Cu t t i n g

Cutting Tool Applications

T o o l
i c a t i o n s
App l ider, Jr. CMfg
E
g e Schne
By Geor
 Chapter 1
Upcoming Chapters

Metal Removal
Cutting-Tool Materials
Metal Removal Methods
Machinability of Metals

Single Point Machining

Turning Tools and Operations
Turning Methods and Machines
Grooving and Threading
Shaping and Planing
Cutting-Tool
Materials
Hole Making Processes
Drills and Drilling Operations
Drilling Methods and Machines
Boring Operations and Machines
Reaming and Tapping

Multi Point Machining

Milling Cutters and Operations
Milling Methods and Machines
Broaches and Broaching
Saws and Sawing

Abrasive Processes
Grinding Wheels and Operations 1.1 Introduction
Grinding Methods and Machines Many types of tool materials, ranging from high carbon steel to ceramics and dia-
Lapping and Honing monds, are used as cutting tools in todays metalworking industry. It is important
to be aware that differences do exist among tool materials, what these differences
are, and the correct application for each type of material.
The various tool manufacturers assign many names and numbers to their prod-
ucts. While many of these names and numbers may appear to be similar, the appli-
cations of these tool materials may be entirely different. In most cases the tool man-
ufacturers will provide tools made of the proper material for each given application.
In some particular applications, a premium or higher priced material will be justi-
fied.
This does not mean that the most expensive tool is always the best tool. Cutting
tool users cannot afford to ignore the constant changes and advancements that are
being made in the field of tool material technology. When a tool change is needed
or anticipated, a performance comparison should be made before selecting the tool
for the job. The optimum tool is not necessarily the least expensive or the most
expensive, and it is not always the same tool that was used for the job last time.
The best tool is the one that has been carefully chosen to get the job done quickly,
efficiently and economically.
George Schneider, Jr. CMfgE
Professor Emeritus
Engineering Technology Authors Note
Lawrence Technological University I wish to express my sincere appreciation to Prentice Hall and to Stephen Helba
Former Chairman in particular, for giving me permission to use some of the information, graphs and
Detroit Chapter ONE photos recently published in Applied Manufacturing Process Planning authored by
Society of Manufacturing Engineers
Donald H. Nelson and George Schneider, Jr.
Former President The author also wishes to thank over 40 companies who have provided technical
International Excutive Board
Society of Carbide & Tool Engineers
information and photo exhibits...their contributions have made this reference text
possible.
Lawrence Tech. Univ.: www.ltu.edu
And finally, I would like to express my appreciation to Tooling & Productions
Prentice Hall: www.prenhall.com Stan Modic and Joe McKenna for giving me the opportunity to make this informa-
tion available to the general public.

George Schneider, Jr.

2 Tooling & Production/Chapter 1 www.toolingandproduction.com
 Chap. 1: Cutting-Tool Materials
A cutting tool must have the follow- tures, led to the development of high (PM) form. The difference between
ing characteristics in order to produce speed tool steels (HSS). The major dif- powdered and conventional metals is in
good quality and economical parts: ference between high speed tool steel the method by which they are made.
Hardness: Hardness and strength of and plain high carbon steel is the addi- The majority of conventional high
the cutting tool must be maintained at tion of alloying elements to harden and speed steel is poured into an ingot and
elevated temperatures also called Hot strengthen the steel and make it more then, either hot or cold, worked to the
Hardness resistant to heat (hot hardness). desired shape. Powdered metal is
Toughness: Toughness of cutting Some of the most commonly used exactly as its name indicates. Basically
tools is needed so that tools dont chip alloying elements are: manganese, the same elements that are used in con-
or fracture, especially during interrupt- chromium, tungsten, vanadium, molyb- ventional high speed steel are prepared
ed cutting operations. denum, cobalt, and niobium (columbi- in a very fine powdered form. These
Wear Resistance: Wear resistance um). While each of these elements will powdered elements are carefully blend-
means the attainment of acceptable tool add certain specific desirable character- ed together, pressed into a die under
life before tools need to be replaced. istics, it can be generally stated that they extremely high pressure, and then sin-
The materials from which cutting add deep hardening capability, high hot tered in an atmospherically controlled
furnace. The PM method of manufac-
Temperature (C) turing cutting tools is explained in
100 300 500 700
95
Ceram Diamond, CBN Section 1.3.1 Manufacture of Carbide
ics
90
Products.
70 Aluminum oxide (HIP) HSS Surface Treatment: Many sur-
Hot hardness and wear resistance

