An Introduction To Music Theory Printable

An introduction to music theory
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About this free course
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Contents
Introduction 5
Learning Outcomes 6
1 The content 7
1.1 Working through the course 7
2 The basics 8
2.1 The staff 8
2.2 Clefs 8
2.3 The great staff 9
2.4 Middle C and ledger lines 10
2.5 Writing notes 12
2.6 Reading notes 13
2.7 Review 1 13
3 Rhythm and metre 22
3.1 Time values 22
3.2 Triplets 23
3.3 Time signatures 23
3.4 Review 2 25
3.5 Dots and ties 29
3.6 Grouping and beaming notes 30
3.7 Review 3 32
3.8 More time signatures: compound time 34
3.9 Grouping and beaming notes in compound time 35
3.10 Review 4 37
4 Rests 42
4.1 Values and dots 42
4.2 Grouping rests 43
4.3 Grouping rests in compound time 44
4.4 More on grouping rests 45
4.5 Review 5 46
5 Pitch 50
5.1 Notes of the bass and treble staves: a reminder 50
5.2 Semitones and tones, and the scale of C major 50
5.3 Semitones and tones, and the scale of G major 52
5.4 Major scales having key signatures with sharps 53
5.5 Semitones and tones and the scale of F major 55
5.6 Major scales having key signatures with flats 56
5.7 Review 6 59
5.8 Minor scales: the natural form 61
5.9 Minor scales: the melodic and harmonic forms 62
5.10 Relative minor and relative major 64

Introduction
Introduction
This free course, An introduction to music theory, introduces you to the basic concepts of
western music notation and music theory that you need to know before you embark on the
Open University course A224 Inside music. It covers ground similar to that found in the
syllabus of the Associated Board Theory Grades 1–3 (ABRSM, 2018).
Sound files have been provided for all the music notation examples as it is important for
you to be able to listen to the sounds represented by the notation. There is an audio bar
below each notated example; click on the button on the left side to play and pause the
relevant sound file.
This free course is recommended preparatory material for the Open University course
A224 Inside music.
Tell us what you think! We’d love to hear from you to help us improve our free learning
offering through OpenLearn by filling out this short survey.

Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcomes
After studying this course, you should be able to:
● understand the basic building blocks of musical theory and notation
● understand music theory to the level demanded by Grade 3 of the Associated Board
of the Royals Schools of Music theory syllabus
● understand music theory to a level required to move on to Open University Level 2
Music offerings, e.g. A224 Inside Music.

1 The content
The course begins with a brief introduction to the fundamental elements of western music notation – the staff, clefs
and note names. It then moves on to consider the notation of rhythm and of pitch. In addition, the basic form of the
chord (the triad) is included, together with a list of the most frequently used performance directions that you will find on
notated music (scores). Each section ends with interactive activities that will help you assess how far you understand
individual topics or concepts.
Even if you feel that you are already familiar with these concepts it is worthwhile reading through the sections of this
course systematically to find out whether there is something that you hadn’t come across before or that you had
forgotten.
1.1 Working through the course

If you are starting this course completely from scratch with no knowledge of music theory, tackle each section one by
one, and spend as long as you need working on each. Be prepared to undertake a little study each day or alternate
day – ‘a little often’ is a good guideline. This will prove much more beneficial than studying large chunks at a time.
In addition, make sure that you understand each of the topics you have studied before you attempt the following one.
Learning about staff notation and other facets of music theory is a cumulative process. Spend a reasonable amount of
time on each topic so that you can master it before going on to the next.
Although this course contains interactive activities that test your knowledge, it is suggested that you reinforce your
knowledge with the use of ear-training activities (often called ‘trainers’), where musical sounds are linked to visual
symbols. Once you feel you have understood a topic, you could try using a trainer to reinforce your knowledge through
practice. Their use will create ‘oases’ in the learning process where ‘doing’ will help facilitate ‘understanding’, and will
also provide feedback as to how you are getting on.
There are several sites on the internet that provide trainers. These include activities such as interactive drills that
focus on specific areas of staff notation ranging from a straightforward naming of notes to recognising complex
rhythms and chords. A list of ear trainers is provided at the end of this course in Section 10.
2 The basics
2 The basics
2.1 The staff

The idea of placing notes on a set of horizontal lines – the staff –to show the relationship
of various pitches with each other – staff notation – emerged in western music towards
the end of the ninth century. Originally, each pitch was allocated its own line, but the Italian
music theorist, Guido of Arezzo, who lived during the early eleventh century, suggested
that lines should be drawn for every other pitch, so that alternate pitches sat on the lines
and the remaining pitches were placed in the intervening spaces between the lines.
This principle was soon adopted and has remained in force in traditional western music
notation to the present day. The number of lines included in the staff has varied depending
on the range of the music being notated. However, the norm has evolved as the five-line
staff, shown in Example 1.
Example 1
As shown in Example 2, if we place pitches in the form of note heads on the staff,
information about the relationship of the pitches with each other is produced.
Example 2
2.2 Clefs
As it stands, the first note in Example 2 could be any pitch we care to choose.
Example 2 (repeated)
So if we wish to specify a particular pitch or series of pitches we need some sort of guide –
a sign that will enable us to indicate the specific pitch. That sign is supplied by a clef (from
the Latin, clavis, meaning ‘key’). From the eleventh century onwards, several Roman
letters, including c and f, were used systematically for clefs, with g subsequently
becoming increasingly common. In a stylised form, g, with flamboyant curls and
flourishes, is still used as the treble or G clef, and signifies that a note placed on the
second line from the bottom is G (see Example 3).
Example 3

2 The basics
Audio content is not available in this format.
And this is not any G, but specifically the one above middle C. (We’ll come to an
explanation of middle C in a moment.)
As Example 4 shows, the other notes are named with letters from the alphabet, A–G, with
A returning after G has been reached.
Example 4
Notice that as the notes are placed higher and higher up the staff, the pitch becomes
higher and higher as well. Notice too that we read music from left to right, and with a whole
page of music, from top to bottom. This reflects the way we read words in western culture.
The letter, f, in a stylised form and in a mirror image, is now used as the bass or F clef.It
signifies that a note placed on the second line from the top is F, and specifically the F
below middle C (see Example 5).
Example 5
2.3 The great staff

We can call a staff with a treble clef a treble staff for short, and a staff with a bass clef a
bass staff. And if we place the former above the latter and insert an additional line in
between, we create what is called the great (or grand) staff as shown in Example 6.
Example 6

2 The basics
There are two points about the great staff. Firstly, it demonstrates the relationship
between the bass and treble staves. Secondly, the additional line at the midway point is
the line for middle C. The central importance in the great staff of the middle C line is one
reason for middle C’s name, and its position roughly halfway along the keyboard is
another.
2.4 Middle C and ledger lines

Sometimes keyboard music has been notated using very large staves. However, if you
have too many lines, the staff is not easy to read. Therefore, with keyboard music, the
treble and bass staves are conventionally separated out – there is a substantial gap
between the bottom line of the treble staff and the top line of the bass staff and there is no
middle C line. Instead, middle C is notated using a ledger line. Middle C has its own little
section of staff, long enough to make the position of the note clear, and this has to be
written in for each of its appearances.
While this separation of the upper and lower staves is a good idea because it helps visual
orientation, it has a drawback. And that is that middle C can be notated on both staves, in
different positions on each staff. Example 7 shows that (i) the different visual positions of
middle C on each staff represent one and the same sound and (ii) the gradual incline of
the pattern of the notes as the pitch rises is fractured temporarily.
Example 7
Other notes close to middle C can also be notated on either staff by using more and more
ledger lines (Example 8).
Example 8

