Preface and Publishers' Note Xxiii Chapter 1 An Overview of Additives 1 Chapter 2 Types of Additive and The Main Technical Trends 5

CONTENTS
List of Tables xvii
List of Figures xxi
Preface and Publishers' note xxiii
Chapter 1 An Overview of Additives 1
Chapter 2 Types of Additive and the Main Technical Trends 5

2.1 Current Lines of Development 5
2.1.1 Fillers 6
2.1.2 Pigments 7
2.1.3 Plasticizers 7
2.1.4 Stabilizers 8
2.1.5 Flame retardants 8
2.2 Special Additives 9
2.2.1 Antistatic and conductive additives 9
2.2.2 Food contact and medical additives 9
Copyright © 2001. Elsevier Science & Technology. All rights reserved.
2.2.3 Clarifiers, nucleating agents, compatibilizers 10

2.3 Multi-functional Formulations 10
2.4 Masterbatches 10
2.5 Dendritic Polymers 11
Chapter 3 The World Market 13
3.1 World Consumption of Additives 13
3.2 The Market for Masterbatch 15
3.3 Overall Commercial Trends 15
3.4 Growth of Specialist Compounders 16
3.5 Regional Factors 16
Chapter 4 Modifying Specific Properties: Mechanical Properties - Fillers 19

4.1 Effect of Fillers 21
4.1.1 Mechanical properties 21
4.1.2 Thermal properties 21
4.1.3 Moisture content 21
4.1.4 Reinforcement mechanism of fillers 21
Additives for Plastics Handbook, edited by J. Murphy, and J Murphy, Elsevier Science & Technology, 2001. ProQuest Ebook
Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bibucascb-ebooks/detail.action?docID=313546.
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vi Additives for Plastics Handbook
4.2 Factors for Compounding 22

4.2.1 Aggregation of fillers 23
4.3 Types of Fillers 24
4.3.1 Calcium carbonate 24
4.3.2 Kaolin 26
4.3.3 Magnesium hydroxide (talc) 26
4.3.4 WoUastonite 27
4.3.5 Silica 27
4.3.6 Metal powders 28
4.3.7 Microspheres 28
4.3.8 Expandable microspheres 29
4.3.9 Cellulose fillers 30
4.4 Surface Modification
Modification 30
4.4.1 Particle geometry 30
4.4.2 Coating 31
4.5 Nano-technology 32
4.5.1 Processing nano-composites 32
4.6 Commercial Trends 35
Chapter 5 Modifying Specific Properties: Mechanical Properties -

Reinforcements 37
5.1 Fibres: The Basic Properties 39
5.2 Types of Reinforcing Fibre 40
5.2.1 Aramid fibres 40
5.2.2 Carbon or graphite fibres 41
5.2.3 Glass fibre 43

5.2.3.1 E-CRglass 45
5.2.3.2 Other developments 46
5.2.3.3 Forms of glass fibre 47
5.2.3.4 Chopped/milled products 47
5.2.4 Polyester fibre 48
5.2.5 Polyethylene fibre 48
5.2.6 Hybrid fibres 49
5.3 Other Fibres 49
5.3.1 Asbestos fibre 49
5.3.2 Boron fibre 49
5.3.3 Nylon fibre 49
5.4 Natural Fibres 50
5.5 Forms of Reinforcement 51
5.6 Long-fibre Reinforcement 51
5.7 New Developments 53
5.7.1 Polyurethane/long fibres 54
5.7.2 ABS/long fibres 54
5.7.3 Shaped fibres 54
Contents vii
Chapter 6 Modifying Specific Properties: Appearance - Colorants, Pigments,

Dyes, Special Effects 57
6.1 Main Types ofPigment and Colorant 58
6.1.1 Mixed metal oxides 58
6.1.2 Dyes 58
6.1.3 Liquid colours 59
6.2 Addition of Colorants 60
6.3 Replacement of Cadmium 61
6.4 Pigments for Special Effects 62
6.4.1 Aluminium pigments 63
6.4.2 Pearlescents 63
6.4.3 Light interference pigments 63
6.4.4 Fluorescents 64
6.4.5 Thermochromic and photochromic pigments 64
6.4.5.1 Intelligent' heat protection for
food products 65
6.4.5.2 High-performance dyes for CD
manufacture 65
6.4.5.3 Solar heat 65
6.5 Laser Marking 66
6.6 Pigment Dispersants 66
6.7 Multi-functional Systems 67
6.8 Pigments for Engineering Plastics 67
6.9 The Effect of Pigments on Dimensions 68
6.10 Colorants for Food and Medicals 69
6.11 Recent Developments 69
6.11.1 Colour strength 69