Silicon nitride
85 Carbides 65 face treatments have been developed in
60 Cermets an attempt to extend tool life, reduce
Hardness (H-Ra)

Hardness (H-Rc)

80 55 Coated carbides
Cas power consumption, and to control
t al 50
75 loy
s
45
other factors which affect operating
Carbon 40
conditions and costs. Some of these
70
tool 35 treatments have been used for many
steels
65 High-speed 30 years and have proven to have some
steels Carbides
25
HSS
value. For example, the black oxide
60 20
coatings which commonly appear on
Strength and toughness
55 drills and taps are of value as a deterrent
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 (b)
Temperature (F) to build-up on the tool. The black oxide
(a) is basically a dirty surface which dis-
Figure 1.1. (a) Hardness of various cutting-tool materials as a function of temperature. (b) courages the build-up of work material.
Ranges of properties of various groups of materials. One of the more recent developments
in coatings for high speed steel is titani-
tools are made are all characteristically hardness, resistance to abrasive wear, um nitride by the physical vapor deposi-
hard and strong. There is a wide range and strength, to high speed tool steel. tion (PVD) method. Titanium nitride is
of tool materials available for machin- These characteristics allow relatively deposited on the tool surface in one of
ing operations, and the general classifi- higher machining speeds and improved several different types of furnace at rel-
cation and use of these materials are of performance over plain high carbon atively low temperature, which does not
interest here. steel. significantly affect the heat treatment
The most common high speed steels (hardness) of the tool being coated.
1.2 Tool Steels and Cast Alloys used primarily as cutting tools are divid- This coating is known to extend the life
Plain carbon tool steel is the oldest of ed into the M and T series. The M series of a cutting tool significantly or to allow
the tool materials dating back hundreds represents tool steels of the molybde- the tool to be used at higher operating
of years. In simple terms it is a high num type and the T series represents speeds. Tool life can be extended by as
carbon steel (steel which contains about those of the tungsten type. Although much as three times, or operating
1.05% carbon). This high carbon con- there seems to be a great deal of simi- speeds can be increased up to fifty per-
tent allows the steel to be hardened, larity among these high speed steels, cent.
offering greater resistance to abrasive each one serves a specific purpose and Cast Alloys: The alloying elements
wear. Plain high carbon steel served its offers significant benefits in its special in high speed steel, principally cobalt,
purpose well for many years. However, application. chromium and tungsten, improve the
because it is quickly over tempered An important point to remember is cutting properties sufficiently, that met-
(softened) at relatively low cutting tem- that none of the alloying elements for allurgical researchers developed the cast
peratures, (300 to 500 degrees F), it is either series of high speed tool steels is alloys, a family of these materials with-
now rarely used as cutting tool material in abundant supply and the cost of these out iron.
except in files, saw blades, chisels, etc. elements is skyrocketing. In addition, A typical composition for this class of
The use of plain high carbon steel is U.S. manufacturers must rely on foreign tool material was 45 percent cobalt, 32
limited to low heat applications. countries for supply of these very percent chromium, 21 percent tungsten,
High Speed Tool Steel: The need for important elements. and 2 percent carbon. The purpose of
tool materials which could withstand Some of the high speed steels are such alloying was to obtain a cutting
increased cutting speeds and tempera- now available in a powdered metal tool with hot hardness superior to high
www.toolingandproduction.com Chapter 1/Tooling & Production 3
 Chap. 1: Cutting-Tool Materials

