August 2001 ECN-C--01-075

Analysis and feasibility

of advanced gas turbine cycles
and applications

The partial oxidation gas turbine

and the gas turbine with air bottoming cycle

J.W. Dijkstra

Revisions

A Final Report

Made by: Approved: ECN-Clean Fossil Fuels

J.W. Dijkstra D. Jansen

Checked by: Issued:

M. Weeda C.A.M. van der Klein

Justification
This study was performed under and funded by the New Energy Conversion Technology
program by the Netherlands Agency for Energy and Environment Novem B.V.
Novem contract number : 248.101.0133.
Novem project title : Assessment of the technical feasibility and future market
potential for a new concept of a gas turbine system with
stepwise sub-stoichiometric combustion
Novem project manager : Dr. Ir. A.H.M. Kipperman
ECN project number : 7.2866
Contributions to this study are made by M.A. Korobitsyn, P.W. Kers (University of Twente), R.
van der Ploeg (Fluor Daniel), T. Kerkhoven (Fluor Daniel), W. Altena (Fluor Daniel), F. van
der Wiel (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen), R. Sepp (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen), R. Verdurmen
(NIZO food research), P. Sluimer (TNO voeding), W. Rouwen (TNO voeding).
The author would like to thank D. Jansen, D. Göebel (Fluor Daniel), R.M. Voncken
(Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) L. Wattimena (Krachtwerktuigen Adviseurs), S. van der Wal
(Jacobs Engineering Nederland) for their contributions.

This report is the technical summary of three studies, which were carried out for this project.

Abstract
The main results of three technical feasibility studies are presented concerning new concepts for
gas turbine cycle schemes and possibilities for gas turbine process integration in order to
achieve energy savings. The subjects and results of the consecutive parts are:
(i) a gas turbine cycle with stepwise substoichiometric combustion (partial oxidation gas
turbine, PO-GT cycle). Thermodynamic analysis in comparison with other gas turbine cycles
shows that the PO-GT cycle has no pronounced advantages above conventional gas turbine
cycles within a feasible range of pressures and temperatures.
(ii) The application of a PO-GT cycle for combined syngas and power production in a methanol
production process. A PO-GT cycle for synthesis gas production is feasible and shows a good
overall efficiency (82%). An integration of this system with a once-through methanol plant
shows even higher overall efficiencies (92%).
(iii) Application of a gas turbine equipped with an air bottoming cycle (GT-ABC) for the
combined production of electricity and clean hot air. Applications for the hot air studied are
furnace heating and for spray drying purposes in the bakery and dairy industry. For directly
fired bakery furnaces the impact on the product quality has been identified as an obstacle. For
indirectly fired furnaces a GT-ABC is feasible, is more attractive and offers the same primary
energy reduction (12%). In the dairy industry the system is feasible and offers high potential
primary energy savings (18%). High investment costs however are identified as problematic.

Key words
Sub-stoichiometric combustion Exergy analysis
Partial oxidation gas turbine Syngas production
Gas turbine Spray dryer
Recuperated gas turbine Methanol production
Reheat gas turbine Air bottoming cycle
Dairy industry Bakery furnace

2 ECN-C--01-075
CONTENTS

SUMMARY 5
1. INTRODUCTION 7
2. PART I: THE PARTIAL OXIDATION GAS TURBINE 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Method 12
2.3 Results 13
2.4 Conclusions 15
3. PART II: COMBINED SYNGAS AND POWER PRODUCTION 17
3.1 Introduction 17
3.2 Method 17
3.3 Results 18
3.4 Conclusions 20
4. PART III: ADVANCED GAS TURBINE CYCLES IN THE DAIRY AND
FOOD INDUSTRY 21
4.1 Introduction 21
4.2 Method 21
4.3 Results 23
4.4 Conclusions 25
5. CONCLUSIONS 27
6. RECOMMENDATIONS 29
7. REFERENCES 31

ECN-C--01-075 3
4 ECN-C--01-075
SUMMARY
The gas turbine (GT) has become an important prime mover for conversion of natural gas into
electricity. In the last decades significant improvements have been achieved in the efficiency of
gas turbines through advances in materials and turbomachinery design. However, a large
amount of energy is still contained within the gas turbine exhaust gasses. Because of the
widespread use of gas turbines for power production large energy savings can be obtained if:
• This percentage can be reduced;
• Better use or more use of these exhaust gasses can be made compared to current practice.
In this study three possible concepts for improved energy conversion with gas turbines are
assessed.(a) a gas turbine cycle with (stepwise) sub-stoichiometric combustion (or partial
oxidation gas turbine 'PO-GT') and (b) a gas turbine with an air bottoming cycle. The first
alternative is evaluated for both power production and for combined syngas and power
production. The second alternative is evaluated for application in the dairy and bakery industry.

Gas turbine with stepwise substoichiometric combustion

The study gives a thermodynamic analysis of the gas turbine cycle with stepwise
substoichiometric combustion in comparison with other gas turbine cycles (simple cycle, reheat
cycle and recuperated cycle). The analysis is performed using analytical models, flow sheeting
and exergy analysis using the thermal efficiency, specific work output power and exergetic
efficiency as criteria. Based on the performance maps generated, it is concluded that a gas
turbine system with partial oxidation shows no pronounced performance advantages compared
to conventional gas turbine cycles within a feasible range of pressures and temperatures.

Partial oxidation gas turbine for combined syngas and power production
The use of a partial oxidation reactor with a hot syngas expander for combined syngas and
power production for methanol synthesis has been assessed. The assessment has been performed
using flow sheeting simulations. The criteria used were the combined syngas and power
production efficiency of the processes. Two cases have been developed. In the first case the
conventional synthesis gas generation is replaced by a partial oxidation reactor with a hot
syngas expander. The efficiency is about 82% and the power required for the production can be
produced by the syngas. In the second case this cycle is integrated with a once-through
methanol plant and a combined cycle. This case shows very good overall efficiencies
(approximately 90-94%), higher than those of combined heat and power units.