2 The basics
Choosing which staff to use depends on the context. For instance, if you were notating a
violin part, you would need the treble staff. So if you wanted to write the lowest note on the
violin, the lower G on the top staff in Example 8, you would need the G that sits below the
upper staff and has two ledger lines.
The concept of ledger lines can also be applied at the top of the treble staff and at the
bottom of the bass staff (Example 9).
Example 9
However, the more ledger lines you use, the more difficult it is to read the notes at a
glance, and you have to ‘count up’ the ledger lines – together with the spaces between
them – to work out what the note is, and this can be a laborious process.
Example 10 shows all the note names mentioned above.
Example 10

2 The basics
2.5 Writing notes

Although much of the note-writing in Inside music involves using the software package,
Sibelius First, it is worthwhile considering briefly the conventions used when writing staff
notation by hand on manuscript paper (the name for pages with staves printed on them).
Fundamentally, when writing music, you are trying to communicate with a reader and
legibility is therefore important.
You should bear in mind the following guidelines when writing notes on paper.
● Note heads are oval in shape (some open, some filled in – we’ll see the reason for
this later) and should sit centrally on a line or in a space so that no confusion can
arise as to the pitch notated.
● Most notes also need stems, and these should be vertical and should be roughly the
same height as the height of the staff.
● In addition, note stemsshould go down on the left-hand side for note heads on the
top two lines of the staff and in the top two spaces, and up on the right-hand side for
note heads on the bottom two lines and in the bottom two spaces. Stems for note
heads on the middle line can go up or down.
● Ledger lines should run parallel to the lines of the staff.
Example 11 provides examples of these points.

Example 11

2 The basics
2.6 Reading notes

How do you become proficient at reading notes? This takes time and practice. You really
need to practise for a few minutes each day, identifying notes on both the treble and bass
staves, including notes that are written both above and below these staves with up to
three ledger lines.
However, there is a tradition with staff notation of using mnemonics to remember the
names of the notes on the staves. Two of these are impossible to beat: FACE for the
spaces on the treble staff from bottom to top, and All Cows Eat Grass for the spaces on
the bass staff from bottom to top (Example 12).
Example 12
For the lines on the staves, from bottom to top, perhaps you could create your own
mnemonic based on the letters E… G… B… D… F… for the treble staff and G… B… D…
F… A… for the bass.
Mnemonics are useful and help accelerate the learning process.
2.7 Review 1
Once you feel you are familiar with the position of the notes on the treble and bass staves,
try the following activities.
If you find these activities difficult, do not be disheartened. Remember that in order to be
able to read the names of notes at a glance requires practice over a period of time. Some
people find reading symbolic languages easier than others, but everyone has to spend
some time in order to become familiar with note names. Of course, if you play an
instrument and read notation on a daily basis, then that is a great help when learning note
names. However, don’t forget the usefulness of mnemonics and trainers (Section 10). In
addition, regular application, a little at a time, is the best approach.
Group 1 tests your knowledge of writing notes, Groups 2–4 test your reading of note
names on the treble and bass staves and Groups 5 and 6 test your reading of notes with
up to three ledger lines.

2 The basics
Group 1: writing notes
Activity
Which of the following statements is correct? (There are several correct answers.)
o Note heads are circular in shape.
o A stem for a note head on the second space from the top of the staff goes down on
the right-hand side.
o A stem for a note head on the second space from the top of the staff goes down on
the left-hand side.
o Ledger lines are horizontal.
o A stem for a note head on the bottom line of the staff goes up on the left-hand side.
o A stem for a note head on the middle line of the staff can go up or down.
o Note heads are oval in shape.
Group 2: identifying note names on the treble staff
Activity 1
Which note is C?
¡ 1
¡ 2
¡ 3
Answer
2 is correct. On the treble staff, the pitch in the third space from the bottom is C.
1 is incorrect. On the treble staff, the pitch in the second space from the bottom is A.
3 is incorrect. On the treble staff, the pitch on the second line from the bottom is G.
Activity 2
Which note is D?
¡ 1

2 The basics
¡ 2
¡ 3
Answer
3 is correct. On the treble staff, the pitch on the fourth line from the bottom is D.
1 is incorrect. On the treble staff, the pitch on the bottom line is E.
2 is incorrect. On the treble staff, the pitch on the middle line is B.
Activity 3
Which note is G?
¡ 1
¡ 2
¡ 3
Answer
1 is correct. On the treble staff, the pitch on the second line from the bottom is G.
2 is incorrect. On the treble staff, the pitch in the bottom space is F.
3 is incorrect. On the treble staff, the pitch in the top space is E.
Activity 4
Which note is F?
¡ 1
¡ 2
¡ 3

2 The basics
Answer
3 is correct. On the treble staff, the pitch on the top line is F.
1 is incorrect. On the treble staff, the pitch in the second space from the bottom is A.
2 is incorrect. On the treble staff, the pitch on the bottom line is E.
Group 3: identifying note names on the bass staff
Activity 1
Which note is E?
¡ 1
¡ 2
¡ 3
Answer
2 is correct. On the bass staff, the pitch in the third space from the bottom is E.
1 is incorrect. On the bass staff, the pitch in the second space from the bottom is C.
3 is incorrect. On the bass staff, the pitch on the top line is A.
Activity 2
Which note is A?
¡ 1
¡ 2
¡ 3
Answer
1 is correct. On the bass staff, the pitch in the bottom space is A.
2 is incorrect. On the bass staff, the pitch on the fourth line from the bottom is F.
3 is incorrect. On the bass staff, the pitch in the top space is G.
Activity 3
Which note is D?

2 The basics
¡ 1
¡ 2
¡ 3
Answer
2 is correct. On the bass staff, the pitch on the middle line is D.
1 is incorrect. On the bass staff, the pitch on the second line from the bottom is B.
3 is incorrect. On the bass staff, the pitch on the bottom line is G.
Activity 4
Which note is A?
¡ 1
¡ 2
¡ 3
Answer
3 is correct. On the bass staff, the pitch on the top line is A.
1 is incorrect. On the bass staff, the pitch on the fourth line from the bottom is F.
2 is incorrect. On the bass staff, the pitch on the second line from the bottom is B.
Group 4: identifying clefs for notes on both the treble and bass
staves
Activity 1
Match ‘Treble clef’ and ‘Bass clef’ to the notes to make them A and D.
Treble clef
Bass clef
Match each of the items above to an item below.

