Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation

reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.

Monosaccharide #1 Glucose has the formula C6H12O6

It forms a hexagonal ring (hexose)

Glucose is the form

of sugar that fuels
respiration
Glucose forms the
base unit for many
polymers

5 of the carbons form

corners on the ring
with the 6th corner
taken by oxygen
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glucose_crystal.jpg
Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.

Monosaccharide #2 Galactose is also a

hexose sugar
Spot the difference It has the same
formula C6H12O6
but is less sweet

Most commonly
found in milk,
but also found
Galactose Glucose in cereals

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Galactose-3D-balls.png
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alpha-D-glucose-3D-balls.png
Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.

Fructose is another
Monosaccharide #3 pentose sugar

Commonly found in
fruits and honey

It is the sweetest
naturally occurring
carbohydrate
http://www.flickr.com/photos/max_westby/4045923/
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Red_Apple.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:3dfructose.png
Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.

Ribose is a pentose
Monosaccharide #4 sugar, it has a
pentagonal ring

It forms the backbone

of RNA

Deoxyribose differs as
shown in the diagram,
and forms the
backbone of DNA
N.B. the above monosaccharides are included for continuity from
statement “2.1.S2 Identification of biochemicals such as sugars, lipids or
amino acids from molecular diagrams.”. They are not referred to in the
formation of the following disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Original owner of image unknown
Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.
Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.

Disaccharide #1
Maltose (C12H22O11) is a dimer
of glucose

Gosh! Isn’t it sweet?! The two glucose

molecules are holding hands.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maltose_syrup.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maltose_Haworth.svg
Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.

Disaccharide #2 Lactose (C12H22O11) is most

commonly found in milk
(Literally “two sugars”)

The two subunits that

make up lactose are
glucose and galactose,
our friends from a
couple of slides ago.

http://www.flickr.com/photos/vermininc/2764742483/
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alpha-lactose-from-xtal-3D-balls.png
Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.

Disaccharide #3 Sucrose (C12H22O11) is also

known as table sugar

The two subunits that

The two monosaccharides
make up sucrose are
that make it up are
glucose and fructose.
glucose and fructose

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sucrose.gif
http://www.flickr.com/photos/carowallis1/4388310394/
Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.
Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and glycogen in
humans.
• Cellulose is made by linking together β-glucose
Polysaccharide #1 •
molecules.
Condensation reactions link carbon atom 1 to
carbon atom 4 on the next β-glucose.
Cellulose • The glucose subunits in the chain are oriented
alternately upwards and downwards.
• The consequence of this is that the cellulose
molecule is a straight chain, rather than curved.

• Cellulose molecules are unbranched chains of β-glucose.

• Hydrogen bonds link the the molecules together.
• The linked molecules form bundles called cellulose microfibrils.
• They have very high tensile strength.
• The tensile strength of cellulose (the basis of cell walls)
prevents plant cells from bursting, even under very high (water)
pressure.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cellulose_spacefilling_model.jpg
Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and glycogen in
humans.
Amylose and
Polysaccharide #2 Amylopectin are both
forms of starch and
made from repeating
glucose units

• Starch is made by linking together α-glucose molecules

• Condensation reactions link carbon atom 1 to carbon atom 4 on the next α-
glucose
• all the glucose molecules in starch can be orientated in the same way
• The consequence of this is that the starch molecule is curved, rather than straight.
• Size of the molecule is not fixed

http://www.flickr.com/photos/caroslines/5534432762/
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amylose3.svg
Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and glycogen in
humans.
• In amylose the chain of α-glucose
Polysaccharide #2 molecules is un-branched and forms a helix.
• Typically amylose is made up of 300-3,000
• In amylopectin the chain is branched, glucose units
so has a more globular shape.
• Due it’s branched nature amylopectin
can be much larger consisting of
2,000-200,000 units

• Starch is only made by plant cells.

