MEC18R340 –

COMPOSITE MATERIALS

ASSIGNMENT 1

SURVEY OF COMPOSITE
APPLICATIONS

Submitted by

P.SARAVANA KUMAR

(9917009088)

MECHANICAL 3RD YEAR

Introduction

Machinery and devices placed in service shall comply all

requirements imposed by design, of which the most important are:
functionality, the durability and reliability, cheap and available
materials, easy and low-cost fabrication and assembly, safety of use,
inexpensive and economical operation and low energy consumption
as well as low weight. The necessity to meet the growing
requirements for machinery and devices properties have a major
impact on the evolution of the structure and chemical form of the
material. However, the material cannot be seen only through its
suitability for realization of engineering plans.
Now, we know that materials equally with energy sources and the
methods of communication are fundamental civilizational
achievements of humanity. This can be seen in viewpoint of the
development of our civilization, because only on the basis of material
from which tools can be made, the names of the individual epochs
was given, i.e. stone, bronze, iron, steel. Before our eyes, steel ceased
to rule the world and ability to produce and use new materials has
begun to determine the level of civilization of countries.
Thus, the progress and development of contemporary art are
inextricably linked to materials engineering, which aims to optimize
the design of new construction materials and skilful use of
existing ones. Current trends in the development of materials science
show that the optimal solution in the field of structural design is not
a choice of material, but the design of a structure corresponding to
the
assumed parameters of load and operating conditions, and the
smallest possible number of inevitable technological defects.
However, it should be also taken into account that the new
generation of materials should simultaneously meet specific
functional tasks (sensors, self- diagnosis, self-repair, etc.). These
requirements mean that the current state of knowledge of
materials design is a very difficult task, because it is related to the
theoretical modelling of complex physical and chemical phenomena,
complex experimental research and development of new
processes. Therefore, it is necessary to continue research in this field
and gradually increase the scale of our knowledge, that the descent
from the structure of matter to the level of interatomic interactions.
 In the case of designing the material, its structure and
properties (physical, chemical, nuclear, electrical, mechanical,
technological, etc.) not only creates the nature of the structure
(beam, plate, shell, a load, boundary conditions), but also the
technological process.
Figure 2 illustrates that to design the material for a particular
purpose, a detail analysis of interdependencies that exist between the
four major components: the design - technology - structure -
property should be conducted.

Fig. 2. Design of materials

However, discoveries made up to now have enabled us to practical

application of advanced composite materials (both at the micro and
nano scale), and not just macro composites known since ancient
times (e.g. production of papyrus which revolutionized the way of
storing of information) .
In general, composite material is a material having the following set
of features:

a) not found in nature,

b) consists of two or more chemically and physically distinct phases,

c) has different physical and chemical properties (in the macro

scale) than phases forming it,

d) it is a micro-heterogeneous but it can be described as a quasi-

homogeneous material in the macro scale.

In general, composites can be made of three common materials

existing in nature .

Among many reasons leading to the necessity and need for

application of composite materials in structural engineering as the
most significant are following:

a) low specific weight ρ, but it is also associated with high specific

stiffness (E /ρ) and strength (R/ρ), due to these facts that composite
materials are used for example for the production of missiles, planes,
tanks, ships, etc.,

b) high resistance of the composite materials with the polymer or

ceramic matrix to corrosion; materials used as matrix of composites
are resistant to chemical corrosion, but unfortunately they can
absorb, for example, water,
c) low thermal conductivity - this value is much lower than for steel,
therefore composite materials are used to perform tank rockets or
specialized pipe joints,

d) resistance of composite materials with a ceramic matrix to a high

temperature; this mechanical properties do not change even to a
temperature of 2000°C, for polymer matrix composites resistance is
much lower due to the dependence of the melting temperature of the
matrix,

e) good resistance of composite materials with polymeric matrix to

cracking; using as a measure of the critical stress intensity factor Kc
this resistance is comparable to the resistance of medium carbon
steel and aluminium alloys, and for evaluation by comparing the
ratio of the critical energy release rate Gc corresponds to the
fracture toughness or soft steels Ti alloys; in the case of ceramic
matrix composites, those ratios are much lower,

f) high resistance of the composite materials of the polymer matrix

to local damage; steel structures are very sensitive to local damage,
such as bad performance of the weld, for example, in the roving
wound composite structures rupture of one or more of the fibers
does not affect the continued operation and load capacity of
the structure.
Of course, in the design process it is necessary to take into account
many other factors, such as impact resistance, wear or
manufacturing costs. Currently, the cost of production of composite
materials and products made of them decreases and are comparable
to products made of steel

