SOLAR BASED 3-PHASE NET

METERING SYSTEM

A Thesis submitted by partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in “Electrical
Engineering”
By

NAMES ---------------

Under guidance of

ENG. NAWAZ JOIYA

Department of Electrical Engineering

National Fertilizer Corporation Institute of
Engineering Technology Multan

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All praise to ALLAH ALMIGHTY lord of all the world the most beneficient the most
merciful owner of the Day of Judgement. We ask ALLAH to bestow his blessing and
salutations of piece upon our noble PROPHET MUHAMMAD (SAW). We pay our humblest
gratitude to ALLAH to who bestowed upon HIS blessings which guided and helped us to
complete this report. With the thanks providence that we have come to the other corner of the
knowledge and even then the point of satiation never comes to end. The report is almost
never the product of single writer. The ideas of report writing are usually attributable to
others. This is all due to the eliminated guidance of our teachers as they are real pillars of
academic carrier and we can do nothing without their enlightened supervision and coaching.
We are exceeding indebted to our affectionate parents for their prayers full of sincere
emotions along with their passionate financial and moral support. In fact we can never return
their sincere efforts to facilitate our path to achieve success throughout our carrier.

We are thankful to Vice Chancellor (VC NFC IET) and Dr. Kamran Liaqat Bhatti (Head of
department of Electrical Engineering, NFC IET) for their permission to enjoy the privilege of
departmental facilities. We are deeply grateful to our project supervisor Engr. Nawaz Joiya
for his skilful guidance and valued proposal.

ABSTRACT
The “Solar Based Three Phase NET Metering system” is newly thought billing mechanism
that is widely being used, and is achieving acceptance almost all over the world. This system
uses renewable source (sun) to generate electricity which is not very expensive as sun radiate
on all over the earth. The sunlight rays on the solar panel provide us good amount of Direct
Current which charges our battery.Battery requirement is monitored by the microcontroller.
The DC is converted into AC by using inverter. In this project proposal, different techniques
are highlighted for mining highest value of electric power from sun and then it is converted
from DC to AC by inverter and types of transformers are used to get the desired value of
current and voltages.

NET meter is used which allows consumers to generate their own energy. When there is
excess amount of power generated it will allow to export that power to grid and help the
consumers by reducing their future electricity bills.

TABLE OF CONTENT::
CHAPTER 01
INTRODUCTION
1.0 BACKGROUND HISTORY

Pakistan is facing a severe electricity crisis due widening gap between demand and

available system generating capacity. The worsening of power shortages has become a

major political issue, reflecting the hardships for people and businesses. It threatens to

undermine the credibility and legitimacy of presidency and to further stress the social

fabric of the country. the power crisis didn't emerge suddenly. it is the direct results of

irresponsible and hasty energy policies over the last three decades. Conventional ways of

generation of electricity energy through non-renewable resources could be a future

process and this process usually takes five to 10 years. In parallel to the present, we

should always adopt all alternate ways to save lots of and generate electricity through

renewable resources to beat the energy crisis in Pakistan. So by taking in review of of

these problems we've designed a “SOLAR BASED THREE PHASE NET METERING

SYSTEM” .Solar power is one among the foremost promising renewable energy

technologies, allowing the generation of electricity from free, inexhaustible sunlight.

many householders have already begun adopting solar electricity, and large-scale power

generation facilities within the Southwest offer solar advantages to thousands of

shoppers..

NEPRA announced the official National electrical power administrative body (Alternative

& Renewable Energy) Distributed Generation and Net Metering Regulations on

September 1, 2015.

1.1OVERVIEW:

(I) SOLAR ENERGY:

Solar energy is a kind of renewable source which is extracted through the sun and can be

in-use for humans in numerous ways as like for cooking purposes and heating of water
.etc. it is also employed in green housing which are used for plants and for the major

purpose of generation of electricity.It will be produced directly, using photo-voltaic;

either indirectly using concentrated solar-power. The concentrated solar-power uses huge

rotating mirrors for directly focusing the rays, but they're installed in hotter places for

more power to extract.