6.11.2 Weathering 69
6.11.3 Natural effects 70
6.11.4 New forms of pigment 70
6.11.5 Surface treatment 70
6.11.6 New pigment chemistry 70
6.12 Market Trends 71
Chapter 7 Modifying Specific Properties: Appearance - Black and White

Pigmentation 73
7.1 Types of White Pigment 73
7.1.1 Titanium dioxide 73
7.1.1.1 Surface treatments 74
7.1.1.2 Titanium dioxide grades 76
7.1.1.3 Opacity and tinting strength 76
7.1.1.4 Colour 78
7.1.2 Zinc sulphide 78
7.1.3 Other white pigments and extenders 80
7.1.3.1 Aluminium silicates 80
7.1.3.2 Barium sulphate ('blanc fixe') 80
viii Additives for Plastics Handbook
7.1.3.3 Calcium silicate 80

7.1.3.4 Magnesium silicate 81
7.1.4 White masterbatch 82
7.1.5 New developments 82
7.2 Black Pigments 84
7.2.1 Types of carbon black 84
7.2.1.1 Thermal oxidative decomposition
processes 85
7.2.1.2 Thermal decomposition processes 86
7.2.1.3 Effect of particle size and structure
on properties of carbon blacks 86
7.2.1.4 Testing for properties: structure -
effect and determination 87
7.2.2 Other black pigments 89
7.2.3 Black masterbatch 90
7.2.4 Recent developments 91
7.3 Commercial Trends: Titanium Dioxide 92
7.4 Commercial Trends: Carbon Black 92
Chapter 8 Modifying Specific Properties: Resistance to Heat - Heat

Stabilizers 93
8.1 How They Work 93
8.2 Antioxidants 95
8.2.1 Primary antioxidants 95
8.2.2 Secondary antioxidants 96
8.3 Blends 97
8.4 Replacement of Heavy Metals 97

8.4.1 Organotins 98
8.5 Effect of Silica on the Activity of Stabilizers 99
8.6 Benzoxazolone Derivatives for PVC 100
8.7 New Chemistry for Stabilizers 100
8.7.1 Lactone chemistry 100
8.7.2 Vitamin E 102
8.8.1 Pipes and fittings 103
8.8.2 Foamed pipe 104
8.8.3 Cable insulation 104
8.8.4 Medical products 104
8.9 Other Stabilizers 105
Chapter 9 Modifying Specific Properties: Resistance to Light - UV Stabilizers 107

9.2 UV Screening Pigments 108
9.3 Absorbers 109
9.4 Energy Transfer Agents/Quenchers 109
Contents ix
9.5 Scavengers: Hindered Amine Light StabiUzers 109

9.6 Synergists with HALS 110
9.7 Polymeric Stabilizers 111
9.8 Blends 111
9.9 Replacement of Heavy Metals 111
9.10 Selection of Antioxidants for Use with UV Stabilizers 112
9.11 Concentrates, Masterbatches 113
9.12 New Chemistry 113
Mod if)^ing Specific Properties: Flammability - Flame Retardants 115

10.2 Summary of FR additives 116
10.2.1 Reactive FRs 118
10.2.2 Additive FRs 118
10.2.2.1 Inorganics 118
10.3 Halogenated Compounds 120
10.3.1 Chlorinated compounds 121
10.3.2 Brominated compounds 122
10.4 Other Flame Retardants 123
10.4.1 Melamine cyanurate (MC) 123
10.4.2 Zinc borate 124
10.4.3 Zinc hydroxystannate (ZHS) and zinc
stannate (ZS) 125
10.4.4 Zinc sulphide 125
10.4.5 Metal hydrates 125
10.5 Phosphorus 126

10.6 Intumescent Flame Retardants 127
10.7 Halogen-free Systems 128
10.7.1 Wire and cable compounds 129
10.8 Combinations of Flame Retardants 130
10.9 Synergistic Reactions 132
10.10 Health and the Environment 135
10.11 Recycling 136
10.13 Nano-composites 138
Chapter 11 Modifying Specific Properties: Conductivity - Antistatic/Conductive

