A.Z.

DUBE PUBLICATIONS
GEOGRAPHY IGCSE 0460
NOTES
Theme 1. Population and Settlement
1.1 Population dynamics
1.2 Settlement

Theme 2. The natural environment

2.1 Plate tectonics
2.2 Landforms and landscape processes
2.2.1 Weathering
2.2.2 River processes
2.2.3 Marine processes
2.3 Weather, climate and natural vegetation
2.3.1 Weather
2.3.2 Climate
2.3.3 Ecosystems
2.4 Interrelationships between the natural environment and human activities
Theme 3. Economic development and the use of resources
3.1 Agricultural systems
3.2 Industrial systems
3.3 Leisure activities and tourism
3.4 Energy and water resources
3.5 Environmental risks and benefits: resource conservation and management
Theme 1. Population and Settlement

1.1 Population dynamics

Reasons for recent rapid population growth (‘population explosion’):

 Improved medical care – vaccinations, hospitals, doctors, new drugs and

scientific inventions
 Improved sanitation and water supply
 Improvements in food production (quality & quantity)
 Improved transport – moving food, doctors etc.
 Decrease in child mortality

Population growth terms:

Migration: the movement of people from one country or region to another for a period of
more than one year as a result of push and pull factors.
Birth rate: average number of live births in a year for every 1000 people in a population.
Death rate: average number of deaths for every 1000 people
Population growth is related to the amount of resources available for example water, wood
and minerals
Carrying Capacity – The number of people the environment can support without damaging
the environment.
OptimumPopulation – This is the amount of people that a region/country can ecologically
support, usually less than carrying capacity.
Under-population – it refers to a situation when a country has less people in relation to the
available resources. Countries that are under populated include Australia, Canada and
Northern Russia (Siberia)

Population

Resources

Overpopulation –It is whereby there are many people in an area as compared to the available
developed resources leading overcrowding, depletion of resources and social problems.
Countries that are overpopulated includeBangladesh, Nigeria, DRC and Haiti.
RESOURCES

POPULATION

Population pyramid
A Population Pyramid is a graph that shows the age-sex distribution of a given population. It a graphic
profile of the population’s residents. Sex is shown on the left/right sides, age on the y-axis, and the
percentage of population on the x-axis. Each grouping is shown in 0-4 years.
A population pyramid shows three distinct age groups. These are:
 The Young population/ youth dependent population/youths-These are people below age 15
years within a population. They are also known as children and they are dependent on the
working population. Most LEDCs have a greater proportion of the youthful population due to
high birth rates. (0-14 years Proportion of the population)

 The Working Population/Economically Active population.-It the number of people

between ages 15-64 years. It is also known as the Adult population.(15-64 years).
 The Aged Population/The Elderly Population/The Greying population-It the number of
people who are 65 years and above within a population. It is also known as the Aged
dependents. Most MEDCs have a higher proportion of the aged population.
MALI’S POPULATION PYRAMID 2006 SHOWING A GREATER NUMBER OF CHILDREN.

Population Characteristics of
A-Kenya-LEDC
  Wide base-due to high birth rates
 Narrow top due to high death rates and low life expectancy.
 Low median age-due to high percentage of children below fifteen years
 Decreasing number of the economically active population due to high death
rates and high outmigration.
 Low life expectancy due to high death rates.
B-United States of America- MEDC
 Narrow base due to controlled birth rates
 Wider base due to low death rates.
 High percentage of ageing population/greying population
 A bulging middle due to a higher percentage of the working population. This
is caused by low death rates and less outmigration.
 Higher median age due to controlled birth rates.
 High life expectancy due to decrease in death rates.

The Demographic Transition Model:

It is a graph that shows changes in population over time. It shows changes in birth rates,
deathrates, natural increase and total population from pre-modern (backward societies),
LEDCS, N.I.Cs and post Industrial societies or M.E.D.Cs.
Stage 1: high birth rate; high death rates; short life expectancy; less dependency (since there
are few old people and children have to work anyway)

Stage 2: high birth rate; fall in death rate; slightly longer life expectancy; more dependency as
there are more elderly

Stage 3: declining birth rate; declining death rate; longer life expectancy; more dependency

Stage 4: low birth rate; low death rate; highest dependency ratio; longest life expectancy

High death rates in LEDCs are caused by:

 poor health care/few hospitals/doctors/nurses/clinics;
 poor sanitation/poor hygiene/lack of toilets/dirty places;
 poor access to safe/clean water/water borne diseases;
 limited food supplies/malnutrition/starvation;
 HIV/AIDS causing high death rates.
 Natural disasters/drought/floods;
 Lack of vaccinations/medicines/cannot cure diseases;
 Lack of education about healthy lifestyles e.g. smoking/diet;
  Lack of provision for elderly e.g. pensions/old people’s homes

Birth rates are low in MEDCs because:

 Availability of contraception/family planning e.g. condoms,IUDs and family planning
pills
 Legalised abortions-This allows termination of unwanted pregnancies.
 Most people are educated on contraception/family planning;
 Traditionally, they have small families/don’t need to prove virility/not traditional to
have large families;
 High expenses of bringing up children/childcare/don’t have to send children to
work/can afford to bring up children; Children are viewed as a liability than an asset.
 Many women have careers/women are educated-Most women are emancipated and
age at marriage is high in most MEDC as compared to LEDCs.
 Availability of pensions/do not need children to look after parents in old age;
 Low infant mortality rate therefore there is no need for more babies to compensate
those who are dying.
 Lack of religious beliefs/don’t object to contraception
 Better living standards-there is increased affluence.
 Increase in farm mechanisation leading to less need for child labour in fields.
Population change
Fertility Rate-It is the number of children born to women in the child bearing age group (15-
49 years)
Total Fertility Rate: It refers to the average number of children a woman will have in her
child bearing time
Crude Birth Rate: It is the number of live children born per year per thousand of the
population:

CBR= Live births × 1000

Total population
Crude Death Rate: It refers to the number of deaths in a population expressed per thousand
of the population per year.

CDR= Deaths ×1000

Total Population

Infant Mortality Rate: It is the number of children below one year who die per thousand of
live births

IMR= Deaths of children below 1 year × 1000

Live Births

MaternalMortality: It is the number of women who die during pregnancy or forty-two days
after termination of pregnancy.

Life expectancy:The average number of years a person from a specific country is expected to
live.
The higher the death rate the lower the life expectancy and the lower the death rate the higher
the life expectancy.
Most MEDCs have higher Life expectancies while LEDCs have lower life expectancies.
EG- Japan=82 years
Botswana=58 years

Population growth rate: refers to the increase or decrease in the population of an area as a
result of birth rates, death rates and net migration. It is calculated as

PGR= Birth Rate-Death Rate ± Net migration

 Natural increase is the difference between birth rates and death rates.

NI= Crude Birth Rates-Crude Death rates

 Net Migration is the difference between Immigration and Emigration.

 Immigration is the in-movement of foreigners into a foreign country
 Emigration is the out-movement of residents of a country from their country of
origin.
 If there are more emigrants than immigrants-There is a negative net migration so it is
subtracted from the Natural increase.
 If there are more immigrants than emigrants-There is a positive net migration
therefore it added to the Natural increase.

Dependency Ratio:It the proportion or ratio of the youths and aged people to the working
population. It is the ratio of the 0-14 years and 65+ people to that of the 15-64 years.
Dependents are therefore people who are the 0-14 and 65 + age group who rely on the
working population.
It is thus calculated using the formula;

Dependency Ratio= (0-14 years) + (65+) × 1000

(15-64 Years)

There are two types of dependency ratios

Youth Dependency Ratio: It refers to the ratio of the 0-14 years aged people to the working
population (15-64).
 It is common in most LEDCs due to high birth rates. It is common in countries such as
Zimbabwe,Malawi,Mali,Nigeria and South Africa
Catch phrase: Too many young people!

Aged Dependency Ratio: It refers to the proportion of the aged people (65+) to that of the
working population (15-64).
Aged dependency is very common in MEDCs where there are large numbers of aged people
due to high life expectancy as a result of improved medical facilities, betterdrugs, old people’s
homes and better living standards.
E.g. Japan, Germany, France, China and Sweden

Catch Phrase: too many old people!

Problems of youth and aged dependency

Youth Dependency Aged Dependency

Economic Economic
 High unemployment rates  Slow economic growth due to lack of
 Slow economic growth due to labour in industries.
investment in social services than (underemployment)
industrial development  High taxation in order for the
 High taxation in order for the government to raise money for
government to get revenue to provide pensions and care for the elderly.
social services.  Lack of innovativeness and
 Heavy burden on the working development of new products due to
population-reduced disposable lack of youthful minds.
incomes for the workers.  Reduced markets for consumer goods
Social due to less young people who
 High crime rates consume more goods.
 Prostitution can become common due  Dependency on expatriate labour
to lack of jobs increasing payments to other countries
 Increase in cases of child delinquency for labour.
 Overcrowding in urban areas. Social
 High birth rates and early marriages.  High incidence of old people’s
 Drug abuse diseases i.e. degenerative disease such
as cancer, Parkinson’sdisease, and
other chronic ailments.
 Reduced enrolment of young people
into the army and police force that
causes security threat to the country.
 Greater need for care-givers and old
people’s homes.
 Social problems related to increase in
foreigners e.g. xenophobia and social
discrimination

Population distribution and density

Population Distribution refers to the spread of people in an area in relation to physical,
social and economic factors (where do people live and why?)

