10

INSULATION COORDINATION

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Power system transients are disturbances produced due to switching (energization,

de-energization, fault clearing, back up fault clearing and reclosing), induced
voltages, inrush currents, ferroresonance, loss of load, neutral instability and
lightning. The transients produce overvoltages, overcurrents and oscillatory
behavior. The overvoltages may damage the power system equipment due to
flashover through insulation breakdown. Usually a flashover will cause a temporary
tripping and reclosing operation. A permanent insulation damage will cause a
sustained power outage. Overcurrents can cause excessive healing and hence
possible equipment damage/tripping. The oscillatory type of transient may produce
power quality problems such as nuisance tripping, voltage notching, swings and
sags. Therefore, there is need to understand the switching transients in order to
provide reliable power delivery. Electrical transients can be studied using the
following approaches.

Direct solution - Using electrical equivalent circuits of the network, the integro-
differential equations are written. The equations are solved for closed form solution
in time domain. In the complex cases, Laplace transformation, Fourier
transformation and Z-transformation can be used to derive a time domain solution.
Once the transfer function is represented in an equation, then the time domain
solution can be calculated and plotted. This procedure is suitable for small
networks.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Analog models - Electrical circuit problems can be solved for both steady state and
transient state using an analog computer or Transient Network Analyzer (TNA).
This approach can be used for large-scale networks. Analog computers and TNAs
are expensive and require significant maintenance efforts.

Experimental measurements - The transients in certain electrical circuits can be

measured in the laboratory in the time domain or frequency domain using storage
oscilloscope, transient recorders, photographs or data acquisition systems. This
approach is suitable when the number of transients to be measured is few and the
nodes are close to each other.

Digital computer models - Several transient programs are available to perform

analysis of large-scale networks. The Electro Magnetic Transients Program
(EMTP) from the BPA is popular software and is used for both steady state and
transient analysis [1,15]. All the power system components such as resistance,
reactance, capacitance, transmission lines, cables, generator, transformer, circuit
breakers and lightning arresters can be represented by suitable parameters. Both
linear and nonlinear characteristics of various devices can be modeled. The
switching surge analysis is performed in order to evaluate the capabilities of various
power system components. In the switching surge studies, the voltages and currents
at various nodes/branches are studied in time domain. The input and the output data
can be stored for future references from a digital program. In this chapter, the
modeling and analysis of the switching transients are discussed. Some of the
important definitions used in the switching surge analysis are given below.

Overvoltage - Any time-dependent voltage between line and ground having a

peak value exceeding the corresponding peak value of the nominal system
voltage.

Overcurrent - Any time-dependent phase current having a peak value exceeding

the corresponding peak value of the nominal system current.

Switching surge - A phase to ground overvoltage at a given location on a system

due to any of the switching events such as energization, de-energization, fault
clearing or line reclosing.

Temporary overvoltage - A weakly damped phase to ground voltage of

relatively long duration. Usually, a temporary overvoltage originates from
switching operations, faults or load rejection.

Energization transient - A transient overvoltage resulting from connecting a

portion of the power system that has no stored energy to a potential source.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 De-energization transient - A transient overvoltage resulting from
disconnecting a portion of the power system when there is no fault in the system.

Pre-insertion resistor - The resistor inserted in the closing cycle of a circuit

breaker to limit the switching surge overvoltages.

Fault clearing - When a fault (such as three-phase fault or a single line to ground
fault) occurs in a power system, the current or voltage in some parts of the system
exceeds the nominal values. The relaying identifies such condition and opens the
appropriate circuit breaker to clear the fault.

Back up fault clearing - When a fault occurs in a power system and the relay
close to the fault fails to act, then the relay in the next section acts and clears the
fault after a time delay. This is called back up fault clearing.

Reclosing - Usually a circuit breaker is open due to a relay action in response to

a fault. After a time delay the circuit breaker is allowed to close and provide
electric supply to the line. This is called reclosing. If the fault is temporary, the
circuit breaker will not open immediately again. If the fault is permanent, then the
breaker will open again.

10.2 MODELING OF THE SYSTEM

A one-line diagram of the given system is prepared for the switching surge study.
The components of the system are identified and the data are verified. The
following assumptions are made in the switching surge modeling and analysis:

• The power sources are ideal.

• The switched lines are considered to be unloaded, since such conditions exist
in the power system during initial energization and in the event of line outages
and subsequent restoration.

• The lines are not transposed.

Source - The model consists of the appropriate source impedances and an ideal ac
voltage source. The remote sources are represented by a Thevenin equivalent,
which is calculated from the three-phase short circuit current and single line to
ground fault current values as shown below:

X, =V ph /I scc . 3 (10.1)

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 la, = I s l g / 3 (10.2)

X, + X2 +Xo-V p h /I a l (10.3)

Where Xi = Positive sequence impedance

X2 = Negative sequence impedance
Xo = Zero sequence impedance
=
Iscc-3 Three-phase short circuit current
Isig = Single line to ground fault current
Vph = Phase voltage

It is assumed that X] = X2. Using a X/R ratio for the source, the equivalent source
resistance is calculated.

