PHILOSOPHY

Module 1 – Lesson 1

HOLISTIC AND PARTIAL POINTS OF VIEW

What is Philosophy?
Few years from now, you will gain fresh experiences in life that you may have never expected.
Such experiences may excite or challenge you, while some can make you rethink your life and
decisions. At your age, you may have already asked yourself important questions about your life
that cannot be directly answered through research or education, such as “What do I want?” or
“What will make me happy?”
If you have already asked yourself those big questions, then you have already engaged in
philosophy.
• What is Philosophy?
• Is it a way of life? Why or why not?
• How do you apply it in everyday life?
The term Philosophy comes from two Greek roots: Philo meaning, “love of”, and Sophia
meaning, “wisdom”. The Oxford English Dictionary defines Philosophy as the “love, study, or
pursuit of wisdom, or of knowledge of things and their causes whether theoretical or practical”.
On the other hand, the Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary defines Philosophy as “literally, the
love of wisdom.”
Many philosophers tried to unravel the definition for Philosophy. However, in a broad sense,
Philosophy is an activity people undertake when they seek to understand fundamental truths
about themselves, the world they live, and their relationship to the world, and to each other. It is
the activity of working out the best to think about things.
Holistic and Partial Point of View
Now, before engaging in philosophical inquiry, one must be able to distinguish between a
holistic and partial point of view. Point of view is defined as a way or a method on how one sees
or perceives a reality or a phenomenon. This is critical for everyone doing Philosophy because it
sets a limit in coming up with conclusions about a given situation.
The root word for holistic which is holism comes from the Greek word “holos” meaning “all,
entire, or totality”. Thus, the holistic perspective looks at all aspects of the given problem or
situation. All aspects are given importance when making conclusion. All aspects are tied in
together to form a general overview of the problem or situation.
Example:

 The teacher listens first to both stories of two arguing students before making any conclusion
about the issue.
Partial Point of View
A partial point of view is a perspective that is based on one of the component parts of a whole. It
is when one states a reality or a phenomenon based on a single factor or causal agency.
Moreover, it looks at only limited number of aspects of a given problem or situation. Conclusions
are made based on considering some, but not all, sides of the problem or situation.
Examples:

 A teacher scolds student A after student B accused him of stealing his pencil case. The
teacher only listened to the story of student B, and not to student A before deciding to scold
student A.
Holistic and Partial Point of View
Learning Philosophy requires learning to look into all available perspectives and work on their
relationship to come up with sound, logical, and valid conclusions. Doing Philosophy helps one
to think many things including those that leave one confused or without an acceptable answer.
Thus, it is important to develop the skill of broadly looking at the situation first before providing
any conclusion.
Philosophy of a Human Person
Since you already understood the differences of holistic and partial point of view, it is important
to apply it in an intellectual activity. Philosophy as an intellectual activity is an analytic procedure
of addressing individual thought processes such as resolving conflict and confusion, testing
positions, and analyzing beliefs. In all instances, doing philosophy is prescribed by logic,
reason, and ethics leading to wisdom. Philosophy applied to human experiences or everyday
life denotes the use of Philosophy as an intellectual activity, also known as Philosophy in life.
This concept is important because it serves as the guiding principle on how one ought to live
life. In order for one to be able to come up with this guiding principles, one should be able to
reflect on his own. This process in called Philosophical reflection.
Philosophical Reflection
Philosophical reflection is the process by which a person undergoes a reflective state or
evaluates his/ her experiences first before making any related action. The use of Philosophical
reflection is important as it enables our thoughts to be looked in to a deeper and holistic
perspective. In effect, actions are directed towards greater sources of wisdom and truth.
Human Activities Emanated from Deliberate Reflection
In the process, one can learn more about himself/herself including personal beliefs, ideals, or
values. Previous experiences may be seen as an important aspects of making reflections
because they facilitate deeper thinking and understanding of the self. Aside from knowing the
self, many other activities may also emanate from thorough reflection.
Examples:

 Learning from your previous mistakes and not repeating them again.

 Evaluating and knowing the best choice in a set of options.