Population Density refers to the number of people per unit area.E.g per square kilometre
It is calculated using the formula:

Population Density = Population

Area
E.g. the area of Zimbabwe is roughly 390000 square kilometres and its population is
approximately 13000000.
Therefore the population density is= 13000000 = 33, 3 people per square km
390000
Factors affecting population distribution.
These are factors which cause people to be densely settled in certain areas and to be sparsely
populated in other areas.

Human Factors
 Better housing opportunities-People are normally densely settled in areas with better
houses e.g. in towns
 Education-better education facilities and prospects also attract more people into an
area.
 Health-people normally settle in areas with better medical facilities.
 Entertainment-Areas with a lot of entertaining facilities attract a lot of people.
 Culture-certain areas are densely populated because people are culturally attached to
them.Eg. Most rural areas in Zimbabwe are densely populated because people want to
be nearer to their kins or relatives.
 Retirement areas-Certain areas are used as retirement areas and therefore are more
densely populated. E.g. Sunny coastal areas of South-East USA.

Physical:
 Relief (for farming, defence)-Gentle sloping and flat relief encourages human
settlement and construction of infrastructure and therefore they are densely
populated.E.g river valley areas and coastal plains. Steep-sided areas and rugged
mountain areas are normally sparsely populated due to low temperatures, thin and
poor soil,inaccessibility,difficulties in constructing settlements and infrastructure and
high rates of soil erosion.eg Himalaya mountains in Asia
 Climate-areas with moderate and seasonal rainfall as well as moderate temperatures
are very important for farming and human health. These areas are generally densely
populated.eg savannah regions. Areas with extremes of climatic conditions are less
populated e.g. desert areas are hot and dry whilst the Polar Regions are too cold and
too dry. Equatorial rainforest too hot and too wet.
 Water supply- Areas with adequate supplies of clean water for domestic and
industrial purposes are generally densely populated as compared to areas that lack
supplies of clean water.
 Resources-regions that well-endowed with a lot of natural resources such as minerals,
timber, water, energy sources and fish are densely populated as compared to areas that
lack resources.E.g The Copper belt in Zambia is densely populated due to the
availability of copper, The Witwatersrand area in South Africa due to availability of
gold.
 Disease-areas that are relatively free from diseases and pests are densely populated as
compared to areas that are characterised by high incidences of diseases and pests.
 Bridging points-Natural bridging points are very important for transport systems and
they are therefore densely populated.
 Soils: Fertile soils attract people for agricultural purposes. These areas are densely
populated as compared to areas that have thin and infertile soils. Flood plains with
deep alluvial soils are important for farming agricultural purposes. E.g. the Ganges
and Brahmaputra valleys in Asia as well as the Wang-Ho river valley in China. Fertile
volcanic soils also attract a lot of people.e.g Mt Etna area in Italy and Java Area in
Indonesia.
 Natural routes- Natural routes such as perennial rivers are important for
transportation of people and goods and they are densely populated. Areas with gaps
through mountains and confluence of rivers offer good transport connectivity.
Economic:
 Ports-Areas with good ports promote trade, industrial development and employment of
people
 Transport links-Areas that are well serviced with transport routes are densely
populated as compared to areas with poor transport links.
 Industrial areas-Industrial regions are densely populated because of employment
availability, industrial linkages large markets for consumer goods, provision of better
services and infrastructure.E.g The Ruhr in Germany and the Randstad conurbation in
The Netherlands
 Tourist areas-Areas with tourist resorts are densely populated.E.g the region of Costa
de Sol in Spain and Monaco.

Overpopulation

Causes of overpopulation
Overpopulation is a direct result of high birth rates although it can also be caused by other
factors.
 Low literacy levels.
 Low food production.
 Cultural factors which encourage people to have more children.
 Lack of access to land for farming.
 High rates of immigration.
 Lack of family planning
 Better medical facilities leading to increase in population.
Signs or effects of overpopulation Solution
 High population densities.e.g in  Providing education for both woman
Bangladesh. and men.
 High incidence of diseases.  Birth control through the use of
 Lower standards of living and high contraceptives and other birth control
poverty levels. pills.
 Low industrial growth and low per  Using incentives to encourage smaller
capita incomes. families.
 High unemployment rates.  Encouraging foreign directinvestment
 There will be more social investment in order to push up industrial
as compared to industrial investment. development.
 High pollution levels.  Developing rural areas to reduce
 Environmental degradation.E.g soil movement in urban areas.
erosion and deforestation.  Developing small-scale projects in
 High incidence of civil strife and rural areas to raise their standards of
political instability. living.E.g small scale irrigation
 Land shortages due to high population programmes.
increase.  Adopting One Child policy to reduce
 Lack of food leading to starvation and birth rates.
famine.  Land redistribution to encourage
 Corruption access to land by rural farmers.
 A wide gap between the poor and the  Importation of food.
rich people in a population.  Practising intensive farming to
 High incidence of diseases.E.g increase food production.
cholera, H.I.VAIDS, typhoid.
  Strain on resources such education,
health and recreational facilities.
 Squatter settlements in urban areas.
 High rates of urbanisation.

Under-population.
Causes of underpopulation
 Reduced birth rates leading to decreasing population.
 High rates of emigration-The country or area becomes depopulated as a result of
outmigration of people.
 Large land area in relation to the population.E.g Siberia.

Effects of and solution to overpopulation.

Effects Solutions
Effects of under population can be positive  Redistribution of population in areas
and negative: with low population densities.
Positive  Encouraging in-migration of people
 High standards of living particularly into a region with low population
in MEDCs. densities.
 Abundant supply of natural resources.  Developing infrastructure in remote
 Greater potential for industrial areas.
growth.
Negative
 It can lead to remoteness.
 It can lead slow economic growth.
 Under-utilisation of resources.
Population Migration:

Population migration refers to the movement of people from area to another for a period of
more than one year as a result of push and pull factors.

Classification of migration.

Migration can be classified according to:

(a) Motive:

Voluntary migration occurs when migrants move due to self-will or out of choice to another
area. The migrant is not forced. Reasons for voluntary migration include:

 Find a job, or a better paid job

 Pioneers developing new areas
 Trade and economic expansion
 Territorial expansion
 Better climate
 Social amenities

Forced migration occurs when a migrant is forced to move from one area to another by
factors out of his or her control. The migrant is left with no option but to move due to danger
in his or her life. Reasons for international migration include:

 Avoid religious/political persecution

 Avoid war
 Slavery/forced labour as a prisoner of war
 Racial discrimination
 Famine
 Natural disasters
  Overpopulation

(b) Pattern of migration.

Internal migration International migration

 Migrants move within borders of a  Migrants cross international borders.
given country.  It is more costly.
 It is less costly.  It requires travel documents such as
 It does not require travel documents. passports.
 The migrant is likely to realise little or  The migrant is most likely going to
no change in culture and lifestyles. meet new culture and lifestyles. (May
 Less decision making is involved experience culture shock).
when a migrant undertakes internal  More time is needed for a migrant to
migration. undertake international migration.
 Internal migration does not lead to  It leads to changes in the total
change in the country’s population. population and population structure of
(There is no net migration balance) a country.

(c) Time and frequency: Migration can be classified according to the period that a
migrant stays in the destination.
 Permanent migration occurs when a person moves for a period of more than
one year.
 Temporary migration occurs when a migrant seasonally.E.g Mexican cotton
pickers in California, USA.
Problems which may cause people to avoid international migration/Barriers to
international migration

 lack of qualifications/skills/education/no experience/they have to do

unskilled jobs/work informally;
 Many are doing low paid jobs;
 Poor working conditions/dirty jobs/long hours/exploitation by employers;
 Many cannot speak the language;
 Some are unable to obtain employment/not enough jobs;
 Many cannot afford education/health care/food/housing etc.;
 Migrants live in poor conditions/overcrowding/lacks sanitation;
 Some may have to live away from their families;
 Discrimination may occur/racism;
 Some may lack documentation/have to hide from authorities;
 Trouble adapting to culture/religion etc.

Push Factors
These are factors which force people to leave their areas of origin.
 High unemployment rates
 Poor working conditions
 Low wages
 Poor health care
 Poor educational opportunities
  War
 Drought and famine
 Landlessness

Pull Factors
These are factors which attract people into an area. They are positive factors which encourage
in-movement of people into an area.
 Better employment prospects
 Higher wages
 Better health care
 Better living standards
 Safety /lower crime rates
 Nearness to family and friends.

Internal migration: is within a country e.g. rural/urban depopulation, regional

Types of internal migration

Rural –urban migration/Rural urban drift.

Definition: It is the large scale movement of people from rural areas or the countryside to
urban areas. It is very common in most LEDCs such as Zimbabwe, Zambia, Nigeria, Senegal,
DRC and Mali.

Push factors-Negative factors in rural Pull factors-Attractions in urban areas

areas/countryside
 War and civil unrest  Better employment prospects
 Drought and famine  The ‘Bright Lights Mentality’
 Flooding  Better educational facilities
 Lack of industries  Better health facilities
 Lack of employment  Better living standardse.g. Piped and
 Poor educational services safe water
 Poor health services  Safety from civil strife in the
 Remoteness. countryside.
 Poor transport connectivity  To be with working spouses
 Lack of land for farming
 Overpopulation
 High rates of environmental
degradation.e.g deforestation and soil
erosion.
 Due to government projects e.g.
mining.