2 The basics
Activity 2
Match ‘Treble clef’ and ‘Bass clef’ to the notes to make them C and F.
Bass clef
Treble clef
Activity 3
Match ‘Treble clef’ and ‘Bass clef’ to the notes to make them E and A.
Treble clef
Bass clef
Activity 4
Match ‘Treble clef’ and ‘Bass clef’ to the notes to make them G and F.
Bass clef

2 The basics
Treble clef
Group 5: identifying note names of notes with ledger lines
Activity 1
Which note is A?
¡ 1
¡ 2
¡ 3
Answer
1 is incorrect. The pitch that sits below the first ledger line below the treble staff is B.
2 is incorrect. The pitch that sits below the second ledger line below the bass staff is B.
3 is correct. The pitch on the first ledger line above the treble staff is A.
Activity 2
Which note is E?
¡ 1
¡ 2

2 The basics
¡ 3
Answer
3 is correct. The pitch on the first ledger line below the bass staff is E.
1 is incorrect. The pitch on the first ledger line above the bass staff is C.
2 is incorrect. The pitch above the first ledger line above the treble staff is B.
Activity 3
Which note is D?
¡ 1
¡ 2
¡ 3
Answer
2 is correct. The pitch below the first ledger line below the bass staff is D.
1 is incorrect. The pitch on the third ledger line above the treble clef is E.
3 is incorrect. The pitch on the first ledger line above the treble clef is A.
Group 6: identifying more note names of notes with ledger lines
Activity 1
Are the two notes below at the same sounding pitch?
¡ Yes
¡ No
The note on the second ledger line below the treble staff is the A below middle C; the
note above the top line of the bass staff is the B below middle C.
Activity 2
Are the two notes below at the same sounding pitch?

2 The basics
¡ Yes
They are both the F above middle C.
¡ No

3 Rhythm and metre
3 Rhythm and metre
3.1 Time values

As well as a pitch name, each note has a rhythmic value, called a time value, note value or
duration. Those most commonly found in present-day usage are shown in Example 13.
Example 13
Notice that in order to differentiate these symbols for time values:
● all have stems apart from the semibreve

● the note heads of the semibreve and minim are open, whereas those for the shorter
values are filled in
● the quaver has a flag (or tail), always drawn on the right-hand side of the stem, the
semiquaver has two flags and the demisemiquaver, three.
You will probably have noticed too that the duration of each time value is half that of the
one above. Therefore two minims last the same duration as a semibreve; two crotchets
last the same duration as a minim; and so on. This also means that four crotchets last the
same duration as a semibreve, as do eight quavers or sixteen semiquavers. Example 14
maps out these relationships:
Example 14

3 Rhythm and metre
3.2 Triplets
In Section 3.1, Example 14, you saw that as you move down the list of time values from
semibreve to semiquaver, each successive time value is half the length of the one above
(for example, you saw that a quaver is half the length of a crotchet). However, you can
divide a time value not only by two but by any number you want. The most frequent
division you will come across, the next in frequency to the default division of two, is where
a time value is divided into three equal components – say a crotchet divided into three
quavers or a minim divided into three crotchets. This is called a triplet. As you can see and
hear in Example 15, the crotchet is divided into three triplet quavers, the minim into three
triplet crotchets.
Example 15
At this stage, you needn’t worry about this in any detail. However, notice in Example 15
how triplets are notated with a figure three over or under the relevant notes, the figure
often being combined with either a curved line or square bracket.
3.3 Time signatures

The rhythm of a piece of western music – whether it is simple or complex – is underpinned
by a steady pulse or beat, and these beats are grouped together to give the music’s
metre. The music examples in this section include a click track to help you follow the
beats. The most common groupings are in twos, threes and fours and these groupings are
created by a pattern of stronger and weaker stresses. Thus, a three-beat pattern would
consist of strong-weak-weak beats. In notated music, each group is marked out by a bar
line – so from now on we will talk about how many beats there are in each bar.

3 Rhythm and metre
Time signatures, which consist of two numbers aligned vertically, are placed at the
opening of a piece of music to signify which metre is being used. (The time signature is
then omitted for the rest of the piece, unless it is changed to another.) In the time
signatures discussed in this section, the lower figure can be understood as the value of
each beat expressed in relation to a semibreve (whole note). The number 2 represents a
minim (half note), 4 represents a crotchet (quarter note), 8 represents a quaver (eighth
note), and so on. The upper figure tells you the number of beats in the bar.
● In 2/4 there are two crotchets per bar. The lower number, 4, represents a crotchet
because there are 4 crotchets (quarter notes) in a semibreve (whole note), and the
upper number tells you that there are 2 beats, i.e. two crotchets, in a bar.
● In 3/2 there are three minims per bar. The lower number, 2, represents a minim
because there are 2 minims (half notes) in a semibreve, and the upper number tells
you that there are 3 beats, i.e minims, in a bar.
● In 3/8 there are three quavers per bar. The lower number, 8, represents a quaver
because there are 8 quavers (eighth notes) in a semibreve, and the upper number
tells you that there are 3 beats, i.e. quavers, in a bar.
Example 16 summarises the meaning of these three time signatures.

Example 16
Example 17 shows various straightforward rhythms in different time signatures.

Example 17

3 Rhythm and metre
Notice in Example 17 that 4/4 can also be written as C (Common time), and 2/2 as a C
with a vertical stroke through it (alla breve). Notice too that each bar includes the correct
number of time values to make up the required number of beats shown by the upper
number of the time signature, and that each bar’s group of beats is marked off with a bar
line for ease of reading. Finally, the concluding bar line is written as a double bar.
Consider Example 17 carefully, spending as much time as you need in order to become
proficient at adding together the number of beats in each bar, as signified by the top
number of the time signature. (Pay particular attention when there are shorter values
present such as quavers and semiquavers.) Additionally, make sure that you have
identified the beat correctly as shown by the bottom number in the time signature – is it a
minim (2), a crotchet (4) or a quaver (8)?
3.4 Review 2
The following activities begin with Group 1 – a series of activities that asks you to identify
note values. In Group 2, one or more time values from a bar has been omitted, and you
will therefore have to work out what they are. You need to be absolutely sure as to the
length of each time value and how each fits together with the other time values in
each bar.
Group 1: time values
Activity 1
Which of the following statements is correct?

3 Rhythm and metre
o A minim has an open note head and a stem.

o A crotchet lasts twice as long as a quaver.
o Four semiquavers equal two crotchets in length.
o A semibreve lasts as long as four crotchets.
o A quaver has a flag drawn on the left-hand side of the stem.
o Six triplet quavers equal two crotchets in length.
o A demisemiquaver has three flags.
Group 2: identifying omitted time value(s)
Activity 1
Which single time value is required at the place marked with the asterisk?
¡ quaver
¡ crotchet
¡ minim
Answer
The time signature, 2/4, has two crotchet beats per bar. Since the first bar contains
only one crotchet, another is needed.
Activity 2
¡ crotchet
¡ minim
¡ semibreve
Answer
The time signature, 4/4, has four crotchet beats per bar. Since the second bar contains
no rhythmic value, a semibreve (which is equal to four crotchets) is needed.
Activity 3

3 Rhythm and metre
¡ quaver
¡ crochet
¡ minim
Answer
The time signature, 3/4, has three crotchet beats per bar. Since the third bar contains
only one crotchet, a minim (which is equal to two crotchets) is needed.
Activity 4
Which single time value is required at each of the places marked with asterisks?
¡ quaver/crotchet
¡ quaver/minim
¡ crotchet/minim
Answer
The time signature, 2/4, has two crotchet beats per bar. Since the second bar contains
only a crotchet and a quaver, another quaver is needed to make up the two crotchet
beats. The third bar lacks a value and therefore a minim (which is equal to two
crotchets) is required.
Activity 5
¡ crotchet/minim
¡ crotchet/semibreve
¡ minim/semibreve
Answer
The time signature, 4/4, has four crotchet beats per bar. Since the first bar contains
only two crotchets, a minim (which is equal to two crotchets) is needed. The third bar
lacks a value and therefore a semibreve (which is equal to four crotchets) is required.
Activity 6

