Microgrid

Outline

 Distributed energy system

 Types of dg sources
 Energy storage technologies
 AC microgrid with distributed energy resources
 Voltage and frequency of control of ac microgrid
 Stability of centralized grid vs micro-grid
Distributed Generation
Distributed generation (DG) is any small electric power system independent
of traditional utility grids, which is located on the user side to meet end-users
demands.

• Internal combustion engine

• Micro turbine, fuel cell
• Small hydropower system.
• Photovoltaic (PV) generation
• Wind generation
• Waste generation, and
• Biomass generation DG comprises of different sources
Distributed generation

 Distributed resource (DR) refers to a combined DG and energy

storage (ES) system, that is DR = DG + ES.

 It includes all DG technologies and can store energy in a battery,

flywheel, regenerative fuel cell, superconducting magnetic
storage device, and so on.

 Distributed energy resources (DER) is generation of electricity or

heat at the distribution level for local use.

 It includes all DR technologies, and systems connected to a

utility grid with which users can sell surplus power to utilities.
Characteristics of distributed energy system

Comprehensive and efficient energy use:

• With small size and high flexibility, a distributed energy

system can satisfy the load demand and also solve the
difficulty of long-distance transmission of cooling or
heating sources.

• The efficiency of distributed energy can reach above 80%

without transmission loss.

Characteristics of distributed energy system

An improvement to grid security and stability:

• Deploying a distributed energy system on the user side

as a supplement to the macrogrid can significantly

enhance reliability and continuity of power supply to
critical loads in the event of grid collapse or disasters
such as an earthquake, snowstorm, or war.
Characteristics of distributed energy system

Small capacity covering small area, low initial investment, no

long-distance transmission loss and investment on
transmission and distribution (T&D) network, and Ability to
meet special demands.

• This removes the need for long-distance transmission

and distribution and causing no feeder loss, requiring
no investment on T&D network, and contributing to
good economy and flexible, energy-efficient, and
comprehensive services for end users.
Characteristics of distributed energy system

Environmental friendliness, diversified energy mix, a new

way to utilize renewable energy.

• Using clean fuels as the energy source, a distributed

energy system is environmentally sound.

• They have smaller capacity and is suitable for

integration of renewable energy.

Characteristics of distributed energy system

 In general DG has many advantages, however at same time it

has difficulty in control system and random fluctuation behavior in
nature. Thus, a higher penetration of DGs may threaten grid
stability.
 A microgrid controls DG, ES, and loads coordinate with the
control system to form a single controllable power source and is
directly arranged on the user side.
 Microgrid is a controllable entity for the grid; and for the user side,
it can meet its unique demands, reduce feeder loss, and ensure
local voltage stability.
Advantages of DGs in Microgrid

 ES and DG are combined to address the problem of

significant fluctuations of DG outputs.
 DG can be connected to the grid through power electronics
to regulate the active, reactive and voltage output of DG for
improving grid reliability.
 Small combined heat and power (CHP) plants are generally
located in heat load centers
 In case of grid failure, the microgrid can operate in islanded
mode, to ensure power supply reliability.
Types of distributed generations

Photovoltaic (PV):

 PV is a means of electricity generation by direct conversion of

solar energy to electricity.
 The solar cell is the core component for light-to electricity
conversion.
 Currently, crystalline silicon solar cell is the dominant type in the
market, and other types include amorphous silicon thin film solar
cell and compound thin film PV cell.
 A PV power system may operate independently or in parallel with
the grid.
A typical PV power system
A typical PV power system
 An independent PV power system is a power system which is
not connected to a grid power system and is mostly deployed
in remote off-grid areas to meet local demands.
 The independent PV power system is implemented with
energy storage (ES) to supply the load in case of lack of PV
power generation.
 An independent PV power system consisting of solar array,
DC combiner box, charger controller, battery, off-grid inverter,
and AC distribution (service box).
Grid-Connected PV power system
 In this case the PV system is connected to the grid and
injects power to grid.
 Grid-connected PV power system can be further divided as
distributed and centralized type.
 The distributed type is a type of DG in microgrid in which
electricity is directly distributed to users and the surplus or
deficit is regulated by the grid.
 Whereas the centralized type directly injects power to the
grid distribution to users.
 Wind Power