GROWTH OF SOLAR PV IN PAKISTAN:

Pakistan also stands with some biggest countries within the world for the assembly of

electricity with simplified efficiency. The solar irradiance stands for about 8-9 hrs per day

for generating power and also could changes consistent with the weather conditions. The

number of solar irradiance in Pakistan is about 5.3kW/m2/day which is enough to extract

up-to 10 MW of electricity.
Pakistan is presented with a large amount of sunlight through-out the year. This makes a

perfect situation for Pakistan to reap the solar power. Pakistan have to develop more and

more solar projects to wish the means of free electricity.Because the solar irradiance is

increasing day-by-day and yearly, so more energy may be extracted through it. Hence by

Geographical means, in future it's been figured that, by 2030 there would enough energy

to extract electricity for about 10GW in Pakistan. there would enough energy to extract

electricity for about 10GW in Pakistan through solar power as compared with other

resources rather hydro resource thanks to its high efficiency.

THREE PHASE NET METERING:

DEFINITION:

Net metering is a billing mechanism that allows consumers to generate their own energy

source.
BENEFITS:

Installation of this system is cheap and inexpensive.

* The owner of this system can earn a money or the can get credit at their bills. They can

earn by providing excess energy to the wapda.

* Maintance of this system is easy.

* The bills of the factories, industries is reduced due to the net metering system.

* It encourage the consumer to produce excess amount of energy which can support him

financially.

DRAWBACKS:

* Large amount of place is required for the installment of this system.

* Owner require large amount of money for the installation of this system.

* It sometimes may not be able to produce enough amount of energy so in this case

consumer may face serious problem or loss.

In NET METERING System solar panel provide us DC supply. With the help of Inverter

we convert DC supply into the AC.

DIFFERENCE b/w DC & AC:

DC stands for Direct Current and it flows in one direction while AC stands for

Alternating Current which changes its direction with the passage of time.

SINGLE PHASE & THREE PHASE:

Single phase require only single wire for the connection of circuit and it provide single

alternating current whereas three phase system require three wires and it provides three
alternating current supplies from three seperates phases. Single phase has only one

conductor in it while three phase supply consist of three conductors. Single phase are

used for light loads of lightening and heating while three phase are used for heavy loads.

The voltage of single phase is 230V while voltage of three phase is 415V.

The designing of single phase is less complex as compared to three phase. The

applications of single phase include small home appliances for example air conditioner,

fans and heater while application of three phase supply includes mobile towers, power

grids and in aircrafts. Single phase supply is less effiecient then that of three phase power

supply.

WHY WE USE THREE PHASE?

Selection of these two power supplies mainly depends upon the power requirement of

particular system.

 Three phase is more efficient then that of single phase supply.

 It is used for heavy loads because it provide us high voltage of 415 V therefore we

use three phase supply in our project.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:
CHAPTER 02
HARDWARE COMPONENTS
Chapter: 02
Hardware Components.

For constructing and designing, 'Solar Based 3-Phase NET Metering System' following
components are as follows.

List Of Components:
 Solar Panel
 Charge Controller
 Convertors
 Inverter
 LCD
 Battery
 Arduino UNO
 Arduino Mega
 Transformer TRANs-2p3s
 PC 817 Opto-coupler
 7805 IC
 IRF3205 MOSFET
 Capacitor
 Relay
 1N4007
 ACS-712
 CT & PT.
 Net meter
2.1 Solar Panel:
Solar panel consist of numerous solar cells. Solar cell is also known as photovoltaic cell. It is
a device that transform the light into electrical energy. The induced voltage depends on the
light intensity. It has the capability to produce voltage so it is known by photovoltaic.
Covalent bond is used to join the electrons of semiconductor. Small energy particles is used
to built-up the electromagnetic radiation. The small particles are known as photon. The
electron starts emitting when the photon incident on the semiconductor material. The electron
which are energized is also known as Photoelectron. Photoelectric effect is the phenomena of
emission of electron. Photoelectric effect is major factor in the working of photovoltaic cell.

Figure 2.1: Diagram of Solar Panel.

