Chernyshev et al.

Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7

https://doi.org/10.1186/s42774-019-0007-6
Advances in Aerodynamics

REVIEW Open Access

Modern problems of aircraft aerodynamics

Sergey L. Chernyshev, Sergey V. Lyapunov and Andrey V. Wolkov*

* Correspondence:
[email protected] Abstract
Department of Aerodynamics,
Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute The article represents the discussion of several separate directions of investigations,
named after Prof. N.E, Zhukovsky which are performed by TsAGI flight vehicles aerodynamics specialists at the time.
(TsAGI), 140180, Zhukovsky str. 1, There are some major trends of classical layout of route aircraft and also peculiarities
Zhukovsky, Russia
of some prospective flight vehicles. Also there are some hypersonic vehicles
aerodynamics questions examined along with problems of creation of civil
supersonic transport aircraft. There is a description given for well-known and some
newer methods of flow control for drag reduction.
Keywords: Aircraft aerodynamics, Hypersonic vehicles aerodynamics, Civil supersonic
transport aircraft, Sonic boom

1 Background
The latest successes of aviation science and technology in fuel efficiency increase
could be observed in Fig. 1. There is a significant reduction of fuel consumption for
passenger per kilometer. But not only has the fuel consumption indicated aviation
science development. The flight safety and ecological impact (decrease of noise and
environment pollution level) of aviation transport became the prime tasks of
development.
At 2014 there was document prepared by representatives of Russia leading scientific
organizations (TsAGI, CIAM, VIAM, GosNIIAS etc...) named “Foresight of aviation
science and technology development”, which defines the long-term forecast of scien-
tific and technological development of Russian Federation in area of aviation industry.
This document specifies the ambitious task indicators (see Table 1) of creating of back-
log in the area of civil aviation development, which couldn’t be achieved without re-
consideration of existing technologies of aviation science.
The tasks of aerodynamic science are defined by the necessity of improving of these
indicators. The Breguet flight range formula

K  M G1
L
ln
CE G0

allows to define the key aerodynamic parameters, which need to be improved. First of all
it is an increase of cruise lift-to-drag level (K), cruise Mach number (M) and decrease of
specific fuel consumption and minimization of structural weight (G1,G0 - masses of air-
craft at the beginning and at the end of flight).
In turn, the maximal lift-to-drag ratio could be achieved as follows:
© The Author(s). 2019 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
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indicate if changes were made.
Chernyshev et al. Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7 Page 2 of 15

Fig. 1 Change of route aircraft fuel efficiency with time

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 π λ
K max ¼
2 C f S wetted

where λ – the effective wing aspect ratio, Cf – skin friction coefficient, S wetted – the wet-
ted surface area of aircraft divided by wing area. Thus, there are another three directions
of flying vehicle economical characteristics improvement, related to aerodynamics: aspect
ratio increase, friction drag reduction and aircraft relative wetted area decrease.
The main components of full cruise drag of modern aircraft are friction drag, drag
due-to-lift and wave drag. The impact of the first two in transonic speeds region
reaches up to 50 and 40% of full drag correspondingly. This shows that friction drag
reduction is the major source of aircraft lift-to-drag increase. It should be noticed that
lift-to-drag increase is not only about drag reduction, but also about increase of lifting
capabilities by shape improvement and search for newer layout solutions.
In the near future the development of aerodynamic layout of router aircrafts will be
carried out in frames of classical layout, basing on progress in area of aerodynamics
of high–speed wings, new materials, electronic and electromechanical devices and
super high bypass ratio engines. The article also examines peculiarities of aircrafts of
integral layouts (flying wing, elliptic fuselage) and aircraft with distributed powerplant
and powerplant integrated into the wing.

Table 1 Prognosis on changes in main aircraft aimed perfection indicators

Indicator Year 2020 2025 2030
Flight safety, air incidents reduction by 5 times by 7 times by 8.5 times
Noise level reduction rel. to. Ch.4 ICAO by, EPNdB 20 25 30
NOx emission level rel to. ICAO 2008 by, % 45 65 80
Fuel consumption and CO2 emission reduction by, % 25 45 60
Chernyshev et al. Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7 Page 3 of 15

One of the main ways of development of any kind of transport is the increase of
passenger transportation speed. One of the results of such development was creation
of first generation of supersonic civil aircrafts (SST-1) in Soviet Union (Tu-144) and
Europe (“Concorde”) in the second half of twenty century. In order to improve the
aerodynamic layout of supersonic civil aircraft TsAGI creates specially designed test
facilities and develops methodology of sonic boom characteristics estimation.
At higher supersonic and hypersonic speeds, the process of aerodynamic design
is additionally complicated by necessity of solving problem of intensive aero-
dynamic heating of surface elements of flight vehicles, and by ensuring of their sta-
bility and controllability and also by need of implementing of higher volume tanks
for hydrogen fuel.
For the successfully solving of the enlisted tasks and for ensuring of prospective tech-
nical backlog the leading-in-time mono and multidisciplinary scientific investigations
are indispensable.