speed steel. cations of the original patents, princi-

When applying cast alloy tools, their pally involving replacement of part or
brittleness should be kept in mind and all of the tungsten carbide with other
sufficient support should be provided at carbides, especially titanium carbide
all times. Cast alloys provide high abra- and/or tantalum carbide. This led to the
sion resistance and are thus useful for development of the modern multi-car-
cutting scaly materials or those with bide cutting tool materials permitting
hard inclusions. the high speed machining of steel.
A new phenomenon was introduced
1.3 Cemented Tungsten Carbide with the development of the cemented
Tungsten carbide was discovered by carbides, again making higher speeds
Henri Moissan in 1893 during a search possible. Previous cutting tool materi-
for a method of making artificial dia- als, products of molten metallurgy,
monds. Charging sugar and tungsten depended largely upon heat treatment Figure 1.3. Blended tungsten carbide pow-
oxide, he melted tungsten sub-carbide for their properties and these properties der is produced by mixing tungsten carbide
in an arc furnace. The carbonized sugar could, in turn, be destroyed by further (WC) with a cobalt (Co) binder in a ball
reduced the oxide and carburized the heat treatment. At high speeds, and milling process. (Courtesy American
tungsten. Moissan recorded that the consequently high temperatures, these National Carbide Co)
tungsten carbide was extremely hard, products of molten metallurgy failed.
approaching the hardness of diamond A different set of conditions exists time, must be exercised to obtain a uni-
and exceeding that of sapphire. It was with the cemented carbides. The hard- form, homogeneous product. Blended
more than 16 times as heavy as water. ness of the carbide is greater than that of Tungsten Carbide Powder is shown in
The material proved to be extremely most other tool materials at room tem- Figure 1.3.
brittle and seriously limited its industri- perature and it has the ability to retain it Compacting: The most common
al use. hardness at elevated temperatures to a compacting method for grade powders
Commercial tungsten carbide with 6 greater degree, so that greater speeds involves the use of a die, made to the
percent cobalt binder was first produced can be adequately supported. shape of the eventual product desired.
and marketed in Germany in 1926. The size of the die must be greater than
Production of the same carbide began in 1.3.1 Manufacture of Carbide the final product size to allow for
the United States in 1928 and in Canada Products dimensional shrinkage which takes
in 1930. The term tungsten carbide describes a place in the final sintering operation.
At this time, hard carbides consisted comprehensive family of hard carbide These dies are expensive, and usually
of the basic tungsten carbide system compositions used for metal cutting made with tungsten carbide liners.
with cobalt binders. These carbides tools, dies of various types, and wear Therefore sufficient number of the final
exhibited superior performance in the parts. In general, these materials are product (compacts) are required, to jus-
machining of cast iron, nonferrous, and composed of the carbides of tungsten, tify the expense involved in manufac-
non metallic materials, but were disap- titanium, tantalum or some combination turing a special die. Carbide
pointing when used for the machining of these, sintered or cemented in a
of steel. matrix binder, usually cobalt.
Most of the subsequent developments Blending: The first operation after
in the hard carbides have been modifi- reduction of the tungsten compounds to
tungsten metal powder is the milling of
tungsten and carbon prior to the carbur-
izing operation. Here, 94 parts by
weight of tungsten and 6 parts by
weight of carbon, usually added in the
form of lamp black, are blended togeth-
er in a rotating mixer or ball mill. This
operation must be performed under
carefully controlled conditions in order
to insure optimum dispersion of the car-
bon in the tungsten. Carbide Blending
Equipment, better known as a Ball Mill,
is shown in Figure 1.2.
In order to provide the necessary
strength, a binding agent, usually cobalt
Figure 1.2. Carbide blending equipment, (Co) is added to the tungsten (WC) in
better known as ball mill is used to ensure powder form and these two are ball Figure 1.4. Carbide compacting equipment,
optimum dispersion of the carbon within milled together for a period of several better known as a pill press, is used to pro-
the tungsten. (Courtesy American National days, to form a very intimate mixture. duce carbide products in various shapes.
Carbide Co) Careful control of conditions, including (Courtesy American National Carbide Co)

