International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences, 5(5)

Sep-Oct 2020 | Available online: https://ijels.com/

An analysis of the Syllable Structure of Kikamba

Nouns
Dorcas Minoo Kimongo1, Dr. Anashia Nancy Ong’onda2

1School of Social Sciences, Department of Languages and Humanities, Mount Kenya University, Kenya
2School of Humanities and Social sciences, Department of Languages and Linguistics, Machakos University, Machakos, Kenya

Abstract— This paper analyses the syllable within the framework of phonology. The syllable is a central
prosodic feature in phonology and phonological processes occur within it. However, languages differ with
respect to phonotactic constraints that control their syllable structure. Therefore, this paper considers
Kikamba language to have unique principles of syllabification that need to be explored. This paper applies the
theory of Generative CV-phonology model that was built upon Kahn's (1976) and (Clements & Keyser, 1983).
The study focused on the syllable structure of Kikamba Nouns. The study employed descriptive research design.
A sample size of 50 participants was used as respondents in the study. Purposive sampling was used to identify
the participants. The data was collected through natural observation and interviews. The data was analyzed
qualitatively. The study found that the syllable structure of Kikamba nouns has four syllable structures, that is,
CV, V, CV and CCV. This study makes significant contribution to theoretical studies of phonetics and
phonology by exploring how the phonotactic constraints in Kikamba language lead to organization of words.
Keywords— Syllable, syllable structure, Kikamba language.

I. INTRODUCTION the smallest possible syllable contains a nucleus only. That is

A number of scholars define a syllable as a phonological unit a syllable may or may not have an onset and a coda.
of utterance that constitutes an onset, nucleus and coda The Onset is the beginning sounds of the syllable; the ones
(Trubetzcoy, 1969; Hyman, 1975; Lass, 1984; Katamba, preceding the nucleus. They are always consonants in
1989). Matthews (1997) on the other hand, defines a syllable English. The nucleus is a vowel in most cases, although the
in close relation to its combination. Matthews, claims that consonants [r], [l], [m], [n] and the velar nasal ( the " ng"
the syllable is, a phonological unit consisting of a vowel or sound) can also be the nucleus of a syllable. Yule (1996)
other unit that can be produced in isolation, either alone or notes that, a syllable must contain a vowel ( or vowel like)
accompanied by one or more less sonorous units. Crystal sound and he points out that the basic elements of the
(1997) adds up the aspect of a rhythm in a syllable by noting syllable as: Onset (one or more consonants) Rhyme
that a syllable is an element of speech that acts as a unit of ( consists of the vowel which is treated as the nucleus, plus
rhythm, consisting of a vowel, syllabic, or vowel/consonant any following consonant(s),treated as the Coda). The symbol
combination. σ is used to represent a syllable. The nucleus (N), rhyme is
The syllable has a structure. The syllable structure is usually represented as (R), onset is (O). The consonants following
seen as the requirements and constraints which determine the the nucleus are grouped together as coda (Co).
shapes of possible syllables, usually formulated in terms of The vowel segment usually occupies the nucleus or the
sequences of consonants and vowels, but also in terms of central part of the syllable while consonant segments occupy
onset plus rhyme, or onset plus nucleus plus coda (Trask, the marginal parts of the syllable, that is, the onset and the
1996). The syllable can be divided into two parts: onset and coda (Ladefoged, 2000). The nucleus must always be there
rhyme. Within the rhyme we find the nucleus and coda. for a unit to qualify as a syllable. Therefore, a syllable can
Worth noting, is the fact that not all syllables have all parts: either be V, CV, VC, or CVC. The syllable plays an
important role in formation of words in any given language.
ISSN: 2456-7620
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.55.64 1755
International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences, 5(5)
Sep-Oct 2020 | Available online: https://ijels.com/

