7 DEWATERING AND GROUNDWATER

CONTROL
J. PATRICK POWERS, P.E.
Consultant, AQUON Ground Water Engineering

7.1 IMPACT OF GROUNDWATER ON ReHeved Structures Drydocks, sewage treatment tanks, and
CONSTRUCTION lift stations are often provided with drainage systems to lower
the hydrostatic pressure when they are emptied. Building
Whenever excavation must take place below the water table, basements have been designed with dewatering systems that
groundwater affects the project. It affects the function and design permanently depress the water table. A relieved design can
of the facility, and the cost of its construction. Groundwater is sharply reduce first cost, but the drainage systems demand
a frequent cause of disputes between the owner and the special methods and annual costs must be considered
contractor. Dewatering by unsuitable methods can under some (Section 7.10).
conditions cause damage to adjacent properties, and result in
third party litigation. Under some conditions dewatering may Depth versus Cost Often a deep excavation is an option. The
be harmful to the environment. Activities involving groundwater planner may be considering underground parking in an urban
are closely regulated in many areas. The process of obtaining area, or the designer may be comparing the cost of piling to a
permits is often tedious, and sometimes authorities require deep floating foundation. For such decisions a reliable estimate
special procedures that can be expensive. of dewatering cost is essential. There have been cases where a
Engineers responsible for all the phases of a project, from major design change became necessary after construction began,
initial planning and budgeting through final construction need because of unexpectedly difficult dewatering.
to be aware of the potential impact of groundwater so that their
decisions will be effective. This chapter describes problems that Permaneat Ell'eets on the GroUDdwater Regime Structures
groundwater has created, and presents methods that have below the water table can affect the groundwater regime,
proven effective in alleviating those problems. References are sometimes undesirably. A cut-and-cover subway may create a
provided to more detailed treatment of the SUbject. dam in the path of natural groundwater flow, raising water
tables upgradient and depressing them downgradient. Relieved
structures can permanently depress the water table. Sewers
placed in gravel bedding can modify groundwater flow patterns.
7.2 DESIGN OF STRUCTURES BELOW THE If these factors cause undesirable side-effects (Section 7.9)
WATER TABLE corrective measures can be incorporated during construction.
Drainage may be advisable around or beneath cut-and-cover
Factors that planners and designers should consider include SUbways. Relieved structures can be surrounded with cutoffs.
the following. Gravel bedding around pipes can be plugged at intervals with
clay or concrete. Such measures are more expensive after
Waterproofing More elaborate methods are necessary, par- construction.
ticularly with very deep structures, to insure watertight integrity.
Flexible membranes are recommended so that minor structural
cracking does not cause leaks. There are many cases where
expensive underground space has been rendered unusable by 7.3 METHODS OF GROUNDWATER CONTROL
seepage. Postconstruction corrective measures such as grouting
or permanent dewatering may be costly. The many methods that have been developed for the control
of groundwater fall into three basic categories.
Hydrostatic Preaure Slabs and walls must be designed to
carry both soil loads and water pressure. Where column spacing Opeu Pumping is the process in which as the excavation is
is wide, slab strengthening can be a major cost. advanced the water is allowed to flow in and is collected in
ditches and sumps, then pumped away. The open pumping
Uplift The weight of the structure must be sufficient to resist method is lowest in direct dewatering cost, and is viable under
buoyancy. If the calculations credit the weight of the upper certain conditions. Under other conditions it can seriously
floors of a building for example, or the equipment in a lift hamper other operations, and can result in catastrophic failure.
station, then temporary dewatering must be continued until Conditions favorable for open pumping include shallow
the necessary weight is in place. There have been instances subgrades, no more than a few feet below water table, and stable
where structures have heaved owing to premature release of soils oflow to moderate permeability such as dense, well-graded
groundwater control. tills, clayey sands, firm clays, or fissured rock. There must be

236

H.-Y. Fang (ed.), Foundation Engineering Handbook

© Van Nostrand Reinhold 1991
 Dewatering and Groundwater Control 237

room for relatively flat slopes, or the excavation must be Predrainage is the process of lowering the water table prior to
supported. excavation, using one of several methods available.
Open pumping is not effective in nonplastic sands and silts,
since boiling can loosen the soil at subgrade, harming its Deep Wells with individual pumps are most suitable for
bearing capacity. When excavating into an aquifer of high free-draining soils, and where the bottom of the aquifer is well
transmissibility, a large initial rate of pumping will occur during below the subgrade of the excavation (Fig. 7.1). In this situation
storage depletion. Open pumping will be cumbersome, unless the yield per well in the dewatered condition is high, and
the excavation is carried out very slowly. Where there are relatively few wells are required. Since-the cost per well is high,
existing structures nearby, loss of soils due to open pumping if the wells must be spaced very closely to accomplish the desired
may cause damage. If artesian pressure exists in a confined result the method may not be cost-effective.
aquifer below subgrade, the condition cannot be relieved
by open pumping. Conditions that favor or preclude open Wellpoint Systems utilize groups of closely spaced wellpoints
pumping are more fully discussed in Powers (1981). connected to a common suction header and pump. The cost
During project planning, open pumping should not be per wellpoint is low, and in stratified soils where the spacing
budgeted for unless there is reasonable probability that must be close the installation cost is lower. However, wellpoints
conditions favorable to the method exist. When applying the depend on atmospheric pressure to lift the water to the pump,
method on a project underway, continuous observation is and the amount the water can be lowered with the method is
recommended to determine whether an undesirable situation is limited to about 15 to 18 ft (5 to 6 m) at sea level, less at higher
developing. A contingency plan incorporating one of the more elevations. For greater drawdowns, multistages of wellpoints
positive methods of groundwater control is advisable. are required.

Normal water

Fig. 7.1 Predrainage with deep wells.

Fig.7.2 Combination of deep wells and open pumping. Most of the water volume Q is controlled by wells. Gravel or other slope treatment
may be necessary where residual seepage escapes.
238 Foundation Engineering Handbook

Well

Normal water table

Predrained water level

Wellpoints

Fig.7.3 Combination of deep wells, wellpoints, and open pumping.