3 Rhythm and metre
¡ minim/quaver
¡ crotchet/quaver
¡ minim/crotchet
Answer
The time signature, 3/4, has three crotchet beats per bar. Since the first bar contains
only a crotchet, a minim (which is equal to two crotchets) is required. The second bar
contains only a minim (which equals two crotchets) and a quaver, and therefore
another quaver is needed to make up the three crotchet beats.
Activity 7
Which single time value is required at the place marked with an asterisk?
¡ semiquaver
¡ quaver
¡ crotchet
Answer
The time signature, 3/8, has three quaver beats per bar. Since the first bar includes
only two quavers and a semiquaver, another semiquaver is needed to make up the
three quaver beats.
Activity 8
Which single time value is required at the place marked with an asterisk?
¡ crotchet
¡ minim
¡ semibreve

3 Rhythm and metre
Answer
The time signature, 3/2, has three minim beats per bar. Since the second bar includes
only one minim, a semibreve (which equals two minims) is needed to make up the
three minim beats.
3.5 Dots and ties

In Section 3.1, Example 14 we outlined the time values of each type of note. Here is a
reminder of those note values:
However, a time value of each type of note can be lengthened (and therefore changed)
through the use of:
● a dot or
● a tie.
A dot after any value extends that value by half as much again. Therefore a dotted
crotchet lasts for a crotchet plus a half a crotchet (i.e. a quaver). In other words, as shown
in Example 18, it lasts for the duration of three quavers in total.
Example 18
The dot is placed to the right of the note head, in the same space if the note head is in a
space, or above the line if a note head is on a line. Example 19 summarises these
principles.
Example 19

3 Rhythm and metre
As you learned in Section 3.3, bar lines mark off groups of beats according to the time
signature. In 4/4 time, therefore, there cannot be any more than four beats per bar. If we
want to extend a time value where the lengthened value crosses a bar line, a tie can be
used, as shown in Example 20. In this particular example, the effect of the tie is the same
as if we had used a dot: the value of the minim is increased by a half (because it is joined
to a crotchet which is half the value of a minim).
Example 20
However, as shown in Example 21, a tie can also be used to increase a value by a
different fraction. So as Example 21 (a) shows, a minim can be tied to a quaver, the
quaver being a quarter of the minim’s value; and as shown in Example 21 (b), a crotchet
can be tied to a semiquaver, the semiquaver being a quarter of the crotchet’s value. Either
can take place within a bar or across a bar line.
Example 21
You can tie any number of adjacent notes together in this way – but the tied notes must
always have the same pitch. The ties must also be placed on the ‘outside’ of the note
heads as you can see in Example 21.
3.6 Grouping and beaming notes

So far, when writing notes with flags such as quavers and semiquavers, each one has
been written separately. However, for ease of reading, groups of quavers and
semiquavers are joined or ‘beamed’ together. Thus, the previous example should more
properly be written as shown in Example 22. In Example 22 (a) the two quavers are
beamed together with a single beam, and in Example 22 (b) the four semiquavers are
beamed together with a double beam. (Demisemiquavers would need a triple beam.)
Example 22

3 Rhythm and metre
In Example 22 (a) and (b) the beaming joins together notes that belong to a single
beat, and this is a useful rule of thumb to follow when beaming notes together, especially
with more complex examples, as demonstrated in Example 23, which shows one line of
music twice – once unbeamed (Example 23 [a]) and once beamed (Example 23 [b]).
Example 23
However, the following groupings shown in Example 24 are also used. Although these
groupings break the ‘show each beat’ rule, they are treated as conventions.
Conventions that break the ‘show each beat rule’

● Example 24 (a) Where there is a complete set of quavers in a bar of 2/4, these
can be beamed together with one beam rather than with two beams as two sets of
two quavers. A similar convention is allowed for a complete set of quavers in a bar
of 3/4 – only one beam is needed.
● Example 24 (b) In 3/4, where four quavers ‘replace’ a minim, only one beam is
needed instead of two.
● Example 24 (c) Similarly, in 4/4, where four quavers ‘replace’ a minim, only one
beam is needed instead of two. However, in 4/4, the beam joining the four quavers
cannot extend across the middle of the bar.
● Example 24 (d) In 3/8, all quavers and semiquavers in a bar can be beamed
together.
Example 24

3 Rhythm and metre
There are several exceptions to the ‘show each beat’ rule here and it will take you time to
absorb them. Perhaps the best way to tackle this is to pause for a moment or two and
examine Examples 23 and 24 carefully once more so that you become familiar with how
the beaming looks visually. Sometimes visual information can be easier to access than
verbal information, particularly if the latter is extensive and detailed. So pause for a little
now, and make an effort to familiarise yourself visually with the beaming patterns.
3.7 Review 3
Now try the activities in Group 1 on time signatures and beaming covered so far in this
section. What is the time signature for each of the five bars? First of all, identify the beat –
is it a minim, crotchet or quaver? Then count how many beats there are in the bar. Where
relevant, thinking about the beaming might help you.
Group 1: identifying time signatures
Activity
Match the time signatures, 3/2, 2/4, 3/4, 4/4 and 3/8 to bar numbers 1–5.
3/4
2/4
4/4

3 Rhythm and metre
3/2
3/8
Bar 1
Bar 2
Bar 3
Bar 4
Bar 5

3 Rhythm and metre
Answer
Bar 1: 3/4 There are three crotchet beats made up from a minim plus two quavers.
Bar 2: 2/4 The beaming shows two crotchet beats.
Bar 3: 4/4 The time values add up to four crotchets in total. Notice that the first two
quavers cannot be beamed together since the beam would cross the middle of the bar.
Bar 4: 3/2 The dotted minim plus crotchet gives two minims and the bar is completed
with another minim.
Bar 5: 3/8 There are three quaver beats. Notice that the four semiquavers plus the
quaver can all be beamed together.
3.8 More time signatures: compound time

The time signatures considered up to now – 2/4, 3/4, 4/4, 2/2, 3/2 and 3/8 – are all
examples of simple time. In simple time, each beat can always be divided into twos, or
multiples of two. And simple time signatures are described fully according to how many
beats in a bar there are as follows:
● 2/4 and 2/2 are called simple duple time since there are two beats to each bar
● 3/8, 3/4 and 3/2 are called simple triple time since there are three beats to each
bar, and
● 4/4 is called simple quadruple time since there are four beats to each bar.
Example 25 a shows a bar of 3/4 time, where there are three beats to the bar, and each
beat is divided into two.
Example 25 (a)
When the beat is divided into threes, the term compound time is used.
For example:
● in 6/8, there are 6 quavers per bar, but these 6 quavers are grouped in two groups of
three – so it is called compound duple time. 6/4 is also called compound duple
time, there are 6 crotchets per bar and these 6 crotchets are grouped in two sets of
three.
● In 9/8 there are 9 quavers per bar, grouped in three groups of three – so it is called
compound triple time.
● In 12/8 time there are 12 quavers per bar, grouped in four groups of three – so it is
called compound quadruple time.
Example 25 (b) shows a bar of 6/8 time. There are two beats to the bar, and each beat is
divided into three.