4 Tooling & Production/Chapter 1 2001 www.toolingandproduction.com

 Chap. 1: Cutting-Tool Materials

full hardness. Because the graphite dies

are expendable, this system is generally
used only when the part to be produced
is too large for cold pressing and sinter-
ing.
A third compacting method, usually
used for large pieces, is isostatic press-
ing. Powders are placed into a closed,
flexible container which is then sus-
pended in a liquid in a closed pressure
vessel. Pressure in the liquid is built up
to the point where the powders become
properly compacted. This system is
Figure 1.5. Various carbide compacts, advantageous for pressing large pieces,
which are produced with special dies because the pressure acting on the pow-
mounted into pill presses. (Courtesy ders operates equally from all direc-
American National Carbide Co) tions, resulting in a compact of uniform
pressed density.
Compacting Equipment, better known Sintering: Sintering of tungsten -
as a Pill Press, is shown in Figure 1.4. cobalt (WC-Co) compacts is performed Figure 1.7. Carbide parts are loaded into a
Various pill pressed carbide parts are with the cobalt binder in liquid phase. sintering furnace, where they are heated to
shown in Figure 1.5. The compact is heated in hydrogen temperatures ranging from 2500 to
If the quantities are not high, a larger atmosphere or vacuum furnaces to tem- 2900F. (Courtesy American National
briquette, or billet may be pressed. This peratures ranging from 2500 to 2900 Carbide Co)
billet may then be cut up (usually after degrees Fahrenheit, depending on the
pre-sintering) into smaller units and composition. Both time and tempera- those grades of cemented carbides with
shaped or preformed to the required ture must be carefully adjusted in com- higher cobalt contents.
configuration, and again, allowance bination, to effect optimum control over With cobalt having a lesser density
must be made to provide for shrinkage. properties and geometry. The compact than tungsten, it occupies a greater part
Ordinarily pressures used in these cold will shrink approximately 16 percent on of the volume than would be indicated
compacting operations are in the neigh- linear dimensions, or 40 percent in vol- by the rated cobalt content of the grade;
borhood of 30,000 PSI. Various carbide ume. The exact amount of shrinkage and because cobalt contents are general-
preformed parts are shown in Figure depends on several factors including ly a much higher percentage of the mass
1.6. particle size of the powders and the in liquid phase, extreme care is required
A second compacting method is the composition of the grade. Control of to control and predict with accuracy the
hot pressing of grade powders in size and shape is most important and is magnitude and direction of shrinkage.
graphite dies at the sintering tempera- least predictable during the cooling Figure 1.7 shows carbide parts being
ture. After cooling, the part has attained cycle. This is particularly true with loaded into a Sintering Furnace.

Figure 1.6. If quantities are not high, presin-

tered billets are shaped or preformed into
required shapes. (Courtesy Duramet
Corporation)
Figure 1.8. Schematic diagram of the cemented tungsten carbide manufacturing process.

www.toolingandproduction.com Chapter 1/Tooling & Production 5

 Chap. 1: Cutting-Tool Materials
A more detailed schematic diagram
of the cemented tungsten carbide manu-
facturing process is shown in Figure
1.8.