Example 10.1 - The three phase and SLG short circuit currents at a 138 kV
substation are 18,000 A and 15,000 A respectively. Calculate the source impedance
at the substation and represent the source by a suitable transient model.

Solution - The positive and zero sequence impedances are calculated below.

Phase voltage (138 kV/1.732) = 79.6766 kV

Vph 79.6766 kV
Xi = —— = = 4.4265 Ohm
18kA
Iscc-3
Vph 79.6766 kV
— = = 15.93530hm
(lslg/3) (15kA/3)
=
XO 15.9353 -(2x4.4265) = 7.0823Ohm

It is assumed that X] = Xi. Using a X/R ratio of 10, the positive and zero sequence
resistance values are calculated.

Rl - 0.4427 Ohm and RO = 0.7082 Ohm

The symmetrical component values of the source impedance at the substation is

represented as:

C <-BUS><-BUS> <-R->< L—>

51 GENA A1A 0.7082 7.0823
52 GENB A1B 0.4427 4.4265
53 GENC A1C

The source voltages of the equivalent generator are represented as a cosine wave

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 with a peak voltage. The phase angle used in the study provides a cosine wave and
the 120-degree phase shift between the phases. The starting time is given as a
negative value; the source is on at the start of the simulation. An example input data
for the model of a 138 kV, 60 Hz, three-phase source with a peak voltage of
fl
112.676 kV (rms line to line voltage x J~~ ) at the substation is given below:

C SOURCE VOLTAGES
C <BUS-xKAmplitude<Frequency<-TO:PhiO<—0=PhiO<-Ignore-><—Tstart<—Tstop
14 GENA 112.676 60. 180. 0. -1. 9999.
14 GENB 112.676 60. 60. 0. -1. 9999.
14 GENC 112.676 60. -60. 0. -1. 9999.

Transformer model - A saturable three-phase transformer is shown in Figure 10.1.

The primary is delta connected and the secondary is wye connected. The following
parameters are required:

Primary winding resistance = RI

Primary leakage reactance = Xi
Secondary winding resistance = Ra
Secondary leakage reactance = Xa
Primary phase voltage = Vi
Secondary phase voltage = Vi

In the case of the delta connection, the program requires that a path to ground be
provided. A floating delta is not allowed since the voltages are defined with respect
to ground. If a transmission line is connected to the delta side, the line charging
capacitance provides a connection to the ground; otherwise, a value of 0.003 micro-
Farads is used.

Example 10.2 - Consider a 50 MVA, 138 kV/25 kV, delta/wye transformer with a
reactance of 10%. The resistance is calculated based on a typical X/R ratio of 20.
Calculate a model for a transient analysis.

Solution - The required parameters are calculated on a 100 MVA base.

Base Z on 100 MVA base =(0.10)( 100/50) = 0.20 P.U.

X, = X2 -(0.20/2) =0.10 P.U.
Base Z of the 138 kV (1382 7100) = 190.44 Ohm
Base Z of the 25 kV (25 2 /100) = 6.25 Ohm
X of 138 kV winding( 190.44 x 0.10) = 19.04 Ohm
X of 15 kV winding (6.25x0.10) =0.625 Ohm
R of the 138 kV winding (19.04/20) = 0.952 Ohm

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 R of 25 kV winding (0.625/20) = 0.031 Ohm
X of the delta winding (primary) =57.12 Ohm
R of the 138 kV winding (primary) = 2.856 Ohm
RMS Voltage/phase on 138 kV side = 138 kV
RMS Voltage/phase on 25 kV side = 14.43 kV

To model saturation effects, the no-load characteristics of the three-phase, 50 MVA,

138 kV/25 kV transformer are based on typical data. The program needs the
saturation characteristics in terms of no-load current in kilo-Amperes versus flux in
kilo-Volt-second. In order to derive the required data, the "Saturation" program of
the software is used. The typical no-load characteristics of a transformer are given
below:

Current in P.T I Voltage i n P T I

0.0017 1.00
0.0020 1.04
0.0031 1.10

The saturation characteristics from the output of the transients program are:

Current^ kA Flux, kiln-Volt-second

0.00050295 0.2988675
0.00078349 0.3108222
0.00143710 0.3287541

The input data for the example transformer is shown below:

C POWER TRANSFORMER BETWEEN NODE PY AND NODE SY

C<--REQ—>REF.BUS<-—><ISS><-SI-><-BUS><-Rm>
TRANSFORMER .00050 .2988XFMRA 1.0E4
0.00050295 0.2988675
0.00078349 0.3108222
0.00143710 0.3287541
9999.
C<BUS-><-BUS> <~Rk-x-Lk-x»V->
1 PYA PYB 2.856 57.12 138.0
2 SYA 0.031 .625 14.43
C TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE B
TRANSFORMER XFMRA XFMRB
1 PYB PYC
2 SYB

