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Directed Learning Experience

Content Area Literacy in Elementary Classrooms

Alexandra Dickens

University of Nevada, Las Vegas

CIG 697: Culminating Experience

Dr. Sophie Ladd

November 1, 2020
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Introduction

Content area literacy allows students to use nonfiction texts from other content areas as

tools for building literacy skills. Working with nonfiction texts calls for a different set of

strategies which students must be taught explicitly. In the elementary school environment, many

believe the focus in the early grades should be learning to read and starting in 4th grade should

become reading to learn. The “unsupported believe is that young children cannot handle

informational text, that narrative genres are the primary, if not the only, means by which young

children can understand and communicate in the world around them” (Duke, 2003, p. 2). Today

we are seeing a new trend: teachers are using nonfiction texts in the elementary grades and even

younger. With a greater emphasis being placed on nonfiction texts due to availability, Common

Core State Standards, and standardized testing, teachers are now using content area texts to help

students acquire skills to become familiar with nonfiction. Studies have shown that even if

students are not yet able to read, they can still retain knowledge about nonfiction texts (Gambrell

& Morrow, 2015, p. 251). Beginning nonfiction instruction in the early grades can set students

up for success later in their educational careers.

Literacy with Nonfiction Texts

“We live in an expository world. If we want young readers to effectively use this genre,

they must be taught the necessary skills” (Palmer & Stewart, 2005, p. 426). Elementary age

students can benefit from reading nonfiction texts by gaining new knowledge while practicing

literacy skills to support comprehension. Palmer and Stewart (2005) present three models that

support the structure of nonfiction learning. They suggest that teachers first lead directed

instruction, allow students to have scaffolded investigations, and finish learning with

independent investigations.
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To help students build background knowledge, set a purpose for reading, and learn how

to approach a nonfiction text, students need to be explicitly taught how to read a text to find

facts. Building background knowledge for students is an important way to begin an

informational lesson because as acknowledged in the Schema Theory, created by Sir Frederic

Bartlett, learners can begin to combine the knowledge they already know with new learning.

When students are already knowledgeable about a topic, it is easier for them to acquire new

information. Teacher led activities can involve “instructional practices such as webbing,

vocabulary activities, anticipation guides, and previewing [to] build and activate students’

schemata prior to reading” (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 61). Teachers must show students that,

unlike fictional text, nonfiction texts don’t necessarily need to be read in entirety. They can use

the text features to navigate through the book. Using read alouds is a great way for teachers to

model appropriate reading behaviors. “Listening to and discussing nonfiction can activate

background knowledge and motivate young readers to learn more about a topic” (Palmer &

Stewart, 2005, p. 427).

After leading a teacher centered lesson, teachers can release some of the responsibility to

the students by allowing them to work in groups or pairs to complete comprehension activities

such as a writing response, or answering questions about the reading. When students are able to

synthesize their learning, they build knowledge and comprehension skills to support their reading

(Palmer & Stewart, 2005). During this stage, teachers can monitor student learning, guide

groups if needed, and provide prompt feedback to make sure students are on the right track.

The last step in this scaffolded process is to allow students to choose their own topic to

form questions, search for information, and create a representation of their learning. Students are

often motivated by the opportunity to explore topics of their own interest. Inquiry Theory,
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developed by John Dewey, highlights learning in which a student can “actively create his or her

own learning” (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 59). By choosing their own topic, students take

responsibility for discovering a subject they would like to know more about, and answering

questions on their own. Allowing students choice increases the chance that they will feel

motivated by their work. This also reflects Engagement Theory in which Guthrie argues that

students who are engaged in their reading “are also mentally active, using metacognitive

strategies to build their understanding of the conceptual content of texts” (Tracey & Morrow,

2017, p. 146). If students are using their self regulating processes to determine if they are

actually understanding the reading, they are also developing comprehension skills which are key

for approaching nonfiction texts.

The gradual release of responsibility from teacher to student is essential for providing

scaffolded support for students who are learning to navigate nonfiction texts, but students must

also be taught how to read text to find information. “[T]eaching common expository text

structures, such as description, sequence, comparison and contrast, cause and effect, and problem

and solution”(Moss, 2005, p. 52) can help students identify ways to approach the text to find

information.

