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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cortex

Editorial

Tuning the brain for music

Daniela Perani a,*, Mari Tervaniemi b and Petri Toiviainen c

When compared to human auditory cognition and expertise, exposed to a particular musical system “looks like”. Indeed,
which in the field of language learning have been widely studies have been made in infants, who have been found to
investigated for decades, music and its brain determinants show musical abilities remarkably similar to those of adults
form a more novel area of research. However, thanks to recent (Perani et al., 2010); even more intriguing is the finding that
advances in theoretical and methodological domains in sensitivity to culture-specific details of tonal and harmonic
cognitive neuroscience, this appealing research area has structure seems to emerge between 5 and 7 years of age
become feasible. In parallel, thanks to mobile sound tech- (Trehub, 2003). Before this age, infants seem to be sensitive to
nology and social concomitants of music, the importance of musical characteristics which are culture-independent; for
music in our daily life has increased remarkably. Thus, music example, they are able to perceive violations in complex
and its brain basis have become an important topic for metre, a characteristic of much non-Western tonal music
multidisciplinary investigation, not only scientifically but also (Levitin and Tirovolas, 2009).
socially. Together with the contribution of neuropsychology to the
Music offers a unique, rich and inspiring setting, which is study of “music and the brain”, the modern tools of cognitive
collectively enjoyed within all human cultures. It offers neuroscience, such as high resolution electroencephalogram
a plenitude of variations in terms of musical instruments and (EEG), magnetoencephalogram (MEG), functional and
styles, as well as ways of performing and dancing. Despite the anatomical magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI, MRI) and
fact that music does not seem to have explicit survival value transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), have been and will
for humans, musical appreciation can be regarded as a basic be very relevant in systematically constructing the neural
phenomenon of life. In almost every culture people not only basis and correlates for music processes. Thanks to very
use music as a means of communication but also just simply recent developments in the field of music perception and
enjoy performing and listening to music. Furthermore, music cognition and their neural bases, a solid foundation for further
is used by some cultures, in various ways, as a means to progress has been established. Consequently, a significant
regulate the emotions and actions of their members, both in number of recent studies have used functional neuroimaging
individual and in social settings. methods to investigate the perception and cognition of
There are differences across cultures with respect to the musical stimuli by the human brain. Even more recently,
gross external surface of the musical system applied. For neuroscience has begun to reveal the brain functions behind
instance, in our modern Western societies there are actually musical expertise, appreciation, performance, and emotions
many musical systems and subcultures present. Yet, it is also (Peretz and Zatorre, 2005; Peretz, 2006; Brattico and
true that a deeper analysis into different musical systems Tervaniemi, 2010; Tervaniemi, in press).
reveals some fascinating commonalities, whose distribution A major point taken into account by such research concerns
is widespread to the point that such aspects are often the emotional aspects conveyed by music, since a primary
described as music universals. If, therefore, some musical feature of music is indeed its capacity to generate strong
universals do exist, the following confirming step would be to emotions in the listeners (Brattico and Jacobsen, 2009). Not
analyse what the brain of someone who has never been surprisingly, the emotional aspects of music typically involve