 Gaining holistic point of view first before making conclusion.
Doing Philosophy
Doing Philosophy can be applied in day-to-day activities and life perspectives. It involves an
evaluative process which allows a person to make better decisions and accordingly to situations
with the help of philosophical skills. Moreover, on life perspectives, Philosophy enables
reflective thinking which greatly influences a person’s view of life. Doing Philosophy directs how
a person will deal with life.
In any setting, wisdom is always gained when Philosophy is applied to formulate a conclusion
about a certain concern.
Lesson 2
THE BEGINNINGS OF DOING PHILOSOPHY
The Pre-Socratics
The importance of the first group of philosophers known as the pre-Socratics should not be
underestimated. The beginning of Western Philosophy dated back to 630 BC in Miletus. Miletus,
as a fishing village and center of trade and commerce in ancient Greece, was the ideal place for
the first practice of philosophy to emerge, according to Curd. It became the melting pot of ideas
from other cultures in other parts of the globe.
The Milesians
The story of philosophy started with the triumvirate of the three Milesians namely, Thales,
Anaximander, and Anaximenes. Thales was the most popular among the three, being the father
of Western Philosophy and was regarded as one of the seven sages (a wise man) of ancient
Greece. Anaximander, on the other hand, was a student of Thales. While, Anaximenes – was a
student of Anaximander.
Thales
Thales of Miletus is said to had written “On the Solstice” and “On the Equinox”, however, none
of the two works survived and some doubt that he left any written works. However, in Aristotle's
“Metaphysics”, he tells us that Thales believed that everything comes out of water and that the
earth floats on water. Moreover, according to Seneca, the philosopher used the floating earth
theory to explain earthquakes. This means that Thales of Miletus rejected the supernatural and
mystical theories that were used to explain various phenomena by his predecessors which
justifies his fame as the first philosopher.
Anaximander (610-540 BC)
He claimed that fundamental substance of reality is the infinite or the apeiron. He claimed that
the apeiron has no precise characteristics or attributes. It is ageless and eternal, and it
encompasses all the worlds. Furthermore, he believed that the earth is cylindrical and is
suspended in space. In addition, he was that first philosopher to attempt to draw a map
Anaximenes (588-524 BC)
He concluded that the fundamental substance must be air. According to him, air holds our soul
together, it encompasses the whole world. Like Thales, he went back to the flat-earth theory, but
unlike Thales who did not give an exact shape of the earth and other heavenly bodies, for that
matter, are like saucers floating in air. Thus, the earth is flat and round.
Other Philosophers
The Milesians, namely, Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, paved a new way of thinking
about the reality of the world. They went away with their common beliefs and strived hard to
study the most realistic and practical way of understanding the world. And as the activity of
seeking for knowledge continues, there were other philosophers who also shared what they
believed is true about the world we live in.
Pythagoras
He was the leader of a religious cult, known as the Pythagoreans. Among the other
preSocratics, he was different because he treated philosophy in a different way; it was a life. For
him, philosophy and religion are connected and merged into one. He considered philosophy and
mathematics as good for the purification of the soul. He gave importance to the contemplative
life for this cathartic process of purification. He was, in effect, trying to describe the elation that
one feels after succeeding in solving a very difficult mathematical problem. He believed that the
primary constituent of reality would be numbers. Anything could be explained through numbers.
He has the principle of the finite (even numbers) and the infinite (odd numbers). The number ten
(10) is the perfect number; they have oblong numbers, triangular numbers, square numbers; the
number of marriage is associated with the number five (5). Even the beauty and balance of the
musical scales can be explained through numbers.
Heraclitus
After Pythagoras, came Heraclitus (around 500 BC). He was known for the mystical nature of