Application of a gas turbine with air bottoming cycle in the food and dairy industry
A gas turbine can be equipped with an air bottoming cycle to produce clean hot air as well as
electricity. Three cases for use of this hot air have been evaluated for technical and economic
feasibility: (i) use in directly fired bakery furnaces, (ii) use in indirectly fired bakery furnaces,
and (iii) use in spray dryers in the dairy industry. A survey is made on the boundary conditions
dictated by the applications selected. In directly fired furnaces impact on the product quality
may form a serious obstacle for the application of a GT-ABC. In indirectly fired furnaces a GT-
ABC can be applied. However, a gas turbine will be preferred, having the same primary energy
reduction compared to separate generation of electricity and heat (12-13%). In the dairy industry
application of a GT-ABC is feasible. It shows a good primary energy reduction (28%), the
absolute investment however might be an obstacle for implementation.

ECN-C--01-075 5
6 ECN-C--01-075
1. INTRODUCTION

The gas turbine (GT) has become an important prime mover for conversion of natural gas into
electricity. The basic concept of a gas turbine cycle is given in Figure 1.

Air 1
Compressor Expander Ad figure 1: working principle of a gas turbine
Air at ambient conditions is compressed and fed to a
combustion chamber. In the combustion chamber fuel is
added. The resulting combustion of the fuel raises the
2 3 temperature. The hot stream then enters the expander where
4
it is expanded to atmospheric pressure. The work delivered
Combustor by the expansion drives the compressor and a generator.
Fuel
Exhaust

Figure 1: Schematic presentation of a gas turbine cycle (Simple Cycle).

In the last decades significant improvements have been achieved in the efficiency of gas
turbines through advances in materials and turbomachinery design. Efficiencies have increased
from around 25% in 1960 to almost 40% today [5]. This implies however that almost 60% of
the input energy is contained within the gas turbine exhaust stream. Because of the widespread
use of gas turbines for power production large energy savings can be obtained if:
• This percentage can be reduced;
• Better use or more use of these exhaust gasses can be made compared to current practice.
In this study three possible concepts for improved energy conversion with gas turbines are
assessed. These are covered in three consecutive parts. Two were identified as promising in
previous work in which a broad range of new energy conversion technologies was investigated
[9]. The concept worked out in Part II resulted from observations done during the execution of
Part I.

Further increase of gas turbine efficiency

In spite of the gas turbine improvements already achieved, there is still considerable potential
for further efficiency increase. The efficiency of a gas turbine in general increases with
increasing expander inlet temperature. Increasing this temperature requires further advances in
the field of materials and turbomachinery design. Besides efficiency, size is also an important
issue, amongst others since this is closely related to the costs.
Besides pushing the expander inlet temperature to higher limits to achieve efficiency
improvements, another possibility may be to use a different cycle scheme from that of Figure 1.
Analysis shows that the largest losses in the gas turbine process are located in the combustion
chamber [10].

Air 1

2 3 4 5 6

exhaust
Fuel Fuel

Figure 2: Scheme of the gas turbine cycle with reheat

ECN-C--01-075 7
The reheat cycle is a well-known and commercialised alternative [11]. A schematic drawing of
the reheat cycle is given in Figure 2. Here the combustion section is divided into two steps. In
both steps an overstoichiometric amount of air is used.

Fuel Partial oxidation

reactor
1 Air 2 3 4

LPC HPC HPT LPT

x kg/s a
c b
(1-x) kg/s
Conventional
combustor
Figure 3: Scheme of the PO-GT cycle.

A concept derived from the reheat cycle scheme is the gas turbine with stepwise
substoichiometric combustion, also referred to as the partial oxidation gas turbine (PO-GT). A
schematic drawing of PO-GT cycle is given in Figure 3. The combustion process is again split
up into two (or more) stages. The first stage however being substoichiometric. Air is withdrawn
from the compressor for the conventional combustor. This system has been proposed in
literature as a method to reduce the irreversibilities in the combustion process. In literature high
efficiencies of the PO-GT cycle have been reported. It was, however, not clear whether these
were due to the PO-GT concept or to other improvements assumed. To clarify this matter a
study was performed, in which the thermodynamic performance of this cycle is analysed and
compared to alternative cycles. A summary of this study is given in Part I.

Further increase of gas turbine efficiency

Common practice for electricity generation is to use exhaust heat of the gas turbine for
additional electricity generation with a steam bottoming cycle. Here the flue gas of the gas
turbine is used to raise steam in a Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG). The steam then
drives a steam turbine, coupled to a generator. As mentioned, overall power plants efficiencies
of over 55% can now be reached with these Combined Cycle Power Plants (CCPP).
Nevertheless, with an overall efficiency of 55%, still 45% is being disposed as waste heat. In an
HRSG only part of the energy in the gas turbine exhaust heat is used for electricity production.
A significant part of this energy is lost. A better use of the heat in the gas turbine exhaust gasses
can be made if (part of) this heat can be applied for heating purposes, e.g. for district heating or
for industry heat supply using hot water or steam as an intermediate medium. By applying
combined heat and power production (CHP) large energy savings can be achieved compared to
separate generation of electricity in power plants, and conventional heat generation in boilers
and furnaces.

Comparable energy savings to conventional CHP may be achieved by integration of gas turbine
with other processes. Two options for this have been studied. The first option is to use the
exhaust heat of a gas turbine in a second gas turbine cycle to produce additional electricity as
well as clean hot air. A schematic drawing of the system investigated, the gas turbine with air
bottoming cycle (GT-ABC) is given in Figure 4.

8 ECN-C--01-075
 Fuel

Air
2 3
1

Exhaust Heat exchanger 4

Air 22 23 Air-out
21 24

Intercooling
(optional)

Figure 4: Scheme of the Gas Turbine with Air Bottoming Cycle

Applications for use of the hot air that are investigated are the use in bakery furnaces and in
spray drying towers in the dairy industry. An assessment of the feasibility, energetic and
economic benefits of this system is given in Part III.