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 VC
Figure 10.1 Delta/Wye Transformer for Transient Analysis

C TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE C

TRANSFORMER XFMRA XFMRC
1 PYC PYA
2 SYC

Model for transmission lines/cables - The transmission lines are represented by pi

models. Also, the lines can be represented by symmetrical components. A
numerical example for the symmetrical component model is presented below
between node Al and node A2:

C IMPEDANCE BETWEEN Al AND A2; LENGTH = 203 KM

C<-BUS><-BUS> <-R_-><-L~x-C--x-DIS>
-1 A1A A2A 0.26 1.015 .0077 203.
-2 A1B A2B 0.040 .318 .0119 203.
-3 A1C A2C

The pi circuit model - A transmission line can be modeled as pi circuits for

transient analysis. Depending on the length of the circuit and the desired accuracy
the number of pi circuits can be selected. If the line constants are available as
positive and zero sequence parameters, then the self and mutual impedance can be
obtained using equations (10.4) through (10.7):
1
X s = - ( X 0 + 2xi) (10.4)

1
Xm=-(Xo-Xl) (10.5)

1
Cs = -(C 0 + 2 Cl) (10.6)

1
Cm=-(C0-Cl) (10.7)

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 This model is useful for representing the transmission lines where the
energization transients affect the most. An example of a pi circuit impedance
between two nodes (Bl and B2) is shown below using the pi circuit model data:

C IMPEDANCE BETWEEN Bl AND B2 IN PI MODEL

C <-BUS><-BUS> <.R.-><-L-><-C-><-R-><-L--><-C-><-R-><-L--><-C-->
1 B1A B2A 23.01 114.12.124
2 BIB B2B 14.88 49.532.284 23.01 114.10 2.124
3 B1C B2C 14.88 49.532.284 14.88 49.532.284023.01 114.12.124
Similar models can be used for the cable sections.

Circuit breaker model - The circuit breaker is modeled as a time-controlled

switch, with specified circuit breaker closing timings. The following data are
required.

Bus m = Bus on one end of the circuit breaker

Bus n = Bus on the other side of the circuit breaker
Tclose = Closing time for each phase
Topen = Opening time for each phase
I margin = The current at which the breaker opens
I = Control parameter for monitor V or I

For the energization study, the circuit breaker closing and the opening times are
specified. For de-energization studies, the circuit breaker is closed to begin with and
the opening times are specified. An example circuit breaker model for energization
is shown below between nodes Cl and C2:

C CIRCUIT BREAKER
C BUS->BUS-><—Tclose<—Topen< le 1
CIA C2A 13.031E-3 9999999 0 3
C1B C2B 13.711E-3 9999999 0 3
C1C C2C 12.308E-3 9999999 0 3

Statistical switching - A statistical overvoltage study consists of up to 500 separate

internally generated simulations of a circuit breaker closing [2]. The peak voltages
for each closing operation are recorded and then processed statistically. The data for
a study contains three switches with closing times, which are random variables.
Such randomly closed switches are called statistical switches. These switches are
always initially open and close at appropriate random times as determined by the
switch parameters and never open again in a selected simulation. Time-dependent
switches, along with two dependent switches, are used to simulate a three-phase
circuit breaker. The closing time for each statistical switch is randomly varied
according to Gaussian or uniform distribution. Alternatively, a systematic switch
can be used with closing time varied between a given beginning and ending time in

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 steps, which are uniformly spaced. For power system circuit breaker, a time-
dependent statistical switch is more appropriate than a systematic switch. For a
time-dependent statistical switch, the closing time of three switches is:

Ta (close) = Tmean + Ta (random)

Tb (close) = Ta (close) + Tb (delay) + Tb (random)
Tc (close) = Ta (close) + Tc (delay) + Tc (random)

The data required for the statistical switching are mean closing time, standard
deviation, delay time for the dependent switches and the number of times the
closing operations are to be performed. A typical standard deviation value of 1.0 ms
for each of the three switches is used. The delay time between phase A to B and
phase A to C are taken as 0.0 ms and 0.5 ms respectively. A mean closing time of
13.0ms is used.

Shunt reactors - The extra high voltage overhead lines produce significant reactive
power due to the phase to ground charging shunt capacitance. Also, due to the
Ferranti effect, the open end of the overhead line experiences a higher voltage than
the sending end voltage and this may exceed the allowable voltage tolerances.
Therefore, shunt reactors are used to compensate the reactive power requirements
and to retain the open-end voltages within specified limits. A fixed or switched
reactor can be used from the operation point of view. Typical values of shunt
compensation range from 40% to 80%. However, in all the circuits the harmonic
resonance has to be assessed in all operating conditions. Further, the fixed reactors
can cause resistive and reactive power loss at all loading conditions. Based on these
considerations the required switchable and fixed reactors are chosen. The
calculation and modeling of a shunt reactor are illustrated through an example. An
example shunt reactor is shown in Figure 10.2 (a).

