Introduction to the Electromagnetic Theory

Andrea Latina (CERN)

[email protected]

Basics of Accelerator Physics and Technology

7-11 October 2019, Archamps, France

 Table of contents

I Introduction

I Electrostatics
I E.g. Space-charge forces

I Magnetostatics
I E.g. Accelerator magnets

I Non-static case
I E.g. RF acceleration and wave guides

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 Part 1.

Introduction:
Maxwell’s Equations

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 Motivation: control of charged particle beams
To control a charged particle beam we use electromagnetic fields. Recall the
Lorentz force:  
~ =q· E
F ~ + ~v × B
~

where, in high energy machines, |~v | ≈ c ≈ 3 · 108 m/s. In particle accelerators,

transverse deflection is usually given by magnetic fields, whereas acceleration can
only be given by electric fields.

Comparison of electric and magnetic force:

 
~ 
E  = 1 MV/m
 
~ 
B  = 1 T

Fmagnetic evB βcB 3 · 108

= = ' β = 300 β
Felectric eE E 106
⇒ the magnetic force is much stronger then the electric one: in an accelerator, use
magnetic fields whenever possible.

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 Some references

1. Richard P. Feynman, Lectures on Physics, 1963, on-line

2. J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, Wiley, 1998
3. David J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, Cambridge University Press, 2017
4. Thomas P. Wangler, RF Linear Accelerators, Wiley, 2008

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 Variables and units

E electric field [V/m]

B magnetic field [T]
D electric displacement [C/m2 ]
H magnetizing field [A/m]

q electric charge [C]

ρ electric charge density [C/m3 ]
j = ρv current density [A/m2 ]

0 permittivity of vacuum, 8.854 · 10−12 [F/m]

µ0 = 1
0 c 2 permeability of vacuum, 4π · 10−7 [H/m or N/A2 ]
c speed of light in vacuum, 2.99792458 · 108 [m/s]

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 Differentiation with vectors

I We define the operator “nabla”:

 
def ∂ ∂ ∂
∇= ∂x , ∂y , ∂z

which we treat as a special vector.

I Examples:

∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz

∇·F= + + divergence
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂Fz ∂Fy ∂Fx ∂Fz ∂Fy ∂Fx
∇ × F = ∂y − ∂z , ∂z − ∂x , ∂x − ∂y
curl
 
∇φ = ∂φ∂x , ∂φ
∂y , ∂φ
∂z gradient

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 Maxwell’s equations: integral form
1. Maxwell’s equations can be written in integral or in differential form (SI
units convention):

(1) Gauss’ law;

(2) Gauss’ law for magnetism;
(3) Maxwell–Faraday equation (Faraday’s law of induction);
(4) Ampère’s circuital law

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 Maxwell’s equations: differential form
1. Maxwell’s equations can be written in integral or in differential form (SI
units convention):

(1) Gauss’ law;

(2) Gauss’ law for magnetism;
(3) Maxwell–Faraday equation (Faraday’s law of induction);
(4) Ampère’s circuital law

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 Part 2.

Electromagnetism:
Static case

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 Static case
I We will consider relatively simple situations.
I The easiest circumstance is one in which nothing depends on the time—this is
called the static case:
I All charges are permanently fixed in space, or if they do move, they move as
a steady flow in a circuit (so ρ and j are constant in time).
I In these circumstances, all of the terms in the Maxwell equations which are time
derivatives of the field are zero. In this case, the Maxwell equations become:

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 Electrostatics: principle of superposition

I Coulomb’s Law: Electric field due to a stationary point charge q, located in r1 :

q r − r1
E (r) =
4π0 |r − r1 |3

I Principle of superposition, tells that a distribution of charges qi generates an

electric field:
1 X r − ri
E (r) = qi
4π0 |r − ri |3

I Continuous distribution of charges, ρ (r)

˚
1
r − r0
E (r) = ρ r0 dr
4π0 V |r − r0 |3
˝
with Q = V
ρ (r0 ) dr as the total charge, and where ρ is the charge density.

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 Recall: Gauss’ theorem

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 Electrostatics: Gauss’ law
~ is:
Gauss’ law states that the flux of E
¨ ˆ
~ ·dA=
~ sum of charges inside A
E En da=
A 0
any closed
surface A

We know that
˚
1
r − r0
E (r) = ρ r0 dr
4π0 V |r − r0 |3
In differential form, using the Gauss’ theorem (diver-
gence theorem):
¨ ˚
~ · dA
E ~ = ∇·E~ dr

which gives the first Maxwell’s equation in differential

form:
~= ρ
∇·E
0
Example: case of a single point charge
¨ (
q
~ ~ if q lies inside A
E · d A = 0
0 if q lies outside A
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 Electrostatics: Gauss’ law

The flux of E out of the surface S is zero.

