Centrifugal Force Is Used in Industry & Laboratory

Centrifugation is used to separate materials of different densities
when gravitational force is insufficient for separation.
Centrifugal force is used in industry & laboratory:

 To separate fine solids from liquids by centrifugal
sedimentation.
 To separate immiscible liquids whose density difference is small
by centrifugal decantation.
 To separate fine particles/any species from liquids by centrifugal
filtration whenever simple filtration is a cumbersome method
regarding the complex behaviour of the cake.
The substances listed in Table would settle at extremely
low velocities under gravity and hence separation would
not be feasible due to their highly hydrated form and
their effective densities is nearly equal to water.
In a centrifugation process, the settling rates are

amplified using an artificially induced gravitational field
G Value or RCF
• The magnitude of the induced gravitational field
is measured in terms of the G value: a G value of
1000 refers to an induced field that is thousand
time stronger than that due to gravity.
• The G value or RCF (relative centrifugal force) value

depends on the rotation speed as well as the manner in
which the centrifuge tubes are held by the rotor.
Increasing the effect of gravity: The
Centrifuge (RCF)
• The force on the particles (compared to

gravity) is called Relative Centrifugal Force
(RCF).
• For example, an RCF of 500 x g indicates that

the centrifugal force applied is 500 times
greater than Earth gravitational force.
G value in a centrifuge tube will depend
on the location
• When a suspension is rotated at a certain speed or

revolutions per minute (RPM), centrifugal force
causes the particles to move radially away from the
axis of rotation.
• The highest value being at the bottom of the tube

and the lowest value being at the top.
• Particle will experience increasing G values (different

G value zones) while moving towards the bottom of
the centrifuge tube.
Average G Value
• In most cases the average G value that a particle is likely to
experience i.e. the numerical mean of the maximum and
minimum values is used for process calculations.
• Typical G values employed in laboratory centrifuges generally

range from 1,000g – 5,00,000g.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
• NOMOGRAMS provided by centrifuge
manufacturers correlating the radial
distance and rotation speed with the G
value are commonly used in calculations.
RCF = Relative centrifugal force

RPM = Rotational speed (revolutions per minute)
= Centrifugal radius in mm = Distance from the center of the turning axis
r
to the bottom of the centrifuge.
4.5
To convert maximum relative centrifugal force (RCF) to RPM: Determine centrifuge 's radius of rotation (in mm) by
measuring distance from center of centrifuge spindle to bottom of device when inserted into rotor. Lay a ruler or draw a
line from radius value in right-hand column value that corresponds to the device 's maximum rated g-force. Then read
the maximum value from column at left.
RATE OF SETTLING By
Gravity/Centrifugation
• Depends on the properties of the settling
species as well as those of the liquid medium.
• Their respective densities and the frictional

factor.
• Depends on the strength of the gravitational

field which in centrifugation depends on the
geometry of the vessel, the location within the
vessel and on the speed at which the vessel is
rotated.
Consideration of Gravity Settling Process First then
Transformation To Centrifugal Settling Process
Centrifugal / Gravitational separation is mainly the density

difference between the solid and surrounding fluid
Gravity settling is the natural phenomena
Two opposing forces are gravitational and viscous drag forces
Acceleration is due to the density deference of the solid and
liquid under gravity
Theoretical approximation for biological particle, it is tiny
spherical particle
The effective gravitational force Fg acting on the particle is given by :
Fg = Fb + Fd
The Stokes equation :
Vg .. for sedimentation
rate or velocity of the
spherical particle
The Stokes equation:
The Stokes Equation
From the Stokes equation five important behaviours of particles can be
explained:
• The rate of particle sedimentation is proportional to the particle size.
• The sedimentation rate is proportional to the difference in density between

the particle and the medium.
• The sedimentation rate is zero when the particle density is the same as the
medium density.
• The sedimentation rate decreases as the medium viscosity increases.
• The sedimentation rate increases as the gravitational force increases.

Type of Centrifuges
(Equipment)
• Tubular bowl centrifuge
• Multi-chamber bowl centrifuge
• Disc stack centrifuge with or without
nozzle
• Decanter centrifuge
• Basket centrifuge
•Consists of a long narrow cylindrical bowl suspended from the top rotating in an outer stationary casing
•Bowl dimension 8-15 cm in diameter and up to 150-200cm in height
•Feed is introduced at bottom of the bowl and discharge of supernatant occurs through an annular
opening at the top
•Simplest type, provide very high centrifugal force about 10,000 to 15,000 RPM (13000g to 17000g)
•Can be cooled, hence suitable for bio-product separation
•Feed liquid moves upward at a uniform velocity carrying with it the solid particles
•Solids deposit on the bowl’s inner wall as a thick paste called pellet
•Suspension can be fed until the pellet formation is prohibited
•Mostly used in pilot plant level
Taylor series:
SIGNIFICANCE OF Q & ∑ OF
CENTRIFUGES
•Contains a number of concentric tubes connected
•Zigzag flow of liquid through the chamber is achieved
•Solids are deposited on the outermost chamber wall and pellet is collected manually
•Mostly used for he separation and fractionation of human blood plasma
Disk-Stack Centrifuge
General. In disk-bowl machines the
sedimentation path is made short by
introduction of conical discs, separated by
spacers.
The distance is between

