in t h e per son of t h e lor d wa s n ot su bsist in g a t t h e t im e
of t h e a u t h or s 196 of t h e book of fiefs, t h a t is, in t h e r eign of t h e E m per or
F r eder ick I.
GT1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01&
It is m en t ion ed in t h e books of fiefs, t h a t wh en t h e E m per or Con r a d set ou t
for Rom e, t h e va ssa ls in h is ser vice pr esen t ed a pet it ion t o h im t h a t h e wou ld
plea se t o m a ke a la w t h a t t h e fiefs wh ich descen ded t o t h e ch ildr en sh ou ld
descen d a lso t o t h e gr a n dch ildr en ; a n d t h a t h e wh ose br ot h er died wit h ou t
legit im a t e h eir s m igh t su cceed t o t h e fief wh ich h a d belon ged t o t h eir com m on
fa t h er . 197 Th is wa s gr a n t ed.
In t h e sa m e pla ce it is sa id (a n d we a r e t o r em em ber t h a t t h ose wr it er s lived
a t t h e t im e of t h e E m per or F r eder ick I)198 “t h a t t h e a n cien t ju r ist s h a d a lwa ys
been of opin ion 199 t h a t t h e su ccession of fiefs in a colla t er a l lin e did n ot ext en d
fa r t h er t h a n t o br ot h er s-ger m a n , t h ou gh of la t e it wa s ca r r ied a s fa r a s t h e
seven t h degr ee, a n d by t h e n ew code t h ey h a d ext en ded it in a dir ect lin e in
in fin it u m .” It is t h u s t h a t Con r a d’s la w wa s in sen sibly ext en ded. All t h ese
t h in gs bein g su pposed, t h e ba r e per u sa l of t h e h ist or y of F r a n ce is su fficien t t o
dem on st r a t e t h a t t h e per pet u it y of fiefs wa s est a blish ed ea r lier in t h is kin gdom
t h a n in Ger m a n y. Towa r ds t h e com m en cem en t of t h e r eign of t h e E m per or
Con r a d II in 1024, t h in gs wer e u pon t h e sa m e foot in g st ill in Ger m a n y, a s t h ey
h a d been in F r a n ce du r in g t h e r eign of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, wh o died in 877. Bu t
su ch wer e t h e ch a n ges m a de in t h is kin gdom a ft er t h e r eign of Ch a r les t h e
Ba ld, t h a t Ch a r les t h e Sim ple fou n d h im self u n a ble t o dispu t e wit h a for eign
h ou se h is in con t est a ble r igh t s t o t h e em pir e; a n d, in fin e, t h a t in H u gh Ca pet ’s
t im e t h e r eign in g fa m ily, st r ipped of a ll it s dem esn es, wa s n o lon ger in a
con dit ion t o m a in t a in t h e cr own .
Th e wea k u n der st a n din g of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld pr odu ced a n equ a l wea kn ess in
t h e F r en ch m on a r ch y. Bu t a s h is br ot h er , Lou is, Kin g of Ger m a n y, a n d som e of
t h a t pr in ce’s su ccessor s wer e m en of bet t er pa r t s, t h eir gover n m en t pr eser ved
it s vigou r m u ch lon ger .

