CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the physical science that deals with the composition, structure, and properties of substances and
also the transformations that these substances undergo. Because the study of chemistry encompasses the entire
material universe, it is central to the understanding of other sciences. Several branches of Chemistry are the following:

a. Organic chemistry – mostly concerned with the study of chemicals containing the element carbon
b. Inorganic chemistry – the study of all elements of compounds other than organic compounds
c. Analytical Chemistry – the study of qualitative and quantitative analysis of elements and compounds.
d. Physical Chemistry – the study of reaction rates, mechanisms, bonding and structure

Matter

Matter in science, is a general term applied to anything that has the property of occupying space and the
attributes of gravity and inertia.

STATES OF MATTER
Plasma is the collection of charged gaseous particles containing nearly equal numbers of negative and
positive ions, is sometimes called the fourth state of matter.

Solid is characterized by resistance to any change in shape, caused by a strong attraction between the molecules of
which it is composed.

Liquids have sufficient molecular attraction to resist forces tending to change their volume.

Gas molecules are widely dispersed and move freely, offers no resistance to change of shape and little resistance to
change of volume.

Phase Changes
Phase Transition Name Examples
Solid ꟷ Liquid Melting, fusion Melting of snow
and ice
Solid ꟷ Gas Sublimation Sublimation of dry
ice, freezing-dry of
coffee
Liquid ꟷ Solid Freezing Freezing of water
or a liquid metal
Liquid ꟷ Gas Vaporization Evaporation of
water or refrigerant
Gas ꟷ Liquid Condensation, Liquefaction Formation of dew,
liquefaction of
carbon dioxide
Gas ꟷ Solid Condensation, Deposition Formation of frost
and snow
Phase Transitions

Matter exists in various forms, or phases. If the temperature and/or pressure of a sample of matter is adjusted,
the matter may undergo a phase transition. During a phase transition, matter shifts between its three states: solid,
liquid, and gas.

Elements and Compounds

An Element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary means. Ninety
elements are known to occur in nature, and 22 more have been made artificially. Out of this limited number of
elements, all the millions of known substances are made.

Compounds are substance in which two or more elements joined by chemical bonds. A compound can be
created or broken down by means of a reaction but not by mechanical or physical techniques. Salt, water, iron rust,
and rubber are examples of compounds

Water Molecule

Water is an example of a compound. A water molecule consists of an oxygen

atom and two hydrogen atoms.

Atoms and Molecules

 An atom is the smallest unit of an element that has the properties of the element; a molecule is the smallest
unit of a compound or the form of an element in which atoms bind together that has the properties of the compound or
element.

SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES

Nucleus - is very small compared with the rest of the atom and contains most of the atomic mass (or weight). The
nucleus is about 10-12 cm (3.94 x 10-13 in) in diameter. The size ratio of the atom to the nucleus is 10,000 to 1.

Electrons - is about 10-8 cm (3.94 x 10-9 in). It carries a negative electric charge with an assigned value of -1. The
atom is determined by the size of this electron cloud.

Proton - carries a positive electric charge with an assigned value of +1. The mass of a proton is 1836 times the mass
of an electron.

Neutron - has nearly the same mass as the proton, but the neutron has no electric charge.

Mass Number - The total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.

Atomic number - equals to the number of proton in an electron

Isotopes - atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. The
term isotope (from the Greek word meaning "same place") defines atoms that have the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons. That is, they are atoms of the same element that have different masses. (Ex. 7H1, 7H1,
H71, H1)

Atomic Weight - the average weight (more correctly, the mass) of an atom of an element, taking into account the
masses of all its isotopes and the percentage of their occurrence in nature.

MODELS OF THE ATOM

Element Number of Number of Number of Atomic number Mass number

protons electrons neutrons
Carbon 6 6 6 6 12
Application:
Complete the table below.

Element Number of Number of Number of Atomic number Mass number

protons electrons neutrons
Na
Na+
Cl-
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
The electron configuration of an atom is the arrangement of the atom's electrons with respect to its nucleus.
 An electron may occupy a certain energy level (n). An orbital is generally visualized as a cloud with a specified
size and shape determined, in general, by the energy level of the electron. Valence electrons are electrons found in
the highest energy level of the electron cloud.