Digital Resources

In today’s society, students must not only be able to navigate printed texts, but knowing

how to navigate digital sources allows them to find much more information right at their

fingertips. “The ability to use the Internet to access information quickly, sift through volumes of

text, evaluate content, and synthesize information from a variety of sources is essential to success

at school” (Moss, 2005, p. 46). The Multiliteracies Theory, developed by the New London

Group, focuses on a new set of skills students must master in order to access online materials that
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are changing day by day (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 177). Teachers can use both print and

digital sources when teaching students how to read nonfiction texts by scaffolding activities so

that learners can feel confident in their abilities to eventually work independently.

Literacy in Social Studies

Many teachers opt to focus on reading and writing strategies in subject areas such as

social studies. As students continue to practice their comprehension skills, the texts will become

more and more complex. Eventually, it will be necessary for students to be taught that texts in

social studies are not necessarily read in the same ways as other nonfiction texts. Other

strategies may be necessary in order for them to understand the concepts that are emphasized.

Though vocabulary should be taught to activate background knowledge, students should

be familiar with the kinds of vocabulary that appear in social studies texts. For example, social

studies texts may use “terminology that may be ideological in nature. Historical terms like the

Middle Ages, Dark Ages, Civil War, and War Between the States do more than name events;

they convey a political position on the events” (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2014, p. 636). Providing

vocabulary instruction helps to provide content specific background knowledge to students

before they read, scaffolding their experience.

Teachers should provide students with a variety of text types in the social studies content

area so that students can gain exposure to the multiple sources through which information can be

gathered. Reading aloud biographies, autobiographies, explanations, letters, or speeches allows

students to understand the types of texts that are related to social studies. Each of these texts

would be approached in a different way. Because of this, students will need explicit instruction.

After listening to read alouds of different types of texts, students can begin to select social

studies texts on their own.

It is also important to acknowledge that students should not only be using nonfiction texts

in order to learn new knowledge, but they should also be taking an active role in their learning by

participating in content specific activities. Much of early elementary nonfiction text provides

information to students without them needing to question the validity. As they move into content

specific texts, with social studies often using primary sources, teachers should provide students

with examples of how historians use social studies texts, and show students how to read these

sources critically by asking questions about the information presented (Shanahan & Shanahan,

2014, p. 637). Students should be encouraged to pay close attention to the time period the text

was written, who the author is, who the intended audience is, and the point of view or stance of

the author. Siebert et al. (2016) suggests that the content area literacy movement in social

studies requiring students to participate in social studies instruction, rather than just reading for

knowledge, would mean that students should be practicing to participate in the discipline by

“analyz[ing] how writers’ perspectives influenced their reporting of history and critqu[ing] the

usefulness of historical sources for a specific historical inquiry”(p. 26 ). As students become

more comfortable navigating social studies texts, they can begin to compare and contrast

opposing perspectives and develop their own opinions about their sources and whether or not

their information should be considered valid.

To support comprehension in social studies, students should use graphic organizers

related to the different text structures often found in social studies texts. Organizing information

that focuses on cause and effect or sequence of events can help students visually understand their

learning. They should “look for expository organizational patterns that can guide understanding,

as for example, patterns that move from identification of causes to their effects and from

identifying problems to explaining the solutions” (Ganske & Fisher, 2010, p. 175). In organizing
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their thoughts on paper, they can begin to synthesize the information with partners and look for

similarities and differences between peers’ notes.

Once students develop the skills to critically think about their social studies texts, they

can then create their own representations of their learning through the use of reports, slide shows,

or posters to prove their comprehension of the text. Their understanding of social studies sources

will be evidenced by the activity of synthesizing the information. Allowing students to be

creative with their assignments, and not just completing an essay, will allow stronger

comprehension skills to build as students begin to think outside of the box.

Literacy in Science

Building background knowledge in science can also begin with vocabulary instruction, as

the discipline of science has its own technical vocabulary too. “Technical words in science often

are built from Greek and Latin roots and combining forms. This often means that scientific

names not only reveal what a word means but also its relationship to other words (e.g., annual,

perennial)” (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2014, p. 638). As students begin to become more familiar

with technical vocabulary, they should start to define terms on their own. In this way, even

activities that are normally part of the teacher directed lesson, begin as a scaffold for students to

develop understanding. Throughout the year, these activities should gradually shift to be the

student’s responsibility. “[T]eachers need to find ways to help students build background

knowledge, decode new vocabulary words independently, and construct meaning by asking and

answering questions when encountering new science material” (Ganske & Fisher, 2010, p. 191).