Bu t wh a t do I sa y? P er h a ps t h e ph legm a t ic con st it u t ion , a n d, if I da r e u se t h e
expr ession , t h e im m u t a bilit y of spir it pecu lia r t o t h e Ger m a n n a t ion m a de a
lon ger st a n d t h a n t h e vola t ile t em per of t h e F r en ch a ga in st t h a t disposit ion of
t h in gs, wh ich per pet u a t ed t h e fiefs by a n a t u r a l t en den cy, in fa m ilies.
Besides, t h e kin gdom of Ger m a n y wa s n ot la id wa st e a n d a n n ih ila t ed, a s it
wer e, like t h a t of F r a n ce, by t h a t pa r t icu la r kin d of wa r wit h wh ich it h a d been
h a r a ssed by t h e Nor m a n s a n d Sa r a cen s. Th er e wer e less r ich es in Ger m a n y,
fewer cit ies t o plu n der , less ext en t of coa st t o scou r , m or e m a r sh es t o get over ,
m or e for est s t o pen et r a t e. As t h e dom in ion s of t h ose pr in ces wer e less in da n ger
of bein g r a va ged a n d t or n t o pieces, t h ey h a d less n eed of t h eir va ssa ls a n d
con sequ en t ly less depen den ce on t h em . An d in a ll pr oba bilit y, if t h e E m per or s
of Ger m a n y h a d n ot been obliged t o be cr own ed a t Rom e, a n d t o m a ke con t in u a l
expedit ion s in t o It a ly, t h e fiefs wou ld h a ve pr eser ved t h eir pr im it ive n a t u r e
m u ch lon ger in t h a t cou n t r y.
GB1&?*&7-"+&K"**%.&+-%&U<45.%&7",&+."*,(%..%0&(.'<&+-%&Y"<5$H&'(
)-".$%<"D*%1&
Th e em pir e, wh ich , in pr eju dice t o t h e br a n ch of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld h a d been
a lr ea dy given t o t h e ba st a r d lin e of Lou is, Kin g of Ger m a n y, 200 wa s t r a n sfer r ed
t o a for eign h ou se by t h e elect ion of Con r a d, Du ke of F r a n con ia , in 912. Th e
r eign in g br a n ch in F r a n ce, bein g h a r dly a ble t o con t est a few villa ges, wa s m u ch
less in a sit u a t ion t o con t est t h e em pir e. We h a ve a n a gr eem en t en t er ed in t o
bet ween Ch a r les t h e Sim ple a n d t h e E m per or H en r y I, wh o h a d su cceeded t o
Con r a d, It is ca lled t h e Com pa ct of Bon n . 201 Th ese t wo pr in ces m et in a vessel
wh ich h a d been pla ced in t h e m iddle of t h e Rh in e, a n d swor e et er n a l fr ien dsh ip.
Th ey u sed on t h is occa sion a n excellen t m iddle t er m . Ch a r les t ook t h e t it le of
Kin g of West F r a n ce, a n d H en r y t h a t of Kin g of E a st F r a n ce. Ch a r les con t r a ct ed
wit h t h e Kin g of Ger m a n y, a n d n ot wit h t h e E m per or .
GE1&?*&7-"+&K"**%.&+-%&).'7*&'(&Y."*9%&7",&+."*,(%..%0&+'&+-%
R'F,%&'(&RFD-&)"4%+1&
Th e in h er it a n ce of t h e fiefs, a n d t h e gen er a l est a blish m en t of r ea r -fiefs,
ext in gu ish ed t h e polit ica l a n d for m ed a feu da l gover n m en t . In st ea d of t h a t
pr odigiou s m u lt it u de of va ssa ls wh o wer e for m er ly u n der t h e kin g, t h er e wer e
n ow a few on ly, on wh om t h e ot h er s depen ded. Th e kin gs h a d sca r cely a n y
lon ger a dir ect a u t h or it y; a power wh ich wa s t o pa ss t h r ou gh so m a n y ot h er a n d
t h r ou gh su ch gr ea t power s eit h er st opped or wa s lost befor e it r ea ch ed it s t er m .
Th ose gr ea t va ssa ls wou ld n o lon ger obey; a n d t h ey even m a de u se of t h eir
r ea r -va ssa ls t o wit h dr a w t h eir obedien ce. Th e kin gs, depr ived of t h eir dem esn es
a n d r edu ced t o t h e cit ies of Rh eim s a n d La on , wer e left exposed t o t h eir m er cy;
t h e t r ee st r et ch ed ou t it s br a n ch es t oo fa r , a n d t h e h ea d wa s wit h er ed. Th e
kin gdom fou n d it self wit h ou t a dem esn e, a s t h e em pir e is a t pr esen t . Th e cr own
wa s, t h er efor e, given t o on e of t h e m ost pot en t va ssa ls.
Th e Nor m a n s r a va ged t h e kin gdom ; t h ey sa iled in open boa t s or sm a ll vessels,
en t er ed t h e m ou t h s of r iver s, a n d la id t h e cou n t r y wa st e on bot h sides. Th e
cit ies of Or lea n s a n d P a r is pu t a st op t o t h ose plu n der er s, so t h a t t h ey cou ld n ot
a dva n ce fa r t h er , eit h er on t h e Sein e, or on t h e Loir e.202 H u gh Ca pet , wh o wa s
m a st er of t h ose cit ies, h eld in h is h a n ds t h e t wo keys of t h e u n h a ppy r em a in s
of t h e kin gdom ; t h e cr own wa s con fer r ed u pon h im a s t h e on ly per son a ble t o
defen d it . It is t h u s t h e em pir e wa s a ft er wa r ds given t o a fa m ily wh ose
dom in ion s for m so st r on g a ba r r ier a ga in st t h e Tu r ks.
Th e em pir e wen t fr om Ch a r lem a gn e’s fa m ily a t a t im e wh en t h e in h er it a n ce
of fiefs wa s est a blish ed on ly a s a m er e con descen den ce. It even a ppea r s t h a t
t h is in h er it a n ce obt a in ed m u ch la t er a m on g t h e Ger m a n s t h a n a m on g t h e
F r en ch ;203 wh ich wa s t h e r ea son t h a t t h e em pir e, con sider ed a s a fief, wa s
elect ive. On t h e con t r a r y, wh en t h e cr own of F r a n ce wen t fr om t h e fa m ily of
Ch a r lem a gn e, t h e fiefs wer e r ea lly h er edit a r y in t h is kin gdom ; a n d t h e cr own ,
a s a gr ea t fief, wa s a lso h er edit a r y.
Bu t it is ver y wr on g t o r efer t o t h e ver y m om en t of t h is r evolu t ion a ll t h e
ch a n ges wh ich h a ppen ed, eit h er befor e or a ft er wa r ds. Th e wh ole wa s r edu ced
t o t wo even t s; t h e r eign in g fa m ily ch a n ged, a n d t h e cr own wa s u n it ed t o a gr ea t
fief.
GG1&3'<%&)'*,%XF%*9%,&'(&+-%&8%.4%+F5+H&'(&Y5%(,1&
F r om t h e per pet u it y of fiefs it followed t h a t t h e r igh t of sen ior it y or
pr im ogen it u r e wa s est a blish ed a m on g t h e F r en ch . Th is r igh t wa s qu it e
u n kn own u n der t h e fir st r a ce;204 t h e cr own wa s divided a m on g t h e br ot h er s, t h e
a llodia wer e sh a r ed in t h e sa m e m a n n er ; a n d a s t h e fiefs, wh et h er pr eca r iou s
or for life, wer e n ot a n object of su ccession , t h er e cou ld be n o pa r t it ion in r ega r d
t o t h ose t en u r es.
Un der t h e secon d r a ce, t h e t it le of em per or , wh ich Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e
en joyed, a n d wit h wh ich h e h on ou r ed h is eldest son , Lot h a r iu s, m a de h im t h in k
of givin g t h is pr in ce a kin d of su per ior it y over h is you n ger br ot h er s. Th e t wo
kin gs wer e obliged t o wa it u pon t h e em per or ever y yea r , t o ca r r y h im pr esen t s,
a n d t o r eceive m u ch gr ea t er fr om h im ; t h ey wer e a lso t o con su lt wit h h im u pon
com m on a ffa ir s. 205 Th is is wh a t in spir ed Lot h a r iu s wit h t h ose pr et en ces wh ich
m et wit h su ch ba d su ccess. Wh en Agoba r d wr ot e in fa vou r of t h is pr in ce,206 h e
a lleged t h e em per or ’s own in t en t ion , wh o h a d a ssocia t ed Lot h a r iu s wit h t h e
em pir e a ft er h e h a d con su lt ed t h e Alm igh t y by a t h r ee da ys’ fa st , by t h e
celebr a t ion of t h e h oly m yst er ies, a n d by pr a yer s a n d a lm sgivin g; a ft er t h e
n a t ion h a d swor n a llegia n ce t o h im , wh ich t h ey cou ld n ot r efu se wit h ou t
per ju r in g t h em selves; a n d a ft er h e h a d sen t
Lot h a r iu s t o Rom e t o be con fir m ed by t h e P ope. Upon a ll t h is h e la ys a st r ess,
a n d n ot u pon h is r igh t of pr im ogen it u r e. H e sa ys, in deed, t h a t t h e em per or h a d
design ed a pa r t it ion a m on g t h e you n ger br ot h er s, a n d t h a t h e h a d given t h e
pr efer en ce t o t h e elder ; bu t sa yin g h e h a d pr efer r ed t h e elder wa s sa yin g a t t h e
sa m e t im e t h a t h e m igh t h a ve given t h e pr efer en ce t o h is you n ger br ot h er s.
Bu t a s soon a s t h e fiefs beca m e h er edit a r y, t h e r igh t of sen ior it y wa s
est a blish ed in t h e feu da l su ccession ; a n d for t h e sa m e r ea son in t h a t of t h e
cr own , wh ich wa s t h e gr ea t fief. Th e a n cien t la w of pa r t it ion s wa s n o lon ger
su bsist in g; t h e fiefs bein g ch a r ged wit h a ser vice, t h e possessor m u st h a ve been
en a bled t o disch a r ge it . Th e la w of pr im ogen it u r e wa s est a blish ed, a n d t h e r igh t
of t h e feu da l la w wa s su per ior t o t h a t of t h e polit ica l or civil in st it u t ion .
As t h e fiefs descen ded t o t h e ch ildr en of t h e possessor , t h e lor ds lost t h e
liber t y of disposin g of t h em ; a n d, in or der t o in dem n ify t h em selves, t h ey
est a blish ed wh a t t h ey ca lled t h e r igh t of r edem pt ion , wh er eof m en t ion is m a de
in ou r cu st om s, wh ich a t fir st wa s pa id in a dir ect lin e, a n d by u sa ge ca m e

a ft er wa r ds t o be pa id on ly in a colla t er a l lin e.
Th e fiefs wer e soon r en der ed t r a n sfer a ble t o st r a n ger s a s a pa t r im on ia l est a t e.
Th is ga ve r ise t o t h e r igh t of lor d’s du es, wh ich wer e est a blish ed a lm ost
t h r ou gh ou t t h e kin gdom . Th ese r igh t s wer e a r bit r a r y in t h e begin n in g; bu t
wh en t h e pr a ct ice of gr a n t in g su ch per m ission s beca m e gen er a l, t h ey wer e fixed
in ever y dist r ict .
Th e r igh t of r edem pt ion wa s t o be pa id a t ever y ch a n ge of h eir , a n d a t fir st
wa s pa id even in a dir ect lin e. 207 Th e m ost gen er a l cu st om h a d fixed it t o on e
yea r ’s in com e. Th is wa s bu r den som e a n d in con ven ien t t o t h e va ssa l, a n d
a ffect ed in som e m ea su r e t h e fief it self, It wa s oft en a gr eed in t h e a ct of h om a ge
t h a t t h e lor d sh ou ld n o lon ger dem a n d m or e t h a n a cer t a in su m of m on ey for t h e
r edem pt ion , wh ich , by t h e ch a n ges in ciden t t o m on ey, beca m e a ft er wa r ds of n o
m a n n er of im por t a n ce. 208 Th u s t h e r igh t of r edem pt ion is in ou r da ys r edu ced
a lm ost t o n ot h in g, wh ile t h a t of t h e lor d’s du es is con t in u ed in it s fu ll ext en t . As
t h is r igh t con cer n ed n eit h er t h e va ssa l n or h is h eir s, bu t wa s a for t u it ou s ca se
wh ich n o on e wa s obliged t o for esee or expect , t h ese st ipu la t ion s wer e n ot m a de,
a n d t h ey con t in u ed t o pa y a cer t a in pa r t of t h e pr ice.
Wh en t h e fiefs wer e for life, t h ey cou ld n ot give a pa r t of a fief t o h old in
per pet u it y a s a r ea r -fief; for it wou ld h a ve been a bsu r d t h a t a per son wh o h a d
on ly t h e u su fr u ct of a t h in g sh ou ld dispose of t h e pr oper t y of it . Bu t wh en t h ey
beca m e per pet u a l, t h is wa s per m it t ed, 209 wit h som e r est r ict ion s m a de by t h e
cu st om s, wh ich wa s wh a t t h ey ca ll dism em ber in g t h eir fief.210
Th e per pet u it y of feu da l t en u r es h a vin g est a blish ed t h e r igh t of r edem pt ion ,
t h e da u gh t er s wer e r en der ed ca pa ble of su cceedin g t o a fief, in defa u lt of m a le
issu e. F or wh en t h e lor d ga ve t h e fief t o h is da u gh t er , h e m u lt iplied t h e ca ses
of h is r igh t of r edem pt ion , beca u se t h e h u sba n d wa s obliged t o pa y it a s well a s
t h e wife. 211 Th is r egu la t ion cou ld n ot t a ke pla ce in r ega r d t o t h e cr own , for a s
it wa s n ot h eld of a n y on e, t h er e cou ld be n o r igh t of r edem pt ion over it .
Th e da u gh t er of Willia m V, Cou n t of Tou lou se, did n ot su cceed t o t h e cou n t y.
Bu t E lea n or su cceeded t o Aqu it a in e, a n d Ma t ilda t o Nor m a n dy; a n d t h e r igh t
of t h e su ccession of fem a les seem ed so well est a blish ed in t h ose da ys, t h a t Lou is
t h e You n g, a ft er h is divor ce fr om E lea n or , m a de n o difficu lt y in r est or in g
Gu ien n e t o h er . Bu t a s t h ese t wo la st in st a n ces followed close on t h e fir st , t h e