his philosophy, especially his idea about change. He believes that the only thing that is
permanent in this world is change (also known as flux or becoming). Heraclitus was known to
have said the following: “You cannot step twice into the same rivers, for fresh waters are ever
flowing in upon you. We step and do not step into the same rivers; we are and are not”. He was
the first philosopher who wrote about the idea of change, which until the present day, we do not
realize that this idea is a footnote for Heraclitus.
Parmenides
Parmenides would be known as the leader of the Eleatic school, from Elea in Southern Italy. His
philosophical idea is a contradiction of the idea of change from Heraclitus. He proposed that the
only thing that is permanent in this world is being, that is, reality is made up of one continuous
object or plenum called being. Change, for him is merely an illusion. Amidst this illusion of
change, there is something indestructible, immovable complete and without beginning or end,
which he called „being‟. For Parmenides, there is no such thing as change and motion. His idea
that reality is being and that we are, therefore, interconnected had inspired phenomenology and
existentialism in their notion of being. According to other scholars, his idea of reality as the
absolute, construed as an inclusive, ultimate, and comprehensive whole.
Empedocles
Empedocles (493-433 BC) was a very interesting figure among the roster of pre-Socratic
philosophers. He believed himself to be immortal and that he had magical powers. He was
known to have cured somebody who was comatose for 24 months. He had a lover named
Pausanias, who was an inspiration for his numerous poems. Empedocles was the proponent of
the notion that reality is made up of the four elements, namely, earth, air, fire, and water. He is
regarded as a pluralist because he had four elements as his fundamental substances that reality
is made of, instead of only one substance. Those philosophers who believe in just one element
are considered as monist. What makes Empedocles different from the rest of the pre-Socratics
is that he firmly believed that he was immortal and prove this, he leaped into the mouth of Mt.
Etna, an active volcano in Sicily, southern Italy, that led to his untimely death.
Anaxagoras
He believed that there is not just one element that reality is made of. For him, there are as many
seeds or elements as there are kinds of things. Thus, matter becomes infinitely divisible.
Whenever you divide matter, each separated part will contain elements of everything else. His
idea about the nous or the mind for Himi, “has the greatest strength and power over all things”.
Zeno of Elea
Zeno was a student and loyal follower of Parmenides at around 490 BC. As expected, he would
pronounce and reiterate the idea of Parmenides that reality is being. He went to prove the
assumption by pronouncing that there is no motion. This became his impetus to propose his
arguments against motion. Originally, Zeno had four arguments, there are two main ideas that
are being proposed namely, Achilles and the Tortoise and the Arrow in flight is at rest. In his
arguments, was known for his logic chopping. For example, he had misused the idea of time,
velocity, and space which are correlated with each other. This is pamimilosopo in the context of
everyday life.
Leucippus and Democritus
Leucippus and Democritus contributed their idea that the ultimate substance that reality is made
of are atoms. Atoms, which means inseparable or indivisible, must be the ultimate constituent of
matter, which later, has been accepted by the scientific community and proven upon the
discovery of the microscope as a tool for examining matter. Leucippus and Democritus
contributed their idea that the ultimate substance that reality is made of are atoms. Atoms,
which means inseparable or indivisible, must be the ultimate constituent of matter, which later,
has been accepted by the scientific community and proven upon the discovery of the
microscope as a tool for examining matter.
Conclusion
To conclude this, we have seen the great ideas that these philosophers have contributed to the
development of human knowledge. However crude their methods were, what is more important
is the realization that without their crude speculation about the fundamental substance of reality,
we might not have started the process of searching for knowledge for its own sake.