The results of Part I showed a relative high exergy efficiency of the substoichiometric
combustion stage of the PO-GT cycle. This led to a new gas turbine cycle concept in which the
second stage (the combustion stage) is omitted. The cycle exhaust gasses then consist of
synthesis gas. This exhaust gas can then be used for chemical synthesis, e.g. methanol
production. The resulting cycle scheme is given in Figure 5.
Fuel in

POX reactor

Oxidizing
~ Generator

agent
Chemical
Compressor Turbine plant

Figure 5: Scheme of combined syngas and power production

An assessment of the thermodynamic benefits of such a combined syngas and power plant is
given in Part II.

ECN-C--01-075 9
10 ECN-C--01-075
2. PART I: THE PARTIAL OXIDATION GAS TURBINE

2.1 Introduction
In spite of improvements in gas turbine efficiency in the past decades the efficiency of a gas
turbine is still not at its thermodynamic maximum. With exergy analysis1 it can be shown that
the largest losses in the gas turbine cycle are located in the combustion chamber of the gas
turbine (compared to the thermodynamically ideal process) [10]. Partial oxidation (sub-
stoichiometric combustion) has been proposed as a method to reduce the irreversibilities in the
combustion process.

The results of this part have been published by Kers [6], Korobitsyn and Kers [1] and
Korobitsyn [7]. A full report of this study is given in [1].

A schematic representation of the 'gas turbine with stepwise sub-stoichiometric combustion'

which will be further referred to as the 'partial oxidation gas turbine' or PO-GT is given in
Figure 6. After compression (process 1-2), air is fed to the partial oxidation reactor, where a
synthesis gas is formed. Then, the gas is expanded in the high-pressure turbine to an intermediate
pressure (process 3-a), and secondary air is introduced before the final expansion stage to
complete oxidation of the fuel (process b-4).

Fuel Partial oxidation

reactor
1 Air 2 3 4

LPC HPC HPT LPT

x kg/s a
c b
(1-x) kg/s
Conventional
combustor
Figure 6: Basic scheme of the PO-GT cycle.

From literature very high efficiencies were reported for partial oxidation type gas turbines. (See
[1] for an overview). It was however not clear whether these were due to the partial oxidation or
due to other improvements assumed.

The goal of Part I of this study is to assess the benefits of the gas turbine with stepwise sub-
stoichiometric combustion, compared to alternative gas turbine cycles. The criteria used will be
cycle efficiency and equipment size.

The cycle with partial oxidation were compared with two other gas turbine cycles:
• Simple cycle (See Figure 1);
• The cycle with reheat (See Figure 2).
Within these cycles recuperation can be applied. Recuperation is heat exchange between
compressed air and gas turbine flue gas. (See Figure 7).

1
The concept of exergy analysis is not further introduced. A good discription can be found in [10].

ECN-C--01-075 11
 Air
1

2 3
Fuel
4

Exhaust

Gas turbine cycle with recuperation

Figure 7: Gas cycle with recuperation

The analysis of the PO-GT cycle was done using two evaluation methods: Firstly an energetic
evaluation was done to assess the main characteristics of the partial oxidation cycle. Secondly
and exergetic evaluation was performed for gaining better understanding of the systems, and to
account for the exhaust heat use. Method and results will subsequently be treated.

2.2 Method

The analysis was performed using a staged approach:

1. Ideal gas analytical models were made. These models gave insight in the structure of the
performance maps generated with the process calculation the next step;
2. Process calculations with the process simulation package Aspen Plus;
3. The performance of the cycles in combined cycle mode has been assessed. To account for
the amount of usable exhaust heat, which can be used in combined cycle mode additional
exergy calculations have been performed. The exergy analysis has also been performed to
gain a better understanding of the cycles under consideration and to evaluate the effects of
staged combustion.

Operating parameters used are:

• The pressures ratio (between 8 and 40)
• The turbine inlet temperature (between 1200 and 1400° C).

A detailed overview of the starting points for the simulations is presented in [1], Chapter 4.

The criteria used for comparison of the PO-GT cycle with the other cycles were:
• The thermal efficiency:

Total Net Work

Thermal Efficiency (LHV) = [-]
Total heat input (lower heating value)

• The thermal efficiency is a direct measure for the energy conversion efficiency from fuel to
work delivered (e.g. for power production). The amount of work which can be gained from
the exhaust gas stream is accounted for by using the exergetic efficiency, which is in
principle better, but requires additional data processing;
• The Dimensionless Specific Work Output:

Total Net Work

Dimensionless Specific Work Output = [-]
φ m,air*C p*T1

12 ECN-C--01-075
• where φm, air is the air mass flow, Cp is the heat capacity at constant pressure [J/kg k] and T1
is the temperature of the environment [K]. The dimensionless specific work output is a
measure for the size of the apparatus;
• The specific work, which is also a measure for the size:

Total Net Work

Specific Work = [kJ/kg]
φ m,air
.

The results are presented in tables and performance maps showing efficiency vs. dimensionless
specific work output. The goal is to have a gas turbine, which has both a high efficiency and a
high (dimensionless) specific work output. E.g. a cycle should be in the upper right part of the
performance map.
Furthermore the exergy losses in the combustion chamber Icomb will be used for analysis.

In the exergetic evaluation the criteria used are:

• The combined cycle exergy efficiency (the exergy efficiency of a cycle equipped with a
steam bottoming cycle):

WNET + η ex, BC ⋅ B EXHAUST

η ex,CC =
B FUEL + B AIR

• In which Wnet is the work done by the cycle, ηex,BC is the exergy efficiency of the bottoming
cycle, Bexhaust, Bfuel, and Bair air the exergies of respectively the cycle exhaust gas, fuel and
air. The exergy of a stream is the maximum work potential of the stream, with the
environment taken as a reference. For a combined cycle an exergy efficiency of 69 % has
been used.

2.3 Results
The map resulting from the Aspen Plus simulations are given in Figure 8. Only the non-
recuperated cycles are evaluated here.

ECN-C--01-075 13
 46
TIT 1400
o

44 o
1300
42 1200
o

Simple cycle
Thermal Efficiency (%)

40

40
38 36
32
28
36 24
Cycle with PO Cycle with reheat 20
34
16
tio
32 Ra
e
12 ur
ess
30 Pr

28 8

1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4

Dimensionless Specific Workoutput

Figure 8: Performance map of the simple cycle, reheat and PO cycles.