Problems of rural urban migration and possible solutions

The large-scale movement of people into urban areas has creates a lot of problems both in
urban and rural areas. The table below summarises the main problems in rural and urban areas
as a result of rural to urban migration.
Problems caused by rural to urban migration
 Problems in rural Problems in urban areas
 Rural depopulation-drastic decrease in  Overpopulation in urban areas.
populations of rural areas.  Rapid growth of squatter camps or
 Decrease in agricultural output due to shanty towns.
lack of labour.  High rates of unemployment as
 Lack of development/rural areas migrants compete for fewer jobs.
remain remote and less developed.  High crime rates due joblessness
 Much of the tasks for domestic chores  Increase in social problems such as
and agricultural tasks are left in the prostitution, begging and gambling as
hands of women and children. migrants struggle to survive.
 Family ties break up as men migrate  Low industrial developments as
into towns while women remain in government focus attention on
rural areas. provision of social services.
 Civil strife and political instability
may arise in most urban areas.
 Homelessness

Possible solutions to the problem of rural urban migration

 Decentralisation of industries and services to smaller towns in the countryside to

reduce large-scale movement of people to towns in search of jobs.
 Developing infrastructure in rural areas,eg roads
 Rural electrification in order to provide power to rural people.
 Providing educational services in rural areas.
 Establishing self-help projects in rural areas. E.g. irrigation schemes and self-help
small scale projects.
 Counter-urbanisation-the movement of people from large towns and conurbations to
smaller towns.

Urban to rural migration

It is the movement of people from urban areas to rural areas and it mostly a characteristic of
people in MEDCs.Urban to rural areas in most MEDCs is a result of the problems presented
by rural-urban migration in most towns.
Reasons
 High cost of living in urban areas
 High levels of pollution. Air, water and land pollution. People move back to rural
areas seeking better and cleaner environments.
 Quieter environment in rural areas.
 Availability of cheap land in rural areas.
 It may be due to retirement
 Social problems in urban areas such as xenophobia, racism and ethnicity.
Urban to urban migration

This occurs when people or migrants move from one urban setting to another.
Reasons
 Better employment chances in one urban area as compared to another.
 Relocation of offices from one town to another.
 For holiday and social visits.
  For better services
 For cleaner environments
 For cheaper housing and accommodation.

Rural to rural migration

It is the movement of people from one rural setting to another.

Reasons
 Due to poor soils in one area and fertile soil and virgin land in the receiving region.
 Better rainfall distribution in the receiving region/low rainfall in the sending region.
 Growth of mining activities in the receiving region.
 Social problems e.g. witchcraft –migrants may be labelled as outcasts in their
societies.
 Government projects such as mining or damming of rivers may result in relocation of
people.
 Civil strife and war may lead to relocation to other rural areas.

External or international is between countries e.g. Negro slaves to America (forced) or

Mexicans into the US (voluntary)
(There are other types: seasonal, daily, permanent, temporary, semi-permanent etc.)

Advantages and disadvantages of international migration on receiving and sending

countries

Advantages Disadvantages
Receiving country Receiving country
 It overcomes shortages of labour  Pressure on jobs
 New cultures are received in the  Social problems such as racism,
receiving country. xenophobia and ethnic clashes may
 Cheap labour is provided. occur
 Brain gain-the country gains skilled  Language problems-migrants may
labour. want to impose their languages on
 The country’s market structure is receivingcountries.
increased and consumption of goods  Pressure on resources e.g.schools,
increases clinics and recreational facilities.
 Migrants take up dirty and dangerous  Squatter camps may sprout due
jobs shunned by locals. migrants.
 It may lead to economic boom and  Undocumented migrants/illegal
industrial expansion. migrants may pose security problems
Sending country to the receiving country.
 Reduces pressure on resources
 Repatriation of funds back home Sending country
 Decline in birth rates  It causes brain drain-loss of skilled
 Migrants bring back new skills and labour to foreign countries
 technology back home .e.g.engineers, doctors and teachers.
 The elderly and the youths are left
increasing the dependency ratio/load.
 Mainly males in the working
population age groups leave leading
to family breakdowns
 Reduced economic growth as
essential labour migrates
 Industrial decline.
Classic case studies on international migration can be chosen from:
 Mexicans migrating into Carlifonia,USA
 Polish people migrating into United kingdom
 Zimbabweans migrating into South Africa
 Turkish migrants into Germany.

NB: If a question asks you to identify a case study, start by stating the case study clearly.
Note the source region and destination. Do not assume that the examiner already knows
the example. E.g. Mexican to California, USA.
If it as an example of an internal migration pattern, identify the region and the
destination and the country. E.g. Mpumalanga rural areas to Johannesburg/Gauteng in
South Africa. Refer to any case study at the end of this module.

In Paper 2 and paper 4, the movement of people between areas is shown by a flow line
map which shows both quantity of migrants and direction of movement.

Refugee movements

Refugee: A refugee is a person who has been forced to move to another country due to real
danger on his /her life and that of his family.
A refugee is a person who cannot return to his/her own country due to well-founded fear of
persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political association or social gathering
(United Nations High Commission for Refugees-UNHCR).
Distribution of refugees in the world
 There are over 16 million refugees in the world.
 85 % of refugees are in LEDCs
 3 million afghan refugees have taken refuge in Pakistan and Iraq due to armed conflict
between Taliban militants and the Government as well as USA and other western
countries.
 About 2,3million Iraqis have sought refuge in Syria and Jordan
 Recently a lot of Syrians, Jordanians and other people from the Middle East have
moved into European countries such as Germany, France and Austria due to armed
conflict.
 Over 1 million Somalis have sought refuge in Kenya and Ethiopia and as far as
Zimbabwe and South Africa as a result of armed conflict, drought and famine.
 Sudanese have also migrated into Kenya and Tanzania due to armed conflict and
natural disasters
 Central African Republic, DRC, Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda are also sources of
refugees due to ethnic conflicts and rebel movements.
 NB These countries where there are a lot of armed conflicts are known as
Geopolitical Hotspots!!

Characteristics of refugees
 They live in extreme poverty
 They have virtually no right and are open to abuse by receiving nationalities
 They are unlikely to return to their motherland and may be termed stateless people
 They lack basic necessities such as health, education, food and shelter.

Asylum seekers-These are people who have left their home country and have applied to
another country for recognition as refugees and are awaiting decision on their application.

Illegally migrants

They are people who enter a country without proper documentation and cannot be recognised
as formal immigrants in a country of destination.E.g most Zimbabweans in South Africa are
undocumented because they entered the country through border jumping.

Economic migrants
These are migrants who left their country voluntarily due to economic problems to look for
better paying jobs or other economic advantages.

Internally displaced people

These are people who are forced to move within their country as a result of natural disasters,
civil strife or government projects.Eg the movement of people from Chivi communal areas to
Chingwizi camp for internally displaced people as a result of flooding of the Tokwe-Mukosi
Dam in Zimbabwe (2013).

Problems caused by refugee movements and possible solutions.

Problems Solutions
 Pressure on resources of the host  Careful and planned repatriation of
nation e.g. Shortage of water and land refugees back to their mother
 Pressure on social services. countries.
Education, health and recreational  Settlement and training refugees so
services. that they can be integratedinto the
 Deforestation as they clear land for country’s economy.
settlement.  Naturalisation by granting them
 They can be epicentres of diseases citizenship
such as typhoid, dysentery and
cholera.
 Lack of employment may lead to  Good governance-encouraging
prostitution. governments to uphold the principles
 High crime rates as some of the of good governance by respecting
refugees may be trained military human rights and managing conflicts
personnel. professionally and diplomatically.
 The may sour relations between
source and receiving countries.
 They may strain the government’s
 budget as it tries to look after them.

1.2 Settlement
Definition of terms

Settlement-it refers to any form of human habitation. It is where people stay. Settlements
differ in size from small hamlets to large conurbations or cities. Settlements also differ in
terms of their spheres of influence and the services they offer.

Sphere of influence: it refers to the area served by a particular settlement. It is also known as
the Tributary area of a settlement.

Services or Functions: These are a range of things needed by a population to satisfy their
needs and wants.E.g schools, electricity, hospitals water and police services.
High order goods and services/comparison goods:
 these are expensive goods and services that are not bought frequently
  .People travel long distances to obtain these goods and services and they have bigger
spheres of influence.
 E.g. a motor car, universityeducation, central train station, specialist doctors
Low order goods and services:
 These are goods which are cheap and frequently bought.
 People travel short distances to obtain low order goods and services.
 The also known as convenient goods.
 They have smaller spheres of influence.

Urban areas: These are modern built up areas such as towns and cities and they provide
more high order and low order goods.

Rural areas: These are settlements in the countryside which are less developed and provide
few low order goods and services.

Rural settlements
A settlement pattern is the shape of the various settlements in area. Settlement patterns differ
according to culture, physical conditions and economic factors.

Dispersed
 An isolated, individual building or a group of two or three buildings, perhaps forming
a hamlet, and separated from the next by 2 or 3 km.
 Settlements are normally far apart or scattered.

Reasons for dispersed settlements.

 Due to poor agricultural land.E.g where land is used for pastoralism.
 Due to cultural reasons.
 Where there is abundant agricultural land.