Lesson 3
Methods of Doing Philosophy
INTRODUCTION
Philosophers often grapple with the concept of truth. They consider truth as a kind of quality or
value. Philosophy being the way of knowledge and truth is concerned with determining the truth
since it lies at the heart of any inquiry. Philosophizing is to think or express oneself in a
philosophical manner. It considers or discusses a matter from a philosophical standpoint.
cont..
As humans, we all have the potential to philosophize since we have the tendency to wonder and
doubt. We have the capacity to reflect on our experiences and we have a never-ending need to
learn and discover. The need to philosophize is traced to a person’s sense of wonder (Plato)
and doubt (Descartes). A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or
drawing conclusions using various philosophical methods such as Socratic, Dialectic, Scientific,
and Historical.
METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
I. Socratic Method
The Socratic Method originates with Socrates, Athenian philosopher who lived around 470 B.C.
He was well known for engaging others in conversations whose goal was to define broad ideas
such as virtue, beauty, justice, courage, and friendship by discussing their ambiguities and
complexities.
Socratic Method
Socratic Method is a philosophical method of “inquiry” where both parties involved push the
dialogue forward through questioning. Its objective is to arrive at the truth by reasoning correctly
to questions and arguments being presented. Socrates intended to create each person being a
master of his own mind and being state. It can be learned from him that only the knower and
true understanding along with self-developed reasoning can survive the attacks of persuasion,
eloquence and any other authority. This may influence the development of critical thinking as
Socrates’ students, through appropriate and repeated questioning, developed self-regulating
knowledge and the ability to regulate their own thoughts (Douglas, 2014). Essentially, Socratic
Method leads a person step by step in gaining knowledge through series of questions. The
emphasis is on asking well-formed questions and continuing the investigation, not on
automatically finding absolute answers.
Stages of Socratic Method
1. Wonder (posing questions such as: what is courage, what is virtue, etc.);
2. Hypothesis (an answer to the wonder, one gives his opinion or claim about the question
which becomes a hypothesis of the dialogue);
3. Elenchus, refutation and cross-examination (the core of Socratic practice; the hypothesis is
called into question and the counterexample is given to prove or disapprove the hypothesis;
4. Acceptance/Rejection of the Hypothesis (participants accept or reject the counterexample); 5.
Action (acting on the findings of the inquiry)
II. Dialectic Method
Dialectic comes from the French word “dialecte” which means the art of investigating the truth of
opinions. This method is named after the classical Greek philosopher Socrates and was
expounded by Plato; this is based on the philosophical view that every thing (every object and
every process) is made of opposing forces/opposing sides. Basically, Dialectic method is a form
of reasoning based upon dialogue of arguments that involve some sort of contradictory process
between opposing sides. The back-and-forth debate between opposing sides produces a kind of
linear progression or evolution in philosophical views or positions: as the dialogues go along,
interlocutors change or refine their views in response to challenges and come to adopt more
sophisticated views.
Cont…
Basically, this method is based on discourse between two or more people holding different
points of view about a subject but wishing to establish the truth through reasoned arguments.
Arguments are series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or listener that
a claim or opinion is truthful. “I only know that I know nothing.” This simple phrase uttered by
Socrates encapsulates the core of his wisdom, and forms the roots from which the dialectic
method has grown. Dialectic method is not only a means of determining arguments, but also
critiquing and finding strong evidence efficiently infused with research and logic to best inform
and defend ones arguments.
The Dialectical Stages of Development
1. Thesis. This stage refers to the intitial take, stance, or argument in approaching a dialogue.
According to Hegel’s dialectic, any thesis will inevitably be one-sided, inconsistent, and
imbalanced in some way which in effect, will always promote a push against it tension,
resistance, or backlash of sorts.
2. Anti-thesis. This stage works as the opposition to the thesis. Anti-thesis seeks to negate the
initial thesis in some way through counter-arguments. In other words, these are statements that
disagree with a thesis.
3. Synthesis. The last stage is when the thesis and anti-thesis resolve or abolish or transcend or
preserve (depending on the nature of the argument) at a “higher level.” The two oppositions
(thesis and anti-thesis) are combined, transformed, and transcended. The idea then is that the
new synthesis is made more sophisticated, unified, and refined.
III. Scientific Method
In a philosophical view, Scientific method (also called an empirical method) is a process of
determining the truth or knowledge through experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning,
and hypothesis or theory testing. The history of Scientific method can be traced from Aristotle
during the classical period giving the earliest structured theory on the scientific approach. The
process begins with an idea about any given topic. Hypothesis testing is done to prove the
validity of this idea. In this method, the means of hypothesis testing and its results are
considered the most important feature of the method. Furthermore, this method values
observation as an important aspect because it contributes to further understanding the results of
the hypothesis testing.
Stages of Scientific Method
Observation Question Hypothesis Prediction Testing
Conclusion
IV. Historical Method
Historical method deals with examining the past (history) to come up with present facts or arrive
at the truth. The word history comes from the Greek word “iotopia” which means to ‘to find out’
or ‘to investigate’. Anderson (1876) defined history as “the narration of events that have
happened among mankind, including an account of the rise and fall of nations as well as of
other great changes which have affected the political and social condition of the human race.”
Philosophers have sometimes turned their attention to examine history and the nature of
historical knowledge.
Cont…
In Philosophy, Historical method is the process of gathering evidences, examining them, and
formulating ideas about the past to come up with present truths. In this method, history is
considered as more important than logic and more valid source of the truth. This method
emphasizes that history has a “divine order” or progressive pattern that enables events to
repeat themselves. The process of learning the truth is simply through looking at past records to
validate a present hypothesis. In other words, reviewing what has been done or happened in the
past is the primary method of looking at a solution for a problem in the present.
Lesson 4
Methods of Doing Philosophy
Distinguishing Truth from Opinion
According to Aristotle, every person by nature desires knowledge, and that the goal of inquiry is
the possession of truth. Philosophers consider something as truthful if it corresponds with
observable fact or reality. From a very young age, we are taught to distinguish fact from opinion
which are not easily identifiable. Being able to discern the differences between fact and opinion
will help in evaluating the reliability of statements we encounter. Critical thinking is the best
possible way of determining which statements are facts and which statements are opinions.
Fact