3 Rhythm and metre
Example 25 (b)
But what is the reason for this different way of grouping the notes in each beat in
compound time? This is because in compound time signatures, the beat is a dotted note
such as a dotted minim (in say, 6/4) or a dotted crotchet (in, say, 6/8) rather than a minim
or a crotchet in simple time signatures such as 3/2 or 3/4. We can see how this affects the
beat division if we consider the bars of 3/4 time and 6/8 time together.
Examples 25 (a) and (b)
If we count the number of quavers in a bar of 3/4 and in a bar of 6/8, the answer is the
same, six. However, in 3/4 there are three crotchet beats per bar, each beat divided into
two quavers. In 6/8 there are two dotted crotchet beats per bar, each beat divided into
three quavers. So 3/4 is simple triple time and 6/8 is compound duple time. In both art and
popular music, composers have explored the variable beat produced by moving between
these two time signatures.
3.9 Grouping and beaming notes in compound time

As with grouping notes within a single beat in simple time, beaming together quavers and
semiquavers that belong to a single beat is a useful guideline to follow when grouping
notes together in compound time. As you learned in the previous section, the beat in such
compound time signatures as 6/8 or 9/8 is the dotted crotchet (equivalent to three
quavers), so with these time signatures all quavers and semiquavers within a beat must
be beamed in groups of three quavers. Example 26 shows how several notes that
comprise a single beat are beamed together in 6/8 time.
Example 26

3 Rhythm and metre
As you can see from Example 26, the extent of the beat is always shown in the beaming –
each group of beamed notes adds up to three quavers (a dotted crotchet). Beaming
together quavers in groups which do not add up to three quavers would suggest a
different time signature where the extent of the beat is a different time value. Thus the
rhythm in 6/8 in Example 27 (a) cannot be written as in Example 27 (b), because
Example 27 (b) suggests 3/4 time. In Example 27 (b) the quavers are beamed together in
twos rather than threes, and this signifies a crotchet beat and hence 3/4.
Example 27
When we consider time values that last for two beats rather than a single one in
compound time, the ‘show the dotted beat rule’ no longer applies. For instance, time
values that last for two beats in 6/8, 9/8 and 12/8 are written as Example 28 (a) rather than
Example 28 (b).
Example 28
Hence, a note lasting a full bar in 6/8 is written as shown in Example 29.
Example 29

3 Rhythm and metre
Finally, notice that a note lasting a full bar in 9/8 time is written as shown in Example 30,
and in 12/8 time as in Example 31.
Example 30
Example 31
As with beaming in simple time, you can see that there is a set of conventions to follow
when beaming in compound time. So, once again, take a few moments to study carefully
the visual patterns involved in Examples 26 and 27.
3.10 Review 4
The following three groups of activities focus on identifying simple and compound time
signatures, and time values in compound time.
Group 1: identifying compound time signatures
Activity 1
Match the time signatures, 6/8, 9/8 and 12/8 to bar numbers 1–3.
When identifying compound time signatures, count how many dotted crotchet beats
there are in a bar. Don’t forget that a dotted crotchet is equivalent to three quavers and
that thinking about the beaming might help you.
6/8
9/8
12/8
Bar 1
Bar 2

3 Rhythm and metre
Bar 3
Answer
Bar 1 – 6/8. There are two dotted-crotchet beats in the bar. The beam joining the first
three notes shows conveniently the extent of the first beat, and the straightforward
crotchet/quaver rhythm comprises the second beat.
Bar 2 – 9/8. Despite the rhythmic complexity introduced by the ties, the beaming
clearly shows three dotted-crotchet beats.
Bar 3 – 12/8. Notice that the rhythmic value that extends through the first two full
dotted-crotchet beats is notated with a dotted minim (not two tied dotted crotchets), but
the division of the second pair of dotted-crotchet beats has to be shown using a tie.
Group 2: identifying simple and compound time signatures
Activity 1
When identifying simple and compound time signatures, identify the beat first – is it, for
example, a minim? Then count how many beats there are in the bar. Remember, too,
to consider the beaming.
Match the time signatures, 3/2, 2/4, 3/4, 4/4, 6/8, 9/8 to bar numbers 1–6.
3/2
4/4
6/8
3/4
9/8
2/4
Bar 1
Bar 2

3 Rhythm and metre
Bar 3
Bar 4
Bar 5
Bar 6
Answer
Bar 1:3/2 There are three minim beats in the bar.
Bar 2:4/4 There are four crotchet beats in the bar. Notice that the beaming for the
quavers cannot extend across the middle of the bar.
Bar 3:6/8 The beaming shows the first dotted-crotchet beat, and the second consists
of a quaver/crotchet rhythm.
Bar 4:3/4 Six quavers in 3/4 can all be beamed together. In 6/8 the beaming of the
quavers would have to show the division of the bar into two dotted crotchets: the first
three quavers and the last three would be beamed separately.
Bar 5:9/8 The beat is a dotted crotchet and there are three of them.
Bar 6:2/4 Despite the rhythmic complexity, the beaming shows two crotchet beats.
Group 3: identifying omitted time values in compound time
Activity 1

3 Rhythm and metre
¡ crotchet/dotted crotchet
¡ crotchet/crotchet
¡ dotted crotchet/dotted crotchet
Answer
The time signature, 6/8, has two dotted-crotchet beats per bar. In the first bar, following
the first dotted-crotchet beat which is conveniently beamed, we need a crotchet to
make up the second dotted-crotchet beat. The three quavers that open the second bar
add up to another dotted-crotchet beat and therefore we need a dotted crotchet to
complete the bar.
Activity 2
¡ dotted crotchet/dotted semibreve

¡ dotted minim/semibreve
¡ dotted minim/dotted semibreve
Answer
The time signature, 12/8, has four dotted-crotchet beats per bar. In the first bar, since
two dotted-crotchet beats are already present, another two are required. A single time
value for this would be a dotted minim. The time value that would extend throughout
the second bar is a dotted semibreve.
Activity 3
¡ crotchet/quaver
¡ crotchet/dotted crotchet
¡ crotchet/crotchet

3 Rhythm and metre
Answer
The time signature, 9/8, has three dotted-crotchet beats per bar. Since, in the first bar,
the fourth and fifth quavers are not beamed together, they are showing the division
between the second and third beats. Therefore the second beat needs a crotchet
before the fourth quaver to make up the second dotted-crotchet beat and the third beat
needs a crotchet after the fifth quaver to make up the third dotted-crotchet beat.

4 Rests
4 Rests
4.1 Values and dots

Just as sound is important in music, so is silence, and therefore every time value has an
equivalent symbol for silence – a rest. Here they are in Example 32:
Example 32
Notice that the number of flags on the quaver, semiquaver and demisemiquaver rests is
the same as the number of flags for their respective time values. In addition, the crotchet,
quaver, semiquaver and demisemiquaver rests sit in the middle of the staff.
The same principle regarding dots applies to rests as well as to time values – the dot
makes the rest half as long again. And the dot is placed after the rest in the third space
from the bottom. Example 33 shows these principles in action.
Example 33

4 Rests
4.2 Grouping rests

When grouping notes, we saw that the main aim was to achieve ease of reading. The
same applies when grouping rests, although there are some exceptions to this rule, which
are explained below. Generally, however, the rule of showing each beat still applies.
Thus, in a bar of 3/4, a crotchet is not followed by a minim rest, but by two crotchet rests,
as shown in Example 34 (a). And a crotchet and quaver are followed, not by a dotted
crotchet rest, but by a quaver and a crotchet rest, as shown in Example 34 (b). Each beat
is shown clearly.
Example 34
Grouping rests: the exceptions to the ‘show each beat’ rule