Nucleated
 Buildings are grouped together, initially for defence, or a common resource.
Reasons for nucleated settlements

 Due to culture-e.g. people may be grouped near the chief’s court.

 Due to easy access to services .E.g. schools and clinics.
 Due to availability of fertile agricultural land .people live in a clustered village nearer
to their fields.
 For defensive reasons.
 Because people want to enjoy social benefits of being close to relatives or neighbours.

Linear
 Buildings are strung along a line of communication, for example a main road, a river
valley, or canal or dyke.
 Settlements are arranged in form of a line.
Reasons for linear settlements
 Due to easy access to transport links.
  Due to the presence of a line of springs for water supply.
 Along floodplains for rich soil, water supply and transport.
 Due to fertile land and people do not want to waste agricultural land.

Site: It is the actual land on which a settlement is built. E.g. crossing point, altitude, near a
dam or lake

Situation: It refers to the position of a settlement in relation to the surroundings.

E.g. transport routes, agricultural productivity in the area or nearness to other settlements.

Factors that affect the position, size, growth and function of a settlement:
Fuel supply: for heating and cooking
Food supplies
Nodal points: where routes converge
 Wet point sites - these have a good water supply. Many settlements grew around wet
point sites, e.g. villages in the South Downs.
 Dry point sites - these are away from the risk of flooding, e.g. Ely in Cambridgeshire.
 Defensive sites - often found on higher ground so that in the past enemies could be
seen from a distance, e.g. Corfe Castle, Dorset, or in the loop of a meander, e.g. Durham.
 Aspect - settlements are often found on the sunny side of a deep valley. This is
common in settlements in the Alps.
 Shelter - from cold prevailing winds and rain.
 Gap towns - Lincoln is found in a gap between two areas of higher ground.
 Resources - important for industry, e.g. villages such as Aberfan in the Welsh valleys
is close to coal reserves.
 Bridging point - settlements with 'ford' in their name often grew around a fording
point or bridging point, e.g. Watford is found on the River Colne.
 Trading centres - often settlements grow where natural route ways and rivers meet,
which helps the development of roads, railways and canals.
 Soils-Areas with fertile soils are normally densely populated.E.g along the Nile River
in Egypt.
 Altitude-High mountainous areas are characterized by dispersed settlement patterns
due to lower temperatures, thinsoils, high rates of erosion and inaccessibility.
Hierarchy:It refers to the order of settlements
in area from the smallest to the largest
settlement.
-It can also be defined as the ordering of
settlements in area in accordance to the size of
population and the number and variety of
services they offer.
Settlements differ according to:
 the population size
 the range and number of services
 the sphere of influence
NOTE: there are least number of capitals (1) and many hamlets.
Sphere of influence of an area differ according to
 The settlement’s size-The bigger the settlement the bigger its sphere of influence
because bigger towns have bigger populations, more goods and services and have
good transport systems.
 The services offered-if a settlement offers more high order and low order goods, its
sphere of influence is bound to be bigger.
 The wealth of people in an area-In wealthy area, people have more money to buy low
and high order goods and services. Therefore there will be more service outlets and
therefore the sphere of influence will be smaller.
 Transport facilities-Good transport links allow people to travel further to reach
services so spheres of influence will be bigger.
 Competition from other settlements-if there are many service outlets which offer the
same services, competition will be stiff and spheres of influence will be smaller.

Threshold population: It is the minimum number of people needed to provide a large enough
demand for a services or good.
It is the minimum number of people needed to support a good profitably.

The Range of a good-It is the maximum distance that people are prepared to travel in order to
buy a good or service. Low order goods have shorter range and high order goods have longer
ranges.

Paper 4 Geography normally requires students to describe how they can carry out
research to determine the sphere of influence of a service centre. This can be done in any
of the following ways:
 Using maps to determine the size of settlement and the spacing of settlements
from each other.
 Population census figures can also be used to determine the populations of
settlements in an area.
 Asking shoppers about the goods and services they get from a service centre, the
mode of transport they use and how regular they shop in a given town or service
centre.
  Using questionnaire to ask questions on regularity of shopping and the type of
goods as well as distance travelled to get to a service centre.
(questionnaires and interviews must focus on ranges of goods and threshold
populations)
 Using secondary data from shops. E.g. customer records to determine areas
where shoppers come.

Urbanisation and urban settlements.

Urbanisation:
 It refers to the increase in the number of people living in towns and therefore it is the
growth of towns and cities.
 "the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas",
 Urbanisation is the process in which the number of people living in cities increases
compared with the number of people living in rural areas. A country is considered to
be urbanised when over 50% of its population lives in urban places.

Most MEDCs have a greater number of people living in urban areas therefore
they are urbanised. This is because:
 They were the first to industrialise
 Use of machines in agriculture which left people jobless in rural areas and therefore
migrated to urban areas.
 Well-developed infrastructure and transport systems which meant people could move
easily between places.
 High literacy levels

Most LEDCs have smaller proportions of people living in urban areas because of:
 Poor transport systems
 Slow industrial growth
 Cultural reasons which keep people in the countryside.
However currently, LEDCs such as in South East Asia, Africa and the Caribbean are
experiencing rapid movements of people into urban areas due rural urban migration.
Table 1 shows percentages of people living in urban areas (2013)
Country Percentage of urban populations
 Canada  82%
 Denmark  87%
 Eritrea  22%
 Mozambique  32%

In 1900, there were only two cities with populations with populations of over one million.
(Paris and London).Today there are over 400 cities with populations of over one million.
Ten largest cities in the world
1.Tokyo, Japan 37,126,000
2.Jakarta, Indonesia 26,063,000
3.Seoul, South Korea 22,547,000
 4.Delhi, India 22,242,000
5.Shanghai, China 20,860,000
6.Manila, Philippines 20,767,000
7.Karachi, Pakistan 20,711,000
8.New York, USA 20,464,000
9.Sao Paulo, Brazil 20,186,000
10.Mexico City, Mexico 19,463,000

Counter-urbanisation:
 It the relocation of people and services from large urban areas or cities into the
countryside.
 It is the process whereby people move back to rural areas.
 It is common in MEDCs where wealthy people move away from towns and settle in
the countryside and afford to commute everyday into towns to work.
 It is also a result of high property prices in urban areas.

Land use in towns and cities:

The land in urban areas is used for many different purposes:
 leisure and recreation - may include open land, e.g. parks or built facilities such as
sports centres
 Residential - the building of houses and flats
 Transport - road and rail networks, stations and
airports
 Business and commerce - the building of offices,
shops and banks
 Industry - factories, warehouses and small
production centres
The CBD in the city centre is where most business and
commerce is located.
Features that identify the CBD
 It is characterised by high-riseor multi-storey
buildings in order to save on space.
 land values in the CBD are expensive-both the price of land and rents due to
competition for space.
 Department stores or specialist shops, like jewelers are also located in the CBD due to
high accessibility and more customers with a lot of money.
 It is characterized by shopping malls and pedestrian precincts.
 Cultural/historical buildings, museums and castles are located in the CBD.
 Offices, finance, banks, administration, town hall (business sector).
 Bus and railway stations (transport centres)/high concentration of public transport
services.
 Multi-storey car parks or parkades are located in the CBD in order to save on space.
 It ischaracterised by vertical zonation-certain activitiesoccupy certain floors of high-
rise buildings e.g. supermarketsare located in the lowerfloors and offices in the upperfloors.
 The CBD isalsocharacterised by horizontal zonation-certain activities tend to
belocated in certain parts of the city.E.gFuneralpalours or bankscanbelocated in certain parts
of the city.
 The centre of the CBD where all traffic routes meetischararcterised by very high land
values and itisknown as the Peak Land Value Intersection(PLVI).
 High number of pedestrians during the day and lowduring the night ‘Aliveduring the
day and deadduring the night’
 It ischaracterised by Pedestrianisedroads or roadsthat are for pedestrians only.

The CBD is located in the centre because it is:

 a central location for road/railways to converge
 the most accessible location for workers
 accessible to most people for shops and businesses

Residential areas:

 Oldinnercityarea: The inner city is also known as

the twilight zone. It is typically found next to the CBD and
has mainly terraced houses in a grid like pattern. These
were originally built to house factory workers who worked in the inner city factories.
Many of these factories have now closed down.
 Innercityredevelopment: still high density, more amenities, high rise flats, more
modern, but there are dark corridors, built to improve on the old buildings.

 Suburbia: the urban sprawl (outward growth of city) and

rising popularity of owning cars led to the construction of
well-planned and spacious houses with normally garages,
back and front gardens etc.Suburban houses are usually
larger than inner city terraces and most have a garden.
Typically, they are detached or semi-detached and the roads
around them are arranged in cul-de-sacs and wide avenues.
Land prices are generally cheaper than in the CBD and inner city, although the
desirability of housing can make some areas expensive.

 High density Residential Areas-They are relatively small in terms of area, there are
little spaces between houses, service delivery is poor and rents and rates are low. They
are mainly for low income earners.

 Low density Residential areas-They have fewer houses per unit area and stands are
generally big, service delivery is more efficient. They are normally occupied by high
income earners.
  Outer city estate:
They are located on the fringes of cities with varied types of housing (low rise, high
rise and single story), where people were relocated when the inner city was being
redeveloped

 The ruralurbanfringe
This is found at the edge of a town or city and is where town meets country. It is
common for this area to have a mixture of land uses such as some housing, golf
courses, allotments, business parks and airports.