 Statement or information that can be proven with concrete evidence.

 Can be verified or researched using reliable resources such as legal records,

documentations, scientific findings, encyclopedias, etc.

 Generally accepted as truth.

 Objective

 Does not change

Opinion

 An opinion is a personal view or judgment about something.

 Personal interpretations based on belief/feeling.

 A perception which may or may not be based on facts.

 Statements based on personal experiences, belief, feeling, perspective, desires, attitude, and
understanding.

 Subjective

Module 2
Lesson 1
The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit
Introduction

 Man – the general term commonly used to refer to the entire human race.

 Personhood – refers to the state of being a person.

 Human Nature – refers to the characteristics that distinguish humans from all other creatures
(ability to think and feel).

 Limitation – something (such as a lack of ability or strength) that controls what a person is
able to do.
The Human Body
To describe the living body, it is:

 Its parts have unique function through its senses.

 Inherent with is a dignity that needs to be respected.

 It has a mind capable of high intellectual processes.

 Body is the medium between the self and the world

Embodiment

 Man is not only a body; he is something infinitely higher.

 Philosophers consider the human person as defined by the union of the body and spirit. Man
cannot exist without these two essential components.

 THE HUMAN PERSON IS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT. The body and spirit are integrated with
each other. Both body and soul are integral parts of the human person.

 Another aspect that defines us as human persons is the spirit. This intangible element
enables us to exercise thought, possess awareness, and the capacity to do and experience
things that make us human persons.
LOVE
PHILOSOPHY-Human persons do not just love with the heart or brain. We love with our entire
being.
SCIENCE- Love is a result of biological reactions associated with an increase in hormones
which may have certain effects on the body.
Embodiment- Is what enables us to feel love
Transcendence

 Transcendence refers to the ability to surpass limits. This is one important trait that
distinguishes the human person from other beings in existence.

 One unique characteristic of human persons is their natural capacity for transcendence—the
capacity to go beyond their current situation in life.

 Self-Transcendence — a concept of forming personal progress by going beyond limitations

Transcendence

 Human nature still has limits despite being an embodied spirit. Despite this limitations, we
have used our intellectual capacity to achieve several feats (i.e. inventions and innovations).

 As human persons, we have natural tendencies or inclinations (e.g. hunger, attraction, etc.).
Transcendence enables one to overcome oneself or being in control despite the body’s natural
inclinations.

 Although these tendencies are felt, the person can govern them and ensure that they are
exercised within the bounds of REASON. Since man is a rational being, man acts from
judgment.
Transcendence

 According to St. Thomas Aquinas, a medieval Philosopher, human beings have the unique
power to change themselves and the things for the better. This means that each individual
carries within himself the possibility of transcending his limits by exerting enough effort and
perseverance.

 The essence of Transcendence is to acknowledge our limitations, identify possibilities for

development and change ourselves for the better.