From these performance maps it can be concluded that within the working parameters
considered in this study, the highest thermal efficiency is achieved by the simple cycle. The
cycle with reheat has the highest specific work. Below a pressure ratio of 36, the performance of
the cycle with PO lies between that of the simple cycle and the cycle with reheat. Above that
pressure ratio, the reheat cycle yield higher efficiency and larger specific work output. Thus it
can be concluded that the cycle with partial oxidation has no pronounced benefits over the two
alternative cycles.

Table 1 gives an overview of performance values of all cycles, optimised for the maximum
work output by varying the pressure ratio, at a TIT of 1400 °C. At this condition, the exhaust
temperature is rather high, which enables the use of a recuperator.

Table 1: Simulation results of the simple cycle, reheat cycle and PO cycle, with and without
recuperation.
Without recuperation With recuperation
Case Simple Reheat PO Simple Reheat PO
cycle cycle
Pressure Bara 18 6.5/40 9.5/40 13 9.8/40 14/40
Exhaust temperature °C 655 887 798 438 694 489
Specific work KJ/kg 501 678 579 469 626 529
LHV thermal efficiency % 39.4 37.9 37.3 48.7 42.7 48.0

The gas turbine system with partial oxidation shows similar performance in terms of efficiency
and specific work as conventional gas turbine systems within a feasible range of pressures and
temperatures. This is both for cycles with, and without recuperation.

Table 2 shows the summary of the results of the exergetic evaluation, for the cases presented in
Table 1. By utilising exhaust heat in a bottoming cycle, the resulting combined-cycle efficiency
ranges from 57% to almost 60%. The PO-GT cycle shows similar performance in terms of
exergetic efficiency as the other cycles.

14 ECN-C--01-075
Table 2: Simulation results of the simple cycle, reheat cycle and PO cycle, with and without
recuperation.
Without recuperation With recuperation

Case Simple Reheat PO Simple cycle Reheat PO

cycle
WOUTPUT, kJ/kg 501 678 579 469 626 529
ηex, CC, % 56.91 58.98 57.60 59.68 59.46 59.80
I COMB, % (1ststage/total) 28.37/28.37 15.57/24.98 12.54/27.86 26.22/26.22 25.67/24.45 12.54/25.57
Woutput = specific work output, ηex,CC = exergy efficiency of combined cycle, Icomb = exergy loss in combustion
process.

The original reason for evaluation of the PO-GT cycle was exergy loss reduction through partial
oxidation. From the results of Icomb in Table 2 it can be seen that the exergy losses in the 1st stage
of the combustion process of the PO cycles are indeed low compared to those of other cycles.
The reduction of losses in the 1st stage however is compensated by larger losses in the second
combustion stage, so the total exergy loss in combustion is not much different from other
cycles.

From Table 2 the relative low exergy losses in the first stage of the partial oxidation cycle are
observed. The product of this sub-stoichiometric stage is synthesis gas. A possible attractive
application of a gas turbine cycle with a sub-stoichiometric combustor therefor could be for
syngas production. This results in a combined syngas and power plant. Possible applications of
this syngas are:
• In an existing boiler (repowering concept);
• In a process plant;
• In a fuel cell.
The first option has already been worked out in literature (See [7] for a short overview). The
second option fits within the framework of this project and is further worked out in Part II. The
third option is beyond the scope of this study.

2.4 Conclusions
• A gas turbine system with partial oxidation shows similar performance as conventional gas
turbine systems within a feasible range of pressures and temperatures.
• Of simple, reheat and PO-GT cycles, the reheat gas turbine has the highest value of the
specific work.
• In a combined-cycle configuration, all recuperated cases show similar performance. A PO-
GT cycle here also has no pronounced advantage.
• The use of sub-stoichiometric combustion in a gas turbine cycle does not result in
significant decrease of exergy losses due to combustion. The effect of recuperation on
reducing the exergy losses is, by contrast, more profound.

ECN-C--01-075 15
16 ECN-C--01-075
3. PART II: COMBINED SYNGAS AND POWER PRODUCTION

3.1 Introduction
The exergy analysis of gas turbine cycles with partial oxidation in Part I indicated a high exergy
efficiency of the sub-stoichiometric stage. The product of the sub-stoichiometric stage is
synthesis gas. This combination suggests application of gas turbine cycle with a sub-
stoichiometric combustor for syngas production, resulting in a combined syngas and power
plant. The possible benefits are the high efficiency of the sub-stoichiometric combustion and
those of combining syngas production with power production. The system will replace the
conventional syngas generation step such as steam reforming in a chemical plant for e.g.
methanol production. The system cycle will use oxygen instead of air.

The principle of combined syngas and power production is illustrated in Figure 9. Oxygen is
compressed and mixed with fuel. In a partial oxidation reactor (which is basically the same as a
substoichiometric combustor) syngas is formed. This syngas is then expanded. The expander
drives the compressor and a generator. The actual process scheme is much more complex and
involves air separation, multistage compression of oxygen and expansion of nitrogen, heat
integration, compression of syngas to the required pressure and optionally integration with a
combined cycle or with a methanol plant.

Fuel in

POX reactor

Oxygen
~ Generator

Chemical
Compressor Turbine plant

Figure 9: Basic scheme of combined syngas and power production

The goal of this part II of this study is to assess the feasibility of combined syngas and power
production and to identify a viable process flow diagram for the combined syngas and power
production. The criterion used will be the combined efficiency of syngas and power production.
The application selected for the syngas is methanol (MeOH) synthesis, since this is the most
important application of syngas, and has relative mild syngas pressures demands compared to
other syngas utilising processes.

3.2 Method
The combined syngas and power production schemes have been evaluated assuming a
commercial type methanol process and commercially available equipment. The currently
available routes for methanol synthesis have been summarised and characterised with respect to
the required syngas quality. To serve as an alternative for conventional syngas production in
methanol synthesis, the syngas must have a pressure of at least 50 bara. The methanol plant
capacity assumed is 2000 ton/day.