Nowadays, the development of modern machinery and devices is

related to the use of fibrous composite materials and the correct
utilisation of their properties. The growth of the production of
a variety of composite materials and the rapid development of
technology and research in this field clearly show advantages of
composites over traditional materials such as steel, glass, polymers.
Predictions and trends in the global industry clearly indicate that by
2020, a new generation of construction materials will replace in
75% traditional materials, i.e. steel, concrete, bronze and alloys.
Fibers constituting the composite materials can take various forms
depending on the method of manufacture and further processing of
textiles. They can be delivered to the recipient in the form of
bundles of strands, roving, woven fabrics of various weave and
powders (short fibers) or mat. Individual fiber diameter is close to
the size of the crystals. The fibers generally have a very high
ratio defining a length to a diameter ratio.
Fiber glass, carbon, aramid or natural materials are used in the
polymer matrix composite (PMC). Its main objective is to increase

the rigidity and strength of the matrix. Ceramic fibers (boron,

aluminium, silicon aluminide, silicon carbide) have a high strength
and stiffness and are reinforcement in the ceramic matrix composite
(CMC) or metallic matrix composites (MMC). The main role of
ceramic materials is an increase the resistance to high temperatures
or cracking.

Fig. 5. Various types of reinforcement in composites: a) particles,

b) short fibers, c) continuous fibers, d) plates

Reinforcement determines the four major types of composite

materials (Figure 5) and they are as follows:

a) particles (also known as discontinuous reinforcement),

b) short fiber or whiskers,
c) continuous fibers,
d) plates.

In order to properly design machinery and devices made of

composite materials, we intend to explain and describe why the
material under the influence of various stimuli behaves in a certain
way, which in turn requires an understanding and description of
various physical phenomena. Today we present only a wide range of
examples where composites are involved and where they visibly
enlarged their advantages over conventional materials.

Metal matrix composites

Generally MMC consist of a metal or a metallic alloy being the
matrix and of the reinforcement made of metallic or ceramic
materials. Beside properties of MMC like high specific strength and
stiffness which sometimes may not be those most important, there
are others equally valuable. Mainly, ability to control thermal
expansion in applications involving electronic devices, reduced the
coefficient of linear thermal expansion, high electrical and thermal
conductivity (provide elevated thermal conductivity even in case of
an
accidental quench) or wear resistance. Furthermore, one can list
others including good transverse properties, temperature stability,
improved cyclic fatigue characteristics or low contamination .

Aluminium – carbon (Al-C). It is fiber reinforced composite. The

main advantage is to ensure the minimum effect of strain on cyclic
thermal stress or in the case as the construction works in the
field of non-uniform temperature. Due to this fact, the material is
used in the antenna supports, mirrors and other optical devices and
radio engineering. This enhances the accuracy of the reading mode
devices without using power compensation effect of the thermal
stresses. It is possible to use this composite on space platforms where
there are cyclic changes in working conditions: being in
the shadow of the Earth or in the full sun light.

Aluminium – aluminium oxide (Al-Al2O3). It is fiber reinforced

composite. Its material is used in the power transmission lines,
construction of ships - propellers, torpedoes, and other bodies of
underwater objects. Due to its high stiffness and strength and low
coefficient of thermal expansion it is applied in space structures
such as antennas, platforms, etc. In the automotive industry it is used
for the manufacture of connecting rods, heads of the pistons, brake
elements (required wear resistance and high strength at elevated
temperatures), and in military applications for the production of
bodies of engines or rockets blades and stabilizers.

Aluminium – silicon carbide (Al-SiC). It is fiber reinforced

composite, in which silicon carbide fibers are deposited onto the
tungsten core. Areas of application of composite materials in this
group are the same as for the Al-Al2O3 composites.