 Our capacity for transcendence gives us the opportunity to work toward becoming better
versions of ourselves. Philosophy gives us useful tools to explore our limits and possibilities.
LIMITATIONS AND TRANSCENDENCE
Limitations of a Human Person as an Embodied Spirit
Human existence is an embodied existence. Embodiment refers to the biological and physical
presence of our bodies, which are a necessary precondition for subjectivity, emotion, language,
thought and social interaction. As regards, a human person has limitations. For this lesson, you
will identify three namely, (1)facticity, (2)spatial-temporal being, & (3)body as intermediary.
 1. Facticity
According to the French philosopher, Jean-Paul Sartre, it refers to the things in our lives that are
already given. An embodied subject, whose being is to be in the world, will have its first
limitation the moment it is born. The moment that we are born, we are already related to people
– our parents. THIS IS OUR FIRST LIMITATION. Moreover, it refers to all the details that
surrounds us in the present as being-in-the-world in the here and the now. This includes our
environment, our language, our past decisions, our past and present relationships and even our
future death. All the facts that we currently have are part of our limitations. For example, if only I
know how to speak Filipino and English, then that hinders me from talking to, say a Chinese
who only knows Mandarin. This Thus, if we look at every aspect of who we are right here and
now, we will realize that our being-in-theworld imposes practically countless limitations on us.
2. Spatial-temporal being
On the level of being spatial, as an embodied being, we are subjected to the physical laws of
the universe. We are restricted by our spatial nature. We are set to be at one place at a time.
We are limited by our bodies to be present in two or more places at the same time. For
example, I cannot be in Manila and in Cebu at the same time because my body does not allow
me to. On the level of temporality, our finitude – finite quality and state – is the most obvious
limitation. In the case of youth – When we are younger, we want time to speed up because our
youth prevent us from doing what adult seem to enjoy. There so many NOT YET. Our being
situated in a particular time and place shall prescribe the way we look and understand things.
No matter how much we imagine ourselves looking at something using someone else’s
perspective, we cannot do so. We will always have our own spatial-temporal condition as the
backdrop of our understanding.
3. Body as intermediary
It is due to our body that we experience the world from a particular bodily standpoint. We
experience the world as our world and not the world of others. For example, we will never really
know how it is to be a rock star unless we become one ourselves. Our body limits our
experience of the world to our own world. Moreover, our body as intermediary limits us in
communicating with other people. We cannot, by the use of sheer will, tell others what we have
in mind. Our body set a limitation for understanding one another because on the one hand, it
may never fully disclose what we would like to express. Also, it may hide certain thoughts and
feelings.
Transcending Limitations
Undeniably, transcending limitation is easier said than done. However, if one continues to be
controlled with his/her limitations, one will never improve. One of the things that makes us
human is our free will. We have every right to choose whatever we think is better for ourselves.
As we move forward, there may be another limitations but transcending it again will better our
perspective of life.
For Facticity
We cannot simply truly change our facticity, but what we can do is change our attitude towards
them. Our mindset plays a critical role over this. Thus, in order to transcend facticity, one should
have a positive, flexible, and innovative mind to be able to make this opportunities to grow.
For Spatial-Temporal Being
Spatial – since we know that we can only be at one place at a time, we are invited and
challenged to make the most out of a certain occasion. As for Temporal – we should give the
present its due worth and simply appreciate it. Humans need to be more discipline if one wants
to transcend. Space and time are two things one cannot control. However, what one may do is
to manage it responsibly.
For Body as Intermediary
Our experience of the world as our world becomes a privilege experience. What we experience
is only for us to experience. Having a body may prevent us from disclosing what we really want
to express. This then challenges us to be more creative in our expressions. Since having a body
hides our thoughts and feelings, this challenges us to work on a good relationship with people
whom we want to open up for us.
Conclusion
As Blaise Pascal puts it, “The present is never our goal; the past and present are our means;
the future alone is our goal. Thus, we never live but we hope to live, and as we are always
hoping to be happy, it is inevitable that we will never be so”. As regards, as humans, it is our
responsibility not be halted by these limitations. One should have a positive mindset to able to
manage his/her life according to what he/she desires.
Lesson 3
THE HUMAN PERSON IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Human Person in the Environment
Approximately 600 BCE, in the Western Ionian seaport town of Miletus across the Aegean sea
from Athens, Greece, the following philosophical questions were brought up to speculate on our
perspective of the environment:
• What is the world made of?
• How did the world come into being?
• How can we explain the process of change?
These speculations from the pre-Socratic philosophers established a paradigm shift. This idea
was proposed by American philosopher Thomas Kuhn in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
which refers to any revolutionary change in the fundamental intellectual framework that has
traditionally been adopted by practitioners of a subject.
As regards, this lesson will probe into a distinct frame about gaining valuable insights regarding
the human person in the environment. Thus, considering two frameworks according to Payne
(2010) namely, anthropocentric model and ecocentric model.
Anthropocentric Model
This philosophical viewpoint argues that human beings are the central or most significant
entities in the world. This is a basic belief embedded in many Western religions and
philosophies. It regards humans as separate from and superior to nature and holds that human
life has intrinsic value while other entities (including animals, plants, and so on) are resources
that may justifiably be exploited for the benefit of humankind.

In the illustration it can be observed that women are found second below men. Although
“anthro” in anthropocentrism refers to all humans rather than exclusively to men, some feminist
philosophers argue that the anthropocentric worldview is in fact a male, or patriarchal, point of
view. However, as a whole, the illustration presents a view that humans are on top of all other
things in the world.
In this perspective, humans adopt an exploitive attitude towards the environment. The
domination of humanity lead to the imbalance existence of nature. Due to the unfair or unjust
utilization of the environment, an ecological crisis emerged. Various catastrophes hit different
parts of the world. This emergence lead for other parts of the world hungry and devastated.
Effects of Anthropocentrism
The impact of over utilization of natural resources in the world progressed for the human race to
face the following challenges:
• Climate Change (Present Challenge)
• Endangered Species (Continuing Challenge)
• Water Scarcity (Emerging Challenge)
• Sustainable Development (Future Challenge)
Ecocentric Model
The second model according to Payne which is in contrast to the anthropocentric model is
Ecocentrism. This model focuses on the interests of all species and natural features of Earth's
ecosystems, refusing to place any aspect or species above the others. Ecocentrists focus on
the intrinsic value of all these entities in their own right while acknowledging their instrumental
value to one another as part of the natural process.