Additives 141
11.1 Classificationof Antistatic Additives 143
11.2 Conductive Additives 143
11.3 ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) Compounds 144
11.4 EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) Compounds 144
11.5 Metallic Additives 144
11.6 Coated Polymers 147
X Additives for Plastics Handbook
11.7 Intrinsically Conductive Materials 148

11.8 Moulded Circuitry 148
Chapter 12 Modifying Processing Characteristics: Curing and Cross-linking 151

12.1 The Curing Process 151
12.2 Terminology 152
12.3 Curing Agents, Accelerators 152
12.4 Inhibitors 153
12.5 Curing with Accelerators 154
12.6 Curing without Accelerators 154
12.7 Selecting a Curing System 155
12.8 Curing Agents for Epoxy Systems 157
12.9 Cure Promoters 160
12.10 UV Cure Initiators 160
12.12 Thermoplastics Cross-linking 162
Chapter 13 Modifying Processing Characteristics: Couplings Compatibilizing

Agents 167
Chapter 14 Modifying Processing Characteristics: Plasticizers 169

14.1 The Function of Plasticizers 169
14.2 Main Types of Plasticizers 170
14.2.1 Phthalates 170

14.2.2 Sebacates and adipates 171
14.2.3 Fatty acid esters 171
14.2.4 Oligomeric/polymeric plasticizers 172
14.2.5 Epoxies 173
14.3 Extenders and Secondary Plasticizers 173
14.4 Health and Safety of Plasticizers 173
14.5 Reducing the Level of Plasticizers 174
Chapter 15 Modifying Processing Characteristics: Blowing Agents 177

15.1 The Function of Blowing Agents 177
15.2 Physical Blowing Agents 178
15.3 Chemical Blowing Agents (CBAs) 179
15.4 Structural Foams 180
15.4.1 In-house gas generation 181
15.4.2 Nucleating agents 181
15.4.3 Dispersion agents 181
15.5 Syntactic Structural Foam 181
Contents xi
15.6 Replacement of CFCs 182

15.6.1 Flexible foams 183
15.6.2 Rigidfoams 183
15.6.3 Pentane 184
15.6.4 Expanded polystyrene 185
15.6.5 Economics of CFC replacement 186
15.6.6 Testing the insulation value of blowing agents 186
15.7.1 Liquid carbon dioxide 187
Chapter 16 Modifying Processing Characteristics: Modifiers and

Processing Aids 189
16.1 Impact Modification 189
16.1.1 Impact modifiers for PVC 190
16.1.1.1 MBS modifiers 190
16.1.1.2 ABS modifiers 190
16.1.1.3 Acrylic modifiers 191
16.2 Elastomer Modification 192
16.2.1 Acrylic rubber 193
16.2.2 Styrenics 193
16.2.3 Polyolefins 194
16.2.4 Polybutene 195
16.3 Dimer Acids 195
16.4 Calcium Carbonate 196
16.5 Modification of CPEE Polymers 196
16.6 Modification of PMMA with Silicon and Phosphorus 197
16.7 Impact Modifiers for Thermosetting Resins 197

16.8 Processing Aids 198
16.8.1 Low-temperature flexibility 200
16.9 Clarifying/Nucleating Agents 200
16.10 Fluoropolymers 202
16.11.1 Core-shell rubbers 203
16.11.2 Silicones 204
16.11.3 Modification of engineering thermoplastics 204
Chapter 17 Modifying Processing Characteristics: Lubricants^ Mould Release

Agents, Anti-slip and Anti-blocking 205
17.1 Lubricants for Performance Improvement 205
17.2 Lubricants as Processing Aids 206
17.2.1 Metallic stearates 207
17.2.2 Hydrocarbons 207
17.2.3 Fatty acid amides and esters 208
17.2.5 Polyolefin waxes 210
17.2.6 Polyamides 210
17.2.7 Fluoropolymers 211
xii Additives for Plastics Handbook
17.2.8 Silicones 212

17.2.9 Boron nitride 213
17.3 Combination and Modification 213
17.4 Release Agents for Thermosets 214
17.5 Anti-blocking, Anti-slip Additives 216
Chapter 18 Other Types of Additive: Miscellaneous Additives 219