1.3.2 Classification of Carbide Tools

Cemented carbide products are classi-
fied into three major grades:
Wear Grades: Used primarily in
dies, machine and tool guides, and in
such everyday items as the line guides
on fishing rods and reels; anywhere
good wear resistance is required. Figure 1.9. The method used to measure Transverse Rupture Strength (TRS) is shown as
Impact Grades: Also used for dies, well as the relationship of TRS to cobalt (Co) content.
particularly for stamping and forming,
and in tools such as mining drill heads. ing additions to the basic and leaching which causes cratering.
Cutting Tool Grades: The cutting tungsten/cobalt material are: tantalum On the other hand, cobalt is stronger
tool grades of cemented carbides are carbide, and titanium carbide. than carbide. Therefore more cobalt
divided into two groups depending on While some of these alloys may be improves the tool strength and resis-
their primary application. If the carbide present in cast iron grades of cutting tance to shock. The strength of a car-
is intended for use on cast iron which is tools, they are primarily added to steel bide tool is expressed in terms of
a nonductile material, it is graded as a grades. Pure tungsten carbide is the Transverse Rupture Strength (TRS).
cast iron carbide. If it is to be used to most abrasive-resistant and will work Figure 1.9 shows how Transverse
cut steel, a ductile material, it is graded most effectively with the abrasive Rupture Strength is measured.
as a steel grade carbide. nature of cast iron. The addition of the The third difference between the cast
Cast iron carbides must be more alloying materials such as tantalum car- iron and steel grade cutting tools, is car-
resistant to abrasive wear. Steel car- bide and titanium carbide offers many bide grain size. The carbide grain size
bides require more resistance to crater- benefits: is controlled by the ball mill process.
ing and heat. The tool wear characteris- The most significant benefit of tita- There are some exceptions, such as
tics of various metals are different, nium carbide is that it reduces cra- micro-grain carbides, but generally the
thereby requiring different tool proper- tering of the tool by reducing the ten- smaller the carbide grains, the harder
ties. The high abrasiveness of cast iron dency of the long steel chips to erode the tool. Conversely, the larger the car-
causes mainly edge wear to the tool. the surface of the tool. bide grain, the stronger the tool.
The long chip of steel, which flows The most significant contribution of Carbide grain sizes at 1500x magnifica-
across the tool at normally higher cut- tantalum carbide is that it increases tion are shown in Exhibits 1.10 and
ting speeds, causes mainly cratering and the hot hardness of the tool which, in 1.11.
heat deformation to the tool. Tool wear turn, reduces thermal deformation. In the C- classification method
characteristics and chip formation will Varying the amount of cobalt binder (Figure 1.12), grades C-1 through C-4
be discussed in Chapter 2. in the tool material largely affects both are for cast iron and grades C-5 through
It is important to choose and use the the cast iron and steel grades in three C-8 for steel. The higher the C- number
correct carbide grade for each job appli- ways. Cobalt is far more sensitive to in each group, the harder the grade, the
cation. There are several factors that heat than the carbide around it. Cobalt lower the C- number, the stronger the
make one carbide grade different from is also more sensitive to abrasion and grade. The harder grades are used for
another and therefore more suitable for chip welding. Therefore, the more finish cut applications; the stronger
a specific application. The carbide cobalt present, the softer the tool is, grades are used for rough cut applica-
grades may appear to be similar, but the making it more sensitive to heat defor- tions.
difference between the right and wrong mation, abrasive wear, and chip welding Many manufacturers produce and
carbide for the job, can mean the differ-
ence between success and failure.
Figure 1.8 illustrates how carbide is
manufactured, using pure tungsten car-
bide with a cobalt binder. The pure
tungsten carbide makes up the basic car-
bide tool and is often used as such, par-
ticularly when machining cast iron.
This is because pure tungsten carbide is
extremely hard and offers the best resis-
tance to abrasive wear.
Large amounts of tungsten carbide