 Wind energy is a clean

renewable energy.
 In wind energy, the kinetic -
energy is converted to
mechanical energy by the
rotor and then the
mechanical energy is
converted to electrical
energy by generator.
 Wind power system also
Independent wind power system block
can be classified as diagram
independent and grid
connected type.
Independent wind power system
 An independent wind power
system is not connected to a
traditional electric power
system and is mostly
deployed in remote off-grid
areas to meet local demand.
 ES is used to compensate
the power fluctuation due to
intermittency of wind speed
in nature.
Grid-connected Wind Power System

• This can be done in

three ways:
• Direct connection
• Connection via
inverter
Diagram for direct connection of wind
• Hybrid mode power
Grid-connected Wind Power System
 DFIG is connected to the
grid in a hybrid mode, i.e.,
the stator is directly
connected to the grid while
the rotor is connected to the
grid via inverter.

 The term ‘doubly fed’ refers

that the generated power
comes both from rotor and
stator and during power
DFIG connected to the grid in hybrid mode
demand; the rotor is fed from
the utility grid.
Fuel Cell
 A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that
produces electricity without combustion by
combining hydrogen and oxygen to produce
water and heat.

 They produce zero or very low emissions,

especially Green House Gases (GHGs)
depending on the fuel used.

 Have few moving parts and thus require

minimal maintenance, reducing life cycle
costs of energy production.

 Can be utilized for combined heat and power

purposes, further increasing the efficiency of
energy production.
Working Principle of Fuel Cell
 A fuel cell uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and oxygen to create electricity by an

electrochemical process.

 A single fuel cell Consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two thin electrodes (a

porous anode and cathode).

 Hydrogen is fed to the anode where a catalyst separates hydrogen’s negatively charged

electrons from positively charged ions (protons)

 At the cathode, oxygen combines with electrons and, in some cases, with species such

as protons or water, resulting in water or hydroxide ions, respectively.

 The electrons from the anode side of the cell cannot pass through the membrane to the

positively charged cathode; they must travel around it via an electrical circuit to reach
the other side of the cell. This movement of electrons is an electrical current.
Classification of Fuel Cells
• Based on the type of Electrolyte:
• Alkaline Fuel cell (AFC)
• Phosphoric Acid Fuel cell (PAFC)
• Polymer Electrolytic Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)Solid Polymer Fuel
Cell (SPFC) and Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel cell (PEMFC)
• Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
• Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

• Based on Types of fuel and oxidant:

• Hydrogen (pure)-Oxygen (pure) fuel cell
• Hydrogen rich gas-air fuel cell
• Ammonia-air fuel cell
• Synthesis gas- air fuel cell
• Hydro carbon (gas)- air fuel cell
Energy Storage Technologies in Microgrid
 The energy storage along with the renewable generators (PV
and wind energy) is required to increase reliability and flexibility.

 The intermittent nature of renewable sources like solar and wind

needs storage to deliver the right amount of power at right
quality.

 Energy storage is used to enhance the stability and efficiency of

microgrids by decoupling the generation source from the load.

 The ESS stores excess renewable energy and supply load when
renewable energy is low.
Energy storage classification

Superconducting
magnetic energy storage
systems
Energy Storage System

 Energy storage is needed for consistent operation of the

renewable energy system and DC voltage regulation.

 The load and renewable energy source power generation

profiles are the main important factors for determining the
kind of energy storage.