Urua (2000) adds that the syllable provides an anchor on Kikamba has five varieties, the Kitui North, the central Kitui,
which a number of segmental and suprasegmental Eastern -Southern, Kilungu and Makueni, and Machakos.
phenomena hinge such as pitch and rhythm. Thus, syllables Kikamba has three major regional dialects, the Machakos
are combined to form words and this triggers phonological dialect is spoken in Machakos County, the Kitui dialect
processes and all languages have phonotactic constraints that spoken in Kitui and Mwingi counties. The third dialect,
force a particular sequence of words in syllables to occur Kikilungu, is spoken in a small area of Makueni counties.
with acceptable order of languages. This leads to various Kikamba can be classified using phonological,
phonological processes such as vowel harmony, assimilation, Morphological and syntactic parameters. Phonologically,
deletion, insertion among others. The current study analyzes Kikamba is a seven vowel system language, it prefers the
the syllable structure of Kikamba language. The syllable CV syllable structure, and is tonal. This study seeks to
structure is significant to a language as it is very central in establish the syllable structure of Kikamba nouns.
phonological analysis. This is because phonological According to Massamba (1996) every language takes a
processes occur within syllables and across syllable limited number of sounds from the central pool of human
boundaries. However, languages differ with respect to speech sound to form its phonetic inventory. A phonological
phonotactic constraints that control their syllable structure. study of the language examines the structure and the
The phonotactic constraints force the sequence of words in a function of the inventory: the sounds that are likely to occur,
syllable to agree with a given order of a specific language. It their possible combinations. Kikamba has a total of 19
is on the above basis that this paper considers Kikamba consonants (Kitavi, 1992). Mathooko (2004) identifies two
language to have unique syllable structure. more consonants that are found in Kitui North variety. These
1.1 Kikamba phonological parameters are the voiced alveolar trill [r] and the voiced velar fricative
According to Greenberg's classification, Kikamba is grouped [ɣ]. This paper has focused on the Machakos variety or
among the Niger -Congo family as cited in (Whiteley and dialect which is recognized as the standard variety and does
Muli 1962). Thus, Kikamba is a Bantu language (cf. Guthrie not have the two additional phonemes. The following is a
(1948); Heine (2000). According to Maundu (1980) description of the Kikamba consonants:

Table 1. 1: Kikamba Consonants

. Place Bilabial Dental Alveolar Palato- palatal Velar

Manner Alveolar

Stops t k
Prenasalised stops mb nd ŋg

Affricates tʃ
Prenasalized ndȝ
Affricate
Fricatives Φ ɵ S
Prenasalized nɵ nz
Fricatives
Nasals m n ɲ ŋ
Laterals l
Glides w j

Kikamba like all the other Central Kenya Bantu languages has seven vowel systems (cf. Kioko 1994). The seven
namely; Kikuyu, Kimeru, Kiembu, Kitharaka and Kimbeere, vowels of Kikamba are accompanied by vowel length. Thus,
ISSN: 2456-7620
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.55.64 1756
International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences, 5(5)
Sep-Oct 2020 | Available online: https://ijels.com/

each vowel has a long and short distinction, this doubles the following vowel charts:
number of vowels from seven to fourteen as seen in the

Front Central Back

Close i u

Close – mid e o

Open - mid ε ͻ

Open. a

Fig. 1. 1: The vowel Chart

Figure 1.2 below demonstrates

Front Back

Close ii uu

Close - mid ee oo

εε oo

Open-mid εε ͻͻ

Open aa

Fig.1. 2: Long Vowels

ISSN: 2456-7620
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.55.64 1757
International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences, 5(5)
Sep-Oct 2020 | Available online: https://ijels.com/

Table 1.2 below demonstrates the phonetic and orthographical representation of Kikamba vowels
Table 1. 2: Phonetic and Orthographical Representation of Kikamba Vowels
IPA Kikamba Examples Gloss
Symbol Orthography
A a vata /vata/ need
ε e ete /εtε/ bring
E î wîa /wea/ work
I i ndia /ndia/ Fool
ͻ o osa /ͻsa/ take
O û kûna /kona/ beat
U u mumo /mumͻ/ Grace

The study analyzed the Kikamba syllable structure with a close relation to the parameters discussed above.

