7721 (25) Neurotrauma
7721 (25) Neurotrauma
7721 (25) Neurotrauma
NEUROTRAUMA
MED 721 (CLINICAL NEUROLOGY)
CONTENTS
▪ Learning Objectives Clinical Features
Diagnosis and Investigations
▪ Introduction
Imaging
▪ Head Injury Treatment
Definition and Epidemiology Surgical Treatment
Etiology and Clinical Features Cervical Spine
Thoracic and Thoracolumbar Spine
Diagnosis and Investigations Chronic SCI
Treatment Prognosis
YouTube video links
▪ YouTube video links
▪ Concussion
Definition and Etiology
▪ Clinical Cases
Clinical Features ▪ Main Reference
YouTube video links ▪ Related Readings
▪ Spinal Cord Injury
Definition and Etiology
Complete SCI
Incomplete SCI
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
▪ Concussion
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=
concussion
SPINAL CORD INJURY
DEFINITION AND ETIOLOGY
▪ Spinal stability is the ability of the spinal column to limit
displacement of its segments under physiological loads, so as to
prevent damage or irritation of the neural structures, and to
prevent irreversible deformity or pain due to structural changes.
▪ Biomechanical instability refers to the ability of spine to resist
forces in experimental settings or controlled environment ex
vivo.
▪ Acute spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating injury affecting
many young, productive individuals with a male preponderance.
▪ The average age is 37.6 years which has increased over the last
four decades, likely due to increased longevity and associated
accidental falls.
▪ The most common cause for acute SCI is a motor vehicle
accident in industrialized countries, falls, and pedestrian
injuries.
▪ Gunshot SCI is unfortunately common in the US and
exceeds the number of sport injuries, which have been
reduced due to protective and preventive measures.
▪ SCI is expensive to the person, family, and the nation.
▪ An average 15,000 people sustain SCI per year in the US,
and a young individual with high cervical SCI will incur
medical costs in the range of $740,000 the first year and
$135,000 each year of survival5.
▪ About 400,000 people are living with the effects of SCI in
the US.
COMPLETE SCI
▪ These injuries produce a complete paraplegia or a complete
tetraplegia.
▪ Loss of motor and/or sensory function for more than three
segments below the level of injury is termed complete SCI.
▪ Only about 3% of injuries with complete SCI at the initial
physician examination may regain some function within 24
hours.
▪ Complete paraplegia is permanent loss of motor and nerve
function at T1 level or below, with loss of sensation and
movement in the legs, bladder, bowel, and perineum.
▪ Arms and hands retain normal function.
▪ Some people may retain partial trunk movement.
▪ Complete tetraplegia is characterized by loss of hand and
arm movement as well.
▪ Some may require an artificial ventilator to support
respiratory function.
▪ Partial hand and arm movements may by retained in some.
INCOMPLETE SCI
▪ These are far more common than complete SCI and the
patients retain some sensory and motor function below the
level of injury.
▪ Have the best chances for recovery.
▪ Avoiding a second injury during transfers is all the more
important.
▪ This is determined after the period of spinal shock has
subsided, which is usually 6–8 weeks post-injury.
Anterior cord syndrome: an incomplete SCI characterized by
damage to the anterior part of the spinal cord, resulting in
impaired temperature, touch, and pain sensations below the level
of injury.
Central cord syndrome: characterized by damage of the central
part of the spinal cord, with loss of function in upper extremities
predominantly and some variable weakness in the lower limbs.
The hands may be maximally involved and sensory loss minimal.
Posterior cord syndrome: this results in impaired coordination
due to damage to the posterior columns of the spinal cord.
Brown–Sequard syndrome: usually found secondary to a
stab wound and results in damage to one-half of the spinal
cord or hemisection, resulting in impaired loss of
movement but preserved sensation on one side of the body
and preserved motor function with sensory loss on the
other half of the body. Incomplete Brown–Sequard may be
found in some anterior cord syndromes.
Conus medullaris syndrome: this results from injury to the
sacral portions of the spinal cord resulting in saddle
anesthesia, loss of bladder/bowel function, with weakness
of lower extremities. Recall that the spinal cord usually
terminates at the L1 level.
Cauda equina syndrome: characterized by injury to the
nerves located below the L1 region of the spine, resulting in
partial or complete loss of sensation. In some cases, these
nerve roots can regenerate and recover function.
CLINICAL FEATURES
▪ The American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) provides a scoring
system and a scale for measuring the disability.
▪ Both the score and scale are extensively used in clinical and
research settings.
▪ The clinical picture is a result of the level of injury, mechanism,
and severity.
▪ In a severe injury with spinal shock, all reflexes below the lesion
are lost, including the bulbocavernous, cremasteric, and
abdominal reflexes, with motor as well as sensory deficits
accompanied by hyporeflexia.
▪ Gradually the reflexes may return, and deep tendon reflexes
become brisk.
▪ A complete and flaccid paralysis becomes spastic over a period of
time.