are present in all of the grades in the two Figure 1.10. Carbide grain size (0.8 Figure 1.11. Carbide grain size (7 microns
cutting groups and cobalt is always used micron WC @ 1500) consisting of 90% WC @ 1500) consisting of 90% WC and
WC and 10% Co. 10% Co.
as the binder. The more common alloy-
6 Tooling & Production/Chapter 1 www.toolingandproduction.com
 Chap. 1: Cutting-Tool Materials
Typical Properties used. The microstructure of a multi-
Characteristics Of Transverse
layered coated carbide insert at 1500x
Rupture magnification is shown in Figure 1.14.
Classification Materials to Machining Type of Hardness Strength In general the coating process is
Number be Machined Operation Carbide Cut Carbide
H-Ra (MPa)
accomplished by chemical vapor
Roughing Increasing Increasing 2,400 deposition (CVD). The substrate is
C-1 Cast iron, Wear- 89.0
cuts cutting speed hardness and
nonferrous resistant wear resistance
placed in an environmentally con-
General
C-2 metals, and
purpose
grades; 92.0 1,725 trolled chamber having an elevated
nonmetallic generally
straight 1,400
temperature. The coating material is
C-3 materials Finishing 92.5
requiring WCCo then introduced into the chamber as a
Precision with varying Increasing chemical vapor. The coating material
abrasion
C-4 boring and Increasing strength and 93.5 1,200
resistance grain sizes is drawn to and deposited on the sub-
fine finishing feed rate binder content
Roughing Increasing Increasing
strate by a magnetic field around the
Crater- 2,070
C-5
cuts resistant cutting speed hardness and
91.0 substrate. It takes many hours in the
Steels and steel- General grades; wear resistance chamber to achieve a coating of
C-6 92.0 1,725
alloys requiring purpose various 0.0002 to 0.0003 inch on the substrate.
crater and WWCCo
C-7 Finishing compositions 93.0 1,380 Another process is Physical Vapor
deformation
resistance Precision with TIC Deposition (PVD).
Increasing
C-8 boring and and/or TaC Increasing strength and 94.0 1,035 Titanium Carbide Coating: Of all
fine finishing alloys feed rate binder content the coatings, titanium carbide is the
most widely used. Titanium carbide is
Figure 1.12. Classification, application, characteristics, and typical properties of metal-cut-
used on many different substrate mate-
ting carbide grades.
rials for cutting various materials
under varying conditions. Titanium
distribute charts showing a comparison proper coated carbide, with the right carbide coatings allow the use of higher
of their carbide grades with those of edge preparation is used in the right cutting speeds because of their greater
other manufacturers. These are not application, it will generally outperform resistance to abrasive wear and crater-
equivalency charts, even though they any uncoated grade. The microstructure ing and higher heat resistance.
may imply that one manufacturers car- of a coated carbide insert at 1500x mag- Titanium Nitride Coating - Gold
bide is equivalent to that of another nification is shown in Figure 1.13. Color: Titanium nitride is used on
manufacturer. Each manufacturer Numerous types of coating materials many different substrate materials. The
knows his carbide best and only the are used, each for a specific application. primary advantage of titanium nitride is
manufacturer of that specific carbide It is important to observe the dos and its resistance to cratering. Titanium
can accurately place that carbide on the donts in the application of coated car- nitride also offers some increased abra-
C- chart. Many manufacturers, espe- bides. The most common coating mate- sive wear resistance and a significant
cially those outside the U. S., do not use rials are: increase in heat resistance permitting
the C- classification system for car- Titanium Carbide higher cutting speeds. It is also said that
bides. The placement of these carbides Titanium Nitride titanium nitride is more slippery, allow-
on a C- chart by a competing company Ceramic Coating ing chips to pass over it, at the cutting
is based upon similarity of application Diamond Coating interface, with less friction.
and is, at best an educated guess. Titanium Carbo-Nitride Ceramic Coating - Black Color:
Tests have shown a marked difference In addition, multi-layered combina- Because aluminum oxide (ceramic) is
in performance among carbide grades tions of these coating materials are extremely hard and brittle, it is not opti-
that manufacturers using the C- classifi-
cation system have listed in the same
category.