II. GENERATIVE CV-PHONOLOGY MODEL specify language specific rules that govern syllabification in
Generative CV-phonology model is propounded by Kahn's languages.
(1976) and (Clements & Keyser, 1983). Generative CV - Generative CV - Phonology is a non - linear model which
Phonology is a non - linear model focused on the syllable has three tiers. Each of the tiers has a certain vocabulary
structure. Generative CV -Phonology holds that many associated with it. The segmental tier has a single column of
phonological rules only receive appropriate formulations in phonetic features of consonants and vowels. The CV tier has
terms of the syllable (Roach, 1994). Generative CV has three two elements, C and V to denote. [- syllabic] and [+syllabic]
main tasks. The tasks are: to specify well - formed elements, respectively. The syllable tier is denoted by a
expressions of the theory, to specify the parameters single element (σ) as demonstrated below:
governing the varying choices of syllable types, and to

σ Gloss
Syllable tier σ σ

CV tier
C V C V C V

Segmental s u k u l u school

tier
The three tiers are connected to each other using association vowel segments are the immediate constituents of the CV
lines. In this model, the syllable node dominates the CV elements. According to Kahn’s model of the syllable have
elements. Therefore, the CV elements are immediate two tiers, namely, the syllable tier and segmental tier, as
constituents of the syllables. Likewise, the consonant and illustrated below.

ISSN: 2456-7620
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.55.64 1758
International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences, 5(5)
Sep-Oct 2020 | Available online: https://ijels.com/

(1)

s s s Gloss

k a l a m u pen

Clements & Keyser (1983) modified Kahn's model by introducing a third tier, known as CV - tier to mediate between syllable
tier and segmental tier. The CV tier was introduced so as to tackle the shortfalls identified in Kahn's model. Thus, the Generative
CV-Phonology has three tiers as demonstrated below:

σ σ σ Gloss

C V C V C V

pen
a l a m u
k

CV-phonology model provides more details about the The design for the current study was descriptive research
syllable. Apart from showing the number of syllables that are design (cf. Creswell, 2012). Descriptive research is
in a word, CV - Phonology model shows the nucleus and the qualitative in nature (Creswell, 1994; 2012). This study was
margins of the syllable. According to Clements & Keyser carried out in Machakos County, Kenya, where the native
(1983), the CV tier distinguishes the functional positions of speakers of Machakos dialect of Kikamba language are
the elements within a syllable. Elements of each tier found. Specifically, the research is aimed at collecting nouns
distinguish between syllable peaks and syllable margins in from the speakers of the Machakos dialect of Kikamba in
that segments dominated by V elements are the syllable Mwala sub county Masii town (urban) and Muthetheni
nucleus, while segments dominated by C elements are the (rural). This study was qualitative in nature therefore a
syllable margins. The elements of the CV tier also serve the sample size of 50 respondents (25 males and 25 females)
function of defining the timing units of speech production in was considered valid. According to Creswell (2012) one can
the syllable. Single elements of C or V represent one timing have 20-30 sample size in a qualitative study while Bertaux
unit; double elements represent two timing units and so on. (1981) suggests fifteen as the smallest acceptable sample.
CV - tier also plays the role of displaying syllable weight. As Ritchie, & Elam (2003) on the other hand suggest that
discussed in the nucleus, the syllable plays the role of qualitatively inclined samples should “lie under 50” (p. 84).
distinguishing between the heavy and light syllables. It is in The study used two data collection instruments namely,
the CV tier where we see the branching or non- branching of naturalistic observation and interviews. The study was
the nucleus, and therefore distinguish the light from the guided by the following research objective:
heavy syllable. The aspect of tier is applied in the analysis of i. Describe the syllable structure of Kikamba Nouns
the syllable structure of the Kikamba nouns. of Machakos dialect.