Ejector WeUpoints incorporate a nozzle and venturi in the riser storage can be depleted by lengthy pumping in advance of
pipe. This method of pumping, similar to the domestic jet pump, excavation.
eliminates the suction lift limitation of conventional well points.
Water tables have been lowered 100 ft or more using a single Deep Wells, WeUpoints and Open Pumping Figure 7.3 shows
stage with this method. The pumping efficiency is poor, and for a deep excavation that penetrates a bed of impermeable clay.
volumes in excess of 1000 gpm ejectors are rarely cost-effective. A large number of wells would be required to predrain the
water close enough to the clay that open pumping would be
CutolF and Exclusion encompass a variety of methods that have viable. A lesser number of wells have been installed, to lower
been developed to obstruct entry of water to the excavated area. the water table to within suction lift of a single-stage wellpoint
Vertical cutoffs include driven steel sheet piling (NA VFAC system. The residual seepage past the wellpoints is handled with
open pumping.
DM-7, 1971, and Chapter 12) and concrete diaphragm walls
(Xanthakos, 1979) built in panels in a bentonite slurry. The
slu"y trench (EPA, 1979, and Chapter 20) normally involves a Steel Sheet Piling and WeUpoiots Figure 7.4 shows an intake
continuous trench under bentonite slurry, backfilled with a structure in open water. It may be difficult and costly to drive
mixture of soil and bentonite, or with bentonite/cement grout.

Permeation Grouting has been used to provide partially effective

cutoffs and the newer jet grouting process has produced effective
cutoffs in some soils (Baker, 1982; Karol, 1983). Ground freezing
(Maishman, 1975; Sanger, 1968) has been successful as water
cutoff and ground support under a wide variety of conditions.
Horizontal water cutoffs have been constructed by the tremie
seal method (NAVFAC DM-7, 1971) and by ground freezing.
PLAN
Water can be excluded from tunnels and shafts during
excavation by compressed air, the slu"y shield, and the earth-
Wellpoints Water
pressure shield (Bickel and Keusel, 1982; Pequignot, 1963;
Richardson and Mayo, 1975). Steel sheet piling surface
Each of the methods of cutoff and exclusion has characteris- h0- m 'i]
tics that make it more or less suitable under various ground
conditions and project requirements (Powers, 1981).
/bed
Methods in Combination

Given the wide variety of methods for groundwater control and /Subgrade
the many variations in project requirements, it is not surprising
that frequently the most cost-effective solution is one that Sand and //
gravel
combines two or more of the methods on a single project.

Deep WeDs ..... Open Pumping Figure 7.2 shows an excavation

in stratified soil where open pumping alone is not a viable
Bedrock
method. To fully predrain the water would require a great many
wells. However, a well array on reasonable spacing, say 20 to
40 ft, will drain the more permeable strata to the extent that
/'
residual seepage can be controlled safely with sumps. This SECfION
combination is most effective where recharge is remote and Fig. 7.4 Intake structures, combination of cutoff and predrainage.
 Dewatering and Groundwater Control 239

A DW#l DW#2 A
I" ft-------i~~!
L
100

Pumped
well
i
I" 50ft
I
~i
Ii
y

b ~25.*--~- OW3~_
"'-OWl ~OW2
PLAN ~-------b-------H~
Fig. 7.6 Typical pumping test array. If recharge or barrier bound-
aries are suspected, lines of observation wells may be arrayed in
DW#4 DW#3 several directions.

Normal artesian head. A typical array is shown in Figure 7.6. The test well is
lower aquifer designed to stress the aquifer sufficiently to produce meaningful
drawdowns in the observation wells (Powers, 1981). The
analysis techniques assume that the aquifer is homogeneous
Steel sheet piling and isotropic within the zone of pumping influence, that
all water pumped is from aquifer storage, and that it is
instantaneously released. Natural aquifers almost never meet
the requirements, so the analyst's major challenge is to interpret
from anomalies in the data the characteristics of this aquifer
and how it departs from the ideal. For this purpose the semilog
plots of the Jacob modification are most suitable, and will be
discussed here; More elaborate methods are available, and are
useful in special conditions. Certain criteria on length of the
test must be fulfilled before the Jacob modification is valid
(Driscoll, 1986; Powers, 1981).
The test must be operated long enough to identify recharge
or barrier boundaries, or delayed storage release. In a water
table aquifer, 7 days is recommended. In an artesian aquifer,
24 hours is often sufficient. The pumping should be continuous
at a constant rate.
Water levels are recorded periodically prior to pumping to
observe any natural fluctuations (tides, river stages, etc.) When
pumping begins, early water levels are recorded on a frequent
SECTION A- A schedule, typically every few minutes for an hour. Readings can
then be spaced out logarithmically with time. The drawdowns
Fig. 7.5 Cutoff and pressure relief. are plotted against the log of time for each observation well,
and versus log of distance for all observation wells at various
times. Figure 7.7 shows typical plots in an ideal aquifer. It is
the sheeting to rock to provide cutoff. A well point system is good practice to make the plots as the test proceeds, so that it
used to control the seepage under the toe of the sheets, providing can be decided whether enough information has been gathered
a dry and stable subgrade, and assuring passive strength of the before terminating the test. Recovery readings are taken when
sand to support the toe of the sheeting. In some such cases. the pumping stops, on a frequency similar to pumpdown.
most cost-effective combination may be to extend the toe of At some point into the test, samples should be recovered for
the sheeting deeper and use wells rather than wellpoints. chemical and bacteriological analysis.
The plots of Figure 7.7 can be used to calculate the
eutolr and Pressure Relief Figure 7.5 shows steel sheeting key parameters of the aquifer, transmissibility T and storage
extending to a clay layer. Artesian pressute beneath the clay coefficient C•. Transmissibility is defined as the ability 'of the
presents a risk of heave. Deep wells are used to relieve the aquifer to transmit water, per unit width normal to flow
pressure. direction, under unit hydraulic gradient. In US units, T is
measured in gallons per day per foot (gpd/ft). The storage
coefficient is the yield of the aquifer in unit volume of water
per unit volume of soil dewatered or pressure relieved. It is
7.4 FIELD PUMPING TESTS unitless. Referring to Figure 7.7:

Every geotechnical investigation should include the basic Q = constant flow rate, gpm
observations of groundwater conditions described in Section () = observed drawdown from static, feet
1.10. If a potential groundwater problem has been identified, A{) = drawdown difference per log cycle, feet
more elaborate procedures are advisable, such as additional t = time since pumping started, minutes
borings completed as observation wells, sieve analysis of t' = time since pumping stopped, minutes
samples, and research on dewatering and water supply history ()' = residual drawdown during recovery period
in the area. When it appears that groundwater may significantly to = zero-drawdown intercept on log-time plot
affect the design of the structure or the cost of the project, or r = radius from pumped well to observation well, feet
result in disputes or third-party claims, then a field pumping Ro = radius of influence, zero-drawdown intercept on log
test should be considered. distance plot
 240 Foundation Engineering Handbook

From the drawdown versus log time plot (Fig. 7.7a), 0

264Q
I
Ro = 1900 ft
T=-- (7.1 ) 2
M
4 OW-2 Q = 150gpm
Tto .;::
(7.2) OW-l t = 720 min (12 hr)
C. = 4790r 2 C

~
~ 6 ,lb = 3.2 ft
From the drawdown versus log distance plot (Fig. 7.7b), "0
1$ Ro = 1900 ft
528Q Q
e8 T=528x150
T=-- (7.3) 3.2
.M 10 = 24750 gpo/ft
Tt C = 24750 x 720
(7.4) 4790 x (1900)2
C. = 4790R~ 12 s

= 1 X 10- 3
From the recovery plot of residual drawdown versus log tft'
1.0
(Fig. 7.7c),
Radius. ft
264Q Fig.7.7b Drawdown versus log r.
T=-- (7.5)
At5
In a uniform aquifer, transmissibility can be defined as the O~----------------------------------
product ofthe permeability k in gpdfft and the aquifer thickness
B in feet:
(7.6)
T=kB .;:: 2
C
Con.versely, the permeability can be calculated from the 1$
0
transmissibility determined as above from a pump test, by 3
.
"0
1$ 264 x 150
dividing by the aquifer thickness as determined from boring tU T=
"0 1.6
logs. But this is only for a uniform aquifer. Most aquifers have 4
-; = 24750
seams with quite variable k, and calculated k is some sort ='
"0
of average value. It can distort the dewatering analysis 'iii
Q) 5
(Section 7.5), and must be used with judgment. ~

7
1
tIt'
. 1
Fig.7.7c Residual drawdown versus log-.
t'

2
.;:: An advantage of the Jacob plots is that any departure from
u:)
c 3 the ideal straight line is readily apparent, and the analyst is
1$
0
forewarned. He then must compare the values of T and C.

.. obtained from the various plots and attempt to judge from the
"0
1$ 4
tU
shape and offset of the curves the nature of the anomalies in
Q the natural aquifer with which he is dealing. Note that in an
5
ideal aquifer that fulfills all the assumptions, the values of T
and C. as calculated from all three plots of Figure 7.7 are the
6 same. When they are not, there is a problem. The shape and
offset of the curves provide clues. Figure 7.8 illustrates some
0.1 distortions commonly encountered.
Figure 7.8a shows the effect on time plots of recharge and
Time t, minutes barrier boundaries. Figure 7.8b shows the effect of delayed
storage release. If T is calculated from the portion of the curve
OW-l OW-2 OW-3 that has been flattened by delayed release, the value can be
Radius r
grossly in error. Figure 7.8b also illustrates the effect of a
25ft 50ft 100ft
pumping interruption. Note the difficulty if no observations
,l5 1.6 1.6 1.6 of drawdown were being made during the interruption.
to 0.12 0.48 1.9 Figure 7.8c illustrates the effect of tides.
Figure 7.8d shows the effect on distance plots of recharge
T= 264Q
,l/) 24750 24750 24750 and barrier boundaries, and Figure 7.8e shows the effect of
partial penetration. The partial penetration effect becomes
C=~2 9.9 x 10- 4 9.9 X 10- 4 9.8 X 10- 4 insignificant at a radius r roughly equal to 1.5 times the
s 4790r
saturated thickness of the aquifer, B. A quick scan of the
Fig.7.78 Drawdown versus log time t. variations in shape of these distorted curves and in their
 Dewatering and Groundwater Control 241

(a) (b)

/ Pumping interruption
Aquifer with recharge
/

t, minutes t, minutes

(c) (d)

Radius r, ft
t, minutes

(e)

" " Partial penetration

Radius r, ft
Fig.7.8 (a), (b), (c) Time plot distortions. (d), (e) Distance plot distortions.

zero-drawdown intercepts will demonstrate how far calculated required. Large total Q does not necessarily mean high cost.
values can be in error. A free-draining aquifer may be dewatered at reasonable cost
with a few large wells, whereas a project in stratified soils may
require a great many wells, perhaps in combination with
7.5 DESIGN OF PREDRAINAGE SYSTEMS wellpoints, and although the total Q is less the cost may be
greater.
Well Systems For the design and cost projection of a typical In addition to the number and capacity of wells, it is
well system, it is necessary to estimate the total Q to achieve necessary to estimate the area within which significant drawdown
the required drawdown, and the yield Qw of each well in the will occur, since this determines whether side-effects will have
dewatered condition. These determine the number N of wells an impact on adjacent properties. It is also advisable to make
242 Foundation Engineering Handbook

ajudgment on what conditions will exist within the excavation, The value used in the mathematical mode is the isotropic
based on soil descriptions and laboratory testing. If an permeability kj •
impermeable stratum exists above subgrade, will perched water
seep in over it, eroding the slopes? (Fig. 7.2). If the impermeable (7.9)
material is clay, the problem may be manageable; but if The radius of influence Ro can be defined as the horizontal
it is nonplastic silt, stability problems may be severe. Such limit of the zone that will be affected by pumping. It is the
considerations may affect the choice among water-control zero-drawdown intercept on a Jacob distance plot (Fig. 7. 7b).
methods discussed in Section 7.3. If all water pumped was from aquifer storage, tlien Ro could
be estimated by rearranging Equation 7.4:
Mathematical Models