2 The main directions of aircraft classical layout development

It should be admitted, that aerodynamic potential of modern supercritical wings is on
the edge of limit, that’s why it is needed to investigate and implement some new pro-
spective technologies in order to move forward. Among them the following should be
outlined:

 Adaptive wings for transonic speeds;

 New types of wingtips;
 Organization of laminar flow around empennage, engine nacelles, and later around
wings (NLF, HLFC);
 Reduction of turbulent friction drag;
 Improved types of efficient high-lift devices;
 Active and passive flow control systems (mini and macro devices, synthetic jets,
actuators etc);
 Active thrust vectoring control;
 Transition to layouts with moderate stability margin and slightly instable layouts.

The problem of increasing of cruise speed (Mach number) is connected with over-
coming of intensive drag rise occurring due to existence of intensive shock, closing
local area of supersonic flow. Using of supercritical airfoils and wings allowed moving
to higher Mach number for preset sweep angle and relative thickness of the wing. At
the time, the modern methods of aerodynamic design allow move the mentioned drag
rise to higher speeds using global numerical optimization of aerodynamic shape of
the wing for given relative thickness and plan form. Further increase of flight Mach
number is most likely possible only by using flow control methods and through af-
fecting the shock. These could be, for example, some special actuators or vortex gen-
erators [1] provoking additional vortex producing or the tangential jet blowing on
wing surface [2, 3].
Most frequently the higher speed possibilities of supercritical wings are “traded” for in-
crease of relative thickness of the wing in order to reduce structural weight or to increase
aspect ratio, which, as it is well known, leads to reduction of drag due to lift. Tu-204 and
Chernyshev et al. Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7 Page 4 of 15

Il-96 aircraft with aspect ratio λ = 9.2 ÷ 10 demonstrate such approach of aerodynamic de-
sign, exceeding their predecessors Tu-154 and Il-86 in maximal lift-to-drag by more than
2 units. It should be noticed that supercritical wings implementation is the reason of in-
creased nose-down pitching moment, that leads to higher trim drag. However, these losses
could be lowered by some reduction of aircraft longitudinal stability and by use of modern
flight control systems, ensuring flight safety.
Using of composites in wing structure opens new possibilities for aerodynamic de-
sign. On one hand the airframe weight could be reduced, on the other hand, wing as-
pect ratio could be increased for the same structural weight. The prediction of
aircraft flight performance shows that aspect ratio increase. That’s why for the new
generation Russian passenger aircraft MS-21 record aspect ratio wing with λ = 11.45
was implemented.
Aspect ratio increase consequently leads to increase of lift coefficient corresponding
to maximal lift-to-drag.
Wing aspect ratio increase leads to increase of wingbox weight due to lesser chords and
thicknesses. One of the possible ways of weight reduction could be use of additional sup-
porting elements-wing braces (see Fig. 2). This configuration has recently been intensively
investigated [4–7]. Preliminary estimations performed by TsAGI’s specialists have shown
that with using of such elements in router aircraft design there could be achieved optimal
wing aspect ratio up to 14–15, however, approving such estimations require deeper
investigations.
It should be noticed, that further increase of aspect ratio, and, consequently, wing-
span values is limited by size of existing taxiways and hangars. One of possible solu-
tions of this problem is the using of vertical or folding wingtips, which allows
increasing effective aspect ratio of the wing at wingspan limitations.