 Several technologies for energy storage are available, among

which batteries have been used extensively in microgrid
applications.
AC and DC Microgrid with Distributed
Energy Resources
AC Microgrid: Topics

 AC Microgrid Structures
 Voltage and Frequency Control in AC Power System
 Stability of conventional power system vs microgrid with
converter based DG Units
 Grid Synchronization
 Control of Distributed Energy Resource (DER) Units
 AC Microgrids
 Deregulation of the electric power industry imposes requirements
for more responsive economic dispatch for dynamic balance
between energy generation and loads.
 Concern about environmental impacts and shortages of fossil
fuels have increased interest in clean and renewable energy
generation.
 Renewable power generation and the prospect of large-scale
energy storage are changing the traditional power grid.
 Microgrid, as an active subsystem of modern power grid,
revealed a promising potential in dealing with intermittent clean
power generation, energy storage and load system.
AC Microgrid
 Renewable power sources are naturally dispersed and it is difficult for
the power system to manage the growing, intermittent distributed power
generation in a traditional way.
 A systematic view must be taken in order to effectively manage
distributed energy resources (DERs), loads and energy storage
systems.
 Integrating distributed units together, forms a micro power system from
the distribution side. As traditional power system is based on AC,
microgrids are considered as AC at early stage.
 A three-phase AC bus is commonly employed as the point of common
coupling (PCC) in ac microgrid.
AC Microgrid Structures

A microgrid consists of:

• A static transfer switch (STS)

• Single or multiple DG and distiibuted storage (DS) units

• Critical and non-critical loads

• A power management system

• Protection devices.
AC Microgrid Architecture

A typical configuration of a grid interactive ac microgrid

Voltage and Frequency Control in AC Power System

 Active and reactive power theory

 Active and reactive power flowing into the line at point A

can be described with equations (1) and (2)
Voltage and Frequency Control in AC Power System

Equation (1) and (2) can be analyzed in high voltage (HV) transmission lines
and low voltage (LV) based microgrid distribution lines separately.

In Case of High Voltage Transmission Line:

 In 11V transmission line since X » R, the resistance of the line is neglected

and also if the power angle delta is small, then sin delta = delta and cos
delta = 1. Thus, (1) and (2) can be reduced to:
Voltage and Frequency Control in AC Power System

 From Eq (3) and (4) it can be seen that for lines with X »R,
Small power angle and small voltage difference U1-U2 the
active power P depends mainly on power angle and reactive
power Q depends mainly on voltage difference U1-U2.

 Control of active power P directly controls the power angle

delta and thus the frequency f.

 The control of reactive power Q directly controls the voltage U

(e.g. terminal voltage of a DG unit U1).
 Voltage and Frequency Control in AC Power System

 In microgrid, LV distribution network lines can be based on

mainly resistive since R>>X. Thus the control principle of
frequency and voltage in HV is not functional in LV network
based microgrid.

 Therefore, in LV network, where R>>X, equations (1) and

(2) are reduced to (5) and (6) are given below:
Voltage and Frequency Control in AC Power System
Traditional Grid Vs Microgrid

𝑑 2 𝜃𝑚
𝐽 2
= 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑒 𝑁𝑚
𝑑𝑡
Traditional Grid Vs Microgrid
Synchronous Machine Rotor Dynamics in Traditional Grid
𝑃𝑒
𝑇𝑒

𝑃𝑚 (a)

𝑇𝑚 𝜔𝑠

𝑃𝑒

𝑇𝑚

𝑃𝑚 (b)

𝜔𝑠 𝑇𝑠

Fig. Flow of mechanical and electrical powers in a synchronous

machine
 𝑑 2 𝜃𝑚 6
𝐽𝜔𝑠𝑚 2
× 10 = 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒 𝑀𝑊
𝑑𝑡

Where
𝑃𝑚 = mechanical power input in MW
𝑃𝑒 = electrical power output in MW; stator copper
loss is assumed negligible.

Swing Equation: During any disturbance, the rotor decelerates or

accelerates with respect to the synchronous rotation, creating relative
motion. The equation describing the relative motion is known as the swing
equation, which is a non-linear second order differential equation that
describes the swing of the rotor of synchronous machine.
Traditional Grid Vs Microgrid