III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

ISSN: 2456-7620
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.55.64 1759
International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences, 5(5)
Sep-Oct 2020 | Available online: https://ijels.com/

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: THE observed four syllable structures found in Kikamba, that is,
SYLLABLE STRUCTURE OF KIKAMBA CV, V, CV: and CCV.
NOUNS 4.1 CV Syllable
According to Ladefoged (1989) every language has its own A CV Syllable constitutes one consonant and one vowel
combination of sounds within a syllable and word. All the segment. Clements & Keyser (1983), states that CV Syllable
syllable structures follow phonotactic rules which dictate is presumably found in all languages such as English, Arabic
combination of sounds that are allowed in a particular and Bantu languages. In this paper we observe that Kikamba
language. In the current paper, an analysis of Kikamba has this syllable structure in greater part of its words as
syllable structure of nouns is presented. The study sheds demonstrated below:
light on the internal syllable structure of Kikamba nouns
which to the best of the researcher's knowledge, has not been
fully handled by previous researchers. The paper has
Kikamba Gloss

a. /kelͻmͻ/ 'lip'
b. /kana/ 'child'
c. /koto/ 'ear'
d. /mote/ 'tree'

σ σ
σ σ σ

C V C V
C V C V C V

k a n a
k l ͻ m ͻ

σ σ σ σ

C V C V C V C V

k o t o m o t e

Kikamba nouns being a Bantu language depict A CV hence they a CV syllable. In this case they are an open
Syllable (C for consonant and V for a vowel). Most of the syllable since they end with a vowel for instance the word go
nouns constitutes one consonant and one vowel segment in English language.
ISSN: 2456-7620
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.55.64 1760
International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences, 5(5)
Sep-Oct 2020 | Available online: https://ijels.com/

4.2 CV: Syllable vowel cannot be split. Al-Ani (1970) and Akidah (2012)
The data collected show that some open syllables nouns have acknowledge the - VV sequence as one long vowel.
the CV: Syllable. In this case, as much as the noun ends with Following Al-Ani (1970) and Akidah (2012) the current
a vowel the syllable comprises a consonant and a long vowel. study groups the nouns with the CVV syllable as CV: That is
This was a case where two vowels of the same kind follow consonant element that is followed by a single long vowel.
each other yet treated as a monophthong. In this case the The data below show some words with the CV: syllable:

Kikamba Gloss
a) /mbu:/ a scream
b) /mu:/ a type of fruit
c) /ma:o/ legs
d)/ndͻ:tͻ/ a dream

σ σ

V C V V
C V

mb u u m u u

σ σ σ σ

C V V V C V V C V

m a a o nd ͻ ͻ t ͻ

The above data show cases open syllable lengthening. This is two consonants ending with a vowel. That is, the Kikamba
a case where as much as words end with a short vowel they nouns have nouns with a syllable structure of a cluster of two
become long in open syllable. Kikamba nouns have the consonants ending with a vowel. The researcher observes
aspect of open syllable lengthening for instance the word that this syllable type is usually found at a word or syllable
mbu, mao and mu from the glossary above. initial position of Kikamba words. This Syllable type is
4.3 CCV Syllable found in words such as:

The data collected also reflected nouns with CCV Syllable

structure. The CCV Syllable structure comprises a cluster of

ISSN: 2456-7620
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.55.64 1761
International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences, 5(5)
Sep-Oct 2020 | Available online: https://ijels.com/

Kikamba Gloss
a) /emwε/ one
b) /nzwee/ hair
c) /kjaa/ finger
d) /kaΦjo/ knife

σ σ σ σ

V C C V C C V V

e m w ε e e
nz w

σ
σ σ

C C V V
C V C C V

k j a a
k a φ j o

3.4 V Syllable that the V syllable pattern was more common in monyllabic
A V (vowel) syllable constitutes only a vowel segment, a words of Kikamba words which is different from English
syllabic nasal or a syllabic liquid. This study has observed language where multisyllabic words exhibits the V-syllable
that it is only the V Syllable that constitutes only a vowel like the word gradual.
segment that is evident in Kikamba. The researcher observed
For example
Kiswahili Gloss
a) /eio/ a banana
b) /eia/ milk/weed/lake
c) /wea/ work
d) /sua/ sun

ISSN: 2456-7620
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.55.64 1762
International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences, 5(5)
Sep-Oct 2020 | Available online: https://ijels.com/