Fig. 2 Layout of aircraft with wing braces

Chernyshev et al. Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7 Page 5 of 15

The important reserve for aerodynamic layout lift-to-drag level increase is the opti-
mal positioning of engine nacelles, which is quite actual due to tendency of increase
of bypass ratio and sizes of prospective engines. It should be noticed, that high bypass
ratio engines have smaller fuel consumption and lower noise levels, but have a nega-
tive effect on flow around airframe, including takeoff and landing phases due to limi-
tations on span and extension distance of root section of slat. Besides that, large-sized
engine nacelles located under the wing require longer undercarriage struts, that leads
to structural weight growth. Application of optimization procedures allows to signifi-
cantly decrease negative interference of nacelles. The loss of maximal lift, while using
insufficiently effective high-lift devices, could be compensated, for example, by appli-
cation of jet blowing in wing-pylon connection area. Experiments on investigation of
efficiency of this conception have already started at TsAGI on large-scaled (span,
chord) wing segment at large (full) scale T-101 wind tunnel (Fig. 3).
TsAGI has developed technical conception of router aircraft of integral layout with
powerplant distributed within wing structure (Fig. 4). The idea of a distributed power plant
is fully discussed in the thesis report of Khajehzadeh [8]. Experimental investigations of de-
veloped model have shown that such way of powerplant integration into airframe ensures
approximately 15% increase of lift-to-drag ratio, comparing to classical layout.

3 “Flying wing” aircraft concept

The integral layout “flying wing” (FW), or “blended wing body” (BWB) is considered
to be the most aerodynamically perfect layout for long-range aircraft [9]. Flying wing
concept is targeted on full elimination of fuselage as a main part of drag. Besides that,
for classical flying wing, tail empennage is also absent. Theoretically, the lift-to-drag
ratio for flying wing could be 40% higher than that of classical layout for the same
wing aspect ratio. Besides that, the aircraft empty weight for flying wing layout should
be less due to possibility of more uniform distribution of payload inside wing. How-
ever, more complex problems of balancing and controllability of flying wing inevitably
lead to losses.
Passenger comfort requires significant structural height of the wing, which, in its turn
for standard small relative thickness will lead to significant growth of absolute aircraft

Fig. 3 Model of nacelle+wing segment with high-lift devices inside T-101 wind tunnel (AFLONEXT
project: www.aflonext.eu)
Chernyshev et al. Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7 Page 6 of 15

Fig. 4 Aircraft with powerplant distributed within wing structure

sizing. Application of these huge flying wing aircrafts could be justified only for super
high capacity (1000 passengers) transportation. Such aircrafts are not examined ser-
iously yet due to both safety reasons and difficulties of integration of such aircrafts into
existing transportation flows.
Potentially, passenger aircrafts of flying wing layout possess three advantages: higher
lift-to-drag ratio due to smaller relative wetted area, favorable distribution of mass load
along wingspan and relatively small ground noise level for configurations with engines
located above airframe.
However, taking a closer look, these advantages do not look that obvious. First of
all, latest aircrafts of classical layout utilize wings of increased aspect ratio due to
composites implementation. Distribution of payload along wingspan could be real-
ized significantly comparing to classical layout due to uncomfortable g-loads condi-
tions for passengers of outer wing sections during roll maneuvers, and finally only
third advantage, concerning noise shielding by flying wing central wing is yet conclu-
sive, and that’s why lately there were investigations started on aeroacoustics of
low-noise flying wing layouts of relatively small passenger capacity of 200–300
passengers (for example SAX-40 Fig. 5).
Calculation and experiments show that flying wing layout could ensure significant
noise shielding for sources located above upper surface due to longer chord lengths
(Fig. 5, see http://silentaircraft.org).

4 Possible ways of drag reduction

It is known that, the development of aircrafts, ships and high speed ground transport
stimulates investigations directed on finding possibilities of lowering of drag for moving
objects. Lately, the actuality of such kind of investigations is increasingly growing, due

Fig. 5 Low noise BWB layout (SAX-40, see http://silentaircraft.org/)

Chernyshev et al. Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7 Page 7 of 15

to the fact that possibilities of standard approaches to flight vehicles design are almost
ideologically depleted. Aerodynamic perfection of modern passenger aircrafts is gradually
going to the “limit”, and the struggle is for the decimals of lift-to-drag. To achieve a sig-
nificant breakthrough in this area, the new conceptions are needed, which are based on
ideas of active or passive flow control. Today, it is not enough to just understand or have
ability to explain phenomena, but the real challenge is to learn how to purposefully con-
trol them. From written above it is clear that, flow control in order to reduce drag of mov-
ing objects is one of the most important tasks of applied aerodynamics. Even small
decrease of friction drag would allow reducing fuel costs significantly.
The analysis of passenger aircraft drag components shows possible ways of its
reduction:

 wing aspect ratio increase

 decrease of friction drag by reducing wetted area of flying vehicle, flow
laminarization or application of some innovative ways of turbulent friction
reduction (riblets, surface active substances, vortex destruction devices, different
kinds of actuators, movable surface elements and so on).
 wave drag reduction