Example 10.3 - Consider a 100-mile-long three-phase overhead line for a 500 kV,
60 Hz, and three-phase transmission system. The line charging is 2.1 MVAR per
mile. What is the value of the fixed shunt reactor to compensate 20% of the line
charging? Present a model for the transient analysis.

Solution - The reactance and the resistance of the shunt reactor are calculated in
Ohms/phase.

The total line charging (2.1 x 100) =210 MVAR

Reactor MVAR (0.20x210 MVAR) = 42 MVAR

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 A1 A1
A2

L2
L1

Figure 10.2 Single Phase Representation of Shunt Reactor and Filter Bank

Reactor size on each end (42 MVAR/2) = 21 MVAR, 3 phase

2
XI = = 11, 904 Ohm
21
Using a X/R ratio of 500, the resistance of the reactor can be calculated as:

R = 11, 904/500 = 23. 808 Ohm

The model for transient analysis is given by:

C REACTOR IMPEDANCE BETWEEN LINE NODE Al TO GROUND
C<-BUS><-BUS>------------<-R-X-L — >
A1A 23.808 11904.
A1B 23.808 11904.
A1C 23.808 11904.

Capacitor or filter bank - Shunt capacitors are used in the power system for
power factor correction applications. The filter banks are tuned reactor and
capacitor combination used to correct the power factor and control the harmonics
simultaneously. Knowing the component ratings, such filter banks can be
modeled for the transient analysis. An example 4.9th harmonic filter bank with a
rating of 4.65 MVAR, 13.8 kV, 4.53 mH (1.708 Ohm) and 63.95 micro-Farad is
represented for transient analysis as follows between node Al and ground. A 5
harmonic filter bank circuit is shown in Figure 10.2 (b).

C SHUNT CAPACITOR BETWEEN LINE NODE Al TO GROUND

C<-BUSx-BUS>------------<-R~x_L»x-C»>
A1A 0.100 1.708 63.95
A1B 0.100 1.708 63.95
A1C 0.100 1.708 63.95

The capacitance value is expressed in micro-Farad and reactance is presented in

Ohms at 60 Hz.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Simulation of trapped charges - High capacity transmission lines of very long
distances have significant shunt capacitance. De-energization of such circuits leave
trapped charges in the lines. Also, during a single-line to ground fault clearing,
trapped charges are left in the line capacitances. Generally such charges are drained
through appropriate grounding equipment before performing any maintenance
operations. Automatic reclosing is used for fault clearing to maintain continuity of
service, system stability and to maintain equipment capabilities. Many times the
reclosing will be successful and the voltage interruption is avoided. However, the
trapped charges due to the line capacitance produce significant overvoltages.

In addition to the modeling of the physical elements, it is necessary to specify the

line initial conditions. Modeling of the trapped charges on a transmission line
during the high-speed reclosure is one such phenomenon [1-3]. For energizations, it
is assumed that the line is at zero potential (no trapped charge) and that the initial
current flow in the line is zero. For reclosing operations, it is assumed that typical
trapped charges are present on phases A, B, and C, equal to -0.9, -0.8, and 0.8 per
unit respectively. The trapped charges on a 345 kV line are shown below on P.U.
voltage between nodes SW and END.

C Trapped Voltages (at each end of the lines)

C<BUS-x-VOLT->
2 SWA -0.9
2 SWB -0.8
2 SWC 0.8
2 ENDA -0.9
2 ENDB -0.8
2 ENDC 0.8
C Circulating Current Loops
C<BUS-x-BUS>
3 SWA ENDA
3 SWB ENDB
3 SWC ENDC

Input and output data - The mathematical model/numerical data described above
for the various components are combined into a complete input file for the
switching surge analysis. The data is organized in the following manner:

• Time and frequency data.

• Linear circuit data including transformer and cable.
• Circuit breaker data.
• Voltage sources.
• Request for output node voltages.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 The ASCII output file and the binary output files are utilized in preparing the
transient voltage magnitudes and the time-domain plots respectively.

10.3 SIMULATION OF SWITCHING SURGES

System used in the study - A case study is presented with a 345 kV source
represented at 1.0 P.U. A three-phase simulation circuit for the system is shown in
Figure 10.3. The parameters of the 203 km overhead line given at 60 Hz are:

Source & transformer impedance, Zi = ZQ ~ (6.75 + J127) Ohm

Line impedance, Zi - (0.04+J0.318) Ohm/km
Line impedance, ZQ — (0.26+j 1.015) Ohm/km
Charging capacitance, Ci = 11.86 nF/km
Charging capacitance, C0 = 7.66 nF/km

Perform the necessary insulation coordination studies in order to satisfy the

system requirements. To evaluate the effects of switching transients consider the
energize, de-energize, reclosing, fault clearing and back up fault clearing cases.