gen er a l la w by wh ich t h e wom en wer e ca lled t o t h e su ccession of fiefs m u st h a ve
been in t r odu ced m u ch la t er in t o t h e cou n t y of Tou lou se t h a n in t o t h e ot h er
pr ovin ces of F r a n ce.212
Th e con st it u t ion of sever a l kin gdom s of E u r ope h a s been dir ect ed by t h e st a t e
of feu da l t en u r es a t t h e t im e wh en t h ose kin gdom s wer e fou n ded. Th e wom en
su cceeded n eit h er t o t h e cr own of F r a n ce n or t o t h e em pir e, beca u se a t t h e
fou n da t ion of t h ose t wo m on a r ch ies t h ey wer e in ca pa ble of su cceedin g t o fiefs.
Bu t t h ey su cceeded in kin gdom s wh ose fou n da t ion wa s post er ior t o t h a t of t h e
per pet u it y of t h e fiefs, su ch a s t h ose fou n ded by t h e Nor m a n s, t h ose by t h e
con qu est s m a de on t h e Moor s, a n d ot h er s, in fin e, wh ich wer e beyon d t h e lim it s
of Ger m a n y, a n d in la t er t im es r eceived in som e m ea su r e a secon d bir t h by t h e
est a blish m en t of Ch r ist ia n it y.
Wh en t h ese fiefs wer e a t will, t h ey wer e given t o su ch a s wer e ca pa ble of doin g
ser vice for t h em , a n d, t h er efor e, wer e n ever best owed on m in or s; bu t wh en t h ey
beca m e per pet u a l, t h e lor ds t ook t h e fief in t o t h eir own h a n ds, t ill t h e pu pil
ca m e of a ge, eit h er t o in cr ea se t h eir own em olu m en t s, or t o t r a in t h e wa r d t o
t h e u se of a r m s. 213 Th is is wh a t ou r cu st om s ca ll t h e gu a r dia n sh ip of a
n oblem a n ’s ch ildr en , wh ich is fou n ded on pr in ciples differ en t fr om t h ose of
t u t ela ge, a n d is en t ir ely a dist in ct t h in g fr om it .
Wh en t h e fiefs wer e for life, it wa s cu st om a r y t o vow fea lt y for a fief; a n d t h e
r ea l deliver y, wh ich wa s m a de by a scept r e, con fir m ed t h e fief, a s it is n ow
con fir m ed by h om a ge. We do n ot fin d t h a t t h e cou n t s, or even t h e kin g’s
com m issa r ies, r eceived t h e h om a ge in t h e pr ovin ces; n or is t h is cer em on y t o be
m et wit h in t h e com m ission s of t h ose officer s wh ich h a ve been h a n ded down t o
u s in t h e Ca pit u la r ies. Th ey som et im es, in deed, m a de a ll t h e kin g’s su bject s
t a ke a n oa t h of a llegia n ce;214 bu t so fa r wa s t h is oa t h fr om bein g of t h e sa m e
n a t u r e a s t h e ser vice a ft er wa r ds est a blish ed by t h e n a m e of h om a ge, t h a t it wa s
on ly a cer e-m on ey of less solem n it y, occa sion a lly u sed, eit h er befor e or a ft er t h a t
a ct of obeisa n ce; in sh or t , it wa s qu it e a dist in ct t h in g fr om h om a ge.215
Th e cou n t s a n d t h e kin g’s com m issa r ies fu r t h er m a de t h ose va ssa ls wh ose
fidelit y wa s su spect ed give occa sion a lly a secu r it y, wh ich wa s ca lled firm itas, 216
bu t t h is secu r it y cou ld n ot be a n h om a ge, sin ce kin gs ga ve it t o ea ch ot h er .217
An d t h ou gh t h e Abbot Su ger 218 m a kes m en t ion of a ch a ir of Da gober t , in wh ich

a ccor din g t o t h e t est im on y of a n t iqu it y, t h e kin gs of F r a n ce wer e a ccu st om ed
t o r eceive t h e h om a ge of t h e n obilit y, it is pla in t h a t h e expr esses h im self
a gr eea bly t o t h e idea s a n d la n gu a ge of h is own t im e.
Wh en t h e fiefs descen ded t o t h e h eir s, t h e a ckn owledgm en t of t h e va ssa l,
wh ich a t fir st wa s on ly a n occa sion a l ser vice, beca m e a r egu la r du t y. It wa s
per for m ed in a m or e splen did m a n n er , a n d a t t en ded wit h m or e for m a lit ies,
beca u se it wa s t o be a per pet u a l m em or ia l of t h e r ecipr oca l du t ies of t h e lor d
a n d va ssa l.
I sh ou ld be a pt t o t h in k t h a t h om a ges bega n t o be est a blish ed u n der Kin g
P epin , wh ich is t h e t im e I m en t ion ed t h a t sever a l ben efices wer e given in
per pet u it y, bu t I sh ou ld n ot t h in k t h u s wit h ou t ca u t ion , a n d on ly u pon a
su pposit ion t h a t t h e a u t h or s of t h e a n cien t a n n a ls of t h e F r a n ks wer e n ot
ign or a n t pr et en der s, 219 wh o in descr ibin g t h e fea lt y pr ofessed by Ta ssillon , Du ke
of Ba va r ia , t o Kin g P epin , spoke a ccor din g t o t h e u sa ges of t h eir own t im e.220
GJ1&!-%&,"<%&3F#Z%9+&9'*+5*F%01
Wh en t h e fiefs wer e eit h er pr eca r iou s or for life, t h ey seldom bor e a r ela t ion
t o a n y ot h er t h a n t h e polit ica l la ws; for wh ich r ea son in t h e civil in st it u t ion s of
t h ose t im es t h er e is ver y lit t le m en t ion m a de of t h e la ws of fiefs. Bu t wh en t h ey
beca m e h er edit a r y, wh en t h er e wa s a power of givin g, sellin g, a n d bequ ea t h in g
t h em , t h ey bor e a r ela t ion bot h t o t h e polit ica l a n d t h e civil la ws. Th e fief,
con sider ed a s a n obliga t ion of per for m in g m ilit a r y ser vice, depen ded on t h e
polit ica l la w; con sider ed a s a kin d of com m er cia l pr oper t y, it depen ded on t h e
civil la w. Th is ga ve r ise t o t h e civil r egu la t ion s con cer n in g feu da l t en u r es.
Wh en t h e fiefs beca m e h er edit a r y, t h e la w r ela t in g t o t h e or der of su ccession
m u st h a ve been in r ela t ion t o t h e per pet u it y of fiefs. H en ce t h is r u le of t h e
F r en ch la w, est a t es of in h er it a n ce do n ot a scen d, 221 wa s est a blish ed in spit e of
t h e Rom a n a n d Sa lic la ws. 222 It wa s n ecessa r y t h a t ser vice sh ou ld be pa id for
t h e fief; bu t a gr a n dfa t h er or a gr ea t -u n cle wou ld h a ve been t oo old t o per for m
a n y ser vice; t h is r u le t h u s h eld good a t fir st on ly in r ega r d t o t h e feu da l t en u r es,
a s we lea r n fr om Bou t illier .223
Wh en t h e fiefs beca m e h er edit a r y, t h e lor ds wh o wer e t o see t h a t ser vice wa s
pa id for t h e fief, in sist ed t h a t t h e fem a les wh o wer e t o su cceed t o t h e feu da l