▪ In a high cervical lesion, respiratory compromise because of
phrenic nerve denervation and diaphragm paralysis is seen.
▪ Sphincter tone is lost and sacral functions are compromised.
▪ Spinal shock results in hypotension and bradycardia
due to loss of sympathetic tone (contrary to the
hypovolemic shock more commonly seen in trauma,
with hypotension and tachycardia).
▪ Spinal shock can be due to a mixed expression of
loss of sympathetic tone, loss of muscle tone due to
paralysis, and blood loss.
▪ Chronic SCI findings vary again depending upon the
initial presentation, respiratory support,
immobilization, urinary dysfunction, urinary tract
infection, pulmonary problems, and decubitus
ulcers. These are also the usual causes of death.
▪ A central cervical spinal cord injury is difficult to
evaluate during an acute phase especially with
obtunded sensorium.
▪ Degenerative changes in the cervical spinal cord
must make the clinical picture very suspect.
DIAGNOSIS AND INVESTIGATIONS
▪ Like in any acute trauma condition, cardiorespiratory function
takes priority and the patient has to be stabilized initially.
▪ All trauma patients, especially the unconscious, are considered as
spinal injured, unless proven otherwise.
▪ Stabilization procedures have to keep this in mind, especially
intubation in a high cervical spinal cord injury or transfers in an
unstable cervical and/or thoracic spine trauma.
▪ Effective treatment of hypotension is essential to maintain
perfusion to the spinal cord, with or without spinal shock.
▪ A complete neurologic examination has to follow careful history-
taking, eliciting the mechanics of injury.
▪ It is important to ask if the patient had been able to walk after
the injury or paralysis was sudden and complete.
▪ A delay implies instability issues or developing hematoma in the
canal.
▪ Not uncommonly, patients with an incomplete SCI or cervical
fracture without SCI will describe a several minute period,
immediately after injury, of inability to move their extremities.
▪ Sensory and motor examination provides the
injury level to the spinal cord while sphincter
examination is essential for the sacral
functions.
▪ Physical examination of the spine can provide
details about the surface landmarks and
gross displacements of spinal segments.
IMAGING
▪ Cervical, thoracic, and lumbosacral plain films are usually routinely
obtained. Radiographs and high resolution CT/MRI scans provide
information regarding the nature and mechanics of the spinal cord
injury.
▪ While in some cases SCI exists without radiological abnormality
(SCIWORA), the usual patient has fractures, fracture dislocations, or
instability due to ligamentous injury sometimes seen as subluxation.
▪ MRI is excellent in providing the succinct details of spinal cord status and
has prognostic significance.
▪ A long segment spinal cord edema usually has a bad prognosis as does a
hemorrhage into the cord substance with contusion.
▪ In awake patients with or without polytrauma, clearance of the cervical
spine is usually provided following dynamic X-rays, CT scans, or MRI
scans.
MRI (T2 image) showing the fracture dislocation of the cervical spine which is usually
associated with complete spinal cord injury.
A displaced cervical spine at C4 and C5, mostly ligamentous injury. A subluxation
usually has incomplete SCI. (MRI-T2 sequence.)
▪ A CT with dynamic flexion/extension views and a MRI with
or without X-rays may be indicated in unconscious patients
within 48 hours to clear the patient.
▪ High resolution CT of spine with reconstructions provides
greater detail regarding the body and ligamentous
instability in the obtunded patient.
▪ Both CT and MRI help in the diagnosis of ligamentous
instability which may not be obvious in the resting position
of the spine in an unconscious patient.
▪ SCI exists without radiological abnormality and radiological
abnormality can exist without SCI. Thus both clinical and
radiological examinations are crucial.
TREATMENT
▪ Both complete and incomplete SCI require acute and chronic management
protocols.
▪ Acute care includes stabilization of cardiorespiratory function, management of
spinal shock, and immobilization of the unstable spinal injury.
▪ Spinal shock with hypotension and bradycardia requires aggressive treatment
using pressors in order to maintain normal perfusion to the damaged neural
tissue.
▪ Secondary damage due to ischemia must be prevented by normalization of
blood pressure.
▪ High-dose methyl prednisolone treatment is offered as an option according to
the guidelines provided by both the American Association and Congress of
Neurological Surgeons.
▪ According to the reviewer, the evidence suggested ‘harmful side-effects are
more consistent than any suggestion of clinical benefits’.
▪ A total of 639 manuscript titles and abstracts on corticosteroids and human SCI
published between 1966 and 2001 were included in the study.
▪ There is no convincing evidence to support that methyl prednisolone
administration within 8 hours of acute cervical SCI improved neurological
recovery.
▪ A significant increase in severe medical complications was noted when the
administration continued for 24 hours.
SURGICAL TREATMENT
Following external immobilization during the emergency care and clinico-
radiologic evaluations, indications for internal fixation of the spinal
column are assessed.
Diagnostics and implant technology have improved tremendously over
the past decade, and newer internal surgical stabilization techniques have
been introduced.