18.1 Anti-bacterials and Biocides 219
18.1.1 Anti-allergy agent 221
18.2 Degradation Additives 221
18.3 Shrinkage Modifiers, Low-profile Additives 222
18.4 Improved Barrier Properties 222
18.4.1 Gas barrier coating 223
18.4.2 Resorcinol additives 223
18.4.3 Plasma technology 224
18.4.4 Oxygen absorption in food packaging 224
18.5 Hard Coatings 225
18.6 Thermal Insulation 22 5
18.7 Fragrance 226
18.8 PVC Matting Agent 226
18.9 Anti-fogging 226
18.10 Acoustic Insulation 227
18.11 Surfactants, Foam Control Additives 228
18.12 Mould Treatment Agents 229
Chapter 19 Other Types of Additive: Additives for Rubber 231

19.1 Guidance on Safety 233
19.2.1 Silica 233
Chapter 20 Other Types of Additive: Additives for Recycling 237

20.1 Stabilizing, Re-stabilizing 23 7
20.2 Stabilizers 238
20.3 Improvement of Properties 239
20.3.1 Fibres/compatibilizers/impact modifiers 239
20.4 Desiccants 239
20.5 PE/PVC Compatibilizing 240
20.6 Melt Flow/Viscosity Modification 240
20.7 Additives for Identification of Plastics 241
20.8 Equipment for Recycling 244
Chapter 21 Background Information: Equipment - Mixings Compounding^

and Dosing 245
21.1 Incorporation of Additives 245
21.2 Mixing Thermosets 246
Contents xiii
21.3 Mixing Thermoplastics 247

21.3.1 Drymixers 247
21.3.2 Calendering 248
21.3.3 Extrusion compounding 248
21.3.4 Compounding mineral fillers 249
21.3.5 Fine talc masterbatch 249
21.3.6 Single- and twin-screw extruders 250
21.3.7 Adjustable screw geometry 251
21.4 Colour Dosing 252
Chapter 22 Background Information: Health and Safety 257

22.1 Hazards by Additive 257
22.1.1 Carbon black 257
22.1.2 Titanium dioxide 258
22.1.4 Glassflbre 259
22.1.5 Styrene monomer 2 59
22.1.6 Isocyanates 260
22.2 Hazards During Production, Storage, and
Transportation (Workers) 260
22.2.1 Fire/explosion 261
22.2.2 Emissions 261
22.2.3 Skin/body contact 261
22.2.4 Dust 262
22.3 Hazards During Use (Direct Consumer and General
Public) 262
22.3.1 Toxicity-food contact 263
22.3.3 Plasticizers 264
22.4 Hazards During Disposal (Workers and General
Public) 266
22.4.1 Landfill-heavy metals 266
22.4.2 Incineration 267
22.5 HealthandSafety at the Workplace: Some Guidelines 267
22.5.1 Reduction ofemissions at the workplace 268
22.6 New Developments: Solvents 268
Chapter 23 Background Information: Legislation and Testing 269

23.1 Blowing Agents 269
23.2 Flame Retardants 269
23.2.1 Halogenated and brominated flame retardants 2 71
23.3 Heavy Metals/Cadmium Pigments 2 71
23.4 Plasticizers 2 72
23.5 Food Packaging 2 73
23.6 Migration Levels 2 74
xiv Additives for Plastics Handbook
23.7 Moves to Establish a Threshold of Regulatory

Concern (TRC) 2 76
23.7.1 US history 276
23.7.2 European history 2 76
23.8 The User's Viewpoint 2 77
23.9 Medical Products and Packaging 2 77
23.10 Waste and Recycling 277
23.10.1 Packaging 278
23.10.2 Electrical and electronics 2 78
23.10.3 Automobiles 279
23.11 Physical Testing 279
23.11.1 Mechanical tests 280
23.11.1.1 Tensile strength and modulus 280
23.11.1.2 Flexural strength and modulus
(ISO 178 and ISO 3597) 280
23.11.1.3 Compressive strength (ISO
3604) 280
23.11.1.4 Shear strength 281
23.11.1.5 Impact strength 281
23.11.2 Thermal testing 282
23.11.2.1 Heat stability 282
23.11.2.2 Light stability 283
2 3.11.3 Electrical properties 283
23.11.3.1 Surface and volume resistivity 283
2 3.11.3.2 Surface resistivity 283
23.11.3.3 Electrostatic discharge 284
23.11.3.4 Static decay 284