Given the electronic configuration, one can determine its position in the periodic table. The energy level
corresponds to the period of the periodic table (1-7) while the number of valence electrons corresponds to the group
number of that element. Example, the electron configuration of Na is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p, the orbital
number is while the valence number is 1. Therefore, Sodium is in group I period.

Chemical Bonds, Formulas, and Equation

Elements that do not have a noble-gas configuration (a stable configuration) try to attain such a configuration
by entering into chemical reactions. Stable molecules are formed when atoms combine so as to have outer shells
holding eight electrons.

Ionic Bonds

In the ionic model, electrons are transferred

from one atom to another to achieve noble gas
configuration. An ionic bond is formed. The atom giving
up the electrons become positively charge (cation),
while the atom accepting the electrons becomes
negatively charged (Anion). Ionic bonds are formed
when elements in Group IA to IIA (except hydrogen)
combines with elements in group VIA to VIIA of the
periodic table. Ionic solids form crystals. Cations and
anions in crystals are arranged in a repeated fixed
manner (crystal structure).

Covalent bonds

When sharing of available outer elements of the atoms occur, a covalent bond is formed. There is no electron
transfer in covalent bonding. There can be multiple covalent bonds between two atoms. There can be a double bond
or a triple bond.

Chemical Reactions

The reaction is the heart of the study of chemistry. All chemical reactions involve the breakage and
reformation of chemical bonds of molecules to form different substances. Chemical reactions can be expressed
through equations that resemble mathematical equations. The reactants (the substances that are combined to react
with one another) appear on the left side of the equation, and the products (substances produced by the reaction) are
written on the right side of the equation. The reactants and products are typically connected by an arrow or various
types of double arrows. The single arrow shows that a
reaction only proceeds in the direction indicated, while the
double arrow indicates that a reaction can proceed in either
direction (that products are also reacting with each other to
reform reactants).

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

A. Composition Reaction (synthesis or combination reaction) is a type of chemical reaction where a more
complex substance is broken down into two or more simpler substances.
General Form: A+ X AX

B. Decomposition Reaction is a type of chemical reaction where a more complex substance is broken down
into two or more simpler substances.
General Form: AX A+X

There are five classes if decomposition, namely:

1. Decomposition of a metallic carbonate
2. Decomposition of a metallic hydroxide
3. Decomposition of a metallic chlorate
4. Decomposition of some acids
5. Decomposition of metallic oxides
 C. Single Replacement Reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which a less reactive element is displaced
from a compound by a more reactive element.
General Form: A + BX AX + B
Y + BX BY + X
There are four classes of replacement reactions. They are as given below:
1. Replacement of a less active metal from a compound by a more active metal.
2. Replacement of a less active non-metal from a compound by more active non-metal.
3. Replacement of hydrogen from water by metals
4. Replacement of hydrogen from an acid by a more reactive metal.
D. Double Displacement reaction is a type of reaction wherein cations of two compounds switch anions to form
new products.
General Form: AX + BY AY + BX

EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS

A chemical reaction either absorbs or releases energy. The energy released is in the form of heat energy. An
exothermic reaction is defined as a chemical reaction that releases energy. Most often, the energy released is in the
form of heat or light. When a bomb explodes, a tremendous amount of light and heat energy is released. This is an
example of an exothermic reaction. On the other hand, there are chemical reactions that absorb energy as they take
place. This reaction is endothermic. Photosynthesis requires light from the sun to proceed the reaction. Thus, it is an
example of endothermic reaction.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION

The rate of chemical reaction is affectedly several factors:

a. the nature of the reactants - the more reactive the reactant is to another reactant, the faster the reaction
will proceed

b. temperature - generally, the higher the temperature, the faster the reaction will take place

c. concentration of the reactants - the higher the concentration to react with another reactant, the faster the
reaction will take place

d. surface area - the smaller the surface area, the faster the reaction

e. effect of catalyst - with the presence of a catalyst, the reaction will become faster

Factor Example
Nature of reactants Gold + water =no reaction
Sodium +water = fast
Temperature Evaporation is faster when it is hot
Concentration of the reactants Wood + dilute acid= slow
Wood +concentrated acid=fast
Surface area Crushed eggshells will dissolve fast in acid
Whole eggshells will dissolve slow in acid
Presence of catalyst Decomposition of formic acid = slow
Decomposition of formic acid in the presence of sulfuric acid = fast
LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
The laws of chemical combination were formulated in the early part of the 19th century. They are a result of
the first use of quantitative measurement in chemistry.