Confined Aquifer In simple aquifer situations, a suitable design

R -
0-
ITt
v479OE. (7.10)
approach is to model the excavation as a single well, with
effective radius equivalent to the well system, to estimate the Thus, Ro without recharge or barrier boundaries is a function
total Q. The problem illustrated in Figure 7.S will serve as an of the transmissibility and storage coefficient, and expands with
example of the design procedures. the square root of time. In many dewatering situations, Ro
A rectangular structure of dimensions a and b is to penetrate expands to a value less than indicated by Equation 7.10, because
through an upper aquifer of sand to a foundation in clay. Steel of recharge of surface water or leakage from other aquifers.
sheeting will be used to cut off the water in the upper aquifer, Judgment must be made on any potential sources of recharge
and to support the sides of the excavation. However, the clay so that an equilibrium Ro can be estimated. Since Ro is a log
is thin, and another aquifer beneath it must be pressure-relieved function, a precise estimate is not necessary.
to protect the excavation from bottom heave. Within the operating period of a pumping project Ro can
It is proposed to surround the cofferdam with a system of vary. During heavy rains it can contract. Along volatile rivers
pumped wells to relieve the lower aquifer. If we consider the when spring floods cause broad inundation of the flood plain,
well system as a single well of equivalent radius rW' then Ro can shrink dramatically, and Q increases. Unless provision
has been made in the design of the dewatering system, it may
be overpowered. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers monitors
(7.7) the stages of many rivers. Hydrographs can be researched, and
topographic maps studied to evaluate the possibility of major
and inundation. In many areas, flood insurance maps are available
to show the inundation during storms of various frequencies.
kB(H - hw) Initial head H in the aquifer can vary seasonally with
(7.8)
Q = 229 In Ro/rw precipitation or the stage of an adjacent river, and can be
affected by other pumping in the vicinity. Appropriate safety
where factors should be included.
Final head hw at the radius of the equivalent well must be
Q = total yield of the system, gpm lower than final head h that is desired under the excavation.
k = permeability, gpd/ft 2 The differential h - hw is a function of k, B, Qw, and the geometry
B = thickness of aquifer, feet of the system.
Ro = radius of influence, feet When appropriate values have been estimated for the·
H = initial head in the aquifer, feet variables, total Q can be estimated from Equation 7.8. An
hw = final head at the equivalent well estimate is then made of Qw. the yield of an individual well in
the dewatered condition, and the required number of wells N
Selection of values to use in Equation 7.8 requires judgment, can be calculated:
and is based on information from many sources, including a
field pumping test, the boring logs, data on surface hydrology Q
N=- (7.11)
(to evaluate recharge from infiltration, and from surface water Qw
bodies), and from data on groundwater hydrology (to evaluate
recharge from other aquifers). Inexperienced judgment in the Well yield Qw is best evaluated from pump test data. In
selection of values for Equation 7.8 has resulted in gross error extrapolating the test results, adjustments must be made for
in analyses of this type. conditions at the well that are different from those during the
The product kB is of course the transmissibility T as test. A factor of major significance is lw, the saturated thickness
determined from the field pumping test.. B can be estimated of aquifer in contact with the wall of the borehole. In uniform
from boring logs, and an average k can be calculated from aquifers, Qw is directly proportional to lw.
Equation 7.6. Experience shows that values of T and k are The phenomenon of well loss has been studied by Walton
frequently misinterpreted (Powers, 1986). In most pumping (1970) and others. No well can provide frictionless entry, so
tests, the indicated values are for horizontal permeability k•. some well loss always occurs. Poorly constructed wells can have
This value is only appropriate when flow to the dewatering very high well loss. Unsatisfactory practices include the use of
system will be essentially horizontal. In sedimentary soils, the bentonite as a drilling fluid, inadequate flushing of the borehole
ratio of horizontal to vertical permeability, k./ k., is rarely less to remove drilling detritus before completion, low-quality
than 3, and can be 10, 100, or larger. If flow to the dewatering wellscreen, filter packs that are inappropriate to the aquifer
system is other than horizontal, use of k. in Equation 7.8 or that have been ineffectively placed, and insufficient well
introduces error that can be significant. For example, if the development (Powers, 1981; Driscoll, 1986). Well loss during
upper water table aquifer in Figure 7.S were to be dewatered, a pump test can be evaluated by estimating the drawdown at
the flow would be both horizontal and vertical. A procedure the radius of the borehole from the Jacob drawdown-distance
that has given reasonable estimates in such a situation is as plot, and comparing it with the pumping level in the well. It
follows: knowing k. from a pumping test, then k. is estimated can also be estimated from step drawdown tests conducted before
from a study of the boring logs, and the general geology. or after the constant rate test (Walton, 1970).
 Dewatering and Groundwater Control 243

In the absence of a pumping test, Qw can be estimated crudely

with a modified version of the Sichart formula (Powers, 1981),

(7.12) Radial flow in

artesian aquifer
where

rw = the borehole radius in inches kB(H - hw)

lw = the saturated aquifer thickness in contact with the Q = 229In(RoIr w)
borehole
k = estimated permeability in gpd/ft 2
Sichart estimates are sometimes reasonably close, but can be
far from actual, in either direction.

Water Table Aquifer Analysis of dewatering in a water table

aquifer is quite different from pressure relief in a confined Radial flow in
aquifer. The water table aquifer shown in Figure 7.1 has a water table aquifer
variable phreatic surface, and its saturated thickness H changes
during pumping. Q can be calculated from the relationship
Q = k(H 2 - h~)
Q= k(H 2 - h!) 458In(RoIrw)
(7.13)
458 In Ro/rw
Values for the variables are estimated as in the discussion
above. However, in water table aquifers an average k calculated
from Equation 7.6 can introduce significant error. The aquifer
will be partially dewatered. If the remaining saturated thickness Linear flow in
h has a higher k than the average, higher Q must be expected. artesian aquifer
It is of note that when the deeper k is lower than average, the
dewatering is more difficult. Qw is lower, more wells are required, Q kB(H - h)
and although the total Q is less the cost may be significantly x 1440L
higher.
Other mathematical models that have proven useful in
analyzing various aquifer situations are given in Figure 7.9.
The method of cumulative drawdowns can provide more
accurate analysis of the confined aquifer in Figure 7.5 than the ~I·~------L------~~~I
simple mathematical model. Accuracy is not the principal

r-- 1
advantage however, since with the variables imprecisely known, Linear flow in
precision in analysis is of limited value. The chief advantage of water table aquifer
cumulative drawdowns is the method's ability to analyze many

i 1
points within the flow regime.
It is assumed in Figure 7.5 that

a=60ft
b=40ft ~
H - h = 27 ft under general subgrade Fig. 7.9 Useful mathematical models: L = distance to line source
H - h = 30 ft under the pit (feet); x = unit length of drainage trench.