1.3.3 Coated Carbide Tools

While coated carbides have been in
existence since the late 1960s, they did
not reach their full potential until the
mid 1970s. The first coated carbides
were nothing more than standard car-
bide grades which were subjected to a
coating process. As the manufacturers
gained experience in producing coated
carbides, they began to realize that the
coating was only as good as the base
carbide under the coating (known as the
substrate). Figure 1.13. Microstructure of a coated Figure 1.14. Microstructure of a multilay-
It is advisable to consider coated car- carbide insert at 1500 magnification. ered coated carbide insert at 1500 magni-
bides for most applications. When the (Courtesy of Kennamental Inc.) fication. (Courtesy of Kennamental Inc.)

www.toolingandproduction.com Chapter 1/Tooling & Production 7

 Chap. 1: Cutting-Tool Materials
mal for interrupted cuts, scaly cuts, and carbides there will be little difference material has distinct advantages and
hard spots in the workpiece. This is not when the benefits of coated carbides are disadvantages. The application of
to say that it will never work under considered. Because coated carbides ceramic cutting tools is limited because
these conditions, but it may be more are more resistant to abrasive wear, cra- of their extreme brittleness. The trans-
subject to failure by chipping. Even tering, and heat, and because they are verse rupture strength (TRS) is very
with these limitations, aluminum oxide more resistant to work material build-up low. This means that they will fracture
is probably the greatest contributor to at lower cutting speeds, tool life is more easily when making heavy or
the coated carbides. Aluminum oxide extended, reducing tool replacement interrupted cuts. However, the strength
ceramic allows much higher cutting costs. Coated carbides permit operation of ceramics under compression is much
speeds than other coated carbides at higher speeds, reducing production higher than HSS and carbide tools.
because of its outstanding resistance to costs. There are two basic types of ceramic
abrasive wear and its resistance to heat All coated carbides have an edge material; hot pressed and cold pressed.
and chemical interaction. hone to prevent coating build-up during In hot pressed ceramics, usually black
Diamond Coating: A recent devel- the coating process. This is because the or gray in color, the aluminum oxide
opment concerns the use of diamond coating will generally seek sharp edges. grains are pressed together under
polycrystalline as coating for tungsten The edge hone is usually very slight and extremely high pressure and at a very
carbide cutting tools. Problems exist actually extends tool life. However, a high temperature to form a billet. The
regarding adherence of the diamond coated insert should never be reground billet is then cut to insert size. With
film to the substrate and the difference or honed. If a special edge preparation cold pressed ceramics, usually white in
in thermal expansion between diamond is required the coated carbides must be color, the aluminum oxide grains are
and substrate materials. Thin-film dia- ordered that way. The only time the pressed together, again under extremely
mond coated inserts are now available edge hone may be of any disadvantage high pressure but at a lower tempera-
using either PVD (Physical Vapor is when making a very light finishing ture. The billets are then sintered to
Deposition) or CVD (Chemical Vapor cut. Carbide insert edge preparations achieve bonding. This procedure is
Deposition) coating methods. Diamond will be discussed in Chapter 2. similar to carbide manufacture, except
coated tools are effective in machining no metallic binder material is used.
abrasive materials, such as aluminum 1.4 Ceramic and Cermet Tools While both hot and cold pressed ceram-
alloys containing silicon, fiber rein- Ceramic Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) ics are similar in hardness, the cold
forced materials, and graphite. material for cutting tools was first pressed ceramic is slightly harder. The
Improvements in tool life of as much as developed in Germany sometime hot pressed ceramic has greater trans-
tenfold have been obtained over other around 1940. While ceramics were verse rupture strength. Various shapes
coated tools. slow to develop as tool materials, of both hot and cold pressed ceramic
Titanium Carbo-Nitride - Black advancements made since the mid inserts are shown in Figure 1.15.
Color Multilayered Coatings: 1970s have greatly improved their use- The brittleness, or relative strength,
Titanium carbo-nitride normally fulness. Cermets are basically a combi- of ceramic materials is their greatest
appears as the intermediate layer of two nation of ceramic and titanium carbide. disadvantage when they are compared
or three phase coatings. The role of tita- The word cermet is derived from the to HSS or carbide tools. Proper tool
nium carbo-nitride is one of neutrality, words ceramic and metal. geometry and edge preparation play an
helping the other coating layers to bond Ceramic Cutting Tools: Ceramics important role in the application of
into a sandwich-like structure (Figure 1- are non-metallic materials. This puts ceramic tools and help to overcome
14). Other multi-layer coating combi- them in an entirely different category their weakness. Some of the advantages
nations are being developed to effec- than HSS and carbide tool materials. of ceramic tools are:
tively machine stainless steels and aero- The use of ceramics as cutting tool High strength for light cuts on very
space alloys. Chromium- hard work materials.
based coatings such as Extremely high resistance
chromium carbide have been to abrasive wear and cra-
found to be effective in tering.
machining softer metals such Capability of running at
as aluminum, copper, and speeds in excess of 2000
titanium. SFPM.
There are a few important Extremely high hot hard-
points to remember about ness.
using coated carbides. Low thermal conductivi-
Coated carbides will not ty.
always out-perform uncoated While ceramics may not
grades but because of the be the all-around tool for
benefits offered by coated the average shop, they can
carbides, they should always be useful in certain appli-
be a first consideration when cations. Ceramic tools
selecting cutting tools. have been alloyed with zir-
When comparing the cost Figure 1.15. Various sizes and shapes of hot- and cold-pressed ceramic conium (about 15%) to
between coated and uncoated inserts. (Courtesy Greenleaf Corp.) increase their strength.
8 Tooling & Production/Chapter 1 www.toolingandproduction.com
 Chap. 1: Cutting-Tool Materials