Construction:
For making the photovoltaic cell semiconductor material is used such as silicon, cadmium
etc. Mostly used semiconductors are silicon and selenium. Upper surface of the cell is made
up of P-type material. Due to the p-type material light easily enter into the semiconductor
material. The output terminal positive and negative are placed around the p-type and n type.
The single unit of the photovoltaic cell are made of the semiconductor material in which
multi-crystalline and mono-crystalline is used. The semiconductor material having for sides is
used to get the multi-cell. The current and voltage of output voltage is very low which is
obtained from each cell. The output current of each photovoltaic cell is 0.8mA while the
output voltage of every cell is 0.6V. Different combinations are used for increment in the
system's output and its efficiency. There are three possible combination of photovoltaic cell.

 Series combination
 Parallel combination
 Series-Parallel combination

1- Series combination:
If two or more than two cells are connected in series then the input voltage becomes double
while the output current of these cell are remain same.

2- Parallel combination:
When the combination of the cell is parallel then the magnitude of current is doubled and the
voltage remain same.
3-Series-Parallel combination:
When the cells are connected in series–parallel combination both the voltage and current
magnitude is increases. That’s why series-parallel combination is used in the solar panel

Working:
Semiconductor material are those which may pass or reflect the light incident. These type of
material are not conductor or insulator and the photovoltaic is made of these semiconductor
material. It is more efficient for the transformation of light energy into electric energy. The
electron which are present in the material is start to emit when the light incident on the
semiconductor material. Large numbers of small particle is present in light which energized
and the emitting of electrons start. These small particles is called photons. The electron starts
moving is the semiconductor material when they absorb the photon. The particles develop
the current by moving in one direction due to the electric field effect. The current emit from
the metallic electrode which is present in semiconductor material. There are two types of
junction-type and n-type. The electrons moves from one region to another region when the
light incident on it.
 Figure 2.2: Solar Panel Working.

2.2 Charge Controller:

The next level in this project is solar charge controller. Charge controller limits the rate
from where current is added to drawn from batteries.
It prevents battery over charging and blocks Reverse current. Charge controller provides
constant voltage.
A charge controller is plays an important role in power system where batteries are used. It is
a device which is used to control the rate of current. It protects from the overvoltage and
inhibits overcharging otherwise battery performance and lifespan is reduced and safety risks
increases. It also protects the battery from the deep discharging. Several charge controller
have some extra properties. When the batteries are more than usually discharged then a
separate circuit power down the load. When current flowing is higher than the circuit is
overloaded. It may cause the fire hazard. Some controller have built-in over load protection
while some system need the extra or additional fuses or circuit breaker.
There are two types of charge controller:
 Series charge control
 Shunt charge control
1 ( Series charge control:
Once the batteries are full the series charge controller is not
able to flow the current.
2 (Shunt charge cont
After rol: the batteries are full the shunt charge controller
diverts excessive current to the other auxiliaries. In the simple charge controller when
batteries charges up to their set voltage level then it stops charging and it again starts
charging when the voltage level down from the set voltage. PWM technique is used to
 adjusting the voltage level to permit charge close to extreme voltage. It maintain the
constant voltage level. PWM technique used two step. The first one is to hold voltage until
the battery charged. The second one is to drop the voltage until it finish. Charge control set
point is depends on the intentions of the battery There are many charge controller that
monitor the temperature due to the overheating. Some of them display data, transmit data
and data logging. Charge control have many option to display the light. The display in the
charge control is significant and valuable. The battery charging and discharging control is
very important.

Figure 2.3: Diagram of Charge Controller.

2.3 Convertors:

There are many convertors used for boosting-up to generate higher voltages at the output
side.

These convertors are as follows:

 Buck Converter.
 Boost Converter.
 Buck – Boost Converter
 Cuk Converter.

In this project, boost and buck convertor both are used which explains as.

A boost convertor converts power from DC-to-DC. While decline in the value of current
occurs; boost convertor amplifies the voltage from input to output. It is also known as Step up
convertor.
A Buck convertors is also a DC-to-DC power convertor which step down voltages from its
input to its output, while stepping up current.
A boost-buck convertor are present for increment and decrement of the voltages and buck-
boost convertors contains inductor for storing the energy. It has a single inductor which is
used for both boost and buck inductor mode.
In this project, cuk convertor is not used.