Problems, related to possibilities of wing aspect ratio increase are described at chap-
ter 2 of this article. Concerning the problem of friction drag decrease, the main ques-
tion about it is if the flow around most part of wetted area of flying vehicle laminar or
turbulent. At Reynolds number range from 106 to 107 or higher on significant part of
surface there could be a transition mode of flow, and it is obvious that it is expedient
to use some actions for delaying of process of laminar turbulent transition. Among
these actions are following:

 suction of boundary layer through surface

 creation of negative pressure gradient
 surface cooling

Such methods of laminar flow control could be successful up to Re = 25 · 106 or

even higher. Still, there are a lot of questions, related to practical realization, cost
and reliability of these methods. It is also should be noted, that the situation is add-
itionally complicated by existence of numerous factors that could create distur-
bances, leading to flow turbulization. This could be different unfairness (roughness
elements) of surface, acoustic factors, vibrations, different particles (rain, dust, in-
sects’ pollution) etc.
At very high Reynolds number, the flow is usually turbulent across all the length of
flying vehicle surface, and in this case the task is about lowering turbulent friction drag.
Among the most well-known approaches are:

 creation of positive pressure gradient

 blowing (with small pulse) through the slot tangentially to surface
 distributed blowing normally to surface
 devices for large eddies destruction
Chernyshev et al. Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7 Page 8 of 15

 ribbed surfaces (small longitudinal flutes). As far as the flutes are oriented along the
flow direction, the additional drag is minimal, but the wetted area is increased.
Nevertheless, the investigations show that drag reduction is possible if the deepness
and pitch of the flutes are of the same order as the size of near wall turbulent
formations.

In TsAGI there were first experimental investigations performed of effect of geometry

of surfaces with chaotic microstructure, having special fractal hierarchy of granularity,
on turbulent boundary layer characteristics. It was found that, the distinctive peculiarity
of “fractal” surface is non-gauss statistics of distribution of roughness height and it is
observed some good matching between fractal surface shape spectra and turbulent
boundary layer.
This result allows to make an assumption about existence of frequency-space mech-
anism of selective effect of stochastic model relief on turbulent boundary layer prop-
erties. TsAGI experiments clearly registered the effect of conditions of surface of
models used on spectra and structures of turbulent boundary layer. In the lower fre-
quencies area, the spectra amplitude lowers by 1.5–2 times, while at high frequencies
range the spectra amplitude rises, what speaks of destruction of low-frequency (large)
coherent structures by the surface with fractal microstructure.
During tests at wide range of Re number there were observed a reduction of drag co-
efficient Cx for the model with fractal surface comparing to the corresponding value of
Cx of abrasive surface with the same mean roughness (Fig. 6) [10].
As it was already noted, in frames of existing approaches of aerodynamic design,
modern aircrafts already have nearly optimal shape, and in order to significantly im-
prove aerodynamic characteristics it is needed to use of active or passive flow control
systems [1, 3]. The following are examined: jet blowing on flap surface, tangential jet
blowing right after the shockwave, and different kinds of actuators (plasma, dielectric
barrier and corona discharge and also a thermal pulse devices).
In order to learn about different aspects of wing laminarization, such as natural lam-
inar flow, combined laminar flow, low-noise layout with position of super high bypass
engines on upper wing surface, and also to learn about peculiarities of application of jet
system of active flow control, it is proposed to build a specialized prospective technolo-
gies demonstrator aircraft.

Fig. 6 Drag coefficient dependency on Re number

Chernyshev et al. Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7 Page 9 of 15