 Industrial areas:
Factories were built close as possible to the CBD but with enough space, next to
canals and railways to transport materials, or rivers for cooling, power source or waste
disposal and next to land where lots of workers could live.

 Open spaces: for a relaxing atmosphere

 Transport routes-Railway stations, bus termini and taxi ranks.

Land use in LEDCs

Although every LEDC city has its own characteristics, models can be used to illustrate a
typical LEDC city.

Model of an LEDC city

Both MEDC and LEDC cities have a CBD - often the oldest part of the city.
In LEDCs the poorest housing is found on the edge of the city - in contrast to MEDC cities
whose suburban fringe is very often a place of high quality housing. The areas of poor quality
housing found on the edge of cities in LEDCs are calledsquatter settlements or shanty
towns
 Land use in a MEDC

The Burgess and Hoyt model

 Geographers have put together models of land use to show how a 'typical' city is laid
out.
 One of the most famous of these is the Burgess or concentric zone model.
 This model is based on the idea that land values are highest in the centre of a town or
city. This is because competition is high in the central parts of the settlement.
 This leads to high-rise, high-density buildings being found near theCentral Business
District (CBD), with low-density, sparse developments on the edge of the town or
city.
 Quality of housing and social class change as distance from the CBD increases.
 As the city grows, all the circles push outwards.

The Burgess model

However, there are limits to the Burgess model:
 The model is now quite old and was developed before the advent of mass car
ownership.
 New working and housing trends have emerged since the model was developed. Many
people now choose to live and work outside the city on the urban fringe - a phenomenon that
is not reflected in the Burgess model.
 Every city is different. There is no such thing as a typical city.

Hoyt model’s Sector Model

  This is based on the circles on the Burgess model, but adds sectors of similar land uses
concentrated in parts of the city.
 Notice how some zones, e.g. the factories/industry zone, radiate out from the CBD.
 This is probably following the line of a main road or a railway.
 It states that the development of a city is influenced by transport routes. Urbanland
uses develop from the CBD in form of sectors or wedges following major transport
routes.

Modern Changes in the structure of the CBD

Most CBDs have undergone a lot of changes.Some of the changes include :

 Pedestrianisation-These are traffic free zones. Onlydelivery vans are allowedduring certain
times of the day.They are normallycreated to reducecongestion,air and noise pollution as well
as to create a safeenvironment.
 Shopping malls-These are large building builtexclusively to house shops.They are air
conditioned and theycontain major shops,restuarants,cafes and entertainment joints.
 Security-To improve on safety for shoppers, certain cities have closed circuit televisions and
patrols by the police.
 Visual improvements-This has been achievedthrough setting up flowerbeds,improving refuse
collection,setting up streetcafes and bars,decoratingstreets and sidewalks.
 Using out- of-town shoppingmalls to reduce congestion in the CBD.

Urbanproblems and solutions

Problem Solution

 Crime and racial conflict-thisisverycommon in  Providing social

 citieswherethere are large numbers of immigrants facilitiessuch as sports
and whereemployment chances are verypoor. clubs
 Job creationschemes to
provideemployment.
 Usingspecialprojects to
bringcommunitiestoget
her.
 Housingshortages-housingshortagesresultform  Ensuringadequatepolici
high prices of properties,lack of land for housing ng on the streets.
and increase in population of major cities.
 Building high rise flats
to accomodate a lot of
people.

 Controlling the
 Air pollution- movement of people
resultsfromvehicles,industrialactivities,domestichea intotowns.
tingusingfossil fuels such as coal,coalfired thermal
power stations.  Builddinglowcosthouse
s for towndwellers.

 Usinglaws to
limitlevels of pollution.

 Usinglesspollutive
sources of power
 Water pollution-Caused by dumping of
gabbageintonearbyrivers,dumpingchemicalsfrom
 Educating people on
industries into water
the effects of pollution.
sources,dumpingsewagematerialintorivers and other
water sources.  Using public transport
systems to limit
pollution.

 Locatingindustrial
areas awayfrom water
sources.
Noise pollution fromtraffic and industrialactivites .
Visual pollution
 Educatingurbandweller
s on water pollution.

 Usinglegislation to
control and punish
people and
organisationspolluting
water sources.
  Propersewagetreatment
.

Squatter settlements/shantytowns /Bustees 

It is a settlement area characterised by buildings made of cheap plastic ,corrugatedmetal and

cardboardmaterial.
Example.MathareValley in nairobiKenya,Dharavi in MumbaiIndia,The Favelas of Rio De Janeiro and
Sao Paolo in Brazil.
Characteristics
 Squatters do not have ownership of the land-They do not have titledeeds to land.
 Houses are built of poormateriale.gcardboard,corrugatedmetal,plastic
 There islack of propersanitation and water supply.
 Theylack refuse collection
 In some cases theylackelectricity and sometimestheymakeillegalconnections to electricity
mains.
 Theysufferfromextremeporvarty
 There are high rates of unemployment
 They are characterised by high crime rates due to unemployment.
 There are characterised by a lot of social problemssuch as drugabuse,child and
adultprostitution,alcoholabuse,single parent children and domestic violence.
 In mostMEDCsresidentsmaybe immigrants with no connections in the area. E.gMexicans
immigrants in USA or rural-urban migrants in mostLEDCscities.
 Theylack public transport system .
 Theylackdisease and pest control systems.
 They are associatedwithwidespreadoutbreak of fires due to high density of houses and use of
inflammable material for energy. Eggas and paraffin.
 They are disorganised and informal and theylack a distinct settlement pattern.
 Theylackstreetnames.
 Most squatter camps lack essential services such as mail delivery,educational ,recreationaland
medical services.

NB. In mosturban centre in Brazilthey are known as Bairro de Missario(Districts of

misery) .In Angola’s Luanda,they are known as the ‘Cassa para tenda’ or tent city.

Location :Most squatter camps are located in the following areas :

 On the edges or boundaries or periphery of the city wherethereisplenty of land.

 Nearrailwaytrackswherethereis vacant land.
 Nearriversthatpassthrough major urban areas.
 Nearlagoonsespecially in urban areas nearcoastal areas E.gMakoko squatter camp in Lagos
Nigeria.
 Near refuse dump sites or landfill dump sites.
 In public parks and open spaces.
  Nearairports.

Measures to reduceproblemsassociatedwithsqautter camps.

 Establishinglowcosthousingschemes for squatter dwellers.

 Improving water and sanitation by putting piped water and sewer pipes.
 By providingelectricity
 By upgrading squatter camps sothattheybecomeformalhousingunits and giving squatters
titledeeds to theirhouses.
 Setting up self -help projects for employmentcreation in order to reduceunemployment.
 Improving transport connectivity by wideningroadsbetweenhouses and putting up public
transport systems.
 Providing social services such as schools, clinics and sportingfacilities.
 Relocating squatters to areas with more space.
 Building high rates flats to save on space.
 Educatingsquatters on the dangers of squatting.
 Introducingcounter-urbanisation.

Problemsassociatedwithtrying to upgrade squatter camps

 Squatters mayresistmovement to other areas

becausetheynormallytreattownauthoritieswithsuspecion.
 Lack of funds to construct new residentialunits and to move squatters.
 Squatters normallydevelop a strong social bond amongthemselves and theymaybereluctant to
move to other areas.
 Continuous migration of people into major urban areas maycausetownauthiorities to fail to
solve the problem.
 Corruption in the allocation of new lowcosthousingunitsmay lead to people remaining
squatters.

Advantages of living in squatter camps/shantytown

Although squatter camps are generallycrowdedenvironments,they have the follwingadvantages.

 They are cheap areas to stay in sincedwellers do not payrent.

 Squatters normallydevelop a strong social bond.
 Self help projects help squatters to earn money whilelooking for better options.

Urbansprawling

It is the spreading of urban areas intoneighbouring rural areas taking up rural land used for
urbandevelopment.Itoccurswhenurban areas extendinto the rural-urbanfringe.

Problems of urbansprawling.
 High dependence on cars for commutingmayresult in high pollution levels.
 Inadequatefacilitieswithin the spreadingwithin the spreading suburbs.eg Entertainment, shops,
doctors and transport.
 High costs for public transport
 Lostwork time spentcommuting and lowerproductivity.
 High levels of racial and socio-economicsegregation.
 Deforestation
  Noise pollution
 Reduced agricultural output as land istaken for urbanlanduse.
 Conflict of cultures betweeen rural and urban areas.

Rural urbanfringe
It is zone of transition whrereurban areas and rural areas mix.it ischaracterised by agricultural
landusealongsideotherurbanlanduses.they are mostused for :
 Motorwayse.g by-pass roads
 Recyclingfacilities and Landfallwaste sites
 Airports
 Hospitals
 Sewagefacilities
 Large out of town shopping malls.
 Golf courses.
 Park and nature reserves.
Summarisedurbanproblems
Problems of urban growth for people:
 More crowded/overcrowded.
 Many people are unable to obtain jobs/more jobs are needed.
 Work for low pay/cannot afford housing/work in informal sector.
 Inadequate investment in housing stock/people live in squatter settlements/more
housing is needed.
 Pressure on schools/inadequate education provision.
 Pressure on hospitals/inadequate medical care provision.
 Increased crime rates.
 Difficulties of waste/litter disposal.
 Traffic congestion.
 Noise pollution.
 Spread of disease.
 Food shortages.
 Lack of sanitation/fresh water/poor hygiene.
 Poor quality of life/standard of living.
 Loss of farmland.
Problems for environment:
 loss of vegetation/deforestation.
 loss of habitats.
 Impacts on food chains.
 Pollution of rivers.
 Death of fish/other species.
 Pollution of ground water/seepage of toxins from dumps;
 Air/atmospheric pollution;
 Rivers dry up due to water extraction/water table lowered etc.
Theme 2. The Natural environment
2.1 Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics: It refers to the movement of rigid crustal blocks away and
towards each other due to convection currents in the mantle.