est a t e, a n d I fa n cy som et im es t h e m a les, sh ou ld n ot m a r r y wit h ou t t h eir
con sen t ; in som u ch t h a t t h e m a r r ia ge con t r a ct s beca m e in r espect t o t h e n obilit y
bot h of a feu da l a n d a civil r egu la t ion . 224 In a n a ct of t h is kin d u n der t h e lor d’s
in spect ion , r egu la t ion s wer e m a de for t h e su ccession , wit h t h e view t h a t t h e
h eir s m igh t pa y ser vice for t h e fief: h en ce n on e bu t t h e n obilit y a t fir st h a d t h e
liber t y of disposin g of su ccession s by m a r r ia ge con t r a ct , a s Boyer 225 a n d
Au fr er iu s 226 h a ve obser ved.
It is n eedless t o m en t ion t h a t t h e power of r edem pt ion , fou n ded on t h e old
r igh t of t h e r ela t ives, a m yst er y of ou r a n cien t F r en ch ju r ispr u den ce I h a ve n ot
t im e t o u n r a vel, cou ld n ot t a ke pla ce wit h r ega r d t o t h e fiefs t ill t h ey beca m e
per pet u a l.
Italiam , Italiam . . . 227
I fin ish m y t r ea t ise of fiefs a t a per iod wh er e m ost a u t h or s com m en ce t h eir s.
2'+%,
1. Gr egor y of Tou r s, iv. 42.
2. Ch a pt er 7.
3. F r edega r iu s, Ch r on icle, 42.
4. Clot h a r iu s II, son of Ch ilper ic, a n d t h e fa t h er of Da gober t .
5. F r edega r iu s, Ch r on icle, 42.
6. See Gr egor y of Tou r s, viii. 31.
7. F r edega r iu s, Ch r on icle, 27, in t h e yea r 605.
8. Ibid., 28, in t h e yea r 607.
9. Ibid., 41, in t h e yea r 613.
10. Ibid., 42, in t h e yea r 613.
11. Som e t im e a ft er Br u n eh a u lt ’s execu t ion , in t h e yea r 615. See Ba lu ziu s’s
edit ion of t h e Ca pit u la r ies, p. 21.
12. Ibid., a r t . 16.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid., a r t . 17.
15. Ibid., a r t . 1.
16. Ibid., a r t . 8.
17. Ibid., a r t . 9.
18. Ibid., a r t . 21.
19. Th ey wer e or der s wh ich t h e kin g sen t t o t h e ju dges t o do or t o t oler a t e
t h in gs con t r a r y t o la w.
20. See Gr egor y of Tou r s, iv, p. 227. Bot h ou r h ist or y a n d t h e ch a r t er s a r e fu ll
of t h is; a n d t h e ext en t of t h ese a bu ses a ppea r s especia lly in Clot h a r iu s’
con st it u t ion , in ser t ed in t h e edit ion of t h e Ca pit u la r ies m a de t o r efor m
t h em . Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 7.
21. Ibid., a r t . 22.
22. Ibid., a r t 6.
23. Ibid., a r t . 18.
24. In Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion of t h e Ca pit u la r ies, i. p. 7.
25. In t h e pr ecedin g book I h a ve m a de m en t ion of t h ese im m u n it ies, wh ich wer e
gr a n t s of ju dicia l r igh t s, a n d con t a in ed pr oh ibit ion s t o t h e r ega l ju dges t o
per for m a n y fu n ct ion in t h e t er r it or y, a n d wer e equ iva len t t o t h e er ect ion or
gr a n t of a fief.
26. H e bega n t o r eign t owa r ds t h e yea r 670.
27. See t h e Life of St . Leger .
28. In st iga n t e Br u n ih a u lt , Th eodor ico ju ben t e, &c. — F r edega r iu s, 27, in t h e
yea r 605.
29. Gest a r egu m F r a n cor u m , 36.
30. See F r edega r iu s, Ch r on icle, 54, in t h e yea r 626, a n d h is a n on ym ou s
con t in u a t or , 101, in t h e yea r 695, a n d 105, in t h e yea r 715. Aim oin , iv. 15,
E gin h a r d. Life of Ch a r lem a gn e, 48. Gest a r egu m F r a n cor u m , 45.
31. See t h e La w of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, pr ef., a n d t h e secon d su pplem en t t o t h is
la w, t it . 13.
32. See Gr egor y of Tou r s, ix. 36.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid., 80, in t h e yea r 639.
40. Ibid.
41. De Ma jor ibu s Dom u s Regia e.
43. See Su lpiciu s Alexa n der , in Gr egor y of Tou r s, ii.
44. In t h e yea r 552.
45. Aga t h ia s, i. Gr egor y of Tou r s, iv. 9.
46. Gon t r a m did n ot even m a r ch a ga in st Gon dova ld, wh o st yled h im self son of
Clot h a r iu s, a n d cla im ed h is sh a r e of t h e kin gdom .
47. Som et im es t o t h e n u m ber of t wen t y. See Gr egor y of Tou r s, v. 27, viii. 28 a n d
30, x. 3. Da gober t , wh o h a d n o m a yor in Bu r gu n dy, obser ved t h e sa m e
policy, a n d sen t a ga in st t h e Ga scon s t en du kes a n d sever a l cou n t s wh o La d
n o du kes over t h em . — F r edega r iu s, Ch r on icle, 78, in t h e yea r 636.
48. Gr egor y of Tou r s, viii. 30, a n d x. 3.
49. Ibid., viii. 30.
50. See t h e secon d su pplem en t t o t h e la w of t h e Bu r gu n dia n s, t it . 13, a n d
Gr egor y of Tou r s, ix. 36.
51. See t h e An n a ls of Met z, yea r s 687 a n d 688.
52. Ibid., yea r 695.
53. Ibid., yea r 719.
54. Ibid.
55. E x ch r on ico Cen t u len si, ii.
56. An n a ls of Met z, yea r 691. An n a ls of F u lda , or of La u r ish a n , P ippin u s du x
F r a n cor u m obt in u it r egn u m F r a n cor u m per a n n os 27, cu m r egibu s sibi
su bject is.
57. Th e a n on ym ou s con t in u a t or of F r edega r iu s, 104, in t h e yea r 714.
58. Cit ed by Gr egor y of Tou r s, ix. See a lso t h e edict of Clot h a r iu s II, in t h e yea r
615, a r t . 16.
59. See t h e 24t h a n d t h e 34t h of t h e fir st book.
60. See t h e 14t h for m u la of t h e fir st book, wh ich is equ a lly a pplica ble t o t h e
fisca l est a t es given dir ect in per pet u it y, or given a t fir st a s a ben efice, a n d
a ft er wa r ds in per pet u it y. See a lso t h e 17t h for m u la , ibid.

