Lecture 4.

Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary

1. Neutral, common literary and common colloquial vocabulary
2. Special literary vocabulary
3. Special colloquial vocabulary

1. NEUTRAL, COMMON LITERARY AND COMMON COLLOQUIAL

VOCABULARY
The word-stock of any language may be represented as a definite system in which
different aspects of words may be singled out as interdependent. Aspect – the most
typical characteristic of a word.
The word-stock of any given language can be roughly divided into three uneven
groups, differing from each other by the sphere of its possible use. The biggest
layer of the English word-stock is made up of neutral words, possessing no stylistic
connotation and suitable for any communicative situation, two smaller ones are
and colloquial strata respectively.
Literary words serve to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific,
poetic messages, while the colloquial ones are employed in non-official everyday
communication. However, there is no immediate correlation between the written
and the oral forms of speech on the one hand, and the literary and colloquial words,
on the other, yet, for the most part, the first ones are mainly observed in the written
form, as most literary messages appear in writing. In addition, vice versa: though
there are many examples of colloquialisms in writing (informal letters, diaries),
their usage is associated with the oral form of communication. Consequently,
taking for analysis printed materials we shall find literary words in authorial
speech, descriptions, considerations, while colloquialisms will be observed in the
types of discourse, simulating (copying) everyday oral communication-i.e., in the
dialogue (or interior monologue) of a prose work.
When we classify some speech (text) fragment as literary or colloquial it does not
mean that all the words constituting it have a corresponding stylistic meaning.
More than that: words with a pronounced stylistic connotation are few in any type
of discourse, the overwhelming majority of its lexis being neutral. As our famous
philologist L.V. Shcherba once said: “A stylistically colored word is like a drop of
paint added to a glass of pure water and colouring the whole of it.”
The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of which
has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common
property, which unites the different groups of words within the layer, may be
called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character.
This makes the layer more or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer of
words is its lively spoken character. This makes it unstable, fleeting. The aspect of
the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It
can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. This
makes the layer the most stable of all.
The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of
the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialectal character.
The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English or American
dictionaries is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or
confined to a special locality where it circulates.
Each of the two named groups of words, possessing a stylistic meaning (literary
and colloquial), is not homogeneous as to the quality of the meaning, frequency of
use, sphere of application, or the number and character of potential users. This is
why each one is further divided into the common (general), i.e. known to and used
by native speakers in generalized literary (formal) or colloquial (informal)
communication, and special bulks. The latter ones, in their turn, are subdivided
into subgroups, each one serving a rather narrow, specified communicative
purpose.
 
The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words:
T – Terms and learned words;
P – Poetic words;
AH – archaic and historic words;
FB – foreign words and barbarisms
LC – literary coinages (nonce words) – вымышленные слова.
 
The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups:
Prf. – professional words;
D – Dialectal words; 
S – Slang;
J – Jargonisms;
V – Vulgar words;
VC – vernacular or colloquial coinages (nonce words)
 