Figure 2.4: Diagram of Buck, Boost, Buck-boost Convertor.

Advantages Of Convertor:
 Highly efficient.
 Free power Source.
 Reliability & Stability.
 Operating Duty cycle is lower.
 Lesser cost than other convertors.
 Higher voltage at output.
 On MOSFET, it gives lower voltages.

2.4 Inverter:
It is a power electronic circuitry that changes direct current into alternating current. The
design of specific device control the input voltage, output voltage and the overall power. The
power is supplied by an external source. The inverter does not produced any power. The
inverter requires the DC power source to operate the system. The inverter form different
types of output waveforms which is either the pulsed sine wave, modified sine wave or any
others waves. For multilevel inverter the wave is not pure sinusoidal due the harmonics. For
practical use the inverter should have high switching frequency so the harmonics are very
less. It has two types:
  Single phase
 Three phase
PWM topology is used in the inverter. This technique is used to get steady output. PWM
based inverter is more valuable than conventional inverters. The PWM controls the output
voltage of the inverter. PWM topology is mostly used for voltage control.

H-Bridge:
It is an electronic device which is used to change the polarity of the applied voltage. It
consist of switching configuration composed of four switches which are assemble in the
form of H. These four switches is named as S1, S2, S3 and S4 respectively. The switches are
always open and close in pairs either S1 and S4 is close or S2 and S3 is close. Never open or
close either switch S1 and S2 or S3 and S4.When S1 and S2 switches are closed then the
shoot-through condition occur in which the short circuit occur. Even S3 and S4 are closed
incidentally then the same result comes out shoot-through condition occurs. The positive
voltage is supplied to the load when switches S1 & S4 are closed and S2 & S3 are open. And
when S1 and S4 are open and then S2 and S3 are close. So that the applied voltage is in
reverse direction.
When all the switches are open then the source supplies zero potential to the circuit.
Sometimes the arrangement of H-bridge is known as single phase bridge inverter. When the
H-bridge get the DC supply a square wave voltage waveform is formed. If the load is pure
inductive then the triangular waveform is formed due to it totally depends upon the
inductance, input voltage and the switching frequency.

Figure 2.5: Diagram of Half Bridge Inverter.

2.5 LCD:
 Liquid crystal display is the flat panel display. In its primary form of operation liquid
crystals are used. Liquid crystal display is much thinner than CRT (cathode ray
technology). It uses the backlight for the formation of image.

There are four types of LCD

 Twisted Nematic
 In Panel Switching display
 Vertical Alignment Panel
 Advanced Fringe Field Switching

1- Twisted Nematic:
TN having high response time. It display very low color contrast, low contrast ratio and
viewing angle. It is not much expensive

2- In Panel Switching display:

The display quality of IPS panel is better due to better viewing angle, color contrast and
contrast ratio. It is better than the Twisted Nematic

3- Vertical Alignment Panel:

The display quality of VA panel is medium. It is better than Twisted Nematic. But its quality
is less than the In Panel Switching display.

4- Advanced Fringe Field Switching:

The display quality of AFFS is best. It displays best color contrast, contrast ratio and viewing
angle.

Working:
The display of liquid crystal display is made up of billions of pixels. Numbers of pixels
decide the quality of display. Three sub pixels red, green and blue combine to form a pixel.
When the combination of these sub pixels change then it display different colors.
The display make thousands of color when these sub pixels work together. A picture is
created when these pixels are rapidly on and off. To rotate the polarized light liquid crystals
are used. There is the polarized filter which is placed at 90 degree in the back and front of the
pixels. The liquid crystals are present between them. These liquid crystal can be easily
switched on and off electronically.
 Figure 2.6: LCD Screen.

2.6 Battery:
This device is meant for converting chemical energy into electrical energy. Many
electrochemical cells are involved in its working phenomenon. These dry cell cells are the
type of electrochemical cells. For the flow of current dry cell has the paste of electrolytic
immobilized that provides the enough moisture. This moisture allows to flow the current.
Dry cell has no enough liquid so it operates in any direction without leaking. For portable
equipment it is suitable due to its adaptability. Dry battery is more advance in safety of
battery.