In 1799, Joseph Proust proposed the law of definite proportions (also called the law of constant
composition). The law states that compounds contain elements in certain fixed proportions and in no other
combinations, regardless of the method of preparation. Thus, chalk, or calcium carbonate, CaCOO, is always 40%
calcium, 12% carbon, and 48% oxygen, by weight.

In 1803, John Dalton articulated the law of multiple proportions. This law states that if two elements
combine to form more than one compound, then the ratio of the weights of the second element (which combines with
a fixed weight of the first element) will be small whole numbers. For example, carbon and oxygen can form two
compounds, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. In carbon monoxide 12 g of carbon combine with 16 g of oxygen,
and in carbon dioxide, the same weight of carbon combines with 32 g of oxygen. Thus, the oxygen weight ratio that
combines with 12 g of carbon is (32/16), or 2. The law of combining weights, also proposed by Dalton, states that in
every compound, the proportion by weight of each element in the compound may be expressed by the atomic weight
or a multiple of the atomic weight of each element. (This law was discovered before the atomic theory was postulated
and was thus worded more generally.) The law of combining weights can be seen to follow directly from the atomic
theory. In the case of water, HMO, each molecule of water is composed of two atoms of hydrogen (atomic weight 1)
and one atom of oxygen (atomic weight 16). Thus, all molecules of water consist of 2 parts of hydrogen and 16 parts
of oxygen by weight. All other compounds can be analysed similarly.

These three laws, proposed from the first use of quantitative experimental techniques, resulted (1803) in
Dalton's atomic theory.

Balancing Equations
With the Laws governing chemical reactions, the numbers of atoms for each element should be equal in the
reactant side and the product side. We should therefore balance a chemical reaction. A chemical equation is
considered balance if there are exactly the same number of atoms for each element on both sides of the equation.

Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry that deals with quantitative relationships between the reactants and
products of a chemical reaction.

In the reaction

two moles of hydrogen is needed to react with one mole of oxygen to yield two moles of water.

This means that 4 grams of hydrogen is needed to react completely with 32 grams of oxygen to produce 36
grams of water.

APPLICATION:
Gases
Kinetic molecular Theory

Postulate 1: gases are made up of very tiny particles, called molecules. There are big empty spaces between
the molecules of gases. The sizes of the molecules are very small compared to the distance between them, thus
making them compressible. This also explains why gases have low density.

Postulate 2: gaseous molecules are in constant random motion. These particles are moving in straight lines
at different speeds and direction. Since they are moving constantly, gases can easily occupy a large container. Thus,
gases have no definite shape and volume and exhibits expandability. The random motion of the gaseous molecules
explains the diffusibility and effusibility of gases. Diffusibility is the ability of a gas to scatter in space, while effusibility
is the ability of a gas to escape through a small opening.

Postulate 3: The intermolecular forces of attraction between gaseous particles (molecules or atoms) are very
weak. This attractive force between molecules was discovered by Johannes Diderik van der Waals and is called the
Van der Waals force.
 Postulate 4: The collision of gas particles with each other or with the walls of its container is perfectly elastic.
Thus, no energy is lost upon collision. This means that the gas particles continue to move even if they collide with
each other or with the container walls. The collision of molecules with the walls exerts pressure on the container.

Postulate 5: The average kinetic energy of the gas particles is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. As
temperature increases, the average kinetic energy of the gas particles also increases and vice versa.

The Gas Laws

The laws governing the behaviour of gases are termed collectively as the gas laws.

1. BOYLE’S LAW

Robert Boyle was the first scientist to measure the relationship between pressure and volume of gases (with
temperature held constant).Boyle’s Law states that the volume of a certain amount of dry gas held at constant
temperature is inversely proportional to the pressure exerted by the gas.