Students must be exposed to different types of scientific text, so that they become

familiar with the different sources of information from which they can gain knowledge. Sharing

read alouds using informational picture books, articles from newspapers, essays, or “how to”
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books, can not only help students learn how to navigate through scientific materials, but they will

be “more likely to be able to make personal connections that will assist them in building

background knowledge” (Ganske & Fisher, 2010, p. 193). It is also recommended that students

be presented with alternative perspectives on popular issues such as global warming, what should

be done about water parks with animals, and other debatable topics to “guide students to

understand the nature of debate, discussion, and scientific review” (Ganske & Fisher, 2010, p.

193). Teachers should be modeling for students that while historical texts from the past might

not be contested, scientists often look for current research to prove scientific theories or gain new

knowledge. This also means scientists are able to “place greater trust in their interpretations”

(Shanahan & Shanahan, 2014, p. 637). Students must also be taught that although

comprehension strategies such as summarizing, comparing and contrasting, and questioning can

be used in both social studies and science, the focus of these activities changes. Scientists often

look for the ways in which studies were conducted and what materials were used while historians

often look for bias in primary sources. Additionally, primary sources are not as popular in

science as they are in social studies. In fact, current research is most often sought after.

Comprehension activities can allow partners or groups to build knowledge through

teamwork as they ask and answer questions about scientific text together. As students work

together, they can use literacy skills such as rereading, and chunking to fill out graphic

organizers that focus on the scientific method. Another comprehension model teachers use with

science comprehension is a strategy called ReQuest “a routine that encourages thinking during

the reading process and requires that students participate in a question-answer conversation about

a given text” (Ganske & Fisher, 2010, p. 205).

Eventually students will be able to synthesize their learning though the use of science

projects, reports, slideshows, and other creative activities. When students are able to complete

independent work, they show they have comprehended the reading and are understanding the

differences between different types of text. Teachers can assign smaller projects to determine

whether or not students are retaining and understanding information, and larger, more elaborate

projects when students are comfortable with the sources and learning. Allowing students to have

choice in their topic of learning is an engaging way to show comprehension skills have been

acquired and can be demonstrated independently.

Educational Policies

Educational policies are set up in order to help guide schools in providing an education to

students that will ensure their readiness for college and careers. Though policies are often

created with positive outlook, some fall short in actually achieving their written goals. When

this happens, schools and students may fall even further behind as lawmakers struggle to undo

the damage, and teachers are left trying to supplement with their own time, money, and

knowledge. Student learning in reading can also be affected.

CCSD Literacy Framework

The Literacy Instruction Framework is a guide that teachers in the Clark County School

District are directed to follow. The Framework dictates that there should be a total of one

hundred and ten minutes spent daily on reading instruction. Whole group instruction should take

place for twenty-five minutes, analysis of complex texts (either fiction or nonfiction) for another

twenty five minutes, and then differentiated instruction for sixty minutes. The framework also

allots time for a mini lesson in writing, lasting for approximately thirteen minutes, and

independent practice lasting for thirty.

The Framework does more than guide teachers in setting schedules for reading and

writing instruction, but also suggests methods of delivery that have been proven to support

student learning. Teaching strategies such as the gradual release model, annotation, graphic

organizers, and inquiry, are all suggested strategies that have been proven to support

comprehension of informational text.

Although the Framework is a useful tool to help teachers plan instruction, many teachers

point out that at times it is not realistic. For example, when introducing new material, it is at

times necessary to focus more on whole group instruction than guided practice or independent

work. Because young students may need more support or instruction before practicing new

material on their own, whole group lessons may go beyond the twenty five suggested minutes.

On the other hand, when ending a unit, it may be that the majority of students no longer need as

much feedback or support as with teacher led and guided practice and can complete independent

representations of their learning while the teacher works with those who may not have been able

to grasp the tier one lessons.

Read by Grade 3

When whole group lessons, guided practice, and independent activities are not enough for

students to understand the concepts learned and they are still struggling with their reading, other

methods need to be taken. In the summer of 2015, Nevada introduced the Read by Grade 3 Act

which was “​designed to dramatically improve student achievement by ensuring that all students

will be able to read proficiently by the end of the 3rd grade” according to the Nevada

Department of Education (2017). This allowed for schools to place greater emphasis on reading

instruction and setting up plans for students who were struggling with meeting goals. Teachers

were also required to hold small group interventions for struggling readers with 7 students or
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less. This would allow students to receive specialized instruction to try to remedy their reading

deficiencies.