The structure of the earth.

The earth is composed of three distinct zones which are:
(a)The crust-the crust consists of two layers which are:

Oceanic crust:
 Younger, heavier, can sink and is constantly being destroyed and replaced.
 It is about 6-10km in depth.
 It is heavier than the continental crust.
 It contains Silica and Magnesium, hence it is known as the SIMA zone.
 The main rocks are basalt rocks.

Continental crust:
 It is older, lighter, cannot sink and is permanent.
 It is 30-40km on average in depth.
 It mainly made up of silica and aluminium; hence it is known as the SIAL zone.
 It makes up continental plates.
 It is mainly composed of granite rocks.

The mantle/the mesosphere

 It is about 2900km thick.
 It is mainly made up of iron and magnesium, hence it is known as the FEMA zone
 It is characterized by convectional currents due to high temperatures.
 These convectional currents cause plate movements.

The Core or the Barysphere.

 It is the centre of the earth and it is the hottest part of the earth.
 It is mainly composed of Nickel and Iron; hence it is known as the NIFE zone.
 It has the densest rocks.

The Internal Structure of the Earth

Plate boundaries
Plate boundaries or plate margins are areas where plates move apart or towards each other or
slide past each other.
Why plates move
 Deep in the earth’s crust there is a lot of heat produced by radioactivity(splitting of
atoms of radioactive minerals giving out huge amounts of energy)
 At areas that are hotter, convection currents are formed.
 Convection currents rise towards the earth and carry heat.
 These convection currents drag or pull plates sitting on top of them leading to plate
movement.

World major plates and plate boundaries.

Earthquake, volcano and fold mountain distribution:

Plate Boundary What happens Volcanoes? Earthquakes? Fold

mountains?
A. Constructive two plates move Gentle Gentle No
margins away from each
other forming new
oceanic crust
B. Destructive Oceanic crust Violent Violent Yes
i) margins moves towards
continental and
sinks under it, and
is destroyed
B. Collision zones two continental None Yes there is Yes
ii) crusts collide,
neither can sink so
forced upwards
C. Conservative two plates move None Violent No
margins sideways past each
other

Destructive plate boundaries/Convergent plate movement

The main landforms formed at destructive plate boundaries are:

 Deep oceanic trenches
 Fold Mountains.
 Volcanoes
  Subduction zones.
Processes
 Oceanic crust moves towards the continental plate.
 Being heavier, the oceanic crust sinks below the continental crust.
 The continental crust crumbles or is folded because it is less dense to form fold
mountains.
 Sometimes the continental layer melts leading to the formation of volcanic cones.
 The oceanic plate bends into the mantle leading to the formation of the deep oceanic
Trench.
 A subduction zone is formed where the oceanic layer is absorbed into the mantle.
Diagram

Examples of convergent plates

 Where the South American plate meets with the Nazca Plate leading to the formation
of the Andes mountains and the Chile-Peru Trench
Constructive Margins/divergent plate movement
Landforms
 Mid oceanic ridges
 New sea floor
 Rift valley
 Volcanic islands.
Diagram
Processes
 Two oceanic plates move away from each other.
 A vent or gap is formed between the two plates.
 Magma or molten rocks from the mantle move up under pressure.
 New oceanic crust appears, forming Mid-Oceanic ridges and new sea floor.
Examples
 Where the Pacific plate moves away from the Indo-Australian Plate
 Where the African plate moves away from the South American plate.

Collision zones
Landforms
 Fold mountains.
Processes
 Two continental plates collide
 Neither can sink both they are of the same density.
 They are forced up and folded into Fold Mountains.
 E.g. where the Indian plate collided with Eurasian plate forming the Himalayas and
where the African plate collides with the Eurasian plate leading to the formation of the
Alps and Atlas Mountains.

Diagram
Conservative or passive plate margins
 Two plates move sideways past each other.
 Land is neither formed nor destroyed.
 Earthquakes are normally common along conservative boundaries.
 E.g. where the North American plate slide past the Pacific plate.
Diagram

Earthquakes
Definition of terms

Earthquake:
 It is the shaking or trembling of the earth’s crust due to convection currents in the
mantle.
Epicentre:
 It is the point on the ground directly over the focus.
 It is the point which experiences the greatest damage when an earthquake occurs.
Focus or hypocenter:
 It is the point underground where an earthquake originates.
 An earthquake focus can be a subduction zone or where two continental plates
collide.
Earthquake magnitude: It is the total amount of energy released by an earthquake.
Earthquake intensity: It refers to the total effects of the earthquake.
Causes of an earthquake
 Earthquakes are caused by earth or plate movements.
 They occur when plates move away or towards or slide past each other.
 Sometimes plates become stuck in one position.
 Stress and pressure builds up and earthquakes happen when there is a sudden release
of energy.
 As a result of release of energy, shockwaves or seismic waves are generated.
 These waves travel through the earth causing displacement of rocks.

Earthquake distribution (in terms of places-Where and why they occur)

 Most earthquakes are concentrated along plate boundaries.
 Most collision earthquakes are common along collision plate boundaries where two
continental plates meet. E.g. along the Himalaya Mountains where the Indian plate
collides with the Eurasian plate.
 They also occur along destructive plate margins where a continental plate collides
with an oceanic plate. E.g. along the Peru-Chile zone where the Nazca plate meets the
South American plate.
 At constructive plate margins.
 At conservative plate margins .E.g. along the San Andrea’s fault in USA.
 Encircle the whole of the Pacific Ocean-This is known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, It
includes countries such as Chile, Peru, USA, Japan and Philippines.
 Extend down the entire length of the mid-Atlantic Ocean
 Stretch across southern Europe and Asia, linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans

Some notable earthquakes.

 Kobe earthquake,1995, 8.9 Richter scale,Japan.(MEDC)
 Sichuan, 2 May 2008, 7.9 Richter scale reading. China
  Port-au-Prince-7.0 Richter Scale reading, Haiti(LEDC)
The Richter scale
 Earthquake magnitude is measured by an instrument called a Seismograph but its
intensity is shown on a scale known as the Richter scale.

Factors which determine the damage caused by an earthquake

The amount of damage caused by an earthquake depends on a number of factors. Some
earthquakes are more damaging than others.
 The amount of energy released or the magnitude-The higher the magnitude the greater
the damage.
 The Depth of the focus-The greater the depth of the focus the less the damage. The
shallower the focus the greater the damage because earthquakes waves hit the ground
at a faster rate.
 The density of population-the greater the concentration of people in an area the higher
the death rate.
 Whether the buildings are earthquake-tolerant or not-In areas where buildings are
made of weak materials, the damage is higher.
 The level of preparedness of a country or area. Where people are well-prepared, the
damage is low.
 Availability of funds for rebuilding and provision of services.MEDCs are better
prepared for earthquakes than LEDCs so they are less affected.

Effects of earthquakes and responses

Effects Responses
 They lead to heavy loss of  Evacuation of people from
life.E.g.The Haiti Earthquake killed earthquake prone areas.
more than 300000 people.  Predicting earthquakes using
 Destruction of essential machines. E.g. Seismographs.
infrastructure.E.g roads,  Setting up rescue teams for
 railwaylines, water and gas mains. rescuing affected people.
 Causewidespread fire due  Providing survival kits for affected
collapsing cables and breaking gas people.
pipes.  Educating people on what to do
 Can cause dam-bursting leading to when an earthquake occurs.
flooding.  Zoning out areas that are prone to
 May damage nuclear power earthquakes so that people do not
station leading to radiation settle in those areas.
pollution.E.gFukushima nuclear  Appealing for disaster relief from
leakage. internationalorganizations such as
 Cause landslides Red Cross International, Catholic
 They cause tsunamis. Relief Services, Medicins San
 Cause displacement of people to Frontiers and United Nations High
other areas. Commission for Refugees.
 Cause water pollution leading to  Building earthquake tolerant
outbreak of diseases.E.g cholera, building. E.g. using reinforced
malaria and dysentery. concrete.
 Cause psychological problems-e.g.  Using Early warning systems e.g.
anxiety, depression, stress and sirens.
bereavement.  Building hospitals and providing
 The cause social problems such as enough medication.
separation of families, prostitution  Rebuilding after the earthquake.
and banditry as people fight for  Providing psych-social support for
food and other essential services. affected people .E.g. counseling.
 They cause a heavy cost on the
country and the economy may
collapse.
 It may cause political problems
with the government blamed for
failure to respond in time.