This statement is expressed mathematically as

2. CHARLE’S LAW

Alexandre Charles performed experiments on the relationship between the volume and temperature of gases.
Charles’ Law states that the volume of a certain amount of dry gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature. This statement is represented as

3. COMBINED GAS LAWS

Given a fixed amount of gas at two different conditions of pressure, temperature and volume, we derive the
following relationship:
4. AVOGADRO’S LAW

Amadeo Avogadro interpreted Gay-Lussac’s findings on gas reactions at constant temperature and pressure.
Avogadro’s Law states that at a given temperature and pressure, the same volume of any two gases contain equal
number of molecules. The molar volume of any gas at STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure) is 22.4 L.

5. IDEAL GAS LAW

Boyle’s Law, Charle’s Law and Avogadro’s Law can be combined such that the variables V,P,T and n are all
equated to a single constant, R (the universal gas constant or ideal gas constant). The combined equation becomes:

6. GRAHAM’S LAW

Thomas Graham discovered the relationship between the ability of a gas to pass through a small opening and
its molecular weight. He found out that the rate of effusion of any gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its
molecular weight. Thus, the heavier the gas molecule is, the slower the effusion of that gas.

7. DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE

According to John Dalton, the pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases is the sum of the partial
pressures that each gas in the mixture exerts individually. Mathematically, this law is expressed as:

SOLUTION
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances whose components are uniformly distributed
all throughout. Solutions have two components, a solute, the substance to be dissolved and the solvent, the dissolving
medium. Usually, the solvent is greater in quantity than the solute. In a solution containing sugar and water, the solute
is the sugar and the solvent is the water.

Properties of Solutions

Concentration is the measure of the quantity of a solute in a given amount of solution or solvent. It can be
expressed qualitatively and quantitatively. A concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute per volume of
solvent. A dilute solution contains a small amount of solute per volume of solvent. Saturated solution contains as
much solute as it can dissolve. In a saturated solution, dissolving and crystallizing occur at equal rates. An equilibrium
exists between solute and solvent. When a solution can still hold more solute, the solution is still unsaturated. When
a solution has more solute than it should normally hold, it becomes supersaturated. Excess solute will crystallize,
making it an unstable solution.

For liquid in liquid solutions, solubility is described in terms of miscibility. When a solute and a solvent readily
dissolve in any amount in each other, they are referred to as miscible. When the components of a solution only have
limited solubility, then it is only partially miscible. Substances which are immiscible do not dissolve in each other.
They form two phases or layers.

Solubility

Solubility is the measure of the amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent at a
specific temperature.

TEMPERATURE

The solubility of gases in water is inversely proportional to temperature. This means that an increase in
temperature will decrease the solubility of gases in water.

PRESSURE

Henry’s Law states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure exerted by the
gas on the surface of the liquid.

THE NATURE OF THE SOLUTES

“Like dissolves like. Polar solvents will dissolve polar solutes and nonpolar solutes dissolve in non- polar
solvents. Water is the universal solvent because of its ability to dissolve a great number of polar and ionic compounds.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF DISSOLUTION

1. Size of particles

The smaller the solute particles, the faster it dissolves. Smaller particles have greater surface areas exposed
to the solvent.

2. Rate of stirring

The rate of dissolution is increased by stirring constantly. Stirring allows faster contact between the solute and
the solvent particles. Stirring also increases the kinetic energy of the system.

3. Heating

Heating also increases the kinetic energy of the solute and the solvent. This means that dissolution increases
as the temperature increases.

MODES OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION

Concentration is the ratio of a specified amount of solute to a specified volume of solvent or solution.
3. Molarity

Molarity expresses the amount of solute in moles per liter of solution.

M = moles of solute / volume soln. liter

4. Molality

Molality is based on a fixed volume of a solution while molarity is based on a fixed mass of solvent.

Molality = moles of solute / mass solvent (kg)

5. Normality

Normality is the number of equivalents of solute in a liter of solution

Normality (N) = number of equivalence / liter of solution

An equivalent is defined as the number of moles of an acid or base multiplied by the number of replaceable
hydrogen or hydroxide ions it has. Equivalent weight is the molecular weight of an acid multiplied by the number of
equivalent of hydrogen or hydroxide ion it has per molecule.