In a bar of 4/4, if two crotchets are either preceded or followed by two crotchets-
worth of rests, then a minim rest can be used – as Example 35 (a) shows. This rule
reflects the rule for beaming four quavers in 4/4, since, as we noted in Section 3.6, you can
beam together a minims-worth of quavers.
In 4/4, you also cannot group rests across the middle of a bar. Crotchets at each end of
a 4/4 bar are separated by two crotchet rests and not a minim rest, as shown in Example 35
(b). This is a similar concept to the rules for beaming quavers in 4/4 – you cannot beam
across the middle of a bar.
Example 35
Where rests are included that total less than a beat, you need to group in half-beats.
Therefore, two semiquavers at each end of a crotchet beat should be separated by two
semiquaver rests, not a quaver rest, as shown in Example 36 (a). And a single opening
semiquaver should be followed by a semiquaver rest and then a quaver rest, as shown in
Example 36 (b).
Example 36

4 Rests
Again, as with the previous discussions of grouping note values, this grouping of rests
might seem unnecessarily complicated. But the overall aim with grouping both note
values and rests is to try to ensure that the graphic layout on the page is as easily
readable as possible (once, that is, you have learned the rules and the exceptions to the
rules!). Therefore, the design of staff notation has evolved so that the reader can
recognise not only each individual note, but ‘blocks’ of information, such as that contained
in each beat, or even in each bar. This helps to facilitate the reading process, which is
particularly important in fast tempos.
4.3 Grouping rests in compound time

In compound time, you should follow the ‘show each beat’ principle as in simple time. As
you learned in Section 3.8, when dealing with such compound time signatures as 6/8, 9/8
and 12/8, the beat is a dotted crotchet, so each beat’s rest can be written either as a
dotted crotchet rest or as a crotchet rest followed by a quaver rest, as in Example 37.
Example 37
However, in 12/8, which has four beats per bar like 4/4, two dotted crotchet-beat rests at
either the beginning or the end of the bar can be written as dotted minim rests, as in
Example 38.
Example 38
You can see the parallel with 4/4 – Example 39 shows the 4/4 example (Example 35)
compared with the 12/8 example.

4 Rests
Example 39
4.4 More on grouping rests

In general it is better to write as few rests as possible bearing in mind the show each
beat rule (and with such small time values as semiquaver rests, the show each half beat
rule shown in Section 4.2 in Example 36). When you have to read more than three or four
quaver or semiquaver rests in a row, or indeed a mixture of these, it is difficult to assess
quickly just how long the cumulative length of these rests should be. Therefore, providing
you follow the rules for grouping and the exceptions to these, use as few rests as
possible.
Occasionally, and rather intriguingly, you can have a rest within a beat that is beamed, as
shown in Example 40. This makes the beat easier to read.
Example 40
Finally, the only saving grace about grouping rests, is:
For every time signature we’ve discussed, a rest for a whole bar is a semibreve rest,
even for compound time signatures.
With the grouping of rests it takes time to become adept at organising each beat correctly.
As with beaming, you will become familiar with how rests are grouped through looking at
music on a regular basis. You will find that you gradually absorb the visual patterns
created by the grouping of rests to the point where you can spot immediately a rest that
has been used incorrectly. But this takes time, of course. Even so, try the following three
groups of activities in which you are asked to identify missing rests. These exercises will
help you to come to grips with at least some of the conventions involved.

4 Rests
4.5 Review 5
Group 1: identifying a single omitted rest in simple time
Activity 1
Which single rest is required at the place marked with the asterisk?
¡ quaver rest
¡ crotchet rest
¡ minim rest
Answer
Since the two crotchets take up the first half of the first bar in 4/4, the second half can
have a minim rest.
Activity 2
¡ quaver rest
¡ crotchet rest
¡ minim rest
Answer
Since there is already a minim in the second bar, a crotchet rest is needed in 3/4 to
make three crotchet beats overall.
Activity 3
¡ semiquaver rest
¡ quaver rest
¡ crotchet rest

4 Rests
Answer
The second beat in the first bar already contains a semiquaver together with a quaver.
Therefore a semiquaver rest is needed to complete the second beat.
Group 2: identifying two single omitted rests in either compound or

simple time
Activity 1
Which single rest is required at each of the places marked with asterisks?
¡ semiquaver rest/dotted minim rest

¡ quaver rest/dotted minim rest
¡ quaver rest/semibreve rest
Answer
The second beat in the first bar consists of a crotchet and therefore needs a quaver
rest to make up the dotted crotchet beat in 6/8. For the second bar, a whole bar’s rest
in 6/8 is written as a semibreve rest.
Activity 2
¡ quaver rest/semibreve rest

¡ quaver rest/dotted minim rest
¡ semiquaver rest/dotted minim rest

4 Rests
Answer
Since the time values in the first bar add up to two and a half crotchet beats, a quaver
rest is required to complete the bar. For the second bar, a whole bar’s rest in 3/4 is
written as a semibreve rest.
Group 3: identifying three single omitted rests in either simple or

compound time
Activity 1
¡ crotchet rest/quaver rest/dotted crotchet rest

¡ crotchet rest/crotchet rest/crotchet rest
¡ quaver rest/quaver rest/dotted crotchet rest
Answer
Since the first and third beats in the first bar consist of two dotted crotchets, the two
missing rests need to add up to a dotted crotchet – a crotchet rest plus a quaver rest –
thereby completing the bar in 9/8. The second bar also consists of time values that
total two dotted crotchets and therefore a dotted crotchet rest is needed to make up
the bar.
Activity 2
¡ crotchet rest/crotchet rest/minim rest

¡ quaver rest/quaver rest/dotted minim rest
¡ quaver rest/crotchet rest/dotted minim rest

4 Rests
Answer
Since the beat is a dotted crotchet in 12/8, the first beat needs a quaver rest to
complete it, and the fourth beat a crotchet rest. (Notice how in the first bar the two
quavers are not beamed together. Therefore the second quaver marks the beginning
of the fourth beat.) A dotted minim rest, which lasts for two dotted crotchet beats, is
required to complete the second bar, which already includes a dotted minim extending
across the first two dotted crotchet beats in the bar.
Activity 3
¡ semiquaver rest/quaver rest/quaver rest

¡ semiquaver rest/semiquaver rest/quaver rest
¡ quaver rest/semiquaver rest/crotchet rest
Answer
Since the first beat in the first bar begins and ends with a semiquaver, two semiquaver
rests are needed to make up the first crotchet. (Remember the guideline: where rests
totalling less than a beat are included, group in half-beats.) And since the first beat in
the second bar begins with a quaver, a quaver rest is needed to make up the crotchet
beat.