The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the
term standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as
special literary vocabulary and those in the colloquial layer are regarded as special
colloquial (non-literary) vocabulary.
Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both
literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy
and polysemy. The neutral stock of words is so prolific in the production of new
meanings new words by means of conversion, word compounding, and word
derivation. Unlike all other groups, the neutral group of words cannot be
considered as having a special stylistic colouring, whereas both literary and
colloquial words have a definite stylistic colouring.
Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. The
following synonyms illustrate the relations that exist between the neutral, literary
and colloquial words in the English language: kid-child-infant, daddy-father-
parent, and chap-fellow-associate, go on, continue, and proceed. These synonyms
are not only stylistic but ideographic as well, i.e. there is a definite, though slight,
semantic difference between the words. Nevertheless, this is usually the case with
synonyms. There are very few absolute synonyms in English just as there are in
any language. The main distinction between synonyms remains stylistic. However,
stylistic difference may be of various kinds: it may lie in the emotional colouring
of a word, or in the sphere of application, or in the degree of the quality denoted.
Colloquial words are always more emotionally colored than literary ones. The
neutral stratum of words, as the term itself implies, has no degree of emotiveness,
nor have they any distinctions in the sphere of usage. Both literary and colloquial
words have their upper and lower ranges. The lower range of literary words
approaches the neutral layer and has a markedly obvious tendency to pass into that
layer. The same may be said of the upper range of the colloquial layer: it can very
easily pass into the neutral layer. The borderlines between common colloquial and
neutral, on the one hand, and common literary and neutral, on the other, are
blurred.
Common colloquial vocabulary overlaps into the Standard English vocabulary and
is therefore to be considered part of it. It borders both on the neutral vocabulary
and on the special colloquial vocabulary. Both common literary and common
colloquial words are not homogenious. Some of them are closer to the non-
standard groups while other words approach the neutral bulk of the vocabulary.
Example: “Blitz” – 1) a special effort to finish a job or to deal with a problem
quickly and thoroughly: blitz on: It is time we had a blitz on the paperwork; 2) a
sudden military attack.
The stylistic function of the different strata of the English vocabulary depends
mostly on their interaction when they are opposed to one another.
2. SPECIAL LITERARY VOCABULARY
Literary words, both general (also called learned, bookish, high-flown) and special,
contribute to the message the tone of solemnity, sophistication, seriousness,
gravity, learnedness. They are used in official papers and documents, in scientific
communication, in high poetry, in authorial speech of creative prose.
Terms i.e. words denoting objects, processes, phenomena of science, humanities,
technique. The most essential characteristics of a term are:
1) its highly conventional character. A term is generally very easily coined and
easily accepted; and new coinages as easily replace out-dated ones.
2) its direct relevance to the system or set of terms used in a particular science,
discipline or art, i. e. to its nomenclature. When a term is used our mind
immediately associates it with a certain nomenclature. A term is directly connected
with the concept it denotes. A term, unlike other words, directs the mind to the
essential quality of the thing, phenomenon or action.
Terms are mostly and predominantly used in special works dealing with the
notions of some branch of science. Therefore it may be said that they belong to the
style of language of science. But their use is not confined to this style. They may as
well appear in other styles – in newspaper style, in publicistic and practically in all
other existing styles of language. But their function in this case changes. They do
not always fulfill their basic function, that of bearing exact reference to a given
concept. When used in the belles-lettres style, for instance a term may acquire a
stylistic function and consequently become a (sporadical – единичный) SD. This
happens when a term is used in such a way that two meanings are materialized
simultaneously. The function of terms, if encountered in other styles, is either to
indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to refer to the
occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words
and expressions, to create the environment of a special atmosphere.
Moreover, such an accumulation of special terminology often suggests that the
author is displaying his erudition. Maxim Gorki said that terms must not be
overused. It has been pointed out that those who are learning use far more
complicated terms than those who have already learned. But when terms are used
in their normal function as terms in a work of belles-lettres, they are or ought to be
easily understood from the context so that the desired effect in depicting the
situation will be secured. Whenever the terms used in the belles-lettres style set the
reader at odds with the text, we can register a stylistic effect caused either by a
specific use of terms in their proper meanings or by a simultaneous realization of
two meanings. With the increase of general education and the expansion of
technique many words that were once terms have gradually lost their quality as
terms and have passed into the common literary or even neutral vocabulary. This
process may be called "de-terminization". Such words as 'radio', 'television' and the
like have long been in common use and their terminological character is no longer
evident.
Poetic and Highly Literary Words. Poetic words are mostly archaic or very rarely
used highly literary words which aim at producing an elevated effect. Poetic words
and expressions are called upon to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of
poetry. This may be said to be the main function of poetic words.
V. V. Vinogradov gives the following properties of poetic words: poetic words and
images veil (покрывать) the reality, stylizing it according to the established
literary norms and canons. A word is torn away from its referent. Poetical tradition
has kept alive such archaic words and forms as yclept (p.p. of the old verb clipian –
to call, to name); quoth (p.t. of cweð-an – to speak); eftsoons (eftsona, – again,
soon after), thee (you) which are used even by modern ballad-mongers. Poetical
words in an ordinary environment may also have a satirical function, showing