203 KM
*
Phase A
345 kV Line ENDA

Phase B

ENDS

ENDC

Figure 10.3 Three Phase Simulation Diagram with One Pi Circuit

10.3.1 Energization

First, a statistical switching is performed to identify the magnitude of the

overvoltages and the switching times. A total of 500 energizations are performed
and the probability distribution of the overvoltages is presented in Figure 10.4. It
can be noted that the switching energizations can result in overvoltages up to a
maximum of 2.1 P.U. for the example. The time at which the maximum
overvoltages are produced is identified and the energization case is simulated. In

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Figure 10.3, the circuit breaker is closed and the transients at the circuit breaker,
the line junction and at the open end of the line are observed. The voltage
waveforms at the open end of the line are presented in Figure 10.5. It can be seen
that the waves are oscillatory. The voltage magnitudes are much higher than the
nominal.

100 200 300 400 500

Number of Runs

Figure 10.4 Statistical Energization Results

Effect of line models - The overhead line was modeled using various numbers of pi
circuits and the overvoltages were studied. Also, the symmetrical component model
was used in the energization study. The calculated overvoltages at both ends of the
line are listed in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1 Voltages in P.U. at Both Ends of the Line for Different Line Models

Model Vmax, CBEnd Vmax, Open End

One pi circuit 1.881 2.171
Two pi circuits 2.169 2.337
Four pi circuits 2.014 2.603

Eight pi circuits 2.102 2.873

1 6 pi circuits 2.238 2.663

Symmetrical component 1.790 2.083

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 -ENDA

0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06

Time, s

Phase A

-ENDB

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.06

Time, s

Phase B

0.01 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Time, s

Phase C

Figure 10.5 Voltages at the Open End of the Line During Energization

With sixteen pi circuits, the overvoltage magnitudes are the maximum. With two or
four pi circuit models the deviation in the result is not significant. With a
symmetrical component model the calculated overvoltages are much less than the pi
circuit model. These results are presented to show the sensitivity of the model
towards the output results.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Calculated overvoltages using different time steps - The overhead line was
modeled using eight pi sections and the overvoltage magnitudes were studied using
different time steps. The calculated overvoltages at both ends of the line are listed in
Table 10.2.

Table 10.2 Voltages in P.U. at Both Ends of the Line for Different Time Steps

Delta t Vmax. CB End Vmax, Open End

200 |j. second 2.159 2.773

100 |i second 2.119 2.836
50 n second 2.115 2.884
25 p. second 2.107 2.864
2 n second 2.102 2.873

From the calculated overvoltages, for delta t <50 microseconds, the results are
practically identical. With a time step of 100 microseconds the deviation become
noticeable, but the results are still acceptable.

10.3.2 De-energization

The circuit breaker is open in order to de-energize the lines. The breaker is opened
at a specific time and the electrical circuit opens at respective current zeros in
various phases. The voltage wave at the open end of the line is presented in Figure
10.6. It can be seen that the voltages go to the dc mode and line charges stay on the
lines. This is due to the presence of the charging capacitance of the transmission
lines. Another waveform of importance is the transient recovery voltage (TRV)
across the circuit breaker. The TRV waveforms are shown in Figure 10.7. The
maximum overvoltage and the TRV during de-energization are 2.1 P.U. and 2.5
P.U. respectively. If the TRV magnitudes exceed the circuit breaker allowed
ratings, then there may be a restrike at the circuit breaker blades.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 0.06

Figure 10.6 Phase Voltages at the Line End

3.00 -r-

-*-A-A'
-*-B-B'
-•—C-C'

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Time, s

Figure 10.7 TRV Across the Circuit Breakers During De-energization

10.3.3 Reclosing

This is the process of reconnecting the three-phase source to the transmission line
with trapped charges in the line by closing the circuit breaker. Such an operation is
performed in order to minimize the time of discontinuity in the service. In this case
the lines are reclosed with -0.9, -0.8 and 0.8 P.U. voltages. The voltages at the open
end of the line are produced in Figure 10.8. The overvoltage magnitudes in the line
at the switch end and at the line end are listed in Table 10.3.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Table 10.3 Overvoltages in the Presence of Trapped Charges

Location Va, P.U. Vb, P.U. Vc, P.U.

At the switch end 1.272 2.164 2.413

Line end 1.442 2.839 2.784

From Table 10.3, it can be seen that the maximum overvoltage magnitudes due to
the presence of trapped charges are 2.839 P.U. The corresponding overvoltage
magnitude in the absence of trapped charges is 2.873 P.U.