61. Book i, for m . 13.
62. Tit . 44. See a lso t it . 66, §§ 3, 4; a n d t it . 74.
63. Tit . 11.
64. See a lso t h e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s, t it . 7; a n d t h e Sa lic la w, t it . 44, a r t . 1
a n d 4.
65. Sa lic la w, t it . 59 a n d 76.
66. Ibid.
67. Ibid., t it . 59, § 1.
68. Ibid., t it . 76, § 1.
69. Ibid., t it . 56 a n d 59.
70. Ibid., t it . 76, § 1.
71. Ibid., § 2.
72. Apu d ver n is pa la t iu m , in t h e yea r 883, a r t . 4 a n d 11.
73. Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r lem a gn e, secon d of t h e yea r 812, a r t . 1 a n d 3.
74. H er iba n n u m .
75. N on in fir m is r eliqu it h a er edibu s, sa ys La m ber t d’Ar dr es in Du Ca n ge, on
t h e wor d a lodis.
76. See t h ose qu ot ed by Du Ca n ge, in t h e wor d a lodis, a n d t h ose pr odu ced by
Ga lla n d, in h is Tr ea t ise on Allodia l La n ds, p. 14, ff.
77. Secon d Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 802, a r t . 10; a n d t h e seven t h Ca pit u la r y of t h e
yea r 803, a r t . 3; t h e fir st Ca pit u la r y, in cer t i a n n i, a r t . 49; t h e fift h
Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 806, a r t . 7; t h e Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 779, a r t . 29; t h e
Ca pit u la r y of Lou is t h e P iou s, in t h e yea r 829, a r t . 1.
78. Th e fift h of t h e yea r 806, a r t . 8.
79. In Gr egor y of Tou r s, vi. 46.
80. Th is is wh a t in du ced h im t o a n n u l t h e t est a m en t s m a de in fa vou r of t h e
cler gy, a n d even t h e don a t ion s of h is fa t h er ; Gon t r a m r e-est a blish ed t h em ,
a n d even m a de n ew don a t ion s. — Gr egor y of Tou r s, vii. 7.
81. See t h e An n a ls of Met z, yea r 687.
82. See t h e An n a ls of Met z.
83. In Gr egor y of Tou r s.
84. F r om Ch r on ica Cen t u len si, ii.
85. See t h e An n a ls of Met z.

86. Ibid., yea r 741.
87. Yea r 858, in Ca r isia cu s; Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , ii, p. 101.
88. Ibid., ii, a r t . 7, p. 109.
89. P r eca r ia , qu od pr ecibu s u t en du m con cedit u r , sa ys Cu ja s, in h is n ot es u pon
t h e fir st Book of F iefs. I fin d in a diplom a of Kin g P epin , da t ed t h e t h ir d
yea r of h is r eign , t h a t t h is pr in ce wa s n ot t h e fir st wh o est a blish ed t h ese
pr eca r ia ; h e cit es on e m a de by t h e Ma yor E br oin , a n d con t in u ed a ft er h is
t im e. See t h e diplom a of t h e kin g, in t h e H ist or ia n s of F r a n ce by t h e
Ben edict in es, v, a r t . 6.
90. In t h e yea r 743, see t h e 5t h book of t h e Ca pit u la r ies, a r t . 3, Ba lu ziu s’s
edit ion , p. 825.
91. Th a t of Met z, in t h e yea r 736, a r t . 4.
92. See h is Ca pit u la r y, in t h e yea r 803, given a t Wor m s; Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p.
411, wh er e h e r egu la t es t h e pr eca r iou s con t r a ct , a n d t h a t of F r a n kfor t , in
t h e yea r 794, p. 267, a r t . 24, in r ela t ion t o t h e r epa ir in g of t h e h ou ses; a n d
t h a t of t h e yea r 800, p. 330.
93. As a ppea r s by t h e pr ecedin g n ot e, a n d by t h e Ca pit u la r y of P epin , Kin g of
It a ly, wh er e it sa ys, t h a t t h e kin g wou ld give t h e m on a st er ies in fief t o t h ose
wh o wou ld swea r a llegia n ce for fiefs: it is a dded t o t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds,
iii, t it . 1, § 30; a n d t o t h e Sa lic La w, Collect ion of P epin ’s La ws in E ch a r d,
p. 195, t it . 26, a r t . 4.
94. See t h e con st it u t ion of Lot h a r iu s I, in t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, iii. Leg. 1,
§ 43.
95. Ibid., § 44.
96. Ibid.
97. Given t h e 28t h yea r of t h e r eign of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, in t h e yea r 868.
Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 203.
98. Con ciliu m a pu d Bon oilu m , t h e 16t h yea r of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, in t h e yea r
856, Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 78.
99. In t h e civil wa r s wh ich br oke ou t a t t h e t im e of Ch a r les Ma r t el, t h e la n ds
belon gin g t o t h e ch u r ch of Rh eim s wer e given a wa y t o la ym en ; “t h e cler gy
wer e left t o sh ift a s well a s t h ey cou ld,” sa ys t h e life of Rem igiu s, Su r iu s, i,
p. 279.
100. La w of t h e Lom ba r ds, iii, t it . 3, §§ 1 a n d 2.
101. It is t h a t on wh ich I h a ve desca n t ed in t h e 4t h ch a pt er of t h is book , a n d
wh ich is t o be fou n d in Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion of t h e Ca pit u la r ies, i, a r t . 11, p. 9.
102. Th e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r lem a gn e in t h e yea r 800, Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 336,
expla in s ext r em ely well wh a t is m ea n t by t h a t sor t of t it h e fr om wh ich t h e
ch u r ch is exem pt ed by Clot h a r iu s; it wa s t h e t it h e of t h e swin e wh ich wer e
pu t in t o t h e kin g’s for est s t o fa t t en ; a n d Ch a r lem a gn e en join s h is ju dges t o
pa y it , a s well a s ot h er people, in or der t o set a n exa m ple: it is pla in t h a t
t h is wa s a r igh t of seign ior y or econ om y.
103. Ca n on e 5, ex t om o 1, con cilior u m a n t iqu or u m Ga llia e oper a J a cobi
Sir m u n di.
104. Ar t . 6, Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 332. It wa s given in t h e yea r 800.
105. H eld u n der Ch a r lem a gn e, in t h e yea r 794.
106. Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 267, a r t . 23.
107. See a m on g t h e r est t h e ca pit u la r y of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e in t h e yea r 829,
Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 663; a ga in st t h ose wh o, t o a void pa yin g t it h es
n eglect ed t o cu lt iva t e t h e la n ds, &c., a r t . 5.
108. Am on g ot h er s, t h a t of Lot h a r iu s, iii, t it . 3, ca p. vi.
109. In t h e yea r 829, a r t . 7, in Ba lu ziu s, i, p. 663.
110. In t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, iii, t it . 3, § 8.
111. It is a kin d of codicil pr odu ced by E gin h a r d, a n d differ en t fr om t h e will
it self, wh ich we fin d in Golda st u s a n d Ba lu ziu s.
112. See t h e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r lem a gn e in t h e yea r 803, a r t . 2, Ba lu ziu s’s
edit ion , p. 379; a n d t h e edict of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e in t h e yea r 834, in
Golda st , Con st it . Im p "r ia l., i.
113. Th is is m en t ion ed in t h e fa m ou s ca n on , ego Lu dovicu s, wh ich is a pa lpa ble
for ger y; it is Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 591, in t h e yea r 817.
114. As a ppea r s by h is Ca pit u la r y, in t h e yea r 801, a r t . 17, in Ba lu ziu s, i, p.
360.
115. See h is con st it u t ion , in ser t ed in t h e code of t h e Lom ba r ds, iii, t it . 1, § 44.
116. See t h e a bove con st it u t ion , a n d t h e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, in t h e
yea r 846, ca p. xx. in Villa Spa r n a co, Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , ii. p. 31, a n d t h a t of
t h e yea r 853, ca p. iii a n d v, in t h e Syn od of Soisson s, Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , ii,
p. 54; a n d t h a t of t h e yea r 854, a pu d At t in ia cu m , ca p. x. Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion ,
ii, p. 70. See a lso t h e fir st Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r lem a gn e, in cer t i a n n i, a r t . 49
a n d 56. Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , i, p. 519.
117. See t h e Ca pit u la r ies, v. a r t . 44, a n d t h e edict of P ist es in t h e yea r 869, a r t .
8 a n d 9, wh er e we fin d t h e h on or a r y r igh t s of t h e lor ds est a blish ed, in t h e
sa m e m a n n er a s t h ey a r e a t t h is ver y da y.
121. H ist or ia n s of F r a n ce by t h e Ben edict in es, v, p. 9.
122. Ibid., p. 10.
123. In t h e yea r 768.
124. Tom . ii, lect ion is a n t iqu a e.
125. E dit ion of t h e Ca pit u la r ies, i, p. 188.
126. In t h e 1st Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 806. Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 439, a r t . 5.
127. In Golda st , Con st it . Im p "r ia l., ii, p. 19.
128. Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 574, a r t . 14.
129. Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 877. Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 272.
130. In F a t h er La bbe’s Cou n cils, ix, col. 424; a n d in Du m on t ’s Cor p. Diplom a t .,
i, a r t . 36.
131. By t h e m ot h er ’s side.
132. See h is t h ir d Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 811, p. 486, a r t . 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, a n d
8; a n d t h e fir st Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 812, p. 490, a r t . 1; a n d t h e Ca pit u la r y
of t h e yea r 812, p. 494, a r t . 9 a n d 11, et c.
133. See t h e Ca pit u la r y de Villis in t h e yea r 800; h is secon d Ca pit u la r y of t h e
yea r 813, a r t . 6 a n d 19; a n d t h e fift h book of t h e Ca pit u la r ies, a r t . 303.
134. Ca pit u la r y de Villis, a r t . 39. See t h is wh ole Ca pit u la r y, wh ich is a
m a st er piece of pr u den ce, good a dm in ist r a t ion , a n d econ om y.
135. See a m on g ot h er s t h e fou n da t ion of t h e Ar ch bish opr ic of Br em en , in t h e
Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 789. Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 245.
136. F or in st a n ce, t h e pr oh ibit ion of t h e kin g’s ju dges a ga in st en t er in g u pon t h e
t er r it or y t o dem a n d t h e fr eda , a n d ot h er du t ies. I h a ve sa id a good dea l
con cer n in g t h is in t h e pr ecedin g book, 20, 21, 22.
137. Th e a n on ym ou s a u t h or of t h e Life of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e in Du ch esn e’s
Collect ion , t om . ii, p. 295.
138. See h is t r ia l a n d t h e cir cu m st a n ces of h is deposit ion , in Du ch esn e’s