them as conventional metaphors and stereotyped poetical expressions. Poetical
words and word-combinations can be likened to terms in that they do not easily
yield to polysemy. They evoke emotive meanings. They colour the utterance with a
certain air of loftiness, but generally fail to produce a genuine feeling of delight:
through constant repetition, they gradually become hackneyed for the purpose, too
stale. That is the reason that the excessive use of poeticisms at present calls forth
protest and derision towards those who favour this conventional device. The use of
poetic words does not as a rule create the atmosphere of poetry in the true sense; it
is a substitute for real art.
Archaic, Obsolescent and Obsolete Words. The word-stock of a language is in an
increasing state of change. Words change their meaning and sometimes drop out of
the language altogether. New words spring up and replace the old ones. Some
words stay in the language a very long time and do not lose their faculty of gaining
new meanings and becoming richer and richer polysemantically. Other words live
but a short time and are like bubbles on the surface of water – they disappear
leaving no trace of their existence. We shall distinguish three stages in the aging
process of words:
1.     The beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such
words are called obsolescent, i.e. they are in the stage of gradually passing out of
general use. To this category first belong morphological forms belonging to the
earlier stages in the development of the language. In the English language these are
the pronouns thou and its forms thee, thy – ‘your’ and thine - 'yours'; the
corresponding verbal ending -EST and the verb-forms art, wilt (thou makest, thou
wilt); the ending - (e) Th instead of - (e) s (he maketh) and the pronoun ye - 'you',
used especially when you are speaking to more than one person
2.     The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone
completely out of use but are still recognized by the English-speaking community:
e.g. methinks (=it seems to me); nay (no). These words are called obsolete.
3.     The third group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no
longer recognizable in modern English, words that were in use in Old English and
which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their
appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable, e. g. troth (=faith); a
losel (=a worthless, lazy fellow).
Both archaic and poetic words overlap and extend beyond the large circle "special
literary vocabulary". This indicates that some of the words in these layers do not
belong to the present-day English vocabulary. The borderlines between the groups
are not distinct. In fact, they interpenetrate. It is especially difficult to distinguish
between obsolete and obsolescent words.
Another class of words here is historical words, denoting historical phenomena,
which are no more in use (such as "yeoman", "vassal", falconet"). They never
disappear from the language. They have no synonyms, whereas archaic words have
been replaced by modern synonyms. Archaic words are used to create a realistic
background to historical novels. They carry a special volume of information
adding to the logical aspect of communication. They also appear in the poetic style
as special terms and in the style of official documents to maintain the exactness of
expression: hereby, previously mentioned, therewith. The low predictability of an
archaism when it appears in ordinary speech produces the necessary satirical
effect. Archaic words, word-forms and word-combinations are also used to create
an elevated effect. Language is specially moulded to suit a solemn occasion: all
kinds of stylistic devices are used, and among them is the use of archaisms.
Stylistic functions of archaic words are based on the temporal perception of events
described. Even when used in the terminological aspect, as for instance in law,
archaic words will mark the utterance as being connected with something remote
and the reader gets the impression that. He is faced with a time-honored tradition.
Barbarisms and Foreignisms. Barbarisms are words of foreign origin, which have
not entirely been assimilated into the English language. They bear the appearance
of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue. Nevertheless,
most of what were formerly foreign borrowings are now, from a purely stylistic
position, not regarded as foreign. Still there are some words which retain their
foreign appearance to a greater or lesser degree. These words, which are called
barbarisms, are, like archaisms, also considered to be on the outskirts of the literary
language. Most of them have corresponding English synonyms; e.g. chic
(=stylish); Weltanschauung (=world-view); en passant (= in passing); ad infinitum
(= to infinity) and many other words and phrases. It is very important for purely
stylistic purposes to distinguish between barbarisms and foreign words proper.
Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the English language.
They are, part and parcel of the English word-stock, though they remain on the
outskirts of the literary vocabulary. Foreign words though used for certain stylistic
purposes, do not belong to the EV. They are not registered in dictionaries, whereas
barbarisms are. Foreign words are often italicized, barbarisms, on the contrary, are
not made conspicuous in the text. There are foreign words in the EV, which fulfil a
terminological function (kolkhoz, ukase, udarnik) and reflect an objective reality of
some country. Terminological borrowings have no synonyms; barbarisms – have.
Their functions: to express a concept non-existent in English reality, to supply
local colour as a background to the narrative, reproduce actual manner of speech
and environment of the hero, to elevate the language (words which we don’t quite
understand have a peculiar charm), “exactifying” function – to express some exact
meaning (au revoir vs. good-bye).
Literary Coinages (Including Nonce Words). Neologism – 'a new word or a new
meaning for an established word.' Every period in the development of a language
produces an enormous number of new words or new meanings of established
words. Most of them do not live long. They are not meant to live long. They are
coined for use now of speech, and therefore possess a peculiar property —that of
temporariness. The given word or meaning holds only in the given context and is
meant only to "serve the occasion." However, such is the power of the written
language that a word or a meaning used only to serve the occasion, when once
fixed in writing, may become part of the general vocabulary. The coining of new
words generally arises first with the need to designate new concepts resulting from
the development of science and with the need to express nuances of meaning called
forth by a deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon in question. It