5 The modern problems of civil supersonic transport aircrafts

Today, one of the main factors to hold the development of civil supersonic transport in
Russia and abroad is the absence of conventional rules and requirements on sonic boom
for civil supersonic transport (CSST). A transition from “overpressure” terminology to
“loudness” terminology allows to evaluate the level of sonic boom more adequate and
uniquely, and to formulate the CSST layout with low sonic boom level. At the time the
process of formulating rules on sonic boom came into active stage. The specialists of
TsAGI, GosNIIGA and FRI are involved into the process, including the frames of “RUM-
BLE” European project. Main task of this project is the formulating of proposals for pro-
spective rules on sonic boom, regulating acceptable levels on sonic boom (threshold
levels), measurements metrics, and methods of determining the compliance of CSST to
these rules. The analysis of the metrics and threshold levels discussed by world scientific
society [11–13] allowed Russian specialists to formulate preliminary requirements on
sonic boom for prospective SST. The preliminary list of proposals on requirements for
metrics and threshold levels is already developed. With consideration to existing Rus-
sian regulatory legal base there are formed the preliminary set of measurement equip-
ment, the methodology of measurement of outdoor and indoor sonic boom level. The
results of this work are the base for performing a flight tests with sonic boom level
measurements at 2014–2018. Basing on preliminary requirements TsAGI, along with
Russian research institutes and enterprises, began forming a scientific-technical back-
log for creation of passenger supersonic aircrafts of new generation. The base of the
conception is the ability to perform a cruise supersonic flight above populated surface
with loudness L ≤ 72 dBA.
At the time, the works are performed on perfection of numerical methods of sonic
boom estimation for CSST at acceleration stage, accounting for real atmosphere
properties, and also a secondary boom. The estimations of sonic boom for acceler-
ation stage are needed for definition of flight modes with focusing occurrence,
when sonic boom loudness could significantly increase, and definition of possible
safety exclusion area [14].
The engines of prospective layout, capable of solving a transportation task with limi-
tations on noise levels at airport area at take-off and landing and atmosphere pollution
levels are observed as a component of CSST powerplant. CIAM, “Aviadvigatel” “Lulca
design bureau” are actively involved into formulating of prospective layouts of engines
for CSST powerplants. Basing on results of preliminary investigations, the PD-14C en-
gine project developed by “Aviadvgatel” could be called “near future” prospect. One
stage low pressure compressor, equipped with adjustable entrance stator is designed
with m = 2.5 bypass ratio. The appearance of testbench sample of such engine is pos-
sible in 5–7 years.
The noise-reduction system of prospective CSST includes shielding of engine and jet
noise by airframe elements, noise absorbing covering at air intakes channels and cold
ducts of engines, ejector nozzles. The special test bench investigations, maximally ap-
proximated to natural conditions are needed for noise-reduction system elements
development.
Solving of tasks of sonic boom and noise reduction is connected with some technical
actions, which are not improving aerodynamic and structural weight perfection of lay-
outs. Among them there are fuselage and the wing of special complicated shape,
Chernyshev et al. Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7 Page 10 of 15

powerplant shielded by airframe elements, with engine positioning above fuselage and
wing etc. Besides that, the requirements for transportation task became harder, for ex-
ample, for supersonic business aviation the basic requirements creating of supersonic
expansion is needed on runways with length less than 2000 m. For all CSST the transat-
lantic flight range (at least 7000 km) is considered to be minimal. For that case, even
fixing high load ratio of fuel GT ≈ 50%, the aircraft should ensure cruise lift-to-drag ra-
tio 15–20% higher than SST of first generation.
Requirements of ensuring flight safety increase dictate the need of lowering landing
approach speed, and as a consequence, increase of CSST wing aspect ratio by 30–35%
comparing to CSST-1. Thus, the tasks of aerodynamics, structural strength, stability
and control for CSST seem to be pretty complex.
At the time, the estimations are made on possibility of creating supersonic business jet
(SBJ) with cruise speed of M = 1.8 with 8 passenger capacity for business class compart-
ment and flight range of around 7400 km, maximal takeoff weight of 55 tones and
two-engine powerplant. Also the possibility is examined of creation of SBJ with transform-
able cabin (SBJ/CSST with cruise speed M = 1.8) with transatlantic flight range and max-
imal takeoff weight up to 130 tones. For “business jet” cabin option CSST/SBJ is capable
of transporting 20 passengers in 1-st class cabin, including 1 VIP (with separate compart-
ment, toilet, shower cabin and sleeping bed) on flight distance of up to 8200 km. For “pas-
senger” cabin option, keeping takeoff mass the same, SBJ/CSST is capable of transporting
up to 80 passengers at economy plus class cabin for 7400 km. The preliminary estimations
are made of possibility of creating of SST with transatlantic range for 140 and 200 passen-
gers, with takeoff weight of 170 and 256 tones correspondingly.
The works are also in progress on formulating the layout of demonstrator of supersonic
transport aircraft (DSTA) with maximal takeoff weight less than 30 tones. The list of the
main technologies, which could be tested on such flying vehicle includes aerodynamic
and layout solutions, ensuring low sonic boom level, reasonable structural scheme and ap-
plication of the newest materials and flight safety and control solutions (Fig. 7).
On preliminary estimations, for the examined range of weights and sizes of SST
of different roles, there exist potential of fulfilling the requirements on threshold
noise loudness level of L ≤ 72 dBA at cruise Mach number (for example) M = 1.8
(see also [15]) (Fig. 8).