5 Pitch
5 Pitch
5.1 Notes of the bass and treble staves: a reminder

Having considered rhythm, metre and rests in Sections 3 and 4, we can now return to the
discussion of pitch, begun in Section 2, and examine how scales and key signatures are
formed.
In Section 2 you’ll remember that we looked at the treble and bass staves and the role of
clefs. We also identified note names from the bottom of the bass staff to the top of the
treble staff. Finally we looked at the use of ledger lines up to a maximum of three, both
above and below the treble and bass staves. Here, as a reminder, is the complete range
of notes that we identified.
5.2 Semitones and tones, and the scale of C major

If we take a section of the complete range of notes we named, starting at middle C and
proceeding up to one of the other Cs, we have the ascending scale of C major
(Example 41).
Example 41

5 Pitch
Visually, the steady progression of the note heads climbing up the staff suggests that the
note heads and the sounds that they signify are equidistant from each other. This idea
seems reinforced if you play the scale on a keyboard – you simply play up the white notes
from middle C up to the next C.
However, you will spot immediately from Example 42 that there are black notes on the
keyboard as well as the white ones. You will also notice that although these are set back
from the white ones, they alternate with the white ones, or at least do so for much of the
time.
Example 42
For instance, you can see from Example 42 that there is a black note between the C and
the D, and then another one between the D and the E. But there isn’t one between the E
and the F. As we shall see in a moment, this is crucial.
The distance between two notes is called an interval, and the interval between the C and
the black note set slightly back and to its right is a semitone. The interval between this
black note and the D is also a semitone. Two semitones add up to a larger interval, called
a tone, and so, because we have gone up two semitones in total, the interval between C
and D is a tone. The interval between D and E is also a tone – we’ve seen that there is
also a black note set between these two notes. However, between E and F there is no
black note, and so the interval here is only a semitone.
If we now continue up the scale to the next C, we can identify the intervals between each
pair of notes:
Notes of the C major scale

C– Tone
D

5 Pitch
D– Tone
E
E–F Semitone no black note in between
F– Tone
G
G– Tone
A
A–B Tone
B– Semitone no black note in between
C
This pattern of tones and semitones – we can represent it symbolically as T T S T T T S –

provides the structure of the C major scale, and all major scales. It is therefore a good
idea to memorise this structure (which is called the intervallic structure of the major
scale).
5.3 Semitones and tones, and the scale of G major

We saw in the previous section that if we start at middle C and follow the T T S T T T S
pattern we generate the scale of C major. Middle C (and any other C) in the C major scale
is called the tonic or key note – it tells you the key. What if we start on a different note, a
different tonic? If we begin on G instead and follow the same intervallic structure, we
generate the following notes:
Notes of the
G major scale
G– Tone
A
A– Tone
B
B– Semitone
C
C– Tone
D
D– Tone
E
E– Tone
F♯
F♯– Semitone
G
The notes generated are the same as for C major, except for one. There is an F♯ instead of
an F. (Example 43).
Example 43

5 Pitch
The qualifying label, ‘sharp’, indicates that the note has been raised a semitone, and this
is represented by the symbol, #, placed before the note and on the same line or in the
same space as the note head. We needed to raise the F a semitone to F♯ because the
interval required at this point in the pattern is a tone. E–F, as we know from our
examination of the scale of C major, is only a semitone; we therefore need an additional
semitone to make up the tone required by the pattern, T T S T T T S. And a tone above E
is not F, but F♯.
Summary: tones, semitones and scales

i. The intervallic structure for all major scales is T T S T T T S.
ii. We can therefore use this pattern to generate a major scale starting on any note –
after our examination of C major, we tried a G.
iii. The major scales generated, apart from C major, will use a mixture of white and
black notes on a keyboard.
5.4 Major scales having key signatures with sharps

Example 44 shows the major scales starting on C, G, D, A and E.
Example 44

5 Pitch
Notice, firstly, that:
If we compare two scales that lie next to each other in the list, for instance, C major and G
major, the only different note in the lower scale is the seventh note.
Both scales contain Cs, Ds, Es and so on, but in G major, we have F♯ (and not F as in C
major) and this F♯ is the seventh note up the G major scale. Similarly, the note in D major
that is different from those in G major is C♯, also the seventh note, and so on.
Secondly, notice that:
In each scale, the number of notes prefaced by sharps increases by one each time. C
major has none, G major has one note prefaced by a sharp, D major two, A major three and
E major four.
In order to avoid writing a sharp before every F in, say, a piece in G major (that is, a piece
based on the scale of G major), a key signature, as shown in Example 45, is supplied at
the beginning of each staff. At the opening of a piece, the key signature comes after the
clef but before the time signature. The patterning of the sharps in the key signatures is
logical, at least as far as four sharps. However, only the F♯ on the top line of the treble staff
is shown, not the F♯ in the bottom space, and, similarly, only the C♯ in the third space from
the bottom is written in, not the C♯ on the first ledger line below the staff. Although this is
far from logical, it at least simplifies the visual information being presented.
Example 45

5 Pitch
Before leaving this section, have another look at Example 44, and confirm how each scale
is generated by the T T S T T T S pattern. Also, identify which notes need sharps in the
different scales. Then consider the key signatures in Example 45 and how these relate to
the scales in Example 44.
5.5 Semitones and tones and the scale of F major

So far, the scales we have discussed have, apart from C major, included notes prefaced
by sharps. However, if we start a scale on notes different from those we’ve already tried,
the generating pattern T T S T T T S can involve the use of flats instead of sharps. You’ll
remember that a sharpraises a note by a semitone; conversely, a flat, shown by the
symbol, ♭ , lowers a note by a semitone. As with the sharp sign, #, the flat sign, ♭, is written
before the note to which it applies, and is placed on the same line or in the same space as
the note head. Both sharps and flats are called accidentals and will be covered in more
detail in Section 6.
Here is the series of notes generated if we start on F:
Notes of the F
major scale
F– Tone
G
G– Tone
A
A– Semitone
B♭
B♭– Tone
C
C– Tone
D
D– Tone
E
E–F Semitone
Here, the only note that is different from those in C major is the B♭. (C major has B.) But B♭
was necessary here because the third interval in the T T S T T T S pattern is a semitone,
not a tone, and therefore the note a semitone below B is required, i.e. B♭, not B. On a
keyboard, as you can see from Example 46, this is the black note set back between A
and B.
Example 46

5 Pitch
You may have wondered why one black note is a sharp (as we saw with F♯) and another is
a flat, the B♭. The answer is that notes on a keyboard can be called different things
depending on their context. Major (and, as we shall see, minor) scales are seven-note
(heptatonic) scales, and each note has a different letter name. Thus, the seven letter
names in F major are F G A B(♭) C D E. They are not called F G A A(♯) C D E, because this
would mean A comes twice and there is no B. On the keyboard, then, B♭ and A♯ are the
same note, but when writing the scale of F major, B♭ is used, not A♯.
5.6 Major scales having key signatures with flats

Example 47 shows the major scales starting on C, F, B♭, E♭ and A♭.
Example 47

5 Pitch
Again, as with the group of major scales with sharps in Example 44, there are two points
worth noting.
Firstly:
If we compare two scales that lie next to each other in the list, for instance, C major and F
major, the only different note in the lower scale is the fourth note.
Both scales contain Cs, Ds, Es and so on, but in F major, we have B♭ (and not B as in C
major), and this B♭ is the fourth note up the F major scale. Similarly, the note in B flat major
that is different from those in F major is E♭, also the fourth note, and so on.
Secondly:
In each scale, the number of different notes prefaced by flats increases by one each
time. C major has none, F major has one note prefaced by a flat, B flat major two, E flat
major three and A flat major four.
Example 48 shows the key signatures for these keys.

Example 48
Now that we have discussed the major scales with up to four sharp and four flat key
signatures, have a look at the summary chart of these scales and their key signatures in
Example 49. Work through this chart at a pace that allows you to pass quickly over those
scales that you feel you know, but spend more time over those you are less sure of.
Always bear in mind the overriding principle – T T S T T T S.
Example 49

5 Pitch
Now try the following two activities that assess your knowledge of key signatures of up to
four flats or four sharps, and of the major scales that have these key signatures.