Collect ion , t om . ii, p. 333.
139. H e dir ect ed h im t o show unlim it ed clem en cy (in deficien t em m iser icor dia m )
t o h is sist er s, h is br ot h er s, a n d h is n eph ews. Tega n in t h e collect ion of
Du ch esn e, ii, p. 276.
140. See h is let t er s.
141. See h is t r ia l a n d t h e cir cu m st a n ces of h is deposit ion , in Du ch esn e’s
Collect ion , ii, p. 331. See a lso h is life wr it t en by Tega n : “Ta n t o en im odio
la bor a ba t , u t t a eder et eos vit a ipsiu s,” sa ys t h is a n on ym ou s a u t h or in
Du ch esn e, ii, p. 307.
142. Th e a n on ym ou s a u t h or of t h e Life of Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e in Du ch esn e’s
Collect ion , ii, p. 298.
143. Tega n sa ys t h a t wh a t seldom h a ppen ed u n der Ch a r lem a gn e wa s a com m on
pr a ct ice u n der Lou is.
144. Bein g desir ou s t o ch eck t h e n obilit y, h e pr om ot ed on e Ber n a r d t o t h e pla ce
of ch a m ber la in , by wh ich t h e gr ea t lor ds wer e exa sper a t ed t o t h e h igh est
pit ch .
145. Tega n , De Gest is Lu dovici pii.
146. Nit a r d, iv, pr ope fin em .
147. Ibid.
148. See book xxx. 13.
149. H in cm a r , let . 1, t o Lou is t h e St a m m er er .
150. See t h e fr a gm en t of t h e Ch r on icle of t h e Mon a st er y of St . Ser giu s of
An ger s, in Du ch esn e, ii, p. 401.
151. See wh a t t h e bish ops sa y in t h e syn od of t h e yea r 845, a pu d Teu don is
villa m , a r t . 4.
152. See t h e syn od in t h e yea r 845, a pu d Teu don is villa m , a r t . 3 a n d 4, wh ich
gives a ver y exa ct descr ipt ion of t h in gs; a s a lso, t h a t of t h e sa m e yea r , h eld
a t t h e pa la ces of Ver n es, a r t . 12, a n d t h e syn od of Bea u va is, a lso in t h e sa m e
yea r , a r t . 3, 4, a n d 6, in t h e Ca pit u la r y in villa Spa r n a co, in t h e yea r 846,
a r t . 20, a n d t h e let t er wh ich t h e bish ops a ssem bled a t Rh eim s wr ot e in 858,
t o Lou is, Kin g of Ger m a n y, a r t . 8.
153. See t h e Ca pit u la r y in villa Spa r n a co, in t h e yea r 846. Th e n obilit y h a d set
t h e Kin g a ga in st t h e bish ops, in som u ch t h a t h e expelled t h em fr om t h e

a ssem bly; a few of t h e ca n on s en a ct ed in cou n cil wer e picked ou t , a n d t h e
pr ela t es wer e t old t h a t t h ese wer e t h e on ly on es wh ich sh ou ld be obser ved;
n ot h in g wa s gr a n t ed t h em t h a t cou ld be r efu sed. See a r t . 20, 21 a n d 22. See
a lso t h e let t er wh ich t h e bish ops a ssem bled a t Rh eim s wr ot e in t h e yea r 858
t o Lou is, Kin g of Ger m a n y, a r t . 8, a n d t h e edict of P ist es, in t h e yea r 864,
a r t . 5.
154. See t h is ver y Ca pit u la r y in t h e yea r 846, in villa Spa r n a co. See a lso t h e
Ca pit u la r y of t h e a ssem bly h eld a pu d Ma r sn a m in t h e yea r 847, a r t . 4,
wh er ein t h e cler gy r edu ced t h em selves t o dem a n d on ly t h e r est it u t ion of
wh a t t h ey h a d been possessed of u n der Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e. See a lso t h e
Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 851, a pu d Ma r sn a m , a r t . 6, a n d 7, wh ich con fir m s t h e
n obilit y a n d cler gy in t h eir sever a l possession s, a n d t h a t a pu d Bon oilu m , in
t h e yea r 856, wh ich is a r em on st r a n ce of t h e bish ops t o t h e kin g, beca u se t h e
evils, a ft er so m a n y la ws, h a d n ot been r edr essed; a n d, in fin e, t h e let t er
wh ich t h e bish ops a ssem bled a t Rh eim s wr ot e in t h e yea r 858, t o Lou is,
Kin g of Ger m a n y, a r t . 8.
155. Ar t . 8.
156. See t h e Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 851, a r t . 6 a n d 7.
157. Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, in t h e Syn od of Soisson s, sa ys, t h a t h e h a d pr om ised t h e
bish ops n ot t o issu e a n y m or e pr ecept s r ela t in g t o ch u r ch -la n ds. Ca pit u la r y
of t h e yea r 853, a r t . 11, Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion . ii, p. 56.
158. See t h e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, a pu d Sa pon a r ia s, in t h e yea r 859,
a r t . 3. “Ven ilon , wh om I m a de Ar ch bish op of Sen s, h a s con secr a t ed m e; a n d
I ou gh t n ot t o be expelled t h e kin gdom by a n ybody.”
159. See t h e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, De Ca r isia co, in t h e yea r 857,
Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , ii, p. 88, §§ 1, 2, 3, 4, a n d 7.
160. See t h e syn od of P ist es in t h e yea r 862, a r t . 4, a n d t h e Ca pit u la r y of Lewis
II, a pu d Ver n is pa la t iu m , in t h e yea r 883, a r t . 4 a n d 5.
161. Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 876, u n der Ch a r les, t h e Ba ld, in syn odo
P on t igon en si, Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , a r t . 12.
162. See wh a t h a s been sa id a lr ea dy, book xxx, la st ch a pt er , t owa r ds t h e en d.
163. In t h e yea r 587, in Gr egor y of Tou r s, ix.
164. See t h e followin g ch a pt er , wh er e I sh a ll spea k m or e diffu sely of t h ose