* Corresponding author. Vita Salute San Raffaele University, Division of Neuroscience, Scientific Institute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.
E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Perani).
0010-9452/$ e see front matter ª 2011 Elsevier Srl. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2011.05.021
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the activation of limbic and paralimbic structures (amygdala, important implications for clinics but also for the current
hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, temporal poles, insula, neuropsychological models on emotion. The second neuro-
ventral striatum, as well as orbitofrontal and cingulate cortex) logical article (Gosselin et al., 2011, this issue) shows instead
(Koelsch, 2005). Traditionally, these emotional aspects have an impaired recognition of musical emotions together with
been investigated by contrasting different tempos of music facial expressions following anteromedial temporal lobe
(fast or slow) (Peretz and Zatorre, 2005) and different modes, excision, but only for the fearful condition. Dissociation found
with major scales used to create “happy” moods, while minor in two patients for music and face recognition suggests that
scales classify the excerpt as “sad” (Halpern et al., 2008). a multimodal representation of fear in the amygdala could
Dynamics and instrumentation, too, are specifically used by exist, but also that fear recognition in faces and in music does
the composer in order to convey an emotional “meaning” to not necessarily involve the same cerebral networks.
the excerpt. As pointed out in a recent study by Koelsch et al. When considering the current and future development in
(2008), irregular sequences used to verify the processing of the field of neurosciences of music, it is fascinating to note
musical structural rules, may also be perceived as unexpected that this research can be performed with the most advanced
and therefore they are likely to convey a different emotional tools and paradigms, as documented, for example, in the
valence than regular ones. Indeed, not only are irregular recent article by Salimpoor et al. (2011): while the participants
sequences behaviourally judged as more unpleasant, but they were listening to their own favourite music, positron emission
also modulate amygdala activity. tomography (PET) was applied to measure the neurochemistry
Part of the outcome of the BrainTuning project is introduced of music-induced emotions. PET scanning was followed by
in this Special Section. The BrainTuning project, supported by fMRI investigation of BOLD responses related to the timing of
the NEST program of the European Commission in 2006e2009, music-induced emotions. Their results indicate that intense
was established to explore the neural determinants of music pleasure in response to music can lead to dopamine release in
emotions and appreciation. The topic was approached in the basal ganglia, providing neurochemical evidence that
a synergetic, multidisciplinary fashion by taking into account intense emotional responses to music involve ancient reward
the neurocognitive determinants and development of music circuitry. This study contributes to our understanding of why
cognition, emotion and appreciation in various subject groups, music is of such high value across all human societies.
from infancy to mature adulthood and patients. Also both Notably, it also showed that the anticipation of an abstract
musically untrained and musically trained individuals were reward result of dopamine release in an anatomical pathway
investigated. New methodological approaches are reported: for is distinct from that associated with the peak pleasure itself.
example, a synthesis method allowing the manipulation of The findings introduced above and detailed in the Special
values of several musical variables simultaneously (tempo, Section, together with the advantageous results concerning the
sound level, articulation, phrasing, register, timbre, and attack effectiveness of music therapy both at the behavioural and
speed) (Bresin and Friberg, 2011, this issue); and simultaneous neural levels (Särkämö et al., 2008, 2010; Erkkilä et al., in press),
EEG recordings in a saxophone quartet while observing their will boost a new generation of music-based brain studies,
musical performances with different degrees of empathy which will reveal the brain determinants not only of perceptual
(Babiloni et al., 2011, this issue); and a new fast mismatch and cognitive functions but also of creative and emotional
negativity paradigm developed for determining the neural processes in normal and clinical populations. Music thus offers
prerequisites for musical ability (Vuust et al., 2011, this issue). a plenitude of promises for various fields of modern neurosci-
All these papers not only provide detailed descriptions and the ence, such as cognitive, educational, social, affective and
validation of the applied methods, as new possible bases for developmental branches of neuroscience with tight connec-
future experimental paradigms, but also reveal new exciting tions to practical applications e either now or at least in future.
results in the neuroscience of music. Additionally, a novel
behavioural exploration on the interactive roles of mood and references
personality in the perception of music-induced emotions is
given by Vuoskoski and Eerola (2011, this issue).
A review paper is dedicated to sensitive periods in human Babiloni C, Vecchio F, Infarinato F, Buffo P, Marzano N, Spada D, et al.
development as evidenced by musical training showing the Simultaneous recording of electroencephalographic data in
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that has its greatest impact on measures of sensorimotor Brattico E and Jacobsen T. Subjective appraisal of music:
integration (Penhune, 2011, this issue). A second review paper Neuroimaging evidence. Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences, 1169: 308e317, 2009.
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Dellacherie D, Bigand E, Molin P, Baulac M, and Samson S.
issue) report patients with temporal lobe resection including Multidimensional scaling of emotional responses to music in
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