5 Pitch
5.7 Review 6
Group 1: identifying key signatures of up to four sharps or four flats
Activity 1
Match the keys of C major, G major, D major, A major, F major, A flat major to the key
signatures below.
G major
F major
A major
C major
A flat major
D major

5 Pitch
Answer
G major The key signature for G major has one sharp.
F major The key signature for F major has one flat.
A major The key signature for A major has three sharps.
C major The key signature for C major has neither sharps nor flats.
A flat major The key signature for A flat major has four flats.
D major The key signature for D major has two sharps.
Group 2: identifying major scales with key signatures of up to four

sharps and four flats
Activity 1
Match the key signatures of one sharp, two sharps, one flat, two flats to the major
scales below. With each activity, don’t forget to check which clef is being used. Each
scale starts on its tonic or key note.
Two sharps
Two flats
One flat
One sharp

5 Pitch
Answer
D major You need to add a key signature of two sharps to make this a D major scale
beginning on the tonic.
B flat major You need to add a key signature of two flats to make this a B flat major
scale beginning on the tonic.
F major You need to add a key signature of one flat to make this an F major scale
G major You need to add a key signature of one sharp to make this a G major scale
5.8 Minor scales: the natural form

The major scale is only one of the group of scales used in both western art and western
popular music as the basis of composition. Another is the minor scale. As we’ve seen,
the major scale has only one form generated by the intervallic pattern, T T S T T T S. By
contrast, the minor scale has three forms, which all use the same key signature:
1. natural
2. melodic
3. harmonic.
We know that the key signature for C major has no sharps or flats. For the A minor scale,
this is the same. Here is the natural form of the scale:
Example 50
You’ll notice that it is similar to the major scale in that it can be played on a keyboard using
only the white notes. The only difference is that it begins not on C, but on A. However, this
alters the intervallic structure. Instead of T T S T T T S, we get:
The
intervallic
structure of
the natural

5 Pitch
form of the A
minor scale
A– Tone
B
B– Semitone
C
C– Tone
D
D– Tone
E
E– Semitone
F
F– Tone
G
G– Tone
A
We can represent this symbolically as T S T T S T T.
5.9 Minor scales: the melodic and harmonic forms

The second form of the A minor scale, the melodic form, has two types of intervallic
structure – the ascending structure is different from the descending structure. The
descending pattern is the same as the natural form covered in the previous section. The
ascending pattern is as shown below:
The intervallic
structure of
the melodic
form of the A
minor scale
(ascending).
The
descending
structure is
the same as
for the natural
form of the
minor scale
A–B Tone
B–C Semitone
C–D Tone
D–E Tone
E–F♯ Tone
F♯– Tone
G♯

5 Pitch
G♯– Semitone
A
Symbolically, this ascending structure can be represented as T S T T T T S.

Example 51 shows the A minor melodic scale, both ascending and descending.
Example 51
In the ascending version, notice that the need to raise both the F and the G to F♯ and G♯
respectively does not affect the key signature – these sharpened notes are simply
ignored. Instead, when F♯s or G♯s are required in the music, the sharps have to be written
in for each note, or at least as often as is necessary. We’ll consider the guidelines for how
to deal with this in Section 6 on accidentals and we’ll also discuss the role of another
accidental, the natural, shown by the symbol ♮. In Example 51, the bracketed naturals
remind us that, whereas in the ascending scale the F and G become F♯ and G♯
respectively, in the descending form the G and F remain as G and F.
The third and final form of the A minor scale is the harmonic minor (which has the same
intervallic structure both ascending and descending). It contains elements from both the
ascending form of the melodic minor (the G♯) and the descending form (the F). The
consequence of this is that the interval between F and G♯ is a tone plus a semitone, an
interval that we haven’t met in a scale before:
The intervallic
structure of the
harmonic form of
the A minor scale.
The structure is the
same both
ascending and
descending
A–B Tone
B–C Semitone
C–D Tone
D–E Tone
E–F Semitone
F–G♯ Tone + semitone
G♯–A Semitone
Symbolically, this ascending structure can be represented as T S T T S T + S S.

5 Pitch
The A minor harmonic scale is shown in Example 52. Again, the need to raise the G to G♯
does not affect the key signature, which, as you know, has no sharps or flats.
Example 52
It is true that minor scales are more complicated than major ones. However, the
differences between the three forms are less complex than a quick glance might suggest.
If we compare the three forms of the A minor scale (see Example 53), you can see that
these differences relate to only two questions: (i) whether the sixth note and/or seventh
note up the scale is sharpened, and (ii) whether the ascending and descending forms of
the scale are the same. So the differences are not as great as it might first appear. The
first five notes of each of the three forms (when ascending, and the last five notes when
descending) are exactly the same, and, as noted earlier, the descending form of the
melodic minor has the same intervallic structure as the natural minor.
Example 53
5.10 Relative minor and relative major

Because the scales of C major and A minor have the same key signature, they are clearly
related. Indeed, the key of A minor is called the relative minor of C major. Conversely, C
major is called the relative major of A minor. If we look at the relationship between C and
A on a keyboard in Example 54, we can count the number of semitones between them
(it’s quicker to do this counting from C down to A rather than C up to the higher A). The
result is three – C–B, B–B♭, B♭–A. So the relative minor of a major key, and the minor key
that has the same key signature, is three semitones lower than its major counterpart.
By following this principle, we can work out the relative minor key of G major, the second
major key we examined in Section 5.3. Look at Example 54 again. Three semitones down

5 Pitch
from G, namely: G–F♯, F♯–F and F–E is E. E minor is thus the relative minor of G major
and has the same key signature, one sharp.
Example 54
If we now follow the intervallic patterns we discovered in the various forms of the minor
scale – the pattern of the natural form was T S T T S T T, for instance – we can generate
the three forms of the E minor scale shown in Example 55. Fundamentally, we have only
one different note from those we had in the scale of A minor, the F♯. However, with the
three different forms (natural, harmonic and melodic) the same question arises with
regards to the sixth and seventh notes up the scale – should one or both be sharpened
or not?
Example 55
You can find a summary chart of the minor scales with up to four-sharp and four-flat key
signatures in Example 56. Study this carefully – minor scales, especially those with three
or four flats or sharps, are more difficult to grasp than their relative-major counterparts. So
take time over this.
Example 56

5 Pitch

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An introduction to music theory

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1.1 Working through the course

2.1 The staff

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2.3 The great staff

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2.4 Middle C and ledger lines

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2.5 Writing notes

Example 11 provides examples of these points.

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2.6 Reading notes

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Group 1: writing notes

Group 2: identifying note names on the treble staff

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Group 3: identifying note names on the bass staff

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Group 5: identifying note names of notes with ledger lines

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Group 6: identifying more note names of notes with ledger lines

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3 Rhythm and metre

3.1 Time values

Notice that in order to differentiate these symbols for time values:

● all have stems apart from the semibreve

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3.3 Time signatures

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Example 16 summarises the meaning of these three time signatures.

Example 17 shows various straightforward rhythms in different time signatures.

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Group 1: time values

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o A minim has an open note head and a stem.

Group 2: identifying omitted time value(s)

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3.5 Dots and ties

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