pa r t it ion s; a n d t h e n ot es in wh ich t h ey a r e qu ot ed.
165. In t h e yea r 806, bet ween Ch a r les, P epin , a n d Lou is, it is qu ot ed by
Golda st , a n d by Ba lu ziu s, ii, p. 439.
166. Ar t . 9, p. 443, wh ich is a gr eea ble t o t h e t r ea t y of An delot , in Gr egor y of
Tou r s, ix.
167. Ar t . 10, a n d t h er e is n o m en t ion m a de of t h is in t h e t r ea t y of An delot .
168. In Ba lu ziu s, i, p. 174, a r t . 9. See a lso t h e division m a de by t h e sa m e
em per or in t h e yea r 837, a r t . 6, Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 686.
169. In t h e yea r 811, Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , i, p. 486, a r t . 7 a n d 8, a n d t h a t of t h e
yea r 812, ibid. p. 490, a r t . 1. See a lso t h e Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 807,
Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , i, p. 458.
170. In t h e yea r 793, in ser t ed in t h e la w of t h e Lom ba r ds, iii, t it . 9, ca p. ix.
171. In t h e yea r 847, qu ot ed by Au ber t le Mir e, a n d Ba lu ziu s, ii, pa ge 42.
172. Adn u n cia t io.
173. Ar t . 2, of t h e Decla r a t ion of Ch a r les.
174. Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 877, t it . 53, a r t . 9 a n d 10, a pu d Ca r isia cu m ,
sim ilit er et de n ost r is va ssa llis fa cien du m est , &c. Th is Ca pit u la r y r ela t es
t o a n ot h er of t h e sa m e yea r , a n d of t h e sa m e pla ce, a r t . 3.
175. Ca pit u la r y of Aix la Ch a pelle, in t h e yea r 813, a r t . 16, a n d t h e Ca pit u la r y
of P epin , in t h e yea r 783, a r t . 5.
176. See t h e ca pit u la r y de Ca r isia co, in t h e yea r 856, a r t . 10 a n d 13. Ba lu ziu s’s
edit ion , t om . ii, p. 83, in wh ich t h e kin g, t oget h er wit h t h e lor ds spir it u a l
a n d t em por a l, a gr eed t o t h is.
177. In t h e yea r 757, a r t . 6, Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 181.
178. Book i, 1.
179. At lea st in It a ly a n d Ger m a n y.
180. Book i, of fiefs, 1.
181. Ibid.
182. Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 802, a r t . 7, Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 365.
183. Apu d Ma r sn a m , in t h e yea r 847, Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 42.
184. Ar t . 5, ibid., p. 44.
185. Apu d Ar gen t or a t u m , in Ba lu ziu s, Ca pit u la r ies, ii, p. 39.
186. See t h e la w of Gu y, Kin g of t h e Rom a n s, a m on g t h ose wh ich wer e a dded

t o t h e Sa lic la w, a n d t o t h a t of t h e Lom ba r ds, t it . 6, § 2 in E ch a r d.
187. Som e a u t h or s pr et en d t h a t t h e Cou n t y of Tou lou se h a d been given a wa y
by Ch a r les Ma r t el, a n d pa ssed by in h er it a n ce down t o Ra ym on d, t h e la st
cou n t ; bu t , if t h is be t r u e, it wa s owin g t o som e cir cu m st a n ces wh ich m igh t
h a ve been a n in du cem en t t o ch oose t h e Cou n t s of Tou lou se fr om a m on g t h e
ch ildr en of t h e la st possessor .
188. See h is Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 877, t it . 53, a r t . 9 a n d 10, a pu d Ca r isia cu m .
Th is Ca pit u la r y bea r s r ela t ion t o a n ot h er of t h e sa m e yea r a n d pla ce, a r t .
3.
189. Th e t h ir d Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 812, a r t . 7, a n d t h a t of t h e yea r 815, a r t .
6, on t h e Spa n ia r ds. Th e collect ion of t h e Ca pit u la r ies, book 5, a r t . 288, a n d
t h e Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 869, a r t . 2, a n d t h a t of t h e yea r 877, a r t . 13,
Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion .
190. As a ppea r s fr om Ot h o of F r issin gu e, Of t h e Act ion s of F r eder ic, ii. 29.
191. See t h e or din a n ce of P h ilip Au gu st u s in t h e yea r 1209, in t h e n ew
collect ion .
192. Book i, t it . 1.
193. Ibid.
194. At lea st in It a ly a n d Ger m a n y.
195. Book i, of fiefs, t it . 1.
196. Ger a r du s Niger a n d Au ber t u s de Or t o.
197. Book i, of fiefs, t it . 1.
198. Cu ja s h a s pr oved it ext r em ely well.
199. Ibid.
200. Ar n old a n d h is son Lou is IV.
201. In t h e yea r 926, qu ot ed by Au ber t le Mir e, Cod. don a t ion u m pia r u m , 27.
202. See t h e Ca pit u la r y of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, in t h e yea r 877, a pu d Ca r isia cu m ,
on t h e im por t a n ce of P a r is, St . Den is, a n d t h e ca st les on t h e Loir e, in t h ose
da ys.
203. See a bove, ch a pt er 30.
204. See t h e Sa lic la w, a n d t h e la w of t h e Ripu a r ia n s, in t h e t it le of Allodia .
205. See t h e Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 817, wh ich con t a in s t h e fir st pa r t it ion m a de
by Lou is t h e Debon n a ir e a m on g h is ch ildr en .

206. See h is t wo let t er s u pon t h is su bject , t h e t it le of on e of wh ich is De
Division e im per ii.
207. See t h e or din a n ce of P h ilip Au gu st u s, in t h e yea r 1209, on t h e fiefs.
208. We fin d sever a l of t h ese con ven t ion s in t h e ch a r t er s, a s in t h e r egist er book
of Ven d !m e, a n d t h a t of t h e a bbey, in St . Cypr ia n in P oit ou , of wh ich Mr .
Ga lla n d h a s given som e ext r a ct s, p. 55.
209. Bu t t h ey cou ld n ot a br idge t h e fiefs, t h a t is, a bolish a por t ion of it .
210. Th ey fixed t h e por t ion wh ich t h ey cou ld dism em ber .
211. Th is wa s t h e r ea son t h a t t h e lor ds obliged t h e widow t o m a r r y a ga in .
212. Most of t h e gr ea t fa m ilies h a d t h eir pa r t icu la r la ws of su ccession . See wh a t
M. de la Th a u m a ssièr e sa ys con cer n in g t h e fa m ilies of Ber r i.
213. We see in t h e Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 817, a pu d Ca r isia cu m , a r t . 3,
Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , ii, p. 269, t h e m om en t in wh ich t h e kin gs ca u sed t h e fiefs
t o be a dm in ist er ed in or der t o pr eser ve t h em for t h e m in or s; a n exa m ple
followed by t h e lor ds, a n d wh ich ga ve r ise t o wh a t we h a ve m en t ion ed by t h e
n a m e of t h e gu a r dia n sh ip of a n oblem a n ’s ch ildr en .
214. We fin d t h e for m u la t h er eof in t h e secon d Ca pit u la r y of t h e yea r 802. See
a lso t h a t of t h e yea r 854, a r t . 13, a n d ot h er s.
215. M. Du Ca n ge in t h e wor d h om in iu m , p. 1163, a n d in t h e wor d fidelit a s, p.
474, cit es t h e ch a r t er s of t h e a n cien t h om a ges wh er e t h ese differ en ces a r e
fou n d, a n d a gr ea t n u m ber of a u t h or it ies wh ich m a y be seen . In pa yin g
h om a ge, t h e va ssa l pu t h is h a n d on t h a t of h is lor d, a n d t ook h is oa t h ; t h e
oa t h of fea lt y wa s m a de by swea r in g on t h e gospels. Th e h om a ge wa s
per for m ed kn eelin g, t h e oa t h of fea lt y st a n din g. Non e bu t t h e lor d cou ld
r eceive h om a ge, bu t h is officer s m igh t t a k e t h e oa t h of fea lt y. — See
Lit t let on , §§ 91, 92, fa it h a n d h om a ge, t h a t is, fidelit y a n d h om a ge.
216. Ca pit u la r ies of Ch a r les t h e Ba ld, in t h e yea r 860, post r edit u m a
Con ft u en t ibu s, a r t . 3, Ba lu ziu s’s edit ion , p. 145.
217. Ibid., a r t . 1.
218. Su ger , Lib. de a dm in ist r a t ion e su a .
219. Yea r 757, ca p. xvii.
220. On e wou ld t h in k t h a t h er e wa s a n h om a ge a n d a n oa t h of fea lt y. See n ot e
6, p. 314.
221. Book iv, de fen dis, t it . 59.
222. In t h e t it le of Allodia .
223. Som m e Ru r a le, i, t it . 76, p. 447.
224. Accor din g t o a n or din a n ce of St . Lou is, in t h e yea r 1246 t o set t le t h e
cu st om s of An jou a n d Ma in e; t h ose wh o sh a ll h a ve t h e ca r e of t h e h eir ess of
a fief sh a ll give secu r it y t o t h e lor d, t h a t sh e sh a ll n ot be m a r r ied wit h ou t
h is con sen t .
225. Decision 155, No. 8; a n d 204, No. 38.
226. In Ca pell. Th ol., decision 453.
227. Aen eid , iii, 523.