Problems that may be encountered in trying to reduce the effects of an earthquake

 Lack of funds to finance earthquake control measures.
 Resistance by people.
 Lack of technology for prediction of earthquakes.
 Lack of knowledge.
 People may have resigned to their fate-They have accepted the disaster and they think
there is nothing that can be done.
 Corruption in the distribution of relief aid.
 Access to affected areas may be difficult due to poor infrastructure.E.g poor roads and
destroyed railway lines.
 Death of relief agents or people helping.

Volcanoes
Definition:
  It is a hole on the earth’s crust that allows hot lava, volcanic ash and gases to escape
from the earth’s crust.
Distribution of volcanoes.
 Around the pacific Ring of Fire-where plates converge and diverge.
 At Mid-Oceanic ridges where two oceanic plates move apart allowing magma to
upwell or move up leading to volcanoes.
 At destructive plate margins where an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate
leading to melting of the oceanic and continental plates due intense collision.
 At collision zones where two continental plates.E.g Mount Etna in Italy where the
African plate collide with the Eurasian plate.
 At hotspot-These areas which are far away from plate boundaries.E.g Hawaii.
Examples of notable volcanoes
 Mt Etna Sicily, Italy
 Mount Pinatubo,15 June 1991, Philippines
 Mt St Helens,18 May 1980,Carlifornia.USA
 Nevado Del Ruiz, 13 November 1985.Colombia.
 Mt Nyiragongo, January 2002. DRC.
Materials which come out of a volcano
 Gases-Water vapour, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen.
 Liquids-Magma is molten rocks underground and lava is molten rocks on the earth’s
surface.
 Solids-Ash, pyroclastic material and blocks of rocks.

Types of volcanoes.
Stratovolcano or composite volcano
 They have steeper slopes-slope angles may be over 30 degrees.
 They are formed by viscous lava that does not flow far before solidifying.
 Stratovolcanoes are normally explosive when erupting.
 They are common on subduction zones at destructive plate boundaries.
 Have alternating layers of lava and rock fragments
 Usually large and conical
Features of a stratovolcano.
 Alternate layers-Layers of rock fragments and lava.
 Ash/cinders and lava;
 Slopes steeper at summit
 Main cone
 Crater-A depressionat the top of a volcano
 Secondarycones/parasiticcone-These are smallconeswhichdevelop on the sides of o
biggercone.
 Vent-Ahole on the groundthroughwhich magma moves to the ground.
 Pipe-A central outletat the centre of the volcano.
 Magma chamber-A large reservoir of magma underground.
 Dyke –Formed when lava cuts across the volcanic cone.

Shield Volcanoes/basic lava cones.

 They are formed by less viscous lava-runny or basic lava that has little amount of
silica.
 They rise from the deep ocean floor.
 They have gentler slopes with angle of about 5 degrees.
 They usually oval or circular when viewed from above.
 Lava spreads out from a central hole or vent.
E.g. Hawaiian volcanoes.
Problems caused by volcanic eruptions.

 Pyroclastic flow-This is very hot solid material that travels rapidly down slopes and
valleys killing people, destroying property and infrastructure.
 Mudflows or lahars-This is a mixture of ash and water that travels down river
valleys.Lahars wash away homes, crops and infrastructure.
 Pollution due to poisonous volcanic gases such as hydrogen sulfide, carbondioxide,
hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
 Acid rain-the emission of poisonous gases may lead to the formation of acid rainfall
which can destroy building and vegetation.
 Famine can result due to food shortages as crops are destroyed by lahars.
 Disease outbreak due to destruction of sewers and clean water pipes.
 Ash fall may lead to reduced visibility and damage of buildings. It can also affect air
transport.
 Volcanoes can collapse leading to tsunamis in oceans or seas.
 loss of life;
  Destroy buildings/homes.
 Inundate farmland/destroy crops/livestock.
 Disrupt communications.
 Bring down power lines/damage water pipes.
 Destroy workplaces/damage factories.
 Occur without warning/at great speed etc.

Measures to reduce risks resulting from volcanic eruptions.

 Diverting lava using excavators and canals so that it flows away from buildings.
 Spraying water to cool hot lava.
 Constructing mudflow barriers to trap lava.
 Constructing building that can withstand volcanic eruptions with stronger roofs and
foundations.
 Monitoring volcanoes in order to give early warning of future eruptions.
E.g. checking gas emissions and ground deformation.
 Remote sensing using satellites to locate volcanic cloud and volcanic eruptions.
 Hazard zonation-banning construction of building in high risk areas.
 Relocating people to areas that are less prone to volcanic eruptions.
 Providing relief services to people affected by a volcano.
Advantages of volcanic eruptions (Why people continue to live in areas prone to volcanic
eruptions.
 Availability of geothermal power.E.g in Iceland-Electricity can be generated from heat
stored underground in volcanic areas.
 Fertile soils-Sometimes of lava weather rapidly leading to the formation of fertile
soils. E.g. in Java.
 Volcanoes create landmasses such as new islands and enlarge existing landforms.
 Tourism-Volcanic features attract-tourists and this helps the country to develop its
economy and infrastructure.
 Minerals and mining-Volcanic eruptions bring minerals closer to the ground leading to
boosting of mineral wealth and mining activities.
 Gases produced can lead higher chances of rainfall formation.
 Volcanic eruptions provide scenic views that attract tourists and keen photographer.

2.2 Landforms and landscape processes

2.2.1 Weathering
Weathering:
 Is the disintegration and decomposition of rocks in situ.
 It results from weather conditions.
 The word in situmeans without movement.
 Weathering is responsible for soil formation.
Erosion:
 It is the washing of soil and other materials of weathering by water, ice, waves and
wind.
The importance of weathering
 It is responsible for soil formation
 It breaks down rocks on the earth’s surface to provide nutrients require for plant
growth.
 Deep weathering helps water to infiltrate deep underground to recharge ground water.

Types of weathering.

Physical Weathering/Mechanical weathering

 It is the breakdown of rocks without any change in the chemical composition of the
rock and it is caused by changes in temperature.
 Physical weathering is common in areas with extremes of temperature i.e. where
temperatures are either too high or too low.
 Physical weathering is normally helped by the presence of water.

Types of physical weathering

Freeze-thaw / frost shattering/Ice wedging

  It is the breakdown of rocks due to expansion of frozen in rock joints.
 It is common in cold climates areas and high mountain areas.
How it occurs
 During the day water enters rock joints when temperatures are high.
 During the night temperatures fall and water in rock joint freezes.
 When water freezes, it expands by 9%.
 As a result of the increase in its volume rock joints are widened and eventually the
rock breaks.
 It requires temperatures to fluctuate above and below zero degrees.
 Repeated freezing and thawing leads to rock breakdown.
 Angular and rough rock fragments formed are called Screes.

Diagram

Exfoliation/Onion weathering /Thermal Fracture

 Occurs in very warm climates where there are exposed, non-vegetated rocks.E.g desert
areas
 It is common in areas with crystalline rocks or rocks with various minerals such as
granite that is characterized by feldspar, mica and quartz.
 It occurs in areas with a wide diurnal range of temperature or the difference between
minimum and maximum.
 During the day, a rock mass is heated.
 The minerals in the rock mass absorb heat and expand at different rates and horizontal
cracks develop.
 During the night temperatures drop.
  Rock minerals contract at different rates.
 The rock develops stresses and cracks are formed due to heating and cooling.
 Eventually the rock peels off.

Granular disintegration:
  Like exfoliation this occurs where there are extremes of temperature as in a desert.
 If the rock is made of different minerals of different colours.
 The darker minerals will expand & contract more than the lighter ones.
 This will form small angular pieces of rock like sand which will collect at the base of
the rock.

Biological weathering
 It is the weakening and breakdown of rocks by plants animals and micro-organisms.
How it occurs
 Root wedging-This occurs when seeds and tree roots find their way into natural
cracks.
 As roots grow bigger and seeds germinate, cracks are widened.
 Release of acids and carbon dioxide by plants can also lead to decay of the rocks.
 Vegetation roots allow the soil to open up and water to infiltrate deep into the soil
leading to deep chemical weathering.

Chemical weathering:
  Occurs in warm, moist climates
• Lichens produce organic acids that dissolve rocks so that they can absorb the minerals.
• Rotting vegetation also releases organic acids that will chemically react with rocks.

Limestone solution/ Carbonation

 It is the reaction of carbonic acid with calcium carbonate minerals in limestone or
chalk rocks.
 Carbon dioxide in air reacts with rainwater;
 Forms carbonic acid/acid rain;
 Reacts with calcium carbonate/limestone or chalk;
 Seeps through cracks;
 Forms calcium bicarbonate/calcium hydrogen carbonate;
 This is soluble in water;
 Widens/deepen cracks etc.
 Associated landform: dry valleys and limestone pavement

Oxidation:
• Many minerals in rocks can be oxidised in the presence of water.
• One on the most common minerals to oxidise is iron. It forms iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3)
or rust. This gives the rock a reddish brown colour.
• The rock is weakened & eventually crumbles away.
Hydrolysis
 It is the reaction of rock minerals with hydrogen ions contained in water.
 It leads to the decay of feldspar in granite to china clay.
Hydration
 It occurs when certain minerals absorb water and swell or expand.
 This absorption leads to change in the chemical change of the rock.
 E.g. Anhydrite/Unhydrated Calcium sulphate is changed to hydrated calcium sulphate
or gypsum.

Factors affecting the type and rate of weathering.