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Time, s

Figure 10.8 Voltage Waveforms at the Line End During Energization with Trapped
Charges in the Line

10.3.4 Fault Clearing

It is assumed that a single line to ground fault occurs at one phase of the open line,
in phase A. The circuit breaker is open and the voltage waveforms are studied. The
phase voltages at the end of the line are illustrated in Figure 10.9. It can be seen that
the voltage of the faulted line is zero and the unfaulted lines have a maximum of 2.5
P.U. The circuit breaker TRY voltage waveforms are shown in Figure 10.10. The
maximum TRY is 2.4 P.U.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 -BIDA
-BMDB

-BSIDC

Figure 10.9 Voltages at the Open Line During Fault Clearing

-A-A'
-B-B'
-C-C'

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Time, s

Figure 10.10 TRV Voltages During Fault Clearing

A B

Source Fault
Breaker with Stuck Breaker
Delayed
Clearing

Figure 10.11 Circuit for Back up Fault Clearing

10.3.5 Back up Fault Clearing

Consider two lines connected to the source as shown in Figure 10.11. If there is a
fault at the open end of the line and the circuit breaker B fails to clear, then the
circuit breaker A is operated to clear the fault. Such an operation is called back
up fault clearing. The switching surge results are similar to the fault clearing
cases and are not shown.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 10.4 VOLTAGE ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA

Equipment overvoltage withstand capability is related to the magnitude and

duration of the overvoltages. The following types of overvoltages are considered.

Transient overvoltage - These are overvoltages caused by the switching operations

and last for a few milliseconds up to a few cycles. The switching surge voltage
withstand capability of the equipment is judged based upon the switching surge
withstand voltages specified in the applicable industry standards as identified
below.

Transformer C57.12.00 [6] BIL and switching surge

Shunt reactor C57.21.00[7] BIL and switching surge
Shunt capacitors IEEE Std 18 [12] BIL and switching surge
GIS C37.122 [8] BIL and switching surge
Circuit breaker C37.06 [11] BIL and switching surge
Circuit breaker TRY C37.09 [4] Circuit breaker TRY
Insulator BIL and switching surge

The allowed peak switching surge voltages are compared with the calculated
switching surge voltages. In all the cases, the peak switching surge voltage has to be
less than the allowed switching surge voltage.

Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV): The TRVs are the voltages measured across
the circuit breaker poles during opening. The severity of a TRV depends on both
the magnitude and the rate of rise of the voltage across the opening circuit breaker
poles. Based on ANSI Standard C37.09 [4], the allowable TRV values for various
circuits are given in Table 10.4.

Table 10.4 Allowable TRV Values as Per ANSI C37.09

Type of Capacitor Circuit Allowed Maximum TRV

Grounded shunt capacitor 2.0 P.U.
Unloaded cable 2.0 P.U.
Unloaded transmission line 2.4 P.U.

Surge arrester transient overvoltage capability and protective levels: The

surge arrester should have adequate protective margins. The maximum switching
surge sparkover voltage has to be higher than the calculated switching surge voltage
in all the cases. The calculated switching surge voltages for all the three-phases in
all critical locations and the TRV are compared with equipment capabilities. The
TRV of circuit breakers, switching surge sparkover voltage of surge arresters,

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 insulation and switching surge withstand capabilities of critical equipment are
presented in Appendix C.

10.5 INSULATION COORDINATION

Based on the switching surge study, an insulation coordination study can be

conducted for the 345 kV example system. The maximum switching surge voltages
and the corresponding surge voltage limitations for various equipment are listed in
Table 10.5.

Table 10.5 System Switching Surge Voltage Limitations

Switching Switching Related

Equipment BIL, kV Surge Surge Limit, ANSI
Voltage, kV P.U. Std.
Transformer 1175 975 2.4 C57.12.00
345 kV CIS 1050 1050 (*) 2.6 C37.122

Circuit breaker 1300 975 2.4 C37.06

TRY 2.4 C37.09

Insulator 1300 897 2.2

(*) - 3 microsecond test voltage

Base peak voltage of the 345 kV system = (V2/V3) 345 kV = 408 kV.

Switching surge limit, P.U. = switching surge voltage/Base peak voltage

Now comparing the switching surge overvoltage to the equipment withstand

capability, the insulation coordination can be performed.

Energization - The maximum overvoltages produced due to energization is 2.873

P.U. with 8 pi circuits. This voltage is very high compared to the allowed
equipment voltage of 2.2 P.U. Therefore, there is a need to reduce the switching
surge overvoltage and the approaches are discussed in section 10.6.

Reclosing: The overvoltages produced due to reclosing is 2.839 P.U. and exceeds
the switching surge capabilities of most of the 345 kV system equipment. As noted
above the approach to reduce the switching voltages with trapped charges are
discussed in section 10.6.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 De-energization - The overvoltage produced due to de-energization is 2.1 P.U.
with a TRY of 2.5 P.U. The TRY values exceed the acceptable level of 2.4 P.U.
Therefore, some mitigation measure has to be applied to correct the situation.

Fault clearing - The overvoltage produced due to fault clearing is 2.5 P.U. with a
TRY of 2.18 P.U. These voltages are not acceptable.

Application of surge arrester to protect the equipment from overvoltages - A

264 kV surge arrester for the 345 kV system is selected based on the calculations in
List 10.1. As shown, this arrester can provide overvoltage protective margins well
within those recommended in ANSI Standard C62.22 [9]. The maximum switching
surge sparkover voltage level for this arrester is shown below:

Switching Surge
Arrester Size Discharge Voltage (on 145 kV Rase)

264 kV 614 kV (2.18 P.U.)