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 Electrostatics: scalar potential and Poisson equation
The equations for electrostatics are:

~ = ρ
∇·E
0
~
∇×E =0

The two can be combined into a single equation:

~ =-∇φ
E

which leads to the Poisson’s equation:

ρ
∇ · ∇φ = ∇2 φ=-
0

Where the operator ∇2 is called Laplacian:

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ · ∇ = ∇2 = + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

The Poisson’s equation allows to compute the electric field generated by arbitrary
charge distributions.
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 Electrostatics: Poisson’s equation
ρ
∇2 φ = −
0
∂2 ∂2 2 

∂ ρ
2
+ + φ=−
∂x ∂y 2 ∂z 2 0

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 Recall: Stokes’ theorem

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 Magnetostatics: Ampère’s and Biot-Savart laws
The equations for electrostatics are:
~ =0
∇·B
~j
~ =
∇×B
0 c 2
The Stokes’ theorem tells that:
˛ ¨  
~ · d~r =
B ~ · dA
∇×B ~
C A

This equation gives the Ampère’s law:

˛ ¨
~ · d~r = 1 ~j · ~n dA
B
C 0 c 2 A

From which one can derive the Biot-Savart law, stating that, along a current j:
˛
~ (~r ) = 1 j d~r 0 × (~r − ~r 0 )
B =
4π0 c 2
C |~r − ~r 0 |3

~ from current distributions.

This provides a practical way to compute B
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 Magnetostatics: vector potential
The equations for electrostatics are:
~ =0
∇·B
~j
~ =
∇×B
0 c 2
~
They can be unified into one, introducing the vector potential A:
~ =∇×A
B ~

Using the Stokes’ theorem

˛
~ (~r ) = 1 j d~r 0 × (~r − ~r 0 )
B =
4π0 c 2 C |~r − ~r 0 |3

one can derive the expression of the vector potential A ~ from of the current ~j:
˚ ~ 0
~ (r ) = µ0
A
j (~r ) 3 0
d ~r
4π |~r − ~r 0 |

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 Summary of electro- and magneto- statics

One can compute the electric and the magnetic fields from the scalar and the vector
potentials
~ = −∇φ
E
~ =∇×A
B ~

with
˚
1 ρ (~r 0 ) 3 0
φ (r ) = d ~r
4π0 |~r − ~r 0 |
˚ ~ 0
~ (r ) = µ0
A
j (~r ) 3 0
d ~r
4π |~r − ~r 0 |

being ρ the charge density, and ~j the current density.

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 Motion of a charged particle in an electric field

 
~ =q· E
F ~ + ~v × S
~
B
S

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 Motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field

 
~ =q· S
F ~
E ~
S + ~v × B

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 Part 3.

Electromagnetism:
Non-static case

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 Magnetostatics: Faraday’s law of induction

“The electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the negative of the time rate
of change of the magnetic flux enclosed by the path.”

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 Non-static case: electromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic wave equation:

~ 0 e i (ωt−~k·~r )
~ (~r , t) = E
E
~ 0 e i (ωt−~k·~r )
~ (~r , t) = B
B

Important quantities:

 
~  2π ω
k  = = wave-number vector
λ c
c
λ= wave length
f
f frequency
ω = 2πf angular frequency

Magnetic and electric fields are transverse to direction of propagation:

~ ⊥B
E ~ ⊥ ~k

Short wave length →high frequency → high energy

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 Spectrum of electromagnetic waves

Examples:
I yellow light ≈ 5 · 1014 Hz (i.e. ≈ 2 eV !)
I LEP (SR) ≤ 2 · 1020 Hz (i.e. ≈ 0.8 MeV !)
I gamma rays ≤ 3 · 1021 Hz (i.e. ≤ 12 MeV !)

(For estimates using temperature: 3 K ≈ 0.00025 eV )

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 Electromagnetic waves impacting highly conductive
materials

Highly conductive materials: RF cavities, wave guides.

I In an ideal conductor:
~ k = 0,
E ~⊥ = 0
B

I This implies:
I All energy of an electromagnetic wave is reflected from the surface of an
ideal conductor.

I Fields at any point in the ideal conductor are zero.

I Only some field patterns are allowed in waveguides and RF cavities.

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 Example: RF cavities and wave guides

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 Example: Fields in RF cavities

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 Example: Consequences for RF cavities

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 Example: Consequences for wave guides

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 Classification of modes

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 Classification of modes

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 ...The End!

Thank you

for your attention!

Special thanks to Werner Herr, for the pictures I took from his slides.
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