 Climate
 Relief
  Vegetation
 Rock mineral composition
 Rock joints.
 Rock hardness
Rock joints
 Rock joints allow water to penetrate and increase both physical and chemical
weathering.
 Rock joint allow freeze thaw to occur.
 They also allow acidulated water to pass through and decompose minerals making up
the rock mass.
Mineral composition
 Some minerals decay slowly whilst some decay fast.
 Rocks with certain types of minerals are affected by different types of weathering.
 Limestone is easily affected by carbonation because it is composed of carbonate
minerals whilst oxidation affects rocks with ferric or iron minerals. Granite is prone to
exfoliation because it is composed of feldspar, mica and quartz.
Climate
 Different climatic conditions favour different weathering processes.
 In cold areas, frost action is common because of frost cycles or periods of thawing and
freezing.E.g high mountain areas and Polar Regions.
 Desert areas are characterized by exfoliation and hydration due to high temperatures
and wide diurnal temperature ranges which favour heating during the day and cooling
during the night.
 Humid areas/Equatorial rainforests are characterized by high rainfall, high
temperatures and dense vegetation which speed up rates of chemical weathering.

2.2.2 River processes

The hydrological cycle

 Precipitation Evapotranspiration

Interception

Surface storage Surface runoff

Infiltration

Throughflow River channel flow

Soil moisture

Percolation River runoff

Groundwater Groundwater flow

Terminology for the study of rivers

 Drainage basin - the area of land drained by a river and its tributaries and is separated
from another by a watershed.

 Watershed - the edge of highland surrounding a drainage basin. It marks the boundary
between two drainage basins.

 Source – It is the point where rivers starts or begin. River sources are normally point high
in mountain areas. E.g. a spring.

 Confluence - the point at which two rivers or streams join.

 Tributary - a stream or smaller river which joins a larger stream or river.

 Mouth - the point where the river comes to the end, usually when entering a sea.

Changes in a river from top to bottom:

Drainage basins act as a system with inputs, (precipitation) transfers (stemflow, infiltration,
percolation, surface runoff, throughflow, & groundwater flow) stores, (interception, surface
storage, soil moisture storage & groundwater storage) and outputs (evaporation &
transpiration or evapotranspiration).
River processes
 Rivers are responsible for three main processes.
 River Erode, Transport and Deposit.

River Transportation
A river transports material by 4 processes:

Traction – rolling or dragging ofstones and large boulders along the bed of the river. It is a
common transport process in the youthful stage of the river where mechanical weathering is
common.
Saltation – It is the bouncing or leapfrogging of sand particle and pebbles along the bed of
the river.

Suspension –It the carriage of silt and clay particles suspended in water.

Solution– It is the movement of chemicals and minerals dissolved in water.

River Erosion
 It the wearing away of the river bank and bed by the flowing water and the load
carried by the river.
 River Load Rivers to all the sediments carried by the river.
 The river erodes its banks and bed in four main ways:

(a) Attrition – large particles such as boulders collide and break into smaller pieces
(occurs at higher part of river)

(b)Hydraulic action –it is the sheer force of the flowing water dislodges particles from its
banks and bed.

(c)Corrasion/Abrasion–it is the scrapping away of the river bed and banks by the angular
materials carried by the flowing water.
 It occurs when smaller particles rub against the river banks and bed like sand-paper;
also called abrasion; occurs at low part of river (where there are smaller particles)
(d)Corrosion – it the decay of rocks forming river bed and banks due to acids dissolved in
water. It is also known as solution.
Deposition
 Deposition refers to the process by which a river drops sediments it is
carrying.Depsition occurs when:
(a) There is decrease in river gradient.
(b) There is decrease in river flow or discharge, especially during the dry season.
(c) When a river enters a stationary body of water. E.g. a sea or ocean or dam.
(d) When water is flowing slowly on the inside banks of a meander.
Youthful stage:

Associated landforms:

V-shaped valleys:
 Near its source, a river is high above sea level so the main type of the erosion is
vertical.
 In theory this would produce vertical valley sides, but once exposed the valley sides
are weathered.
 The loose material falls down the slope is carried away by the river, resulting in a
steep sided V-shape.
 V-shaped river valleys are a result of vertical erosion.
 V-shaped river valleys are associated with Gorges and Canyons.
Interlockingspurs:
 In the upper valley a river is in the mountains.
 Water takes the easiest path downhill so twists and turns around the highland (spurs)
forming interlocking spurs.
Waterfalls:
 They occur when the river flows over hard rock which erodes slowly.
 Beneath is softer rock which is eroded faster to form a hard and resistant rock layer.
 The soft rock is undercut faster that the hard rock.
 The force of the water (hydraulic action) erodes the bottom of the waterfall to form a
plunge pool.
 The hard rock gets undercut as the soft rock erodes so that it eventually collapses.
 After the hard rock collapses, some of the rock is swirled around the river forming the
plunge pool.
 Eventually the waterfall migrates upstream forming a gorge.

Examples of waterfalls
 Victoria Falls or Mosia tunya along Zambezi River in Zimbabwe.
 The Niagara falls at the border of USA and Canada.

Advantages or benefits of waterfalls to communities

 They can be used to generate hydro-electic power-For H.E.P
 They are tourist attractions. Areas with waterfalls can benefit from the influx of
tourists into an area.E.g foreign currency can be earned, jobs are provided,
infrastructure is developed and the economy grows.
 Waterfalls can be used for water sports such as bungee diving and white-water
rafting.
 Waterfalls encourage the growth of a cool climate and the growth of anevergreen
vegetation.E.g around the Victoria Falls.
 Waterfalls beautify areas and allow activities such as photographing to grow.

Disadvantages
 Waterfalls make river navigation difficult.
 Falling water can be noise to the surrounding communities.
  Tourism at waterfalls is associated with environmental pollution.
 The make river crossing difficult.

Rapids

 They form where the river passes over hard rock, but either the band of rock is not
very deep or there are a series of shallow rock bands.

Potholes:
 They are smooth, rounded hollows formed in the bed rock of the river by vertical
erosion.
 Can be found in the upper and middle valley where a river flows over solid rock.
 They are shallow depressions found in rocky river beds.
 Swirling water forms eddies which can cause stones to move in circular motions so
eroding circular holes in the rock.

Gorges
 A gorge is a steep-sided, deep and narrow river valley formed by vertical erosion.
 Gorges can be formed at any stage of river development.
 They are formed when a river flows over with alternate layers of hard and soft rocks.
 The river digs deeper on layers of less resistant rocks forming a gorge.
 They can also be formed where a river follows a fault line.E.g The Batoka and Mupata
gorges below the Victoria Falls.
 They may also result from the upstream migration of a waterfall.

Diagram
Middle Course River features.

Meanders:
 A meander is a wide river bend formed by a combination of lateral erosion and
deposition.
 They are formed due to erosion on the concave bank/outer bank or river cliff by
hydraulic action.
 Water in a river rarely flows straight; it flows in a corkscrew motion.
 As a result, flowing water is thrown on the outer bank of the river where erosion
occurs in form of lateral corrosion and hydraulic action. This causes slumping of
materials on the outer bank/concave bank/river cliff.
 The material eroded on the concave bank is transported by the fast current and it is
deposited on the inner bank of the river/the slip off bank/point bar.The point bar is
 shallow due to deposition whilst the concave bank is deeper due to erosion.

 Meander migration as a result of lateral erosion can lead to the formation of a broad
river valley or a floodplain.

Ox-bow Lakes:
  Ox-bow lakes form when the neck of the meander becomes very narrow.
 During high flow or floods the river cuts through the neck and straightens its course.
 Depositions occur on the convex/slip off bank of the river.
 The cut-off meander is an ox-bow lake.
 Eventually the ox-bow lake dries.

Delta:
 It is a low-lying and swampy area formed by river deposition at the mouth of the river.
 Deltas are formed where a river enters a stationary body of water such as a lake, sea or
a dam.
 Form when a large river is carrying a high sediment load. E.g. Nile Delta.
 The river loses energy as it enters a lake or sea.
 The sea is sheltered and has few currents to carry away the sediment so it is deposited
in the mouth.
 Sediment is deposited and chokes up the channel forming islands.
 The river breaks up around these deposits forming several channels called
distributaries.

Conditions necessary for the formation of deltas.

 The river must have a large load.
 River velocity must be sufficiently low.
 Sea or ocean currents at the mouth of the river must be sufficiently weak.

Example of Deltas
 Nile Delta in Egypt
 Mississippi Delta in USA
 The Zambezi River delta in Mozambique.
Advantages and disadvantages of Deltas

Advantages/benefits/Merits Disadvantages/Demerits/Problems
 They provide fertile soils for  They are prone to water-borne
agriculture.E.g the Ganges delta in diseases such as cholera, river
Bangladesh. blindness and typhoid.
 They are habitats for a wide variety of  Deltas are normally severely cold in
aquatic animals. winter.
 They can be reservoirs for oil  They are homes to dangerous aquatic
reserves. animals.e.g alligators and dangerous
 Deltas are important for tourism.E.g sea animals.
the Nile delta.  They are fragile environments which
 They are important for fishing. need to be managed properly. They
 Deltas are important for recreational are easily destroyed by marine
purposes e.g. canoeing and bird pollution.
watching.  They experience severe flooding due
 They are sources of water for to storm surges and excessive rains.
agriculture and domestic purposes.

Flood plain:
Definition: A floodplain is flat, extensive and