Construction:
Mostly dry cell batteries are zinc-carbon batteries. Zinc acts as anode and the cathode is
bounded by the combination of manganese dioxide and carbon. Aluminium chloride is used
for the electrolyte paste. Two electrodes are separated by a fibrous fabric. Brass pin which is
placed at the centre of the cell is used to conduct electricity to the outer circuit.

Figure 2.7: Dry Battery.

2.7 Arduino UNO:
The electronic device which is a single board micro-controller proceed by Arduino cc. UNO
means one, based on ATmega 328P. This microcontroller is very cheap and its installation is
very easy.
Micro-controllers are now being used in embedded circuits. Arduino UNO has 5Volts
operating voltage. The ATmega contains transistor-transistor logic which is provided on
digital pins RX(0) and TX(1).
It has:

 USB interface.

 14 digital Input / Output pins from which 6 pins are used as PWM
output.
 6 analogue-pins.

Figure 2.8: Diagram Of Arduino UNO.

2.8 Arduino Mega: 2560

Power:
The power supply of Arduino mega is either given by USB connection or with an external
source. The source of power is spontaneously selected. The non USB external power supply
can either emanate from a battery or an AC to Dc adopter. To connect the adopter plugged a
2.1mm centre positive plug into the power jack of the board. The first positive lead came
from the battery is inserted in the Vin and the second lead is inserted in the GND. These both
pins are the header of the power connector. The range which is recommended for its working
is 5-12 volts. If the voltage which is supplied is less than 7 volts or greater than 12 volts than
the board may be unstable. The regulated 5 volts is used to operate the microcontroller and
other equipment on the board. 50 mA is the maximum current.
Memory:
For code storing flash memory is 256 KB and for SRAM 8 KB is used. 4Kb is used for
EEPROM.

Input and output pins:

It consists of:

 54 digital pin(input/output)
 16 analog pins.

All the analog pins provide the 10 bits resolution. They can be measure from ground to 5
volts and it is possible to change upper end range by AREF pin. These all pins are operate on
5 volts. The maximum current supplied or receive is 40 mA. There are some pins which has
particular function. In serial 0 is used to receive and 1 is used for transmit. In serial 1: 19 pins
is used to receive and 18 pin is used for transmit. In serial 2: 17 pin is used for receive and 16
pin used for transmit the data. In serial 3: 15 pin is used to receive and 14 pin is used to
transmit. Pin 13 has a built in LED which is on when the pin value is high otherwise the LED
remains off. . For reset the microcontroller bring the line low.

USB over current protection:

Poly fuse present in Mega2560 protects the system against short circuiting and over-current.
Every computer gives the internal protection but it gives the extra layer protection. If the
applied current is more than 500mA, then connection will break immediately.

Communication:
The Arduino Mega2560 has several ways to communicate with the computer or another
microcontroller. It has four hardware UART’s for TTL serial communication. It has the serial
monitor which are used to allow the data to be sent and receive from the board. When the
data is sent r receive via the USB connection or ATmega8u2 LED on the board will flash.It
has the wire library to use the I2C bus.

Programming:
Arduino software is used for the programming of Mega2560.Bootloader allows to upload the
new code in it. It uses the original STK500 protocol to communicate. We can bypass the boot
loader and the microcontroller programs in circuit serial programming.

Physical characteristic and shield compatibility:

Maximum length for Mega PCB is 4 inches.
Maximum width for Mega PCB is 2.1 inches.

It has the USB connector and the power jack spreading afar the former dimension.
 Figure 2.9: Diagram Of Arduino Mega 2560.

2.9 TRANs-2p3s: (Centre Tapped Transformer)

In this project, centre tapped transformer is used with constant voltage outputs. This type of
transformer gives a two phase, three wire supply. This symmetrical-dual-power supply gives
us two symmetrical voltages, at the output with different polarity with respect to common or
ground.
Secondary winding of centre tapped transformer is divided into two parts so individual
voltages are provided on both the two ends of secondary winding. It is used for rectifiers.