The illustration shows that no one and nothing is above anyone and anything. Every thing, living
and non-living, are all equal in any aspect. They all live in balance. Aside from ecocentric model,
there are other theories that show care for the environment namely, deep ecology, social
ecology, and ecofeminism.
Deep Ecology
Deep Ecology is an ecological philosophy developed by Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess in
the early 1970’s asserting that all life forms have an equal right to exist, and human needs and
desires have no priority over those of other organisms. Naess believes that the living
environment should be respected and regarded as having rights to flourish, independent of its
utility to humans.
Social Ecology
Founded by activist Murray Bookchin, it is an approach to society that embraces ecological,
reconstructive, and communitarian view. This ideology looks to reconstruct and transform
current outlooks on both social issues and environmental factors while promoting direct
democracy. It looks to do away with scarcity and hierarchy in the economy in favor of a world in
which human communities work together in harmony with nature.
Ecofeminism
It emphasizes the ways both nature and women are treated by patriarchal society. Thus, it uses
its basic tenets of equality between genders, a revaluing of non-patriarchal structures, and a
view of the world that respects organic processes, holistic connections, and the merits of
intuition and collaboration. Also, it adds both a commitment to the environment and an
awareness of the associations made between women and nature.
Human Person in the Environment
Considering various environmental challenges the world is facing today, numerous principles,
theories, and organization are established with the goal to alleviate the concern. For this
material, it will emphasize on Erich Fromm’s list of a set of virtues for the sake of protecting the
environment.
Prudence & Frugality to Environment Fromm’s
(2013) new society encourages the emergence of a new human being that will foster prudence
and moderation or frugality towards environment. The following are the functions of his
envisioned society:
1. The willingness to give up all forms of having, in order to fully be.
2. Being fully present where one is.
3. Trying to reduce greed, hate, and illusions as much as one is capable.
4. Making the full growth of oneself and of one’s fellow beings as the supreme goal of living.
5. Not deceiving others, but also not being deceived by others; one may be called innocent, but
not naïve.
6. Freedom that is not arbitrariness but the possibility to be oneself, not as a bundle of greedy
desires, but as a delicately balanced structure that any moment is confronted with the
alternatives of growth or decay, life, and death.
7. Happiness in the process of ever-growing aliveness, whatever the furthest point is that fate
permits one to reach, for living as fully as one can be satisfactory that the concern for what one
might or might not attain has little chance to develop.
8. Joy that comes from giving and sharing, not from hoarding and exploiting.
9. Developing one’s capacity for love together with one’s capacity for critical, unsentimental
thought.
10.Shedding one’s narcissism and accepting limitations.
The ideals of this society cross all party lines; for protecting nature it needs focused
conversation, action, political will and support from industry. If all these sectors agree on the
same goals, the possibility of change would seem to be considerably greater; especially since
most citizens have become less and less interested in party loyalty and slogans.
Conclusion
To conclude this, it may be easer said than done but we should encourage ourselves to be
disciplined and responsible especially to our environment. Our environment is the source of
everything we need as a human person. To continuously benefit from it, we should motivate one
another to do the best we can in order to save our environment, not only for ourselves but for
the next generations to come.
Lesson 4
ENVIRONMENT AND WELL-BEING
Why care about the Environment?
A clean environment is vital to not only to our own healthy living, but survival of all living things.
The air we breathe is the most essential resource that the environment provides us with, and
our efforts to reduce air pollution are currently not even pacing the pollution being pumped into
the air daily (especially in major cities). According to the EPA, air pollution may increase risk of
heart attacks, asthma, bronchitis, and premature mortality.
There is also evidence to suggest that most indoor air can be up to five times more toxic than it
is outdoors. But air pollution is not the only type of pollution we should be concerned with. The
CDC also warns that water pollution may increase risks of gastrointestinal illness, reproductive
problems, and neurological disorders. Caring for the environment as a resolution becomes
much clearer.
Positive and Negative Duty
In the article written by Peter Wenz, Ecology and Morality, he recognized the prima facie (at first
glance) obligation of humans to ecosystems. He claims that there are two (2) types of duty:
positive and negative duty. Positive duty is a responsibility to protect the environment from any
and every threat, or a duty to bring aid. While, Negative duty rests on a principle concerning the
duty to do no harm to the environment.
Ways to care for the Environment
The irresponsible human acts, such as over-consumption of natural resources, deforestation,
and production of the chemical waste burdens the environment and has a harmful impact on
human lives as well. As regards, It’s high time that we as an individual must contribute to protect
and sustain our environment. The following are a few simple ways with which you can make a
difference (Rawat, 2018).
1. Plant more trees
Trees are the greatest source of oxygen that removes carbon dioxide and provide fresh
and pure air to breathe. They help decrease ozone level in the environment, reduce
noise pollution, and offer various fruits and flowers that provide several health benefits.
You can also put indoor plants in your home to reduce the level of air pollutants like
benzene and nitrogen dioxide and keep the air temperature down.
2. Save electricity
Always switch off the light, fan or A.C when you walk out of the room or don’t need
them. Try to make better use of sunlight and avoid using artificial lights at daytime.
Unplug the electronic appliance when you are not using them. Along with helping the
environment, it saves your electricity as well.
3. Save water
Water is a natural resource and its supply is finite, therefore, to preserve our
environment and minimize the effect of drought, it is necessary to conserve water. Take
short showers. Do not keep the tap water running when you are washing dishes. Don’t
waste too much of water while flushing. It takes a great number of resources to get fresh
and clean water delivered to your house, so please don’t waste it and use wisely.
4. Go paperless or use less paper
In the office or at home, we all take print out of documents, tickets, and flyers, etc. Most
of the time we throw away half-used notepads. Many trees are cut down every year to
 produce paper. So by saving paper, you can do a huge favor to conserve the
environment. Don’t take printouts unless it’s necessary. Don’t avail the magazine
subscriptions. Take notes on your mobile, instead of paper for immediate use.