The surge arrester will conduct during energization, reclosing and whenever the
switching surge sparkover voltage exceeds 2.18 P.U. It should be noted that surge
arresters are often used even if the transient overvoltages are moderate, because of
the resulting risk reduction. Also, the surge arrester is very viable equipment in
handling the overvoltages due to lightning surges.

10.6 METHODS OF MINIMIZING THE SWITCHING TRANSIENTS

Many approaches are used to limit the switching transients at the source. Some of
the approaches used are application of synchronous closing, pre-insertion resistors,
pre-insertion inductors, shunt reactors in high voltage circuits and series inductors in
low voltage circuits. Some approaches are discussed below.

100 OHM ^^ 100 OHM

AUXILIARY SWITCH

TO SOURCE MAIN CONTACTS TO TRANSMISSION

Figure 10.12 Pre-insertion Resistance in One Phase with Auxiliary Switch

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 List 10.1 Lightning Arrester Selection Calculations for the 345 kV System

System voltage 345.00 kV, rms

Phase voltage 199.19 kV, rms
Multiplying factor (k) 1.05
Temporary overvoltage (TOY) 209.15 kV, rms
Select a lightning arrester with a rating of 264 kV, rms
Maximum continuous overvoltage (MCOV) 214.0 kV, rms
Front of wave impulse spark over voltage (FOW) 699.0 kV(l)
Maximum impulse sparkover voltage(LPL) 618.0 kV(l)
Maximum switching surge sparkover voltage (SPL) 530.0 kV
Insulation Capabilities
Dielectric strength of the equipment (BIL) 1300.0 kV
Chopped wave withstand (CCW= 1.15*BIL) 1495.0 kV
Switching surge sparkover voltage (BSL=0.69*BIL) 897.0 kV
Ratio = MCOV/TOV 1.02
The ratio is greater than unity and hence the arrester can handle the duty.
Protective Margin Calculations
PM(1)=CCW/FOW 2.14
PM(2)=BIL/LPL 2.10
PM(3)=SSL/SPL 1.69
The margins are above 1.15 and hence acceptable.
Check the Arrester Current
Flashover voltage 1410.00 kV
Surge impedance (typical value) 400.00 Ohm
IA=(2*1.2*FLV)/ZS 6.92 kA
Note: (1) - Based on standard values for the 264 kV arrester

Pre-insertion resistor in the circuit breaker - In extra high voltage applications

(230 kV and above) the circuit breakers are equipped with closing resistors in order
to control the energization transients. A typical circuit breaker with closing resistor
(per phase) is shown in Figure 10.12. During energization, the auxiliary switch is
closed first and the main circuit breaker contacts are closed with a delayed time.
Typical parameters used in the simulation of the 345 kV circuit breaker with a
closing resistor of 200 Ohms/phase are closing span of 5 ms and insertion time of 9
rns. The overvoltages produced with closing resistors in the circuit breaker are listed
in Table 10.6.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Table 10.6 Voltages Produced with Closing Resistors in the Circuit Breaker

Location
Va, P.U. Vb, P.U. Vc, P.U.
At the switch end 1.519 1.470 1.581
Line end 1.752 1.621 1.610

The maximum overvoltages at the line end without and with closing resistor in the
circuit breaker are 2.873 P.U. and 1.752 P.U. respectively. The transients with pre-
insertion resistor are within acceptable limits.

Pre-insertion inductor - In the capacitor switching applications, pre-insertion

inductors are used to control the energization transients. The inductor is bypassed
by closing the circuit breaker at (7 - 12) cycles after the switching. The inductor
offers a series impedance during the closing to reduce the inrush current of a
capacitor bank. The optimum size of the pre-insertion inductor is twice the value of
the system inductance, which is inversely proportional to the short circuit rating.
Also, the pre-insertion inductors are very effective in reducing the Rate of Rise of
Restriking Voltage (RRRV) in the capacitor circuits. These devices are very
effective in the back- to-back capacitor switching applications [10].

Series inductor - In the capacitor switching and substation short circuit current
reduction applications, series inductors are used. The approach to use a series
inductor in short circuit current reduction is discussed in Chapter 4.

Synchronous closing control - For this type of application, the circuit breakers are
timed on pole-by-pole basis using an electronic control circuit. Using such circuit
breakers, the poles are closed at receptive voltage zeros and this approach reduces
the energization transients significantly. In shunt capacitor banks and transmission
lines, synchronous closing is used effectively to control the high frequency
oscillations. For transformers and shunt reactors, the synchronous closing is used to
switch these devices at the voltage peaks in order to reduce the high magnitude,
heavily distorted inrush current associated with the magnetic circuits. The inrush
current can cause difficulties for the system protection and often require filtering of
harmonic components or time delays in protective relays. Peak voltage closing
would eliminate offset flux conditions and result in a smooth transition to
magnetizing current flow [10].