Aluminium – reinforced by whiskers or particles. Most products are

composites reinforced with the silicon carbide. The advantage of
composites reinforced with particles, whiskers or short fibers
comparing to composites with long fibers consist primarily in
machining capabilities. Sections, tubes or panels made of these
materials are used in the aerospace industry in all types of structural
elements carrying high loads, such as shafts or parts of aircraft
engine compressor blades, etc.
Magnesium (and its alloys)-boron (Mg-B). It is fiber reinforced
composite, in which the fibers are deposited onto the boron tungsten
core. Materials of this type are not resistant to corrosion.
However, they have a very low density which means that the
effective stiffness and the strength is much higher than that of other
metallic materials. Titanium also has a small thermal expansion
comparable to the expansion of the fibers.

Copper – tungsten, iron, carbon, silicon carbide, niobium-titanium

(Cu-W, Fe, SiC, C, Nb-Ti). The composites of this type are used in
electrochemistry. They are also used as a model to test examples
of the composition of physico-chemical properties. Furthermore,
Nb-Ti filaments are used in superconducting magnets.

Nickel (and its alloys) – tungsten, aluminium oxide, molybdenum,

coal (Ni-W, Al2O3, Mo, C).
Materials of this type are known as heat-resistant materials due to
the resistance to the corrosion and the oxidation at high
temperatures. They are used to perform some elements of machines
and power
equipment, aircraft engines, gas turbines, etc.

Ceramic matrix composites (CMC)

Ceramic composite materials reinforced by continuous or discrete
fibers, whiskers, or particles have the best physical and chemical
properties in applications where a product is light weight and
have high strength at high temperatures (above 800°C) and a very
large resistance to the corrosion and the chemical erosion in the
workplace. They are characterized by a high hardness, a thermal
shock resistance, non-magnetic properties, a wear resistance, a
damage tolerance compared to monolithic ceramics and low
coefficient of thermal expansion. Still an unsolved problem is
providing adequate reinforcement to strengthen brittle matrix.
However, the rate of growth of macro-and micro cracks is small
comparing with other materials. These are materials whose thermal
shock resistance is higher than for homogeneous ceramic materials.
Currently, the best known and most commonly used materials of the
ceramic matrix composite are following:
a) aluminium oxide matrix: Al2O3-SiC, Al2O3-ZrO2, Al2O3-SiC-
ZrO2, Al2O3-SiC,
b) silicon nitride matrix: Si3N4-TiN, Si3N4-SiC,
c) silicon carbide matrix: SiC- SiC, SiC-MeB2, SiC-TiB2.

Examples of application of CMC materials: a) combustion

chamber element, b) brake disc
Area of application materials for ceramic matrix composites is a very
wide and includes the following branches of industry:
Aerospace and aviation: bearings, combustion chamber, fuel system
components, heat shields, turbine components and engines, thermal
protection systems, components of the installation.
Automotive industry: catalytic converters, fuel injection parts, diesel
engines, turbines, turbo rotors,valves.
Biomedicine: artificial teeth, artificial parts of the skeletal system, an
artificial heart valve.
Power engineering: bearings, gas turbines, auxiliary generators, fuel
system components, fusion reactor walls, gas purification filters, heat
exchangers, gas turbines.
Metallurgy and machining: burners, crucibles, insulators, cutting
systems, press molds, heat exchangers, equipment for underwater
use, equipment to operate at high temperatures, heat treatment
furnaces.
Electronics: multilayer capacitors, gas and pressure sensors,
electronic media.
Chemistry: catalysts, detonators, nozzles, screens, radiation,
combustion chambers, heat recovery units, refractories.
Military equipment: weapons parts, engine combustion chamber,
antenna cover, Stealth systems, rocket nozzles, main shafts
submarines, helicopters and aircraft components for rocket
propulsion.

Environmental engineering: devices and systems destined to use in

extreme conditions, boilers for water treatment [14-20].
Polymer matrix composites (PMC)
As the matrix are used two types of materials:
a) thermoplastics - polypropylene, polyamide, polycarbonate,
polysulfone, polysulfone fenyl, polyimide.
b) duroplastics - (thermoplastic resins or chemically hardened) -
polyester, vinyl ester, polybutadiene, epoxy, amino (urea,
melamine), phenol (resols, novols).