We can drive two independent circuits because centre tapped transformer will gives you two
voltages so that they can divide other than that simple transformer will give you only one
voltage. Its internal process is same as simple transformer.

Every electronic circuit as per its own requirement wants proper power supply at the input. In
this project, a regulated power supply, known as TRANs-2p3s is used, which is a centre
tapped transformer which gives you a constant voltage of (9V) and (-9V) with one (1) ampere
maximum current. In this transformer, there are two-primary sides and three-secondary sides.
The two-primary windings are used as the input so there are two inputs and three-secondary-
windings represents that one winding is ground and two '2' windings are used as for output.
It is used to permutated the input of 220 V (AC mains) into the output of 12V. It is composed
as TR12-0-12V. The typical diagram for TRAN-2p3s is as follows:
 Figure 2.10: Diagram of Transformer 2p3s.

2.10 PC 817 Opto coupler:

Opto-coupler is also known as opto-isolator. It consists of four pins i.e. anode, cathode,
emitter and collector. Anode and cathode are input pins and emitter and collector are output
pins. PC 817 has a infrared emitting diode and photo transistor which are connected optically
and detached electrically. In our project, PC-817 secure the high voltages in one portion of
the system from devastation other portions of the system. It act as a protective device for the
circuit and blocks reverse current. Pc-817 is very reliable and stable too. It is applied in
transmission of signal having different impedances and current and in embedded projects.

When LED transmits light then photo transistor activates. The obtained output is in the form
of either emitter or common collector. But mostly it is in the form of common collector. If
LED does not transmit light then photo transistor remains close so it gives zero output.Its
collector emitter voltage is 80Volts and emitter collector voltage is 6Volts.

Figure 2.11: Diagram of PC-817 Opto-Coupler.

2.11 7805 IC:

A 7805 is a 3 terminal voltage regulator integrated circuit. It maintains and regulate constant
voltage level. Its purpose is to maintain the voltage in the circuit approximately near to the
desired reading. This IC also protect against drawing of undue current to a circuit. This
Integrated Circuit contains three-pins, which are as follows.

Pin-Configuration:

Pin-1: (Input-Pin):
Input pin ranges from 7V to 35V. It receives positive unregulated voltage. which the voltage
regulator will manage down to 5 volts.

Pin-2: (GND)
Ground pin has 0V. This pin is a neutral for both input and output. This pin form ground for
the regulator.

Pin-3: (Output-Pin):
Output pin ranges from 4.8V to 5.2V. This pin is regulated by 'DC' 5-volts.

The block diagram of 7805-IC is shown below:

Figure 2.12: Pin Diagram of 7805 Voltage Regulator.

For 5-volts regulation not more than 8-volts should be applied as input voltage. Other-wise
due to difference in input and output voltage heat will be released. Due to huge difference in
the voltages more heat generates which could ruin the whole system. By two conditions we
could avoid fault. These are given as:

1) Limit’s the voltage of regulator to 2-3volts, firstly.

2) Secondly, you have to use Heat Sink to avoid excessive heat generation.

2.12 IRF3205 MOSFET:

A metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor is basically field effect transistor with
the MOS structure. The conductivity of the device is determined by the voltage. MOSFET
is used for the amplification of signal and switching. For the amplification or switching,
the conductivity of MOSFET has ability to change with the variation in the applied
voltage. It is among all the transistors. It is very common in the digital circuits. P-type or
N-type semiconductors are used in these transistor. For making the switching circuits pairs
of MOS transistors are used which consume very low power. The input impedance of
MOSFET is infinite. Due to infinite impedance all the incoming signals is captured by the
amplifier. If it is compared with the bipolar transistor, to control the load current it does not
require any input current.

MOSFET are two basic forms

 Depletion type
 Enhancement type

1-Depletion type:
To switch off the device almost all the transistor need Gate-source voltage but the
depletion mode of MOSFET is almost equivalent to the “Normally close” gate.

2-Enhancement type:
To switch on the device transistors require the Gate-source voltage but the enhancement
mode of MOSFET is equivalent to the “Normally open” gate.