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 Shunt reactors - The switched or fixed shunt reactors are provided to absorb the
leading reactive power produced by the charging capacitance of the line. These
devices are placed at critical locations in order to control the var distribution. If the
reactors are placed at the line ends, then the energization transients are reduced
significantly. Also, the trapped charges at the open end of the unfaulted phases leak
through the shunt reactors to ground. The shunt reactors also help to reduce the
TRV across the circuit breaker [2].

10.7 CONCLUSIONS

The overvoltages produced due to line energization, de-energization, reclosing,

fault clearing and back up fault clearing are analyzed using the transient analysis
approach. The modeling methodology and the typical time domain waveforms are
presented. The approaches to reduce the transient overvoltages using various
methods are presented. The recent work on the switching transients [13] and
statistical switching [14] presents clear directions for EMTP simulations.

PROBLEMS

1. A power transformer with a specification of 50 MVA, 345 kV/66 kV, 60 Hz,

delta/wye, 8% impedance is to be modeled for transient analysis. Assume
suitable saturation characteristics and develop a model for a transient analysis.

2. Consider a power system with a 10 MVA transformer, 138 kV/12.5 kV,

delta/wye connected with 10% impedance. The three-phase short circuit rating
of the 138 kV system is 18 kA and the single line to ground fault rating is 16
kA. The power factor correction of the 12.5 kV feeder loads is to be performed
using a 5 MVAR, 12.5 kV, three-phase shunt capacitor bank. Conduct a fault
clearing study assuming a one line to ground fault at the capacitor bank. Find
the TRV and RRRV values. What is the effect of having a series reactor of 30
mH/phase on the TRV and RRRV?

3. The 345 kV power system used in the example study is to be equipped with
shunt reactors with a rating of 25% of the line charging MVAR. Calculate the
rating of the shunt reactors at the two ends of the line. Perform an energization
study and evaluate the effect of shunt reactors on the transient overvoltage.

4. Consider a 70 mile lone 138 kV transmission line terminated through a step

down transformer. The switching energization is performed using a 138 kV
circuit breaker. What are the overvoltage related issues in energizing a
transformer terminated line? What are the possible mitigating measures?
Assume necessary line parameters and transformer data.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 REFERENCES

1. H. W. Dommel, Electromagnetic Transients Program Reference Manual

(EMTP Theory Book), Report Prepared for Bonneville Power
Administration, Portland, Oregon, August 1986.

2. C. J. Trusex, J.D.Brown, and W. Neugebauer, "The Study of Reclosing

Transients on a 765 kV Shunt Compensated Transmission Line," IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.PAS-97, No.4,
July/August 1978, pp. 1447-1457.

3. IEEE Tutorial Course No. 81 EH0173-5-PWR, Digital Simulation of

Electrical Transient Phenomena, IEEE Service Center, Piscataway, NJ
08854.

4. ANSI/IEEE Standard 37.09, IEEE Standard Test Procedures for AC High

Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis, 1998.

5. ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.12.14, IEEE Trial Use Standard for Dielectric

Requirements for Power Transformers for Operation at System Voltages
from 115 kV Through 230 kV, 1982.

6. ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.12.00, Standard General Requirements for

Liquid Immersed Distribution Power and Regulating Transformers, 1990.

7. ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.21, IEEE Standard Requirements,

Terminology, and Test Code for Shunt Reactors over 500 kVA, 1990.

8. IEEE Standard C37.122, IEEE Standard for Gas Insulated Sub-Stations,

1993.

9. IEEE Standard C62.22, IEEE Guide for the Application of Metal Oxide
Surge Arresters for Alternating-Current Systems, 1991.

10. D. W. Skeans, "Recent Developments in Capacitor Switching Transient

Reduction," T&D World Exposition, New Orleans, Paper No. TD 750-
504, March 30, 1998.

11. ANSI Standard C37.06, AC High Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a

Symmetrical Current Basis - Preferred Ratings and Related Required
Capabilities, 2000.

12. IEEE Standard 18, IEEE Standard for Shunt Capacitors, 1992.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

 13. D. W. Durbak, A. M. Gole, E. H. Camm, M. Marz, R. C. Degeneff, R.
P. O'Leary, R. Natarajan, J. A. Martinez, K. C. Lee, A. Morched, R.
Shasahan, E. R. Pratico, G. C. Thomann, B. Shperling, A. J. F. Keri, D.
A. Woodford, L. Rugeles, A. Sarshar, "Modeling Guidelines for
Switching Transients," Modeling and Analysis of System Transients
Using Digital Programs, IEEE Publication No. TP-133-0, IEEE
Operations Center, Piscataway, New Jersey, 1999.

14. J. Martinez, R. Natarajan and E. Camm, "Comparison of Statistical

Switching Results Using Gaussian, Uniform and Systematic Switching
Approaches," Power Engineering Society Meeting, Vol.2, pp. 884-889,
2000.

15. H. W. Dommel, Transient Program User's Manual, University of British

Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, April 1986.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.