• Molecules of both types of starch are hydrophilic but are too large to be soluble in water.
• Starch does not affect the osmotic balance of cells, i.e. cause too much water to enter
them
• It is easy to add or remove extra glucose molecules to starch
• Therefore starch is useful in cells for glucose, and consequently energy, storage.
• In seeds and storage organs such as potato cells glucose held as starch.
• Starch is made as a temporary store in leaf cells when glucose is being made faster by
photosynthesis than it can be exported to other parts of the plant.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/caroslines/5534432762/
Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and glycogen in
humans.
• Glycogen (C6H10O5)n is a polymer made
Polysaccharide #3 from repeating glucose subunits
• The molecule varies in size, typically it
consists of 30,000 units

• Glycogen is not just a simple chain, it

branches many times
• Condensation reactions link carbon
atom 1 - 4 on the next α-glucose.
Branches occur where a condensation
reaction instead links carbon atom 1 – 6.
• Glycogen is made by
• As a result the molecule is compact
animals and also some
fungi.
• It is stored in the liver
and some muscles in
humans.
• It is used in cells where
large stores of
• Glycogen does not affect the osmotic balance of cells, i.e. cause too dissolved glucose
much water to enter them would cause osmotic
• It is easy to add or remove extra glucose molecules to starch problems.
• Therefore glycogen is useful in cells for glucose, and consequently
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glyc
energy, storage. ogen_spacefilling_model.jpg
Unsaturated fatty acids can be cis or trans isomers.

Cis-isomers Trans-isomers

Very common in nature Rare in nature – usually artificially produced to

produce solid fats, e.g. margarine from vegetable oils.
the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the two the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the two
carbon atoms carbon atoms
The double bond causes a bend in the fatty acid chain The double bond does not causes a bend in the fatty
acid chain
Therefore cis-isomers are only loosely packed Trans-isomers can be closely packed

Triglycerides formed from cis-isomers have low melting Triglycerides formed from trans-isomers have high
points – they usually liquid at room temperature melting points – they usually solid at room
temperature
Triglycerides are formed by condensation from three fatty acids
and one glycerol.
Condensation reaction between glycerol and fatty acids

Glycerol Three Fatty Acids Triglyceride

Lipids are glycerol combined with 1, 2 or 3 fatty 3H2O

acids, therefore triglycerides are lipids
n.b. hydrolysis is the reverse of this process, catalysed
by lipase Covalent bonds called ester bonds are
formed between the fatty acids and
glycerol molecules.
Lipids are more suitable for long-term energy storage in humans
than carbohydrates.
Functions of lipids:
• Structure: Phospholipids are a main
component of cell membranes
• Hormonal signalling: Steroids are
involved in hormonal signalling (e.g.
estrogen, progesterone, testosterone)
• Insulation: Fats in animals can serve as
heat insulators while sphingolipids in the
myelin sheath (of neurons) can serve as
electrical insulators
• Protection: Triglycerides may form a
tissue layer around many key internal
organs and provide protection against
physical injury
• Storage of energy: Triglycerides can be • Lipids are normally used for long-term
used as a long-term energy storage energy storage whereas carbohydrates are
source used for short-term energy storage
• The lipids that are used are fats. They are
stored in specialized groups of cells called
adipose tissue. Adipose tissue is located
immediately beneath the skin and also
around some organs including the kidneys.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/johnnystiletto/5411371373/
Lipids are more suitable for long-term energy storage in humans
than carbohydrates.
Why is glycogen is needed at all?

• This is because glycogen can be broken down to

glucose rapidly
• and then transported easily by the blood to where
it is needed
• Fats in adipose tissue cannot be mobilized as
rapidly
• Glucose can be used either in anaerobic or aerobic
cell respiration whereas fats and fatty acids can
only be used in aerobic respiration
Lipids are more suitable for long-term energy storage in humans
than carbohydrates.
Glycogen is the medium-term energy storage molecule in animals. It is stored in the
liver and muscles. The energy stored in glycogen is more readily available than the
energy stored in fat.

Glucose in the bloodstream is for immediate use and will either be used in
respiration to yield ATP or converted to glycogen or fat

An analogy: Wallet
(Glycogen)
easy to get to,
would be too big if you put
in all your money

You are
paid in cash
(Glucose)
Bank
(Fat)
Can put lots of money here, more
of a hassle to get it back out
Spend it!
(Respiration)