The goals of surgical intervention in acute SCI are stabilization of spinal
column and decompression of spinal cord.
The timing of such intervention is unclear and several prospective studies
are being conducted.
Early surgery is, however, indicated in cases of incomplete SCI, since
decompression would facilitate the recovery of the neural structures.
In complete SCI such an emergency procedure may not produce the
desired outcome, while operative stress on an unstable patient could be
counter-productive.
A stable patient is considered for surgical intervention which could be
anterior, posterior, or combined.
This decision is based upon the location of compressive elements and the
instability, along with the degree of instability.
In several instances the surgeon may make a selection based on the
familiarity of an approach and condition of the patient.
Indications for emergency surgery (applicable to the
incomplete lesions of spinal cord):
Progression of neurologic deficits.
Complete subarachnoid block radiographically (MRI or
myelography).
Myelogram, CT, or MRI showing bone fragments or
soft tissue elements in the spinal canal producing
spinal cord compression.
Compression of an important nerve root requiring
decompression.
Penetrating trauma or compound spinal injury.
Nonreducible fracture displacement due to locked
facets producing spinal cord compression.
Acute anterior spinal cord syndrome secondary to disc
herniation or fracture/dislocation.
Cervical spine
Preoperative traction is helpful in achieving closed reduction of
the displaced segments. In a seriously ill patient with medical
contraindications, a reducible injury may be externally
immobilized in a halo traction device: for a reducible C1–2
injury, halo immobilization is useful in patients over 60 years
of age, and a type III odontoid fracture that traverses the body
of C2 vertebra heals very well.
A ruptured transverse ligament with atlanto-axial dislocation
(AAD) with a displacement of more than 6 mm is preferably
treated with internal fixation by transarticular screws and
posterior C1–2 fusion.
Most unstable spine injuries below C2 are treated by anterior
decompression and internal fixation by screw–plate systems.
A single level injury may need bone graft and plate fixation,
while a burst fracture may require more extensive
decompression and fusion techniques including posterior
stabilization.
Posterior lateral mass screw–plate/rod fixation has been used
extensively for long segment fixation.
Radiograph showing hangman’s fracture with severe displacement of fracture segments at
C2–3.
The hangman’s fracture in 262 was reduced using cervical traction. This injury can heal
in a Halo external immobilization or surgical internal fixation. Note the posterior gap
between C1 and C2 due to bilateral fracture of C2 pedicles.
Thoracic and thoracolumbar spine
As the thoracic, thoracolumbar, and lumbar spine injuries
are the more common injuries, several advancements in
hardware technology have expanded the indications for
stabilization.
The surgical route can be anterior, posterior, or in some
cases circumferential.
Surgical treatment with internal fixation of upper
thoracic spine is more complicated since suitable
hardware is not easily available and the cervicothoracic
junction is difficult to approach from the front.
A posterior long segment rod fixation through laminar or
pedicle hooks is useful in some instances.
Anterolateral approach via a thoracotomy for the mid-
thoracic spine is practiced to place an anterior plate with
bone-packed cages filling the intervetebral spaces.
CHRONIC SCI
Rehabilitation and disability management through
physiotherapy and occupational therapy improves the
outcome of these patients, especially those with
incomplete SCI.
Complete injuries require management of airway,
pulmonary complications, decubitus ulcers, and
complications resulting from immobility.
Bladder and bowel care requires attention and patients
are taught to accommodate changes in life-style to
prevent further complications.
Long-standing SCI can lead to a variety of pain
syndromes, autonomic dysreflexia, syringomyelia, and
spasticity that need specialized treatments.
PROGNOSIS
▪ An incomplete SCI has a potential for good recovery and the
advances in technology along with the paramedical support
systems have yielded encouraging results.
▪ However, despite these advances acute SCI has mortality of up to
20%.
▪ Mortality is higher with acute complete or severe incomplete
cervical SCI, where respiratory paralysis sets in early.
▪ In the subacute phase, ARDS or gastric bleeding may be
encountered.
▪ Among those with incomplete SCI, the central cord syndrome
and Brown–Sequard syndrome, many regain independent
mobility by the end of the first year.
▪ Anterior cervical cord syndrome usually has a poorer recovery.
▪ C4–C5 edema is a frequent indicator for a poor prognosis.
▪ Complete SCI is not reversible.
▪ A complete SCI without improvement after 72 hours is very
unlikely to show functional recovery and only one-third of
complete cervical SCI requiring ventilator support survive 5 years.
MRI (T2) scan showing spinal cord edema at C4 and C5, a frequent indicator of poor
prognosis.
YouTube Video Links
▪ The contents of this slide presentation are largely lifted from the above reference textbook, with some minor alterations in wordings,
sentence construction and sequence of sentences or paragraphs to suit the needs of the students of AMA School of Medicine. Materials
in the presentation that are not found in the above reference, including pictures and clinical cases , are taken from the references listed
under Related Readings or from various internet sources.
RELATED READINGS