Many ceramic tool manufacturers are tions of aluminum oxide,

recommending the use of ceramic tools yttrium oxide, and titanium
for both rough cutting and finishing carbide. These tools have
operations. Practical shop experience high toughness, hot hard-
indicates that these recommendations ness and good thermal
are somewhat optimistic. To use ceram- shock resistance. Sialon
ic tools successfully, insert shape, work for example is recommend-
material condition, machine tool capa- ed for machining cast irons
bility, set-up, and general machining and nickel base superalloys
conditions must all be correct. High at intermediate cutting
rigidity of the machine tool and set-up is speeds.
also important for the application of
ceramic tools. Ceramics are being 1.5 Diamond, CBN and
developed to have greater strength Whisker-Reinforced
(higher TRS). Some manufacturers are Tools
offering ceramic inserts with positive The materials described
geometry and even formed chip breaker here are not commonly
grooves. found in a heavy metal
Cermet Cutting Tools: The manu- working environment. Figure 1.16. Polycrystalline diamond material bonded to a
facturing process for cermets is similar They are most commonly carbide base of various sizes and shapes. (Courtesy of
to the process used for hot pressed used in high speed auto- Sandvik Coromant Co.)
ceramics. The materials, approximately matic production systems
70 percent ceramic and 30 percent tita- for light finishing of precision surfaces. exception of titanium, or titanium
nium carbide, are pressed into billets To complete the inventory of tool mate- alloyed materials, CBN will work effec-
under extremely high pressure and tem- rials, it is important to note the charac- tively as a cutting tool on most common
perature. After sintering, the billets are teristics and general applications of work materials. However, the use of
sliced to the desired tool shapes. these specialty materials. CBN should be reserved for very hard
Subsequent grinding operations for Diamond: The two types of dia- and difficult-to-machine materials.
final size and edge preparation, com- monds being used as cutting tools are CBN will run at lower speeds, around
plete the manufacturing process. industrial grade natural diamonds, and 600 SFPM, and will take heavier cuts
The strength of cermets is greater synthetic polycrystalline diamonds. with higher lead angles than diamond.
than that of hot pressed ceramics. Because diamonds are pure carbon, they Still, CBN should mainly be considered
Therefore, cermets perform better on have an affinity for the carbon of fer- as a finishing tool material because of
interrupted cuts. However, when com- rous metals. Therefore, they can only its extreme hardness and brittleness.
pared to solid ceramics, the presence of be used on non-ferrous metals. Machine tool and set-up rigidity for
the 30 percent titanium carbide in cer- Some diamond cutting tools are made CBN as with diamond, is critical.
mets decreases the hot hardness and of a diamond crystal compaction (many Whisker-Reinforced Materials: In
resistance to abrasive wear. The hot small crystals pressed together) bonded order to further improve the perfor-
hardness and resistance to abrasive wear to a carbide base (Fig. 1.16). These dia- mance and wear resistance of cutting
of cermets are high when compared to mond cutting tools should only be used tools to machine new work materials
HSS and carbide tools. The greater for light finishing cuts of precision sur- and composites, whisker-reinforced
strength of cermets allows them to be faces. Feeds should be very light and composite cutting tool materials have
available in a significantly larger selec- speeds are usually in excess of 5000 been developed. Whisker-reinforced
tion of geometries, and to be used in surface feet per minute (SFPM). materials include silicon-nitride base
standard insert holders for a greater Rigidity in the machine tool and the set- tools and aluminum-oxide base tools,
variety of applications. The geometries up is very critical because of the reinforced with silicon-carbide (SiC)
include many positive/negative, and extreme hardness and brittleness of dia- whiskers. Such tools are effective in
chip breaker configurations. mond. machining composites and nonferrous
Silicon-Nitride Base Ceramics: Cubic Boron Nitride: Cubic boron materials, but are not suitable for
Developed in the 1970s, silicon-nitride nitride (CBN) is similar to diamond in machining irons and steels.
(SIN) base ceramic tool materials con- its polycrystalline structure and is also
sist of silicon nitride with various addi- bonded to a carbide base. With the

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