From the pump test of Figures 7.6 and 7.7, values are estimated
as O~------------------------------~r------

kB = 25000 gpd/ft 2
Ro = 2500 ft at pumping time t when pressure relief must be
accomplished.
4
Qw = 175 gpm in the desired condition
A plot is constructed showing the effect of each well 528(175)
(Fig. 7.10). The· slope of the curve can be calculated by .M = 25000
rearranging Equation 7.3:
= 3.7ft
M = 528Q (7.14)
T

The drawdown at any point of interest is the summation of 12

the drawdowns due to each well at its radius from the point,
as read from Figure 7.10. The cumulative drawdowns are shown 1.0
in Table 7.1. Note that the well array is asymmetric, to provide
greater drawdown at point y under the pit. The method is useful Radius r, ft
in checking the predicted value of Qw. Aquifer drawdown at Fig.7.10 Cumulative drawdown analvsis.
244 Foundation Engineering Handbook

TABLE 7.1 CUMULATIVE DRAWDOWN ANALYSIS. 7.6 MANAGING GROUNDWATER CONTROL

Point x Point y Point z DW#1 Where a significant groundwater problem exists, its successful
, ~ , ~ , ~ , ~
solution depends on each participant in the project carrying
out his functions in a responsible manner. This section offers
WeUNo. suggestions on effective performance of the various functions,
OW-1 25 7.4 10 8.8 20 7.7 1.0 12.5 based on observations of past projects where groundwater
OW-2 25 7.4 10 8.8 35 6.9 15 8.2 created unnecessary difficulty, and observations of those
OW-3 27.6 7.2 41 6.6 58 6.0 51 6.3 projects where skilled management kept the groundwater
OW-4 27.6 7.2 41 6.6 43 6.5 46 6.4 problem within control.
Total ~ 29.2 30.8 27.1 33.4 The owner has perceived the need for a facility and has
arranged its financing. Working through his consultants he
seeks a contractor who will build a structure of the desired
quality on schedule and within budget, and without disputes.
well # 1 has been calculated in Table 7.1, using an effective The geotechnical engineer must be alert for groundwater
radius of the well as 1 ft. If the remaining head hw in the aquifer indications during the initial investigation (Section 1.10).
is less than the aquifer thickness B, the well may not yield what Where a problem with significant potential appears, he should
was estimated. recommend a budget for closer study (Section 7.4).
The cumulative drawdown method is suitable for confined The planner faces chronic budget restraints in the initial
aquifers, and gives reasonably reliable results in water table stage. But if his decisions are to be sound, he must have a
aquifers where the initial saturated thickness is not reduced by reliable evaluation of the cost and impact of the water problem.
pumping by more than 20 percent. Some decisions can be tentative until more data is available.
Underground parking mayor not be provided; piling or a deep
mat foundation can be options; a lift station and force main
Flow Net Analysis is useful when the geometry of the problem may be substituted for a deep gravity interceptor. But when
is too complex to apply a mathematical model or the cumulative planning an underground metro, the options are limited.
drawdown method. Cedergren (1968) discusses the construction The planner's decision when to expand the groundwater
and application of flow nets. Complex situations in either investigation is based on many factors, and must frequently be
plan or section can be analyzed. Difficulty occurs when the a compromise.
problem is complex in three dimensions. Perhaps some future When the role of the designer becomes dominant, tentative
geohydrologist whose hobby is three-dimensional chess will decisions must be made firm. The groundwater study must be
develop a tool for such problems. essentially complete so that choices between options can be
made, based on reliable estimates of cost and other factors.
A key decision is how to allocate responsibility for controlling
Fragment Analysis developed by Harr ( 1977) is a mathematical the water. If such decisions must subsequently be reversed
approach similar to flow nets. Harr derived a group of because they were based on inadequate information, costs
relationships that estimate conditions in various fragments of escalate.
a flow regime. He made several simplifying assumptions, while
pointing out that the error thus introduced is well below the
errors caused by variation in permeability and other factors. Permits Groundwater activity in many jurisdictions is regu-
Fragment analysis is most useful when multiple iterations are lated by the authorities. Permits may be required for drilling
required to find an optimum solution, and repeated drawing wells, for extracting groundwater and for releasing it to the
of flow nets is cumbersome. For example, if in Figure 7.3 it is environment. Sometimes hearings are required, which can be
desired to examine the cost-effectiveness of various penetrations time-consuming. The permit requirements should be investigated
of the steel sheet piling, fragment analysis can be useful. The well in advance of advertising for bids, to avoid unexpected
method shares with flow nets the difficulty presented by a delay. If the contractor is required to obtain some ofthe permits,
problem in three dimensions. it is good practice to alert bidders of the fact, and discuss the
proposed plan with the regulating authorities ahead of time.

Computer Analysis has proven useful when aquifer situations Contractor-designed Systems for groundwater control are
are complex. Modeling techniques have been developed by a normal practice, for good reasons. Water control affects other
number of investigators (Akin, 1982; Driscoll, 1986). They can operations, such as excavation, ground support, and scheduling.
be particularly effective in saving time when multiple iterations Given latitude, the bidder can use his ingenuity to be more
are required. The game of "what if' is helpful in estimating the competitive. The contractor's operations must be regulated,
potential impact of conditions other than those assumed. What however, to insure that the foundation properties of the subsoil
if another nearby aquifer is recharging the one under study? will not be impaired, that the structure can be built safely and
What if k is different from that assumed? What if the adjacent on schedule, and that adjacent structures will not be endangered.
river experiences a storm of hundred-year frequency during the A recommended technical specification is:
dewatering, and inundates the flood plain? Computer models
with their remarkable speed can ~ave considerable time in Control of groundwater shall be accomplished in a manner that
evaluating such possibilities. In practice, without the computer will preserve the strength of the foundation soils, will not cause
the analyses frequently just do not get accomplished. Experience instability of the excavated slopes, and will not result in damage to
demonstrates, however, that there is an occupational hazard existing structures. Where necessary to this purpose, the water will
be lowered in advance of excavation by wells, wellpoints, or similar
with computer analysis. One becomes so fascinated with the methods. Open pumping will not be permitted if it results in boils,
method that not enough time and effort is devoted to making loss of fines, softening of the subgrade, or slope instability. Wells
the judgments on aquifer parameters discussed above. If those and wellpoints will be installed with suitable screen and filters so
judgments are poor, the result may be in serious error, no matter that pumping of fines does not occur. Discharge will be arranged
how sophisticated the analysis method. to facilitate sampling by the engineer.
 Dewatering and Groundwater Control 245