5. Save fuel
Walking or riding your bicycle to commute to work, school, and other places will cut
down the fuel consumption and burn some calories that is also beneficial for your health.
Or you can also take public transport or try carpool. Stop the car when stuck in a jam or
at the red light. You can also invest in a fuel-efficient car. Adopting these measures will
save the fuel and reduce greenhouse gases in the environment.
6. Use Jute bags
Avoid using plastic or paper bags every time you go grocery shopping. Because plastic
is harmful to the environment that takes almost 450 years to decompose. Make it a habit
to always carry eco-friendly jute bag whenever you go shopping. Jute is a natural fiber
that lasts longer and when left unused get destroyed on its own without contributing to
the environmental pollution.
7. Compost
When you decompose the organics in landmines they produce methane and other
greenhouse gases, which absorbs the heat from the sun and contributes to warming the
earth. Try to decompose your food and other organic waste. The compost makes a
natural fertilizer that enriches the soil and helps produce healthy fruits and vegetables.
8. Quit smoking (if you are)
Smoking is one of the major causes of air pollution and the discarded cigarette butts
litter the streets and contaminate water bodies. When you smoke indoors or in public
places, you also put the health of people around you at the stake. Quitting smoking will
make you live longer and healthier and also save the environment from the toxic
chemicals found in cigarettes.
9. Recycle
Recycling minimizes pollution and preserves our natural resources. The process is quite
easy and all you have to do is make wise choices. Buy products that can be recycled or
made from recycled materials. In supermarkets, pick the products with least packaging.
Collect the materials that can be recycled and throw them in a recycle bin provided by
the local council.
10. No to Firecrackers
Fireworks is one of the main causes of air and noise pollution. The chemicals found in
crackers, such as copper, zinc, lead, magnesium, etc. never fully decompose that have
an adverse effect on the environment and put human health at stake. Say no to crackers
and celebrate the festivals and special occasions of life without expanding the carbon
footprint.

Our impact in the Environment

Humans, though often unintentionally, have the most detrimental impact on the environment.
However, there are a multitude of ways in which we help the environment as well. That is to say
our impact on the environment can be positive or negative, necessary yet cleaner, or
unnecessary & discarded. Our way of life currently dictates that some pollution is going to occur
regardless of what we do in our everyday lives. Life is chemistry, and chemical reactions are
happening everywhere that help us to accomplish amazing feats that are essential to the more
hassle-free times we live in today. Currently, efforts are underway all over the world to develop
newer and cleaner energy sources to power our homes, run our cars, and light up the night. The
combined efforts have been showing progress in many different ways.

Conclusion
To take care of our bodies, we eat well, exercise and make sure to get enough sleep. That's our
internal environment. The environment that surrounds us -- the air, soil, water and ecosystems
-- is equally important for our health and the health and well being of others. Thus, be a little
considerate towards the environment and adopt measures in your everyday life to take good
care of it.