During the 2016-2017 school year, Nevada released the Nevada K.I.D.S. program which

was based on the foundations of the original Read by Grade 3 Act. This program still focused on

having teams of teachers, administrators, and reading specialists create individualized plans for

students who are struggling with their reading, providing targeted small group instruction, and

progress monitoring to determine achievement and next steps. Information promised that

although the first group of students to be retained by this law would be in third grade during the

2020-2021 school year, that the program was “is not simply about retention. Rather, the true

spirit of this entire effort is to provide effective early interventions for all K-3 students who are

struggling in reading” according to the Nevada Department of Education (2017).

Ideally, this is a great concept. However many teachers were unclear about what should

happen if a student were not able to independently read grade level texts by third grade.

Originally, the Read By Grade 3 letters that were sent out to parents included the warning that

students would be retained, however today, that remark has been removed from the letters.

Other schools had trouble with having enough staff on hand to hold the number of small groups

needed in order to meet the needs of every child. As research shows that being able to read by

third grade sets students up for success in later years, this is an important model. But

adjustments need to be made to ensure that students receive small group instruction and to

determine what should happen if a child does not meet their goals.

Structural Inequities in the School System

There are other factors that affect student reading success and achievement, especially for

students of color. Milner and Lomotney (2014) argue that these problems stem from the
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integration movements in the 1960s, “it was thought that for Black students to achieve on par

with White students they would need to adapt to and exhibit the cultural norms of the dominant

group” (p. 25) They feel this detail has been overlooked and some sources attempt to describe

the inequities as an “‘achievement gap’ rather than as the failure of integration” (p. 26). Gloria

Ladson-Billings (2007) discredits the term “achievement gap” saying that in using this term “we

are suggesting that some groups of students are doing just fine and we have to find a way to get

the groups that are not doing fine to catch up to them” (Ladson-Billings, 2007, p. 316) as if the

students who are ahead will stop and wait for others to reach their level of achievement. She

cites poverty and funding as reasons why achievement for students of color may not be as strong

as the achievement for other students. Structural inequities also play a role in the reason why

students in these communities do not always progress at the same rates and additionally

“[a]chievement gap explanations of educational practices can force educational researchers to

compare culturally diverse students with White students without compelling, nuanced, and

illustrative pictures of the reasons” (rethinking achievement gap talk) students are falling behind.

Low Funding

Schools with little funding may not be able to provide students with the resources needed

to adequately practice skills related to reading informational texts in print or digitally. Palmer &

Stewart (2005) point out that in the past, teachers mostly focused on fictional text instruction.

Now that the addition of nonfiction texts in curriculum is shown to be necessary in the

elementary grades, teachers are tasked with not only finding but providing these materials if their

schools are not able to afford them. Along the same lines, not every school is able to provide

access to technology for every student. Students in schools where there is less funding available
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to ensure one to one technology that works well and can be replaced when broken are at a

disadvantage because they do not have every day access to these resources.

Discipline and Consequences

Another issue related to structural inequalities is disciplinary consequences. Many

teacher preparation programs do not adequately train teachers to work with diverse students

(Hodgkinson, 2002). Because of this, one of the suffering aspects is the fact that students of

color are disciplined more harshly and at a higher rate than White students. Many teachers have

implicit biases that affect their relationships with students, with studies showing that “[t]eachers

with implicit biases are liable to provide biased evaluation of students’ academic performance or

potential, which can negatively impact Black students through self-fulfilling prophecies” (Chin

et al). Studies also show that “implicit bias can contribute to discriminatory discipline by

impacting teachers’ empathy and decision making regarding school discipline” (Whitford &

Emerson, 2019, p. 672). In his research, Smolkowski (2016) revealed that while 8% of Black

elementary students received suspensions in the 2011 - 2012 school year, only 2% of White

students received the same punishments. When students of color are receiving these harsher

punishments, they are not in school to receive these lessons and therefore risk falling behind in

reading or other subject areas.

Free Meals

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs states that students who do not have their basic needs met,

do not learn as well as students who feel safe and secure. Students who may be wondering

where their next meal is coming from, how much there is to eat, or perhaps who haven't eaten,

may not be learning at their full potential. To counteract this, many school districts including the

Clark County School District provide meals for students. In implementing this policy, students
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do not need to worry about being hungry and can focus on the processes of learning and

achieving success in reading and other subjects.

Conclusion

The comprehension of nonfiction texts is a necessary skill, even at the elementary level.

Students must be aware of the different types of texts and content areas, and how to navigate

these resources to find, absorb, and analyze information. Through the use of printed and digital

texts, teachers can help students practice reading for comprehension using appropriate strategies

for the subject area. Keeping in mind the policies and structural barriers that may prevent

students from achieving success, teachers can begin to determine and evaluate ways to help each

child succeed.
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