ECN-C--01-075 17
Feedstock for the process is natural gas (which is assumed to be pure methane for the analysis).
In the simulations integration of the water steam balance and heat integration of the MeOH
production section and rest of the complex are excluded. The energy requirements for normal
preheat of feedstock is excluded. The syngas composition adjustment is excluded. Air
separation units are assumed to operate at 10 bara with 100% efficiency.

The feasibility of combined syngas and power production has been assessed using two cases:
• Case A is a worked-out scheme of Figure 9. The conventional syngas generation step is
replaced by a PO reactor with a hot syngas expander and the air separation unit;
• Case B is a more integrated scheme, which involves integration of Case A with a once-
through methanol plant and a combined cycle power plant.

These evaluations have been performed using the Thermoflex flow-sheeting program.
Thermoflex showed not to be able to model water knock-out, which will affect the calculation
results. Additional sensitivity studies in Aspen Plus have been performed for comparison and to
study the impact of input parameters.

The criteria used are:

• The power efficiency

electricit y produced ( MW )
Power efficiency = [%]
fuel input ( MW )

This can be used to compare the efficiency of the power generation section to that of a
conventional gas turbine for power generation;
• The "syn plus power efficiency":

electricity produced ( MW ) + syngas produced ( MW ) + heat export ( MW )

Syn + Power efficiency = [%]
fuel input ( MW ) + net heat input ( MW )

in which fuel and syngas are valued through their lower heating value. The net heat input is
the small amount of heat required to close the heat balance of the models. The heat export
is the heat exported in combined heat and power operation.

3.3 Results
Sensitivity studies
Sensitivity studies are performed with Aspen Plus. The process scheme is based on Figure 9. An
important modification to be made was the addition of a syngas compressor after the syngas
expander. This compressor is required to bring the syngas to the desired pressure for methanol
synthesis. This implies that syngas is first expanded, cooled down, and then recompressed.
Because of the high temperature of the syngas before expansion, this results in a net power
production.

Sensitivity studies have been performed on (i) expander inlet pressure, (ii) expander inlet
temperature, (iii) expander outlet pressure, (iv) MeOH synthesis pressure and on (v) steam
addition rate monitoring the net shaft power production. The allowable turbo expander inlet
conditions had the largest impact on the power produced. Both expander inlet pressure and
temperature should be as high as possible for maximum efficiency. The feasibility of using
commercially available expanders from various manufactures in PO application was therefor

18 ECN-C--01-075
reviewed for maximum allowable conditions. The best available expander has as maximum inlet
conditions a pressure of 80 bara and a temperature of 540° C. This was used in further
calculations.

Case study simulation results

Fuel

Air Air separation O2 PO reactor+ Syngas MeOH MeOH

unit Hot syngas plant
expander

~
Figure 10: Schematic representation of Case A. Combined syngas and power plant for methanol
production.

Case A is the worked-out scheme of the basic combined syngas and power plant, but with the
air separation unit integrated in the scheme. A schematic representation of the system is given in
Figure 10. Air is compressed in an air compressor and fed to an air separation unit. In the PO
reactor with steam addition syngas is produced which is expanded in the hot syngas expander.
After cooling the hot syngas is compressed to the required pressure and fed to the MeOH plant.
Not depicted in Figure 10 are the syngas compressor, nitrogen expanders, and an oxygen
compressor. Intercoolers for compressors have been introduced and heaters before expanders.
Furthermore a steam cycle has been introduced to lower the syngas temperature to the syngas
expander temperature limitation.

Air Fuel

Combined Unconverted
cycle Syngas

Fuel
~
Air separation O2 PO reactor+ Syngas Once-
unit Hot syngas through
expander MeOH MeOH
plant
~
Figure 11: Case B, integration of methanol plant with combined syngas and power plant

Case B is a further integration of the methanol plant with the syngas and power plant. The
syngas produced is the feed for a once-through methanol process. Unconverted syngas from the
MeOH process is used as fuel for a commercial scaled combined cycle, with some additional
natural gas for making up and backup. Air from the combined cycle (25%) is withdrawn for the
air separation unit.
Again, the syngas compressor and oxygen compressor, steam cycle as well as the coolers and
heaters are not depicted. A fuel expander is introduced in the PO reactor fuel feed stream. The
nitrogen expanders which were present in Case A can be omitted since nitrogen is expanded in
the combined cycle.

ECN-C--01-075 19
The fuel for the combined cycle is low in nitrogen and will have a high degree of CO2
sequestration potential. The methanol plant has not been fully modelled, instead an (optimistic)
syngas conversion of 50% has been assumed.

Table 3: Calculation results for 2000 ton MeOH/day plant

Case Fuel Power Syngas Net Heat Power Syngas Syn Plus
Source Generated Production Heat export Efficiency Production Power
Input Efficiency Efficiency
Unit MW MW MW MW MW % % %

Case A 671 9 552 11 n.a. ~1 ~82 ~82

Case B 878 274 552 0 n.a. ~57 ~82 ~94

CCPP 483 251 - n.a. n.a. ~52 - ~52

Cogen 483 164 - n.a. 246 ~34 - ~85
CCPP = Combined Cycle Power Plant (GE FR9)
Cogen =CCPP in cogeneration mode

Table 3 presents the results of the modelling. Intermediate results presented are the fuel source,
power generated, and syngas production. Since heat integration has not been fully applied the
column 'Net heat input' lists the amount of heat to close the heat balance. For reference the
performance of a typical combined cycle power plant (CCPP) and CCPP cogeneration plant
have been listed.

It can be concluded that Case A only produces a small amount of power. This is the due to the
low turbine inlet temperature (due to the choice for a commercial available expander) and the
necessity to compress the syngas to the required MeOH plant pressure. Since the feed stream of
the air separation unit is already pressurised, compression work for this is saved.

The results of Case B compared to the CCPP and Cogen reference values clearly indicate the
advantage of an integrated combined process and power plant. The overall efficiency of a
Cogen plant increases drastically when operated in Cogen mode. An even higher increase of
total efficiency from separate electricity production to combined power and syngas and power
production is observed in the Case B case (approximately 90-94% total efficiency).