Fig. 7 The layout of supersonic business jet and hypersonic civil aircraft
Chernyshev et al. Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7 Page 11 of 15

Fig. 8 The dependency of sonic boom loudness at the beginning of cruise supersonic flight at M = 1.8 on
flight weight of prospective CSST

The loudness level of sonic boom of L ≤ 65 dBA would, by preliminary estimations,

allow exploitation of CSST all-day long without limitations. However, reaching such
level would require significant efforts.

6 The peculiarities of hypersonic aircrafts

The aerodynamic design of hypersonic aircrafts is connected with a lot of peculiarities,
complicating the process. First of all, the intensive aerodynamic heating of elements of fly-
ing vehicle surface should be noted. For example, at M = 6 the stagnation temperature of
incoming flow would approach 1900 K, and for M = 8 would exceed 3000 K, that would
require taking special actions on ensuring heat resistance of surface elements of the ve-
hicle, especially of the nose part of the fuselage, leading edges of the wings, control sur-
faces and air intakes. A compromise should be found, allowing to ensure the thermal
structural strength with acceptable lift-to-drag loss.
The second problem is connected with the fact that hypersonic ramjet with hydrogen
fuel is considered as the most suitable type of engine for civil hypersonic aircraft. Such en-
gine could provide high efficiency on hypersonic flight speeds, but requires large volume
fuel tanks, equipped with thermal regulation systems. For hydrogen fuel, that inevitably
leads to decrease of aircraft lift-to-drag.
The over problems are defined by the peculiarities of stability and control assurance
for hypersonic flight vehicles. These peculiarities are determined by movement of pres-
sure center and aerodynamic focus forward, comparing to flight vehicles, at lower
speed range non-linearity dependencies. This happens due to significant non-linearity
of dependencies of aerodynamic characteristics of flight vehicles surface elements on
their incidence angle. For that reason, the most part of aerodynamic force, acting on
vehicle is concentrated on its forward part, and traditional control surfaces, located at
the tail are found to be less effective. This leads to necessity to perform the correspond-
ing optimization both airframe elements and control surfaces. It is possible also to use
combined control systems, including both aerodynamic surfaces and gas jets.
Chernyshev et al. Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7 Page 12 of 15

At high supersonic and hypersonic flight speeds it is especially important to use

possibilities of aerodynamic integration of elements of aerodynamic layout and en-
gine. While locating the engine air inlet in the flow areas previously decelerated by
vehicle airframe elements the own characteristics of air inlet: the mass flow coefficient
and pressure recovery ratio are improved. This leads to reducing of necessary sizing
of air inlet devices, and, consequently, to their weight decrease along with decrease of
powerplant in whole and increase of powerplant fuel efficiency. The results of investi-
gation of problems of reasonable integration of airframe and powerplant are pre-
sented, for example, in publications [16, 17].
At high supersonic and hypersonic speeds there occurs new opportunities of appli-
cation of non-traditional aerodynamic shapes, based on waverider and Busemann bi-
plane conceptions (Figs. 9, 10) [18]. The results of calculation and experimental
investigations show that such aerodynamic configurations, thanks to positive effects
of airframe-powerplant integration, allow achieving high lift-to-drag level with rela-
tively large inner volumes.
Interest in the possibilities of using unconventional aerodynamic shapes such as
waveriders and biplanes in the design of high-speed aircraft currently remains, as evi-
denced by, for example, recent developments [19–22]. The important aspect of cre-
ation and exploitation of high speed aerial transport is the care about ecology. As for
the sonic boom level, the researches show that with flight Mach number increase, the
sonic boom intensity lowers.
Figure 11 presents examples of the calculations of an aircraft weighing 150 tons
with the M = 1.5 at an altitude of 15 km, with the M = 2.5 and an altitude of 20 km,
and finally with M = 5 at an altitude of 30 km. Increasing the altitude of the flight is
selected in order to preserve the magnitude of the lift with increasing speed of the air-
craft. The calculations show an almost two-fold decrease in the intensity of the sonic
boom, which is mainly due to an increase in flight altitude. So, the hypersonic flight
usually takes place at high altitudes and sonic boom level decrease near the surface.
The ecological aspect also includes ozone layer protection problem. The representative
distribution of ozone concentration with altitude is shown at Fig. 12. The most part of
ozone layer is located 12–50 km altitude range, where the highest ozone concentration is
observed at 15–25 km at polar latitudes, at 20–25 km at middle latitudes and from 25 to
30 km at tropical latitudes.