MOSFET Operation:
MOS capacitor is the main component so the working of the MOSFET is depend on it.
When the positive or negative gate voltage is applied it can be inverted from p-type to n-
type. The holes present with the repulsive force under the oxide layer are pushed down
with the substrate when the positive gate voltage is applied on it. Depletion region is
formed in which negative charge are bounded. A channel is formed when the electrons
reaches. Electrons from source and drain region are attracted by the positive voltages into
the channel. The current flows easily and freely if the voltage is applied between the source
and drain. In the channel electron are controlled by the gate voltages. A hole channel is
formed when we apply the negative voltage.

MOSFET Structure:
MOSFET consist of four terminals drain, source, body and gate. The body is almost
attached with the source terminal so the terminal are reduced from four to three. The
source allows the electrons and holes to enter through it and they are released from the
drain terminal. The width of the channel is controlled by the gate which is in between the
gate and the source. A very thin metal oxide layer is used for the insulation.
 Figure 2.13: Pin Diagram of IRF3205 MOSFET.

2.13 Capacitor:
Capacitor is an electronic device which is used to store electrical charge. It consist of one and
two pairs of conductors which is separated by insulators. The capacitor’s effect is called
capacitance. The value of circuit is determined by the numbers of capacitors and how they are
connected in the circuit. (When the capacitor is connected in series positive to negative their
combined effect is higher and when the capacitor is connected in parallel end to end in the
their combined effect is lower.) In the circuit if capacitor is combined with resistor and
inductor it is used in electrical timing of experience as well as automobiles ,TV ,fan and
many other consumer products. There are two types of capacitors

 Polarized capacitor
 Non-Polarized capacitor

1. Polarized capacitor:
There are many capacitors which has particular positive and
negative poles such capacitors are called polarized capacitors. The capacitor’s value is
measured in capacitance. The Farad is the unit of capacitance. Several capacitors have very
small value so the capacitance of these capacitors are measured in micro-Farad and pico-
Farad. There are one of two formats of the capacitors in which they are designed.

 Radial
 Axial
In the radial design, the capacitor’s both leads are on the same end while in axial the
capacitor’s leads are at each end. Polarized capacitors are designed for the DC circuits
because they are electrolytic and big in size. These capacitors have high capacitance. The
drawbacks of the polarized capacitors are that they have short lifetime, high leakage of
current and low breakdown voltage.

2. Non-Polarized capacitor:
There are several capacitors which does not have any particular
positive and negative poles such capacitors are called non-polarized capacitors. Many of
them are not electrolytic. These capacitors are also called bipolar capacitors. These
capacitors are used for the alternating current. They have very small capacitance. These
capacitance is measured in micro-Farad and pico-Farad. Some of these capacitors are tolerate
the fluctuation of 200 volts without breaking down. These capacitors are inexpensive. These
capacitors are made up of ceramic and mica. Few of them is also electrolytic.
 Figure 2.14: Symbol of Polar & Non-Polar Capacitor.

2.14 Relay:
A relay is a switching device. It contains single or multiple control terminals. Relay acts as a
protective device for the system. It is an electromagnetic device. Relay controls the system by
using a low power signal. Relay play an important role in performing logic functions and
regulate high voltage signal by low voltage signal.

Figure 2.15: Diagram of Relay.

2.15 1n4007(Diode):
1n4007 is a rectifier circuit diode. It allows the current to flow in the one direction. They
propagate AC into DC power. It is used as a protection device. It prevents the circuit from
reverse polarity problem. This diode acts as a security that reverse current doesn't flow
through it. The expensive components would be safe, through this blocking of reverse
current. Its current carrying capacity is 1 ampere maximum. Current enters through anode
and exits through cathode.
 Figure 2.16: Diagram of 1n4007 Diode.

Reverse Voltage:

In it, electric current moves through anode to cathode in uni-direction. The diode wouldn’t
conduct electric current if the voltage applied at anode is maximum than that of cathode side.
However, diode conducts current in lower amount so that, the differential voltage becomes
larger, and current will starts increment across the diode so by that it will break.