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!"#$%&'(')$*+$,-.

Dist in ct ion s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

Th e cr it ic a sser t s t h a t ou r a u t h or st u m bles a t h is fir st set t in g ou t , a n d is

a ll n a t u r a l ph ilosoph y h a s a sser t ed t h e sa m e t h in g; t h ey a r e in va r ia ble beca u se

t h a t t h e decla m a t ion s of a n gr y m en m a ke bu t lit t le im pr ession on a n y except

t h e su bject , a n d t o lose a ll t r a ces of t h e ot h er ? Does h e do well n ever t o

t h a n som e ot h er r it es, t h e cr it ic a ga in sa ys, ‘you a ppr ove t h em t h en a n d

con fir m ed by J esu s Ch r ist .”

on t h e t h r on e, a n d m a kes h im bow down h is h ea d u n der t h e yolk of t h e gospel.

sh a ll per ceive t h e cer t a in t y of t h e pr in ciples on wh ich t h ey a r e fou n ded. I h a ve

t h a t a cer t a in qu a lit y, m odifica t ion of t h e m in d, or vir t u e, is n ot t h e spr in g by

P a r t icu la r in t elligen t bein gs m a y h a ve la ws of t h eir own m a kin g, bu t t h ey

som e wh ich we h a ve n ot . Th ey h a ve n ot ou r h opes, bu t t h ey a r e wit h ou t ou r

h im self in fer ior . Th er e wou ld t h er efor e be n o da n ger of t h eir a t t a ckin g on e

in h a bit a n t s of so gr ea t a pla n et , wh ich n ecessa r ily con t a in s a va r iet y of n a t ion s,

La w in gen er a l is h u m a n r ea son , in a sm u ch a s it gover n s a ll t h e in h a bit a n t s

Liba n iu s 2 sa ys t h a t a t At h en s a st r a n ger wh o in t er m eddled in t h e a ssem blies

in t r ica t e a ffa ir , of seizin g a n d im pr ovin g t h e oppor t u n it y a n d cr it ica l m om en t

elect ion , h e m a de 8 t h e ju dges eligible fr om ea ch of t h ose fou r cla sses; bu t t h e

som e m ea su r e in t h e sen a t e, t h e dem ocr a cy in t h e body of t h e n obles, a n d t h e

t h is on ly ba r r ier a ga in st t h e in cu r sion s of a r bit r a r y power ? A ba r r ier ever u sefu l

22. Tou r n efor t , Voyages.

Wh a t I h a ve h er e a dva n ced is con fir m ed by t h e u n a n im ou s t est im on y of

n ow be fr ee t o a ct a ga in st la w; a n d a s ea ch cit izen is like a sla ve wh o h a s r u n

n ot obliged t o keep h is wor d or oa t h , wh en h e lim it ed t h er eby h is a u t h or it y.16

defen din g t h em selves.

4. Sh e h a d a t t h a t t im e t wen t y-on e t h ou sa n d cit izen s, t en t h ou sa n d st r a n ger s,

m or a ls in m on a r ch ies a s in r epu blica n gover n m en t s.

dim in ish es in pr opor t ion t o it s dist a n ce fr om t h e sou r ce of t h is gr ea t n ess.

em ploym en t s, a liber t y wh ich it pr efer s even t o a n a m ple for t u n e.

m u st expose h im self, t h e pr in ce, a n d h is cou n t r y t o r u in .

Spa r t a n s. Mr . P en n is a r ea l Lycu r gu s: a n d t h ou gh t h e for m er m a de pea ce h is

a n d beh a lf of t h e cit y.” Com m er ce t h en does n ot cor r u pt t h e con st it u t ion , a n d

r esist a n ce t h a n t h e gr ea t est kin gs.

a n d r u den ess of beh a viou r . — Ibid., viii. 4.

m or e it cu r bs t h eir in clin a t ion s, t h e m or e for ce it givfes t o t h e on ly pa ssion left

Solon , by per m it t in g t h e At h en ia n s, u pon fa ilu r e of issu e 1 t o lea ve t h eir

gover n m en t t h er e wa s ver y lit t le con cer n a bou t a n y su ch t h in g a s a division of

con dit ion t h a n h is fellow-cit izen s; a n d t h is sa m e m a n , bein g obliged t o n eglect

ot h er com m er cia l, a s At h en s. In t h e for m er , t h e cit izen s wer e obliged t o be idle;

of a lon g a dm in ist r a t ion , t h e descen t t o vice is in sen sible; bu t t h er e is n o

ch iefly in t h e obedien ce t h e cit izen s sh ow t o t h eir la ws; t h ey r u n wh en t h e

E ver y gover n m en t h a s it s n a t u r e a n d pr in ciple. An a r ist ocr a cy m u st n ot

for get t h ey a r e cit izen s, t h e la t t er br in g t h em t o a sen se of it . If t h e r even u es of

lu st of dom in ion . Th er e sh ou ld be eit h er a t em por a r y or per pet u a l m a gist r a t e

— a per m ission im pr oper in a n y ot h er gover n m en t .

t h e pr in ce a n d of h is m in ist er s for t h e su ppor t 34 of gover n m en t : bu t h e r equ ir es

per son a n d power sh ou ld pa ss in t o ot h er h a n ds. H e seldom t h er efor e wa ges wa r

wh om t h ey ca ll Ba r ba r ia n s. Sin ce it ca n n ot depen d on t h e m ilit ia , it is pr oper

ot h er pr oper t y t h a n t h e gold a n d silver wh ich t h ey a r e a ble t o seize u pon by

a r e of m ost im por t a n ce t o t h e people t o kn ow, t h e best is t h a t wh ich m ost

H en ce it is t h a t a m er ch a n t u n der t h is gover n m en t is u n a ble t o ca r r y on a n

H en ce in m on a r ch ies t h e gover n or s of t own s a r e n ot so depen den t on t h e

Mogu l 51 n ever r eceives t h e pet it ion s of h is su bject s if t h ey com e wit h em pt y

self-su fficien t , a n d wh ich exclu des a ll ot h er s — t h e r ecom pen ses of t h e st a t e

t r u e or fa lse, will n ever bea r wit h wh a t it ca lls degr a din g it self.

of wh ich it h a d been for m er ly possessed; u n less in deed h e h a d ver y pa r t icu la r

Su r pr ised we a r e a lso t h a t a n Ar eopa git e sh ou ld pu t h is son t o dea t h for pu t t in g

a ble t o keep a h or se; t h e t h ir d, of su ch a s h a d on ly 200; t h e fou r t h , of a ll