When a potential problem has been identified it is good identified and evaluated it is less likely to result in a dispute.
practice to draw bidders' attention to it; for example, if the soil The data should be provided accurately and completely to
at subgrade is sensitive to upward seepage, if there is deep potential bidders.
artesian pressure, or if the aquifer is sensitive to pumping The differing site condition clause used on federally funded
interruptions. projects and many others accomplishes two purposes. It avoids
The contractor should be required to provide a submittal contingencies in the bids, since the contractor is assured that
of his plan for groundwater control, prior to beginning its in the event of unexpected conditions he will receive an equitable
installation. The engineer reviews this to assure it is in accordance adjustment. It also defines clearly what an unexpected condition
with the specifications and with good practice. The review and is. The Federal clause (DOT, 1976; ASCE, 1988) has a large
approval does not release the contractor from his responsibility body of legal precedent that enables the parties to understand
for the plan's adequacy. The contractor when preparing his what has been agreed to. To qualify for an adjustment under
submittal usually has available only the pre bid information. On this clause the condition must be different from that portrayed
complex projects, the specifications sometimes require a second in the contract documents, and also different from what
submittal. After the system has been installed, the contractor an experienced contractor would expect. The procedure for
must demonstrate by test operation that the system will reporting the condition is detailed.
accomplish its purpose. Substantive progress has been made in developing procedures
to avoid disputes among the contracting parties (ASCE, 1988).
Owner-designed Dewatering Systems are sometimes effective, These include the issuance of a Geotechnical Design Summary
but more often they create problems. The designer has only the Report, which provides the bidders with not only the data from
pre bid information at hand, and tends to be overly conservative. the investigation but the opinions and conclusions of the
Where the contractor is responsible he can develop more data owner's consultants, on which the design was based. A Dispute
as the installation proceeds. Each well becomes a test boring, Review Board is recommended to facilitate settlement of
each pumping test adds insight. The contractor has incentive disagreements as early as possible~
to locate his wells skillfully and build them of good quality to If the geotechnical investigation identifies conditions where
minimize his costs. If he is paid for each well the incentive the groundwater control may affect third parties, preventive
is lost. With owner-designed systems skilled inspectors are measures should be considered (Section 7.9). It has been
necessary, and such specialists may not be readily available. common practice for owners to place the responsibility for the
Perhaps the most pernicious problem with owner design is side-effects of dewatering on their contractors. If the side-effects
mixed responsibility. If the control is a combination of are beyond the contractor's control, the practice is not
predrainage and open pumping (Fig. 7.2) disputes arise over recommended. Some courts have held for example, that if in
whether sufficient wells were provided to make the open the planning of the project the owner and his engineers
pumping manageable. contemplated lowering the water table, and the process
The minimum system concept has been applied in some cases subsequently causes injury to third parties, the owner is at least
with satisfactory results. The specifications require, for example, partly responsible.
that a minimum number of wells be installed, but the contractor
is made responsible for the adequacy of the system, including
additional wells that may be necessary. The owner is assured 7.8 COST OF GROUNDWATER CONTROL
against overoptimism by the contractor, which could result in
schedule delays or other problems. The contractor has incentive Groundwater does not lend itself to rule-of-thumb estimating.
to build high-quality wells, to avoid extra expense. Any open Costs per gallon of water pumped, per cubic yard of excavation
pumping is clearly his responsibility. below the water table, or per lineal foot of trench dewatered,
The contractor's options in executing the dewatering are can all vary by an order of magnitude or more. Even the cost
several. He may buy or rent the dewatering equipment and per well varies surprisingly. On a rapidly advancing trench
install it with his own forces, a frequent practice on routine excavation where the well is in operation for less than a week
projects. Where the dewatering is complex he can engage a and the pump, screen, and casing are repeatedly reused, the
specialty subcontractor to execute the work. He may invite cost per well installed is quite low. A well for long-term
proposals on a turnkey subcontract, where the specialist operation in an urban street drilled with difficulty and requiring
undertakes to install and remove a guaranteed system for a sophisticated surface accessories can cost 50 times as much.
lump sum, and operate and maintain it for a price per unit time. Given these variations it is advisable to cost each project
Or the contractor may elect to subcontract part of the work, on an individual basis, perhaps with the assistance of an
such as well drilling, on a unit price basis, and retain the risk. experienced specialist.
For the combined deep well and open pumping system
7.7 DISPUTES OVER GROUNDWATER
illustrated in Figure 7.1, the elements of cost will include some
CONTROL
or perhaps all of the following elements:
1. Mobilization (lump sum, per unit time on rentals)
Groundwater is involved in a high percentage of the disputes (a) Permits and submittal preparation
that occur in underground construction, whether between the (b) Rental or purchase of dewatering equipment
contracting parties or with third parties. Disputes can escalate (i) Wellscreen and casing
the cost of a project, and delay its completion. Some number (ii) Well pumps, controls, wiring, discharge column
of disputes is inevitable, given the risks of the underground, but (iii) Sump pumps, controls, wiring, hose
with preparation many disputes can be equitably settled in (iv) Discharge manifold
timely fashion, avoiding costly litigation. This section suggests (v) Standby generators
procedures to reduce the probability of disputes, and to expedite (vi) Electric distribution cable and switchgear
the settlement of those that occur. It is based on observations ( vii) Flow meters
of disputes that have occurred. (c) Transportation to and from jobsite
The primary preventive is an appropriate geotechnical (i) Dewatering equipment
investigation (Sections 1.10 and 7.4). When a problem has been (ii ) Drill rig
246 Foundation Engineering Handbook