Fig. 9 Configuration of vehicle based on waverider concept

Chernyshev et al. Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7 Page 13 of 15

Fig. 10 Configuration of vehicle based on Busemann biplane concept

It is obvious, that for decreasing of negative ozone layer effect, the cruise flight of
hypersonic aircraft should be performed as high as possible, and acceleration to cruise
flight should be done as fast as possible. These factors increase requirements for air-
craft thrust/weight ratio. To solve all these complicated tasks the efforts of many
TsAGI specialists are needed along with the specialists of other research institutes.

7 Summary
Modern problems and perspectives of development of flight vehicles aerodynamics are
described. The prospective technologies, which are to be implemented for aerodynamic
layout perfection of passenger aircrafts are emphasized.
The advantages and disadvantages are noted of the most aerodynamically perfect
integral configuration – the “flying wing” concept. The conclusion is made, that the
application of huge sized flying wing aircraft could be justified only for extra high
passenger capacity, around 1000 people. A brief description is made of known
methods of friction drag reduction, and also of new method, connected with creat-
ing of special microstructure, having special fractal granularity, on the streamlined
surface. During tests at wide range of Re number there were observed the reduction
of turbulent drag coefficient for the model with fractal surface comparing to the
abrasive surface with same mean roughness.
The main problems of creation of civil supersonic passenger aircrafts are de-
scribed. It is noted that one of the main factors, slowing down the development

Fig. 11 Sonic boom intensity at different flight Mach numbers

Chernyshev et al. Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7 Page 14 of 15

Fig. 12 The dependency of ozone partial pressure on altitude

of supersonic aerial transport is the absence of commonly accepted rules and re-
quirements on sonic boom level. The concept is examined of new generation civil
supersonic transport aircraft. The base of concept is the ability of aircraft to per-
form supersonic cruise above the populated surface with sonic boom loudness not
exceeding 72 dBA. Based on preliminary estimation, such opportunity exists.
The description is given of aerodynamics peculiarities for hypersonic aircrafts. These
peculiarities are connected mostly with the necessity of taking into account the inten-
sive heating of elements of flight vehicles surface. The conclusion is made that the most
suitable option of engine for civil hypersonic aircraft is the hypersonic ramjet with
hydrogen fuel. The new possibilities are noted for implementation of non-traditional
configurations, based on wave rider and Busemann biplane concepts.
Abbreviations
CIAM: Central Institute of Aviation Motors; GosNIIAS: State research institute of civil aviation; TsAGI: Central
aerodynamic institute; VIAM: All-Russian scientific research institute of aviation materials

Acknowledgements
Authors are grateful to the experts of TsAGI for the assistance in preparing the article, in particular: M.A. Brutyan, A.L.
Bolsunovsky, Yu. N.Chernavsky, V.G. Yudin, A. A.Gubanov and others.

Funding
Works are performed at financing of the ministry of industry and trade.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Authors’ contributions
The contribution of the authors to the work is equivalent and is approximately 1/3. All authors read and approved the
final manuscript.

Authors’ information
Sergey L. Chernyshev, MIPT, academician, TsAGI, author of over 130 scientific publications. Area of scientific
interests – flight vehicles aerodynamics, hypersonic vehicles aerodynamics, sonic boom.
Chernyshev et al. Advances in Aerodynamics (2019) 1:7 Page 15 of 15

Sergey V. Lyapunov, MIPT, Doctor of science, professor, TsAGI, author of over 70 scientific publications. Area of
scientific interests – flight vehicles aerodynamics, CFD methods.
Andrey V. Wolkov, MIPT, Doctor of science, TsAGI, author of over 70 scientific publications. Area of scientific
interests – flight vehicles aerodynamics, CFD methods. E-mail: [email protected]

Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Received: 17 January 2019 Accepted: 22 January 2019

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