23.11.4 Flammability 284
23.11.5 Heatrelease 286
23.11.6 Ease of ignition 286
23.11.6.1 Calorificvalue: ISO 1 7 1 6 -
calorific value of materials 286
23.11.6.2 Flamespread 286
23.11.7 Smoketests 287
23.11.7.1 AS 1530: Part 3 - t e s t for early
fire hazard properties of
materials 288
23.11.7.2 DIN 4102 Part 1 - B l -
Brandschacht test 288
23.11.7.3 VDE 0472 Part 804 288
23.11.7.4 FAR Part 2 5: Federal Aviation
Regulations for materials
used in aircraft 288
23.11.8 Fire tests for building materials 288
23.11.9 Combustibility 289
23.11.10 Floor covering 290
Contents xv
23.11.11 New developments 292

23.11.12 Analysis 292
23.11.13 Surface quality tests 292
23.11.13.1 Barcol hardness test 292
23.11.13.2 Acetone sensitivity 293
23.11.13.3 Surface analysis 293
23.11.14 Colour testing 293
23.11.14.1 Colour stability 294
Database 294
Appendix A: Conversion Tables 295
Appendix B 299
Technical Terms 299
Standards and Testing Institutions 302
Recommended Books and Journals 303
Manufacturers'handbooks 303
Journals covering additives for plastics and rubber 304
Appendix C: Standard Abbreviations for Plastics and Elastomers 307
Appendix D: Trade Names 311
Appendix E: Directories 327

Directory of Suppliers 32 7
Industry Associations and Federations 3 64
Data Sheets 369

Fillers and extenders 369
Reinforcements, fibrous and microspheres 386
Pigments, colorants, whites, blacks 392
Antioxidants and stabilizers: heat and light 399
Flame retardants 405
Antistatics and conductive additives 414
Curing, cross-linking agents 417
Property modifiers, processing aids 420
Plasticizers 423
Blowing Agents, Dispersants, Miscellaneous Additives 428
Lubricants, release agents, slip/anti-block 430
Editorial Index 445
Index of Advertisers 471
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CONTENTS

List of Tables xvii

List of Figures xxi

Preface and Publishers' note xxiii

Chapter 1 An Overview of Additives 1

Chapter 2 Types of Additive and the Main Technical Trends 5

2.2.3 Clarifiers, nucleating agents, compatibilizers 10

Chapter 4 Modifying Specific Properties: Mechanical Properties - Fillers 19

4.2 Factors for Compounding 22

Chapter 5 Modifying Specific Properties: Mechanical Properties -

5.2.3 Glass fibre 43

Chapter 6 Modifying Specific Properties: Appearance - Colorants, Pigments,

6.11.1 Colour strength 69

Chapter 7 Modifying Specific Properties: Appearance - Black and White

7.1.3.3 Calcium silicate 80

Chapter 8 Modifying Specific Properties: Resistance to Heat - Heat

8.4 Replacement of Heavy Metals 97

Chapter 9 Modifying Specific Properties: Resistance to Light - UV Stabilizers 107

9.5 Scavengers: Hindered Amine Light StabiUzers 109

Mod if)^ing Specific Properties: Flammability - Flame Retardants 115

10.5 Phosphorus 126

Chapter 11 Modifying Specific Properties: Conductivity - Antistatic/Conductive

11.7 Intrinsically Conductive Materials 148

Chapter 12 Modifying Processing Characteristics: Curing and Cross-linking 151

Chapter 13 Modifying Processing Characteristics: Couplings Compatibilizing

Chapter 14 Modifying Processing Characteristics: Plasticizers 169

14.2.1 Phthalates 170

Chapter 15 Modifying Processing Characteristics: Blowing Agents 177

15.6 Replacement of CFCs 182

Chapter 16 Modifying Processing Characteristics: Modifiers and

16.7 Impact Modifiers for Thermosetting Resins 197

Chapter 17 Modifying Processing Characteristics: Lubricants^ Mould Release

17.2.8 Silicones 212

Chapter 18 Other Types of Additive: Miscellaneous Additives 219

Chapter 19 Other Types of Additive: Additives for Rubber 231

Chapter 20 Other Types of Additive: Additives for Recycling 237

Chapter 21 Background Information: Equipment - Mixings Compounding^

21.3 Mixing Thermoplastics 247

Chapter 22 Background Information: Health and Safety 257

Chapter 23 Background Information: Legislation and Testing 269

23.7 Moves to Establish a Threshold of Regulatory

23.11.3.4 Static decay 284

23.11.11 New developments 292

Appendix A: Conversion Tables 295

Appendix C: Standard Abbreviations for Plastics and Elastomers 307

Appendix D: Trade Names 311

Appendix E: Directories 327

Data Sheets 369

Editorial Index 445

Index of Advertisers 471

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