N= 0.373 equivalent / 1.5 L = 0.25 normal

Acids and Bases

Definition of Acids and Bases

Acid Base
Arrhenius A substance that yields H+ ions A substance that yields OH-
in aqueous solution Ions in aqueous solution
Bronsted Lowry Proton donor Proton acceptor
Lewis Electron pair acceptor Electron pair donor
Properties of Acids and Bases

Acid Base
Sour taste Bitter taste
Irritating smell (for most acids) Slippery or soapy touch
Turns blue litmus paper to red Turns red litmus paper to blue
pH<7, pOH > 7 pH >7 , pH < 7
Neutralizes a base Neutralizes an acid
Good conductor of electricity Good conductor of electricity
Classification of Acids and bases

Acids can be classified according to the number of hydrogen and hydroxyl group. A monoprotic contains 1 hydrogen,
diprotic, 2 hydrogen and so on. A monobasic contains only one hydroxide group, dibasic, 2 and so on. Water is
amphoteric because it can act as an acid or base.
pH and pOH
The pH of the solution is equal to the negative logarithm of its hydrogen ion concentration ([h+].

pH= -log [H+].

pOH = -log [OH]

pH + pOH = 14 * water has a pH of 7. It is neutral.

Organic Chemistry
Hydrocarbons - contain only hydrogen and carbon in their molecules. It can be classified as alkanes,
alkenes, and alkynes.

ALKANES - hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds in their molecules.

ALKENES - there is at least one carbon-to carbon double bond.

ALKYNES - hydrocarbon where there is at least one carbon-carbon triple bond.

Aromatics

Aromatic compounds are organic compounds having cyclical hydrocarbon rings where all the atoms are sp 2
hybridized.

Substituted hydrocarbons

a. Alcohol - with OH functional group (R – OH)

b. Ethers - hydrocarbon chains attached to an oxygen atom (R-O-O-R)

c. Aldehydes and ketones - have carbonyl group (C=O)

d. Halogenated hydrocarbons - hydrocarbons where one or more hydrogen is replaced by a halogen.

e. Amines - if you replace a hydrogen atom from an ammonia molecule with a hydrocarbon

f. Amides – carboxyl group (C=O) comes between the hydrocarbon chain and the nitrogen of an amine

Biological Chemistry
Biological chemistry deals with the chemical substances that make up living things such as their tissues, body
fluids, and others.

Biological Substances

1. Carbohydrates – include the different types of sugar, starch (like those from rice, bread, sweet potato) and
the like. They are primary sources of energy in plant bodies. They are classified according to the number of
simple sugar units or “saccharides” into the following:
a. Monosaccharides - made of one simple sugar unit (ex. Fructose, ribose, glucose)
b. Disaccharides - made up of two simple sugar units (ex. Maltose, sucrose)
c. Polysaccharides - made of more than two simple sugar units. (ex. Glycogen, cellulose)
2. Proteins – Substances classified as proteins vary in shapes, sizes and functions, but there are similarities in
their chemical structures. They are all poly peptides (polymers of amino acids)
Amino acids are chemically carboxylic acids with an amino group. There are about 20 common amino
acids found in the body, each has a different side chain. The most common secondary structures are the
alpha-helix, the beta-pleated sheet and the triple helix.
3. Nucleic Acids – a polymeric chain of nucleotides (polynucleotides). Each nucleotide component is made up
of a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogen base. The base can be a purine (adenine or guanine) or a
pyrimidine (cytosine, thymine or uracil) derivative. The sugar found is either ribose or deoxyribose. It is the
sugar that determines whether the nucleic acid you have is a DNA or RNA. If the sugar used is ribose, you get
an RNA. If the sugar used is deoxyribose, you get a DNA.
a. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
DNA structure is a double – helix. This is responsible for the replication of DNA. The
complementary base pairs in the DNA structure are : Adenine and Thymine, Guanine and
Cytosine.
 b. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
In RNA, uracil is used in place of thymine. Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies genetic
information from DNA in the cell nuclei to the ribosomes (where proteins are made.) Transfer RNA
(tRNA) carries amino acids to the site of protein synthesis Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) provides the site
for protein synthesis.
4. Lipids – fatty acids and their esters. Fatty acids are chemically carboxylic acids. If you eat too much, the food
you overeat will be stored as lipids in adipose tissues. Two types of lipids are: the simple lipids and compound
lipids.