(iii) Hydraulic crane increase is usually modest, and most soils are not affected
(iv) Loader/backhoe significantly. But if there are compressible soils in the vicinity,
(d) Electric power drop such as peat, organic silt, or soft clays, settlement may occur.
2. Installation and Removal (lump sum) Whether the settlement causes significant damage depends
(a) Well drilling and development on the thickness and consolidation characteristics of the
(b) Well filter gravel compressible deposit, the depth of drawdown and the duration
(c ) Drilling fluid additive of pumping, the foundations of the structures within the zone
(d) Observation wells affected, and the type of their construction.
(e) Gravel and geotextiles for sumps and ditches Untreated timber piles or other wooden structures below the
(f) Cold weather protection water table can be damaged if the dewatering process exposes
(g) Installation labor (with hydraulic crane, truck, loader, them to oxygen.
and small backhoe as required) Groundwater supplies in the vicinity may be affected, by
(i) Well pumps temporary reduction in the yield of supply wells, by salt water
(ii) Discharge lines intrusion, or by the expansion of contaminant plumes.
(iii) Construction of sumps and ditches The delicate ecological balance of wetlands can be upset by
(iv) Sump pumps dewatering, particularly if pumping continues for an extended
(v) Electric distribution system period. Trees or other plantings in urban parks may be affected.
(vi) Electric pump connections Dewatering discharge sometimes contains substances that
(vii) Electric substation make treatment necessary before the water can be released
(viii) Standby generators into the surface environment. Natural substances include
(h) Removal labor (with hydraulic crane as required) hydrogen sulfide and methane. Commonly encountered man-
(i) Pumps, discharge lines made contaminants include volatile organics, petroleum
(ii) Electric equipment products, acid wastes, and sanitary sewage.
(iii) Standby generators When problems from side-effects such as the above have
(iv) Well abandonment been identified, their potential severity should be evaluated and
(v) Grouting of sumps and ditches procedures planned to deal with them. It may be necessary to
3. Operation and Maintenance (per unit time) control the water without dewatering, using one of the cutoff
(a) Electric power or exclusion methods (Section 7.3). Sometimes it is cost-effective
(b) Generator fuel to accept minor building damage from settlement and arrange
(c) Maintenance labor (with crane and backhoe as required) for its repair. Temporary replacement water supplies can be
(i) Maintenance of sumps and ditches provided to groundwater users. Artificial recharge can be
(ii) Removal and replacement of pumps employed to restrict the influence zone from the pumping
(iii) Pump repair (Powers, 1981, 1985).
(iv) Periodic readings of observation wells, and prep-
aration of reports
(d) Maintenance material 7.10 PERMANENT DEWATERING SYSTEMS
(i) Replacement pumps and motors.
(ii) Repair parts for pumps, controls, generators Permanent pumping systems are employed for many purposes,
(iii) Lube supplies for generators including relieved structures such as drydocks, building founda-
(e) Specialist superintendent tions, and sewage treatment tanks; to prevent seepage into
leaking structures; and to contain or recover pollutants in
On certain projects extraordinary costs are incurred that can groundwater. The design of permanent systems is similar to
be significant. They have included:
that for temporary construction dewatering systems but there
• Treatment of dewatering effluent are significant differences. Comparison of cost of construction
• Periodic chemical analysis of effluent versus operation and maintenance is necessary to determine
• Special reports to the engineer or to regulating authorities the optimum balance. Typically, better-quality construction can
• Artificial recharge be justified by long-term savings.

Materials of Construction are selected for long life and low

maintenance. A clear understanding of the groundwater
7.9 UNDESIRABLE SIDE-EFFECTS OF chemistry, including potential variations with time is essential.
DEWATERING Samples should be recovered during the pumping test, and
analyzed at a laboratory experienced in groundwater problems.
Under certain conditions, the process of dewatering can have Piping and wellscreens are frequently made from PVC or ABS
side-effects that are harmful to the project under construction, plastics, but ifthe system is to recover solvents from the ground
to other facilities nearby, or to the environment. It is important such materials are unsuitable. Fittings, couplings, and valves
to identify such conditions during the planning stage, so that should be selected on the basis of the chemistry as well as their
procedures can be instituted to control any damage. Ifa problem function.
emerges unexpectedly after construction has begun, the costs
of dealing with it escalate, and the project may be delayed. Pumps are designed for efficient operation, to reduce power
Powers (1985) presents procedures for identifying and evaluating costs, and also to avoid surging and cavitation that might cause
problems of side-effects, and methods for dealing with them. maintenance and repair problems. Pumping test data must be
Improper dewatering such as open pumping under the wrong extrapolated to conditions that can be expected during extended
conditions, can cause damage to the structure being built or to pumping. The impeller, volute, and other parts in contact with
adjacent structures. The principles in Section 7.3 can prevent the water must be of suitable materials. Pumps are available in
such avoidable occurrences. cast iron, plastic, fiber glass, bronze of various alloys suitable
Ground settlement can occasionally be a problem. Lowering to different environments, and stainless steel. If solvents are
the water table increases the effective stress in the soil. The stress present in the water, the elastomers in the mechanical seal
 Dewatering and Groundwater Control 247

must be of viton or some material resistant to the particular

substance.

Automatic Controls for permanent systems can be complicated

if the purpose is to be accomplished effectively. Many systems
operate intermittently to control the water table within design
limits. Water-level probes installed in an observation well
initiate the starting and stopping of the pump. With systems of
several wells, there may be multiple probes that start one pump,
then start another if the water level continues to rise. Often a
high-level alarm probe is used with a remote signal to alert
maintenance personnel to a developing problem.

Encrustation can be a problem with permanent systems. It is a

function of the groundwater chemistry and bacteriology, and
should be investigated during the pumping test. Agents that
have created problems include high hardness, which can result
in precipitation of calcium carbonate; iron and manganese,
particularly in the presence of Crenothrix or other iron-fixing
bacteria; and organic slimes, sometimes encountered near
sewage treatment plants.
Where there is encrustation potential, special features are
advisable. Wells or wellpoints are designed for low entrance Freeze pipe
velocity, to retard the encrustation. Wellheads are arranged for I
Isotherms
easy access for acid treatment, cleaning, and redevelopment.
Provision is made for safe handling and disposal of the acid.
Experience shows that encrustation can be more readily PLAN
removed if the work is done on a timely, periodic basis. If
the condition advances to the stage where the encrustation is Brine return
developing in the soil outside the wellscreen, acidization may Brine supply
be ineffective and the well has to be replaced. Similarly, if
encrustation buildup in a pump advances too far it can cause
mechanical damage.
The tops ofthe wells or well points and the connecting piping
are typically buried, to protect against weather and vandalism
or for aesthetic reasons. Provision is necessary for access for Freeze pipe
well inspection, adjustment, and maintenance. Manholes, curb
boxes, or pitless adaptors have been employed.