σ σ σ σ σ σ

V V V V V V

e i o e i a

σ
σ σ σ

V
C V V C V

a
w e a s u

V. CONCLUSION (Ed.), Biography and society: The life history approach in the
social sciences (pp.29-45). London: Sage.
This paper sought to describe the syllable structure of
[4] Clements, G. & S.J Keyser (1983). CV Phonology : A
Kikamba nouns. The researcher observed that Kikamba Generative Theory of the Syllable. Cambridge: The
nouns have four syllable structures, which are; CV, CV:, [5] Creswell, J. (1994). Research design: Qualitative and
CCV, V. The first structure CV is in words that are made of quantitative approaches. London: Sage.
a consonant and a vowel. For example the words [6] Creswell, J. W. (2012). Qualitative inquiry and research
/kelͻmͻ/cvcvcv for ('lip'), /kana/ cvcv for ('child'), /koto/ design: Choosing among the five traditions. California:
CVCV for ear and /mote/ /CVCV for tree. Kikambaa nouns Thousand Oaks.
also ended with a V but this time when the word is [7] Crystal, D. (1997). The Cambridge encyclopedia of language.
2nd (ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
pronounced it ends with a long vowel. Examples of words
[8] Guthrie, M (1948). The classification of Bantu Languages.
with long V are and CV: structure are /mbu:/ CV: for a
London : Oxford University Press.
scream, /mu:/ CV: for a type of fruit, /ma:o/ CV: for legs [9] Heine, B (2000). African languages an introduction;
and /ndͻ:tͻ/ CV: for a dream. Kenya. The study Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
concludes that syllable structure of Kikamba nouns is Open. [10] Hyman, L. M. (1975). Phonology: Theory & Analysis.
The study findings revealed that the nouns either have CV, London: Holt -Rinnehert and Winston.
CV:, CCV or V. The study also revealed that Kikamba [11] Kahn, D, (1976). Syllable-Based Generalizations in English
language is basicly open and not closed. Phonology. MIT dissertation.
[12] Katamba, F. (1989). An Introduction to Phonology. London:
Longman.
REFERENCES [13] Kioko, N. A. (2005). Theoretical Issues in the Grammar of
Kikamba. Muenchen : Lincom.
[1] Akidah, M. A (2012) . A lexical phonology study of modern
[14] Kitavi, H. M(1992). A comparative study the Kitui North and
standard Arabic (MSA) Unpublished Phd. Thesis, University
Machakos dialects of Kikamba; UON: MA thesis.
of Nairobi.
[15] Ladefoged, P. (2000). A course in Phonetics. 4th Edition.
[2] Al - Ani,S. (1970) Arabic phonology . The Hague : Mouton.
Australia : Thomason Wordsworth .
[3] Bertaux, Daniel (1981). From the life-history approach to the
[16] Lass, R. (1984). Phonology : An Introduction to
transformation of sociological practice. In Daniel Bertaux
BasicConcepts. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
ISSN: 2456-7620
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.55.64 1763
International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences, 5(5)
Sep-Oct 2020 | Available online: https://ijels.com/

[17] Massamba, D. P. B. (1991). Phonological theory : History

and development. Dar es Salaam University.
[18] Matthews, P.H. (1997). Oxford concise dictionary of
linguistics. Reading: Cox and Wyman Ltd.Press.
[19] Mathooko, P.M. (2004). Towards integrative perspective of
linguistic accommodation: A case study of Kikamba and
Kitharaka. (Unpublished PhD thesis). Kenyatta University,
Nairobi.
[20] Maundu, P. (1980). Reconstruction of Kikamba Consonantal
Sounds; UON; MA Dissertation.
[21] Roach, P. (1994). English phonetics and Phonology. A
practical Course. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
[22] Trask, R.L. (1996). A dictionary of phonetics and phonology.
New York: Routledge.
[23] Trubetzkoy, N. S. (1969). Principles of Phonology. Berkeley :
University of California Press.
[24] Urua, E. E. (2000). Ibibio phonetics and phonology. Cape
Town: Centre for Advanced Studies of African Society.
[25] Yule, G. (1996). The study of language. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
[26] Whitley, W. H. & M. G. Muli (1962). Practical Introduction
to Kamba. London : Oxford University Press.

ISSN: 2456-7620
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.55.64 1764