3.4 Conclusions
• Syngas generation through partial oxidation with expansion is a good option. The
efficiency is about 82% and the power needed for syngas production can be produced
through expansion of the syngas;
• Further integration of the partial oxidation reactor with a once-through methanol plant is a
feasible option to produce both syngas and power as key products. Overall efficiencies over
92% can be reached, while using technology components available today.

20 ECN-C--01-075
4. PART III: ADVANCED GAS TURBINE CYCLES IN THE DAIRY
AND FOOD INDUSTRY

4.1 Introduction
In this part the integration of gas turbine cycles with hot air production is investigated. The
system studied is the gas turbine with air bottoming cycle (GT-ABC). Here the exhaust heat of a
gas turbine is used in a gas turbine based air bottoming cycle to produce clean hot air, as well as
electricity. In a previous study [8] two promising applications for the hot air have been
identified:
1. Combined production of electricity and hot air for drying of milk or whey in a spray drying
tower;
2. Combined production of electricity and hot air for use in bakery furnaces.

A full report of this part is given in Dijkstra et. al [3].

Fuel

Air
2 3
1

Exhaust Heat exchanger 4

Spray
Air 22 23 Air-out dryer
21 24 Or
Bakery
furnace
Intercooling
(optional)

Figure 12: Gas turbine with air bottoming cycle

A schematic representation of the gas turbine with air bottoming cycle is given in Figure 12.
The design consists of two gas-turbine cycles. The topping cycle (upper part of Figure 12) is a
conventional gas turbine. The exhaust heat from the topping cycle is transferred through a high-
temperature heat exchanger to the bottoming cycle (lower part of Figure 12). This is a gas
turbine-type cycle in which the combustion chamber is replaced by a heat exchanger. Both the
bottoming and the topping cycle produce electricity. The bottoming cycle additionally produces
hot air with a temperature of 210° C-280° C for use in spray dryers or bakery furnaces.

The goal of part III of this study is to assess the feasibility of the GT-ABC for the applications
mentioned above in terms of technical feasibility, and (indications of) energy efficiency and
economics. The criteria used will be the primary energy consumption, the investment and
simple pay out time. For this, special attention is paid to the boundary conditions and technical
issues related with application of the GT-ABC.

4.2 Method
The performance data of the GT-ABC used are those of Table 4.

ECN-C--01-075 21
Table 4: GT-ABC performance [8]
Gas turbine System Total GT- Electrical Hot air
ABC efficiency temperature
power
MW % °C
1. Simple cycle 5.9 33.8 n.b.
2. ABC, no intercooling 7 40.4 278
Allison 571-K 3. ABC, one intercooler 7.4 42.3 220
4. ABC, two intercoolers 7.5 43.2 210

Starting points for the economic evaluation are:

• 7000 operating hours/year;
• Electricity is valued against the electricity purchasing price of 0.0835 Euro/kWh (probably a
high value);
• Costs of compressor intercooling are not accounted for.

For both applications the following activities have been employed:

1. An inventory of technical boundary conditions for application of the system is made;
2. A list of potential users has been made and three potential users have been interviewed;
3. The technical feasibility of the application of a GT-ABC is analysed;
4. Additionally the feasibility of the direct application of a gas turbine, so without an air
bottoming cycle, is made;
5. Taking into account the boundary conditions encountered in the activities above a typical
case for each application of the GT-ABC is selected. In the bakery industry an important
distinction to be made is that between directly fired furnaces and indirectly fired furnaces.
These will be treated separately.
The resulting cases are
• A GT-ABC and GT for an indirectly fired furnace
• A GT-ABC and GT for an directly fired furnace
• A GT-ABC for an spray drying tower;

6. For these cases the main dimensions of a GT-ABC matching the heat demand of this case is
calculated;
7. An economic evaluation of the application of the GT-ABC.

The criteria used are the following:

• For the evaluation of boundary conditions, hot air temperature, NOx level, hygienic
demands, and impact on product quality. In addition several practical aspects are taken in
consideration (space available etc.);
• For the evaluation of energy efficiency the savings on primary energy compared to separate
generation of electricity and heat are taken as the criterion using the Dutch electricity park
efficiency of 42% as a reference;
• For the evaluation of the economics the Total Process Investment and the Simple Pay Out
Time (SPOT) are taken as criteria. The SPOT is defined as;

Total Processs Investment

SPOT = [ yr ]
Electriciy benifits − Fixed and Variable Operating Costs

22 ECN-C--01-075
4.3 Results

Air quality requirements

The air quality requirements are the highest in the dairy industry. As a rule the absolute absence
of any contamination is required. The presence of NOx is not acceptable.
In the bakery industry, never harmful products resulting from NOx presence were found in
atmospheres that contained NOx levels up to 25 mg/kg. With respect to contamination with oil
particles no practical limits exist. A more detailed study is required to assess this issue.
Table 5 gives the air temperature requirements of the applications. Comparing these to the GT-
ABC exhaust gas temperature range (210-280° C) gives that the GT-ABC is capable of
delivering air with a temperature sufficiently high for that of spray drying towers. However, not
for all bakery furnaces a temperature that is sufficiently high can be reached.

Table 5: Air temperature requirements

Application Air temperature required
Directly fired furnace Approx. 200-300° C
Indirectly fired furnace Approx. 300° C
Spray drying tower Approx. 185-200° C

Technical evaluation GT-ABC and GT in the bakery industry

The number of industrial bakeries in the Netherlands amounts over 40. An inventory of the
Dutch Bakery industry has resulted in a list of the nine most important sites for potential use of
the GT-ABC.

An important distinction to be made is that between directly fired furnaces, where the burners
are placed in the furnace, and indirectly fired furnaces where the heat is transferred either by
circulating air through pipes in the furnace or through heat transfer oil.

In directly fired furnaces the products come into contact with the combustion gasses. Analysis
showed that a GT-ABC could be used to supply heat to a furnace. The temperature is however
not high enough for all furnaces. An alternative is to feed the furnace with the flue gasses from a
gas turbine (without an ABC).