Forward Current:

When the diode is “Forward-biased” it means that the current is in forward direction. So, if
the voltage provided to cathode is much less than voltage at anode, then diode is in forward-
biased condition. One ampere 1A of current is the maximum amount which is necessary for
the diode to operate or direct continuously in the forward biased condition.

The diagram of diode(1n4007)is shown below:

Figure 2.17: Diagram of 1n4007 Diode.

2.16 ACS-712:
The ACS-712 is known as Current Sensor which senses current applied to the conductor by
using 'Hall Effect principle'. This current sensor is the creation of “Allegro Micro-Systems”.
It is used for measurement of both AC and DC currents. It provides with-drawl from the load
easily. It generates a signal either in the form of analog or digital. In this, current flow from
pin 1 and pin 2 to pin 3 and 4. Its implementation is very simple and easy. This IC can
measure 230V alternating current for higher voltages.

It’s diagram is shown as below.

Figure 2.18: Diagram of ACS-712 IC.

Pin-Configuration:
A current sensor contains 8-pins which are given below:

Figure 2.19: Schematic Diagram of ACS-712 IC.

Pin Number Pin Name Pin Description

1&2 IP+ (+ve) terminals for sensing current
3&4 IP- (-ve) terminals for sensing current
5 GND Signal ground
6 FILTER External Capacitor
7 VIOUT Analog Output
8 VCC Power Supply

Table: Pin Configuration of ACS-712IC.

 Figure 2.20: Diagram of ACS-712 Module.

2.17 CT & PT:

Current Transformer (CT):

It is a type of transformer which is used to minimize the alternating current. CT transform
the high current which is present in primary winding into the proportionate low current in
secondary winding. It is also used as the instrumental transformer. The high voltage current
is converted into low voltage current due to monitor the heavy current flows through
ammeter into the transmission line. The CT is always used with the AC devices to monitor
such magnitude which is not easily monitored with other equipment. Due to the difficulty of
insufficient insulation in the meter we used current transformer to measure the heavy current.
The current transformer measures the current up to 100 ampere. In the current transformer
secondary and primary windings are always proportional to each other. Current transformer
is used to step down the current.

Construction of Current Transformer:

Silicon steel is used to build up the core of the current transformer. The primary winding
connected with the main circuit contains heavy current which is to be measured. The
secondary winding connected with the current winding of the meter contain the current
which is proportion to the primary current. Core is used as the insulation between the
primary and secondary winding. The primary winding contains the heavy current due to the
single turn. Larger number of turns are present on the secondary winding as compared to
primary winding. Current transformer ratio is the ratio between the primary current and
secondary current and it is high in the current transformer.
 Figure 2.21: Equivalent Circuit of Current Transformer.

Potential Transformer (PT):

Potential transformer is used to minimize the voltages. Potential transformer transform the
high voltage into the low voltage which is easily measured by different instruments. It is
connected in parallel. Potential transformer step down the voltage.

Construction of Potential Transformer:

In the circuit PT is always connected in parallel. The secondary winding is linked with the
measuring instrument while thse primary winding of potential transformer is linked with the
main circuit. The secondary winding is linked magnetically with the primary winding. Ratio
between two windings (primary and secondary) is known as turn ratio. High quality core is
used to build up the potential transformer. Core is operating at low flux density. It helps to
minimize the magnetizing current. To reduce the phase shift between the input and output
voltages, the terminals are designed in a specific way. The primary winding has the large
numbers of turns in comparison with secondary winding. Co-axial winding is also used in
the potential transformer to reduce the leakage reactance.

Figure 2.22: Equivalent Model of Potential Transformer.

Symbols of Current And Potential Transformer:

Figure 2.23: Symbol of Current & Potential Transformer.

2.18 Net Meter:

Net meter can measure the electricity flow in two directions in the form of KWh and records
net power consumed. It gives readings in two forms measured and received and then
calculate net reading of both measured and received readings. Net means difference of
measured and received reading. If you are producing more solar energy so your net meter can
operate in the backward direction. The net meter exhibits two reading. When the first display
shows all 8's so it means net meter is functioning properly and second display will tell your
electricity bill.

Figure 2.24: Net Meter.

CHAPTER 03
IMPLEMENTATION OF HARDWARE