may also be the result of a search for a more economical, brief and compact form
of utterance, which proves to be a more expressive means of communicating the
idea. The first type of newly coined words, i.e. those that designate newborn
concepts, may be named terminological coinages. The second type, i.e. words
coined because their creators seek expressive utterance may be named stylistic
coinages.
Among new coinages of a literary-bookish type must be mentioned a considerable
layer of words appearing in the publicistic style, mainly in newspaper articles and
magazines and also in the newspaper style – mostly in newspaper headlines.
Another type of neologism is the nonce-word – a word coined to suit one particular
occasion. They rarely pass into the standard language and remind us of the writers
who coined them.
3. SPECIAL COLLOQUIAL VOCABULARY
Colloquial words mark the message as informal, non-official, and conversational.
Apart from general colloquial words, widely used by all speakers of the language
in their everyday communication (e. g. "dad", "kid", "crony", "fan", "to pop",
"folks").
Slang. There is hardly any other term that is as ambiguous and obscure as the term
slang. Slang seems to mean everything that is below the standard of, usage of
present-day English. Slang [origin unknown] – language peculiar to a particular
group: as a: the special and often secret vocabulary used by a class (as thieves,
beggars) and usually felt to be vulgar or inferior. Slang is
1) “The jargon” used by or associated with a particular trade, profession, or field of
activity;
2) a non-standard vocabulary composed of words and senses characterized
primarily by connotations of extreme informality and usually a currency not
limited to a particular region and composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily
changed words, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced or facetious
figures of speech, or verbal novelties usu. experiencing quick popularity and
relatively rapid decline into disuse - words or expressions that are very informal
and are not considered suitable for more formal situations. Only a particular group
of people (Macmillan) uses some slang. Slang words, used by most speakers in
very informal communication, are highly emotive and expressive, as such, lose
their originality rather fast, and are replaced by newer formations. This tendency to
synonymic expansion results in long chains of synonyms of various degrees of
expressiveness, denoting the same concept. So, the idea of a "pretty girl" is worded
by more than one hundred ways in slang. In only one novel by S. Lewis there are
close to a dozen synonyms used by Babbitt, the central character, in reference to a
girl: "cookie", "tomato", "Jane", "sugar", "bird", "cutie", etc.
Jargonisms. Jargonism is a recognized term for a group of words that exists in
almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another
social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings
imposed on them. Most of the jargonisms of any language, and of the English
language too, are incomprehensible to those outside the social group, which has
invented them. They may be defined as a code within a code that is special
meanings of words that are imposed on the recognized code – the dictionary
meaning of the words. Thus, the word grease means 'money'; loaf means 'head'; a
tiger hunter is 'a gambler'; a lexer is 'a student preparing for a law course'.
Jargonisms are social in character. They are not regional. In Britain and in the US
almost any social group of people has its own jargon. The following jargons are
well known in the English language: the jargon of thieves and vagabonds,
generally known as cant; the jargon of jazz people; the jargon of the army, known
as military slang; the jargon of sportsmen, and many others.
Jargonisms, like slang and other groups of the non-literary layer, do not always
remain on the outskirts of the literary language. Many words have overcome the
resistance of the language lawgivers and purists and entered the standard
vocabulary. Thus the words kid, fun, queer, bluff, fib, humbug, formerly slang
words or jargonisms, are now considered common colloquial. They may be said to
be dejargonized.
 Professionalisms. Professionalisms are the words used in a definite trade,
profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at
home. Professionalisms are correlated to terms. Terms, as has already been
indicated, are coined to nominate new concepts that appear in the process of, and
as a result of, technical progress and the development of science. In distinction
from slang, jargonisms and professionalisms cover a narrow semantic field, for
example connected with the technical side of some profession.
Professional words name anew already-existing concepts, tools or instruments, and
have the typical properties of a special code. The main feature of a professionalism
is its technicality. Professionalisms are special words in the non-literary layer of
the English vocabulary, whereas terms are a specialized group belonging to the
literary layer of words. Simple people do not know professionalisms.
Dialectal words. Dialectal words are those, which in the process of integration of
the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their
use is generally confined to a definite locality. We exclude here what are called
social dialects or even the still looser application of the term as in expressions like
poetical dialect or styles as dialects. Dialectal words are normative and devoid of
any stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but used outside of them, carry a strong
flavour of the locality where they belong. DW has application limited to a certain
group of people or to certain communicative situations.
Vulgar words or vulgarisms. Vulgarisms are: 1) expletives and swear words which
are of an abusive character, like 'damn', 'bloody', 'to hell', 'goddam' and, as some
dictionaries state, used now, as general exclamations;
2) Obscene words. These are known as four-letter words the use of which is
banned in any form of intercourse as being indecent. The function of expletives is
almost the same as that of interjections that is to express strong emotions, mainly
annoyance, anger, vexation and the like. They are not to be found in any functional
style of language except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the
characters.
Colloquial coinages (words and meanings). Colloquial coinages (nonce words),
unlike those of a literary-bookish character, are spontaneous and elusive. Not all of
the colloquial nonce-words are fixed in dictionaries or even in writing and
therefore most of them disappear from the language leaving no trace in it.Unlike
literary-bookish coinages, nonce-words of a colloquial nature are not usually built
by means of affixes but are based on certain semantic changes in words that are
almost imperceptible to the linguistic observer until the word finds its way into
print.