Resins are chemically or thermally hardened, thermoplastics

constitute a three-dimensional molecular network, and
thermoplastic - linear chains. The difference in the structure results
that the first one does not plastify during heating, but heating results
in a loss of rigidity, and the upper bound of the functional
capabilities of the composite work. Three-dimensional molecular
network is
obtained from the liquid resin after the addition of the hardener
causing gelation of the resin, i.e., to obtain a solid with isotropic
mechanical properties - hardening is an irreversible process.
Thermoplastics melt when heated (after crossing the so-called glass
transition temperature). Both amorphous and crystalline
thermoplastics exhibit anisotropic properties dependent on the
curing
conditions. They are used for short fiber composites.
Polymer composite materials are reinforced by long or short fibers.
The most commonly used fiber types are listed below.
Glass fibers - for their production are used various compositions of
mineral glass (based on SiO2). They have an amorphous structure,
and only at high temperatures and after long-term annealing
crystallization can be observed. They are manufactured in different
types of fibers depending on the additives of oxides of the elements:
B, Fe, Al, Ca, Mg, Na, K. These fibers usually divided into two
types: general and special fibers destination. The first type is
approximately 90% of total production. These are the fibers of type E
(low conductivity). Expensive special-purpose fibers are
marked with the following symbols: C (chemical corrosion), S (high
strength), D (low coefficient of dielectric constant), A (alkaline
additives or soda lime), M (high stiffness). Glass fiber content of
95-99.9% SiO2 are called silicate fibers. The glass fibers are resistant
to most chemicals and moisture. As they have a low thermal
expansion coefficient and good thermal conductivity, may
also be used at elevated temperatures. They have very good electrical
insulating properties and low dielectric constant. These apply finish
to easily connect the fibers forming a beam bundle and
improve wettability. Glass fibers are produced with a diameter of 8-
15 microns, for example, it is assumed that E-type fiber diameter of
around 11 microns.

Application of composite materials reinforced with glass fibres

Aviation: radiolocation antennas, propeller blades of helicopters,
parts of the wings and the tail section of the aircraft, aircraft
fuselage panels, ceilings, partitions, ventilation system, fuel tanks,
gliders.
Ships: boats, yachts, fishing boats, small and medium-sized vessels
(minesweepers built in Poland already in the 70s of the twentieth
century), rescue boats, paddle screws.
Building Industry: wall panels or ceiling support structures (beams,
frames, etc.), swimming pools, forms for laying strengthen concrete.
Chemical industry: various types of baths, cisterns, tanks, including
pressure pipes, strengthening of steel tanks.
Transport: bodywork of cars, trucks and buses, housing refrigerators,
parts of cars.
Carbon fiber – It is one of the most important reinforcement fibers in
all types of composites. This materials are mainly used as
unidirectional or wovenroving structures. They are produced in two
forms: high-strength fibers (HS) and fibers with a high Young's
modulus (HM). In the Anglo-Saxon literature, they bear different
names, the first of which are referred to as carbon fibers, the second
as graphite fiber. This difference is caused by technological processes
of their preparation. The HS fibers are produced at a temperature
below 1700°C and the HM fibers are made at temperature
higher than 1700°C. The temperature rise in the case of HM fibers
will decrease the anisotropy of graphite crystals. If the base plane of
the crystal would be parallel to the axis of the fibers, Young's
modulus can reach the theoretical value even if about 920 [GPa].
Individual carbon fibers have a diameter of about 8 microns. They
are usually made of a polyacrylonitrile (PAN). They have a high
fatigue resistance. A characteristic feature of carbon fibers is poor
wettability of the epoxyresins. For this reason, the fibers must always
be covered by finish.
Application of composite materials reinforced with carbon fibers
Rockets: shells of bodies engine, block design nozzle, chamber
components, etc.
Aviation: wing elements, gaps, vertical stabilizers, aerodynamic
brakes, shoulder blades, flaps, etc.
Cars: cardan shafts, dampers, doors, bumpers, engine parts.
Sports & Leisure: poles, masts of yachts, boats, catamarans, ski, tennis
rackets, badminton rackets, ski poles, fishing rods, etc.
Organic fibers (aramid) – for the first time this type of fiber were
obtained in 1968 by Du Pont based on aromatic polyamides - brand
name Kevlar 29, Kevlar 49 and Kevlar 149 (very high
Young's modulus). They belong to a class of highly related, highly
oriented polymer, so there have the strong anisotropic properties.
Aromatic rings constituting the core part of their structure give
high stiffness fibers, resulting in the macro orientation of the
molecules along one axis, and high chemical stability. The tensile
Young's modulus is dependent on the orientation of the particles.
Characterized by a small brittle polymers proper mesh. Glass and
carbon fibers are more fragile from them. At high temperatures,
there is a small plastic deformation. They are heat-resistant and
resistant to chemical solvents. Very advantageous is the ease of
machining. For Kevlar 49 adverse event was observed depending on
the measured mechanical properties of the base length (i.e.
economies of scale). On the surface of the fiber is observed and
typical globular shell particles (so-called gel blocks). The typical
diameter of the order of 10 to 12 microns .