Frozen earth
7.11 GROUND FREEZING
In the ground-freezing process (Sanger, 1968; Matshman, 1975)
heat is pumped from the ground through freeze pipes until the Subgrade
pore water freezes, forming a cutoff and ground support around
an excavation. A great variety of frozen structures can be formed
(Maishman and Powers, 1982). Since freezing performs a dual
function, it is cost-effective on many projects, particularly small,
deep excavations and tunnels.
The shaft in Figure 7.11 is a typical application. Refrigerated
brine is circulated through the freeze pipes (Fig. 7.12), which
are typically arranged in series/parallel loops. As heat is
removed, isotherms move outward in a manner very similar to SECTION
drawdown contours around a water well. Heat pumping is Fig. 7.11 Ground freeZing.
analogous to pumping groundwater, and the mathematical
relationships used for the analysis are essentially the same. When
the 32 OF isotherms intersect, the frozen diaphragm is complete. plants may be employed, with a central brine-circulating system.
As the process' continues the frozen structure increases in The heat is released to the atmosphere through an evaporative
thickness. An observation well in the center will exhibit condenser, which requires a fresh water supply of about 5 to
measurable rises in water level as the freeze moves inward. 10 gpm.
Temperature monitor holes enable observation with thermo-
couples to confirm that the wall has reached its design strength Quality Control is essential to accomplishing the desired result
before excavation begins. The freezing is continued until the on schedule. Freeze pipes are spaced closely, typically 4 to 6 ft
excavation is complete and the shaft has been lined. If the inner on centers, in order to achieve the design thickness within a
surface ofthe frozen wall is to be exposed to ambient conditions reasonable formation period. If a borehole drifts out of plumb
for an extended period, an insulating blanket is installed. during drilling, the design spacing may not be achieved at depth.
The brine is chilled by portable refrigeration plants, typically It is good practice to survey each hole with a directional
of 100 to 300 horsepower. On larger projects a group of such inclinometer. If spacing between two pipes exceeds the allowable,
248 Foundation Engineering Handbook

Brine return special devices and materials are used to withstand the extremely
low temperatures, on the order of - 320°F.
Brine supply

REFERENCES

ASCE (1988), Avoiding and Resolving Disputes in Underground

Construction, ASCE, New Vork, N.Y.
Akin, J. E. (1982), Application and Implementation of Finite Element
Methods, Academic Press, New Vork, N.V.
Baker, W. H. (ed.)(1982), Grouting in Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE,
New Vork, N.V.
DOT (1976), Better Contracting for Underground Construction, U.S.
National Committee on Tunneling Technology, DOT-TST-76-48,
U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C.
Bickel, 1. and Keusel, T. R. (1982), Tunnel Engineering Handbook,
Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New Vork, N.V.

Freeze pipe
- - Cedergren, H. (1968), Seepage, Drainage and Flow Nets, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., New Vork, N.V.
Driscoll, F. (ed.) (1986), Groundwater and Wells, 2d ed., Johnson
Division, St. Paul, Minn.
Fig.7.12 Brine circulation. EPA (1979), Slurry 7rench Construction, EPA-540/2-84-001, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Harr, M. (1977), Mechanics of Particulate Media, McGraw-Hili
Book Co., Inc., New Vork, N.V.
an additional pipe is installed. Each freeze pipe must be Karol, R. (1983), Chemical Grouting, Marcel Dekker, New Vork, N.V.
hydrostatically tested, since any brine leakage would impair Krynine, D. and Judd, W. (1957), Principles of Engineering Geology
the freeze. Appropriate instrumentation includes an array of and Geotechnics, McGraw-Hili Book Co., Inc., New York, N.V.
temperature-monitoring holes and temperature-monitoring Maishman, D. (1975), Ground freezing, Methods of 7reatment of
points in the brine system, as well as the instruments on the Unstable Ground, F. G. Bell, ed., Newnes-Butterworths, London.
refrigeration plant. Maishman, D. and Powers, J. ( 1982), Ground freezing in tunnels-three
unusual applications, Third International Symposium on Ground
Freezing, ISGF, Hanover, N.H.
Groundwater Mo,emeut in the vicinity of the freeze can create NAVFAC DM-7 (1971), Department of the Navy, Washington, D.c.
problems if the velocity exceeds 3 or 4 ft per day. The movement Pequignot, C. A. (1963), Tunnels and Tunnelling, Hutchinson and Co.,
London.
presents an additional heat load on the freezing system. Natural
Powers, 1. P. (1981), Construction Dewatering-A Guide to Theory and
velocities over 3 ft per day are unusual, but transients can occur, Practice, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
for example, in the flood plain of a volatile river. When ground Powers, J. P. (ed.) (1985), Dewatering-Avoiding Its Unwanted Side
freezing is being considered, it is advisable to investigate whether Effects, Underground Technology Research Council, ASCE, New
any groundwater is being pumped nearby. York, N.Y.
Powers, 1. P. and Burnett, R. G. (1986), Permeability and the field
pumping test, In Situ '86 Specialty Conference, ASCE, Blacksburg,
Liquid Nitrogen is another process that has been employed for Va.
ground freezing. The cost per unit of heat extracted is much Richardson, H. W. and Mayo, R. (1975), Practical Tunnel Driving,
higher than with refrigerated brine, but nitrogen can be cost- McGraw-Hili Book Co., Inc., New York, N.V.
effective on small projects of short duration that are located Sanger, F. J. (1968), Ground freezing in construction, Journal oj the
near a manufacturing plant producing the fluid. The nitrogen Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, 94, No. SM-l,
is stored in a vacuum-insulated vessel on the site and is expended Proc. Paper 5743, pp. 131-158.
Walton, W. (1970), Ground Water Resource Evaluation, McGraw-Hili
in the process. Special trucks refill the vessel periodically. Book Co., Inc., New York, N.V.
The gas is nontoxic, but precautions are necessary to prevent Walton, W. (1987), Ground Water Pumping Tests, Lewis Publishers, Inc.,
its accumulation in enclosed areas. On a liquid-nitrogen Chelsea, Michigan.
installation, freeze pipes are typically smaller in diameter than Xanthakos, P. (1979), Slurry Walls, McGraw-Hili Book Co., Inc.,
with brine, and more closely spaced. Metallic hoses and other New York, N.Y.