0.4 and 3 mm, depending on the viscosity
and solids content.
The half-cone angle is in the

range 35 – 45o and is smaller for solids with
a small angle of repose.
Consists of a shallow wide cylindrical bottom driven bowl rotating at moderate speed
about 6000 RPM in a stationary casing (5000g to 17000g}
Diameter 30-100 cm, contains a number of closely spaced, concentric metal discs, located
one above the other with a fixed clearance of about 0.4-3 mm between them obtained by
placing spacers bars
Have one or more set of matching holes which form a channel through which the feed
material flows as the discs rotate with the bowl
The feed is introduced at the bottom through a centrally located feed pipe from the
above and the clarified liquid flows out through an annular slit near the neck of the bowl
HYDROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM UNDER CENTRIFUGAL FIELD
(Theory Is Applied To Centrifugal Filtration)
During lower speed of centrifugation the
liquid surface looks like paraboloid under
revolution
 When the centrifugal force is very high,
liquid surface is virtually cylindrical and
coaxial with the axis of rotation
Entire mass of the liquid rotating like a
rigid body
No sliding of one layer over another layer
r1 is radial distance of the free liquid
surface from the axis of rotation
 r2 is radius of the centrifuge from the axis
of rotation
Basket centrifuge
Variation of Pressure Drop Due to Uneven Cake Formation
Variation of Pressure Drop Due to Uneven Cake Formation
Total Volumetric Flow of The Liquid
Selection of Centrifuge Type
• Depends on the physical properties of the

slurry i.e. concentration and particle size
• The RCF or G number
• RCF values for industrial centrifuges are

smaller compared to laboratory centrifuges
Bucket or
Laboratory centrifuges are used for small-scale separation and

clarification (i.e. removal of particles from liquids). Typical liquid
volumes handled by such devices are in the range of 1 - 5000 ml
(Rotor Speed 1000-20,000rpm).
CENTRIFUGE ROTOR
• The material to be centrifuged is distributed
into appropriate numbers of centrifuge tubes
(which look like test tubes or buckets) which
are in turn attached in a symmetric manner to
a rotating block called the rotor.
ROTOR CATEGORIES
Rotors can be broadly classified into three
common categories namely swinging-bucket
rotors, fixed-angle rotors, and vertical rotors.
1. Swinging out rotor
2. Fixed-angle rotor
3. Vertical rotor
Note that each type of rotor has strengths and limitations

depending on the type of separation.
1. Swing bucket rotor
is particularly useful when
samples are to be resolved in
density gradients. The
longer pathlength permits
better separation of
Swinging-out
individual particle types
from a mixture. However,
this rotor is relatively 2. Fixed-angle rotor
inefficient for pelleting.
type is most commonly
used for pelleting
applications.
Examples include
3. Vertical rotor is not pelleting bacteria,
suitable for pelleting yeast, and other
applications but is most mammalian cells. It is
Vertical
efficient for density also useful for isopycnic
gradient (isopycnic and separations of
rate-zonal) centrifugation macromolecules such as
due to the short nucleic acids.
pathlength. Applications
include plasmid DNA,
RNA, and lipoprotein
isolations. TYPE AND USEFULNESS
• For the same rotation speed, a fixed angled rotor would have a lower k-factor
on account of the smaller difference between rmax and rmin
• Hence the time required for centrifuging a given sample would be less with the
fixed angled rotor.
• However, fixed angled rotors are heavier and require much higher energy to
operate.
• Swing out rotors are preferred for centrifuging substances with high
sedimentation coefficients such as cells and coarse particles
• Fixed angled rotors are preferred for centrifuging macromolecules and finer
particle.
TYPES OF CENTRIFUGATIONS
• Differential centrifugation
• Density gradient centrifugation
Density gradient centrifugation
• Density gradient centrifugation is the preferred method to
purify subcellular organelles and macromolecules.
• Density gradients can be generated by placing layer after layer

of gradient media such as sucrose in a tube with the heaviest
layer at the bottom and the lightest at the top in either a
discontinuous or continuous mode.
• The cell fraction to be separated is placed on top of the layer

and centrifuged.
• Density gradient separation can be classified into two

categories:
(I) Rate-zonal (size) separation
(II) Isopycnic (density) separation.
Criteria for successful rate-zonal centrifugation:
• Density of the sample solution must be less than that of

the lowest density portion of the gradient.
• Density of the sample particle must be greater than that
of the highest density portion of the gradient.
• The path length of the gradient must be sufficient for the
separation to occur.
• Time is important. If you perform too long runs, particles
may all pellet at the bottom of the tube.
• Centrifugation must be terminated before any of the
separated zones reaches the bottom of the tube.
CRITERIA FOR SUCCESSFUL ISOPYCNIC CENTRIFUGATION
•Density of the sample

particle must fall within the
limits of the gradient
densities.
•Any gradient length is
acceptable.
•The run time must be
sufficient for the particles to
band at their isopycnic point.
Excessive run times have no
adverse effect.

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Centrifugal Force Is Used in Industry & Laboratory

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Centrifugation is used to separate materials of different densities

when gravitational force is insufficient for separation.

Centrifugal force is used in industry & laboratory:

In a centrifugation process, the settling rates are

• The G value or RCF (relative centrifugal force) value

• The force on the particles (compared to

• For example, an RCF of 500 x g indicates that

• When a suspension is rotated at a certain speed or

• The highest value being at the bottom of the tube

• Particle will experience increasing G values (different

• Typical G values employed in laboratory centrifuges generally

RCF = Relative centrifugal force

• Their respective densities and the frictional

• Depends on the strength of the gravitational

Centrifugal / Gravitational separation is mainly the density

• The sedimentation rate is proportional to the difference in density between

• The sedimentation rate decreases as the medium viscosity increases.

• The sedimentation rate increases as the gravitational force increases.

The distance is between

The half-cone angle is in the

• Depends on the physical properties of the

• The RCF or G number

• RCF values for industrial centrifuges are

Laboratory centrifuges are used for small-scale separation and

Note that each type of rotor has strengths and limitations

• Density gradients can be generated by placing layer after layer

• The cell fraction to be separated is placed on top of the layer

• Density gradient separation can be classified into two

• Density of the sample solution must be less than that of

•Density of the sample

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