Application of composite materials reinforced with aramid fibers

As in previous cases, this type of composite materials is used in the
following industries:
a) aerospace,
b) electronic industry and radio engineering,
c) machining,
d) construction of ships and vessels,
e) sport and recreation.
Natural fibers - are increasingly being considered as reinforcements
for composites. In general, they are composed of cellulose which
potentially has a Young’s modulus about 140 GPa. The plants
which are currently attracting the most interest are fibers made from
hemp, jute, flax, silk, sisal, bamboo, coconut and kenaf [23-26].
Research aimed to understand and assess the mechanical
properties of composites reinforced with natural fibers, the
description of the phenomena occurring at the border of the fiber-
matrix, the possibility of using the matrix biodegradable and
environmentally friendly, the development of manufacturing
technologies that do not have adverse effects on the human
environment. The main goal is to replace the fiberglass. Natural
fibers have low stiffness (up to forty few GPa for the fibers made of
bamboo), very high tensile strength
(several hundred MPa) and a high degree of deformability (about
20%) and high resistance to impact . Such fibers have diameters
approximately from 30 to 350 microns, additionally, it is not
uniform along the length. There is a considerable scatter in
mechanical properties. Natural fibers are generally short fibers. An
important element is the selection of appropriate sizing agent
(or coupling agents). Typically, the natural fibers are produced as a
fabric of two or threedimensional. The research concerns the
evaluation of the possibility of using different types of polymer
matrix.

Application of composite materials reinforced with natural fibers

(green composites)
In general, the use of natural fibres as reinforcement for
thermoplastic components is a relatively new phenomenon (about
1995). Firstly they were used in automotive industry in German, .
Nowadays, natural fibers are applied in:
a) automotive interior components (common use as door and boot
liners and parcel shelves),
b) parts in aerospace,
c) domestic insulation,
d) textile applications,
e) building industry,
f) packaging industries .

Carbon-carbon composites or Carbon Fibre Reinforced Carbon (C-C,

CFRC)
Composite materials of this type have a matrix and reinforcement
made of carbon. Typically used to strengthen the fibrous. The
physical and mechanical properties of these structures are much
superior to the properties of the graphite. Their low density, high
thermal conductivity and superb mechanical properties at elevated
temperatures make them an ideal materials for many high
performance/temperature application. However, these properties can
be considerably changed by varying parameters as: the
manufacturing processes, fibre surface modification, used raw
materials or inclusion of oxidation protection . The main drawback
of C-C materials is their susceptibility to oxidation above 500°C
which becomes progressively more severe as the temperature rises to
800°C. The rate of oxidation is only limited by the diffusion rate of
oxygen through the surrounding gas to the carbon surface. It can be
improved by coating the carbon fibers or the composite with an
anti-oxidizing layer or by directly
adding anti-oxidizing fillers into the matrix. In general, importance
of this disadvantage depends on application of CFRC (cf. different
length of service life of rockets and aircraft brake disks).
Additionally, C-C composite materials are hard recyclable.
Sometimes, there is possible to re-use material which is wasted
during the manufacturing process, nevertheless, there is no method
to
recycle material that has been in service.

Currently, these materials have found application in the following

industries:
a) aerospace applications – disc brakes (more than 60% of the
overall use of composite materials of this type in the industry) - this
is due to their low density, low wear and heatstroke.
b) production of electrothermal equipment for which the
temperature reaches 2800°C and temperature fluctuations of
1500°C (excellent thermal shock behaviour)
c) construction of nuclear reactors and fusion - component tooling
and linings,
d) medicine - design a variety of bioprostheses (e.g. hip joint
replacement),
e) space technology - optical components, external heat shields,
supersonic aircraft, missiles, etc.
f) chemistry - chemical reactor lining, a variety of filter elements.

Conclusion:-

Summarising, this material is a perspective view of the possible

application in structural elements subjected to thermal loads and/or
heat resistance, however, its use is limited due to their very high
price, much higher than those previously discussed.