Table 6 summarises the results of the calculations for directly fired furnaces. A typical furnace
capacity of 1 ton dough/hr has been selected. The primary energy reduction percentages of a
GT-ABC amount to 20%, which is a good value. Those of a GT are even higher: 40%. A large
part of the energy savings for the GT option is achieved a lower air/fuel ratio of the GT option
compared to the original furnace. The feasibility of this lower air/fuel ratio remains to be
investigated. If this is acceptable then lowering the air/fuel ratio could also be an option for
energy efficiency improvement of a furnace without using a GT-ABC or GT.
A complication will however be that the heat transfer is affected. For the original situation a
large part of the heat transfer takes place through radiation. With the GT-ABC or GT this will
be through convection. This will have a significant impact on the product quality (e.g. bread
colour). A significant research and development effort would be required to overcome this,
which will be a serious obstacle for introduction of the GT-ABC or GT for directly fired
furnaces.

ECN-C--01-075 23
Table 6: Results direct fired furnace, 1 ton dough /hr
Original GT-ABC GT
Air/fuel ratio1) [-] 7 - 3.5
Temperature furnace in [° C] - 278 505
Natural gas use [Nm3/hr] 53 237 46

Electricity production [kWe] - 879 93

Energy for baking [kW] 194 194 194
Stack losses [kW] 271 483+436 118

Primary energy savings [%] - 20% 41%

1) Air/fuel ratio=1 for stoichiometric combustion

Table 7 presents the sizing results for a GT-ABC and GT for an indirectly fired furnace. A
typical capacity of 1 ton dough/hr has been selected. The primary energy savings are
comparable (respectively 12 and 13%). Therefore a GT will be preferred over a GT-ABC
because a GT will have a lower investment.

Table 7: Results indirect fired furnace, 1 ton dough /hr

Original GT-ABC GT
Air/fuel ratio1) [-] 2.5 - 3.5
Temperature furnace in [° C] - 278 505
Natural gas use [Nm3/hr] 28 209 46

Electricity production [kWe] - 897 93

Energy for baking [kW] 194 194 194
Stack losses [kW] 51 483+436 118

Primary energy savings [%] - 12% 13%

1) Air/fuel ratio=1 for stoichiometric combustion

Technical evaluation GT-ABC and GT in the dairy industry

The feasibility for application of the GT-ABC for the drying of milk or whey in a spray dryer is
investigated. An inventory of the Dutch dairy industry showed 22 locations for potential use.
One quarter of the sites contacted indicated to be interested. Another quarter indicated that they
wanted to be informed about the outcome of the project.

Table 8: Main Dimensions of GT-ABC for selected spray dryer case.

Parameter Value
In:
Natural gas 2520 Nm3/hr
Out:
Air 60 000 Nm3/hr
Electricity 9.4 MWe
Intercooling 1.7 MW
Main dimensions:
Gas turbine 7.5 MWe
Air Bottoming Cycle 1.8 MWe
Heat exchanger 5300 m2
Estimated mass rotating equipment 115000 kg

24 ECN-C--01-075
The selected GT-ABC type is the one with one intercooler. The GT-ABC main dimensions have
been calculated for a selected whey-drying tower. The water vaporisation capacity of this tower
is 2000 kg/hr. The hot air use is 60000 m3/hr at a temperature of 185° C The results are
presented in Table 8. In addition to the hot air required for the spray dryer, 9.4 MWe electricity
is produced. This is about one third larger than the total site electricity demand.
Taking the energy efficiency of the Dutch electricity park (42%) and the existing spray dryer as
a reference, the energy savings on primary energy amount to 18%.

Economic evaluation of the GT-ABC

Table 9 gives results of the project investment estimate. The estimate is based on the main
equipment dimensions. The total project costs are estimated to be 10 million Euro. This is much
larger than the normal site investment budget (3.6 Million Euro/year). The height of the
investment will be an obstacle for realisation.

Table 9: GT-ABC investment calculation

M Euro
Rotating equipment 4.9
Heat exchanger 0.9+
Total main equipment 5.8
Total direct investment 8.0
Total indirect investment 1.7+
Total process investment 10.0 Million-Euro

Not all electricity produced can be used inside the spray dryer site. About one third is to be
exported to the grid. Nevertheless, as a best case scenario, the electricity savings benefits have
been rated against the purchasing price of electricity. The simple pay out time based on the
purchasing price of electricity is 3.6 years. This is somewhat larger than the limit put by the
industry but sufficient to justify more detailed investigations.

Table 10: Calculation Simple Pay Out Time

kEuro/year
Variable costs (additional natural gas use) 2.1
Fixed costs 0.3+
Total 2.4

Electricity benefits 5.5

Simple Pay Out Time 3.6 Year

4.4 Conclusions
• The hygienic requirements in the dairy industry are the most stringent. Minimisation of
possible oil contamination must be given appropriate attention. In the bakery industry a
small amount of NOx is acceptable, which opens the alternative of using gas turbines instead
of the GT-ABC. In the dairy industry this is not acceptable.

Dairy industry:
• A GT-ABC (with one intercooler, and some small modifications) can supply air with the
quality required for a spray tower. The electricity produced for a selected spray tower is 9.4
MWe, which is higher than the demand of a large site;

ECN-C--01-075 25
• The typical primary energy reduction of a GT-ABC at a spray dryer is 18%. The specific
investment for the selected case is 1070 Euro/kWe. The absolute investment amounts to
10.0 Million Euro, which is higher than the total normal site investment budget. The height
of the investment will be an obstacle for realisation;
• The simple pay back time based on the electricity-purchasing tariff is 3.6 years. This figure
on itself is sufficiently low to justify further investigations of the GT-ABC cycle.

Bakery industry:
• A directly fired furnace can in principle be equipped with a GT-ABC. This has however a
serious impact on the heat transfer mechanism, which shifts from radiant to convective. This
will affect the product quality (e.g. bread colour). This will form an obstacle for
introduction of the GT-ABC. A GT is a feasible alternative for the GT-ABC, which has
however the same complications with heat transfer;
• For a directly fired furnace the primary energy consumption reduction amounts to 20% for
the GT-ABC and 40% for a GT. A large amount of this reduction is achieved by lowering
the air/fuel. The feasibility of this is to be investigated. If lowering the air/fuel ratio is
feasible, it also should be possible to do this in the original configuration;
• For an indirectly fired furnace the primary energy savings for a GT (13%) and GT-ABC
(12%) are comparable. Firing an indirectly fired furnace with a GT is therefore the preferred
option.

26 ECN-C--01-075
5. CONCLUSIONS

The goal of this study was to assess concepts for energy consumption reduction with gas turbine
cycles by means of:
• Improvement of the electrical efficiency;
• Make better or more use of the gas turbine exhaust gasses.

Substoichiometric combustion or partial oxidation (PO) in gas turbine cycles proved not to have
any pronounced advantages with respect to efficiency improvement.

The use of PO in gas turbine cycles is a promising option for improvement of gas turbine
exhaust gas use. The syngas formed in a PO gas turbine cycle can be used for chemical
synthesis. High overall efficiencies have been found for processes, which combine syngas
production with power production. Further integration with a once-through methanol plant has
been identified as a promising option.

Producing additional electricity as well as hot air from gas turbine exhaust gasses using a gas
turbine with air bottom cycle (GT-ABC) showed significant primary energy savings for all three
applications studied. The use of the GT-ABC is feasible for applications in spray dryers in the
dairy industry. The high investments may however be an obstacle. Application of this cycle for
directly fired furnaces in industrial bakeries is possible, but possible impact on the product
quality is a bottleneck. Application for directly fired furnaces is feasible but direct use of gas
turbine exhaust gasses (without a bottoming cycle) is a better option offering the same primary
energy reduction.

ECN-C--01-075 27
28 ECN-C--01-075
6. RECOMMENDATIONS

Gas turbine cycles with partial oxidation

• Three applications of the syngas produced by a system with a partial oxidation reactor with
hot syngas expander have been identified: (i) chemical synthesis (ii) repowering of existing
boilers and (iii) for use in a high temperature fuel cell. The first application has been
assessed within this study. The second application has been reviewed in literature. Because
of the good syngas generation efficiency found for the first option evaluation,
implementation of the third option is recommended for further study. Here the PO cycle will
function as a syngas generating subsystem of a fuel-cell gas turbine combined cycle plant,
or high temperature fuel cell system.

Combined syngas and power production

• The most favourable route for further evaluation is the combined PO-electricity production
integrated with a once-through methanol process. It is recommended to investigate the
following improvements
• The feasibility of using a catalyst in the PO reactor
• The feasibility of using a water gas membrane shift reactor for H2/CO versus
conventional CO shift reactors (not relevant for all methanol processes)
• Integration of membrane technology within the methanol plant with the system
selected.
• A next study phase should also cover plant-wide integration of heat (complete water steam
cycle). A detailed comparison with commercial MeOH production under equal starting
points should be made. Investment and business models have to be assessed. Furthermore it
is recommended to determine the number of hot gas expanders which could be sold yearly
for this purpose. Once this survey is positive, further interest of (a) gas turbine supplier(s)
for developing hot gas expanders, operating at higher temperatures and pressures (at least
50-80 bara and 800-900° C) is to be investigated further.

Application of a gas turbine with air bottoming cycle in the food and bakery industry
• A survey of the interest in the dairy industry for implementation of a GT-ABC cycle, based
on the outcome of this study, is recommended

• A survey of the interest of the bakery furnace manufacturers and the bakery industry for
implementation of a GT in indirectly fired furnaces, either with air or heat transfer oil, is
recommended.

ECN-C--01-075 29
30 ECN-C--01-075
7. REFERENCES

[1] Korobitsyn, M.A. and P.W. Kers, Assessment of the technical feasibility and future market
potential for a new concept of a gas turbine system with stepwise sub-stoichiometric
combustion, Part I: Thermodynamic analysis, ECN-CX--98-108, October 1998.

[2] Ploeg, R.v.d., T. Kerkhoven, and W. Altena (Fluor Daniel Company), Internal project report.

[3] Dijkstra, J.W., W. Rouwen, P. Sluimer and R. Verdurmen, Geavanceerde gasturbinecycli in

de brood- & banket- en in de zuivelindustrie, ECN-C-01-076, August 2001 (In Dutch).

[4] Korobitsyn, M.A., P.W. Kers and G.G. Hirs, Analysis of a gas turbine with partial oxidation,
43rd ASME Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress, 2-5 june, 1998, Stockholm, Sweden, 1998.

[5] Anex, R., S. Velnati, M. Meo, R. Ellington, and M. Sharfman , "Innovation and the
Transformation to Clean Technologies: Life Cycle Management of Gas Turbine Systems",
Proceedings of the 1999 NSF Design and Manufacturing Grantees Conference, January 5-8,
1999, Long Beach, CA. (http://www.ou.edu/spp/turbine/paper.html).

[6] Kers, P.W., “Partial Oxidation in Gas Turbine Cycles”, MSc Thesis, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, University of Twente, 1997.

[7] Korobitsyn, M.A., New and advanced energy conversion technologies, Analysis of
Cogeneration, Combined and Integrated Cycles, Thesis Univerisity of Twente, 1998.

[8] Korobitsyn, M.A., Industrial Applications of the Air Bottoming Cycle, Presented at the
International Conference on Efficiency, Cost, Optimizations, Simulation and Environmental
Aspects of Energy Systems and Processes ECOS '99, Tokyo, Japan, June 8-10, 1999.

[9] Korobitsyn, M.A. and A.W.M. van Wunnik, Asessment of Technological and Market
Opportunities of several Advanced Energy Conversion Processes, ECN-CX--98-122, April
1999.

[10] Kotas, T.J, The exergy method of plant analysis, Krieger Publ. Comp, 1995.

[11] Cohen, H, G.F.C. Rogers, H.I.H. Saravanamuttoo, Gas Turbine Therory, Second Ed.
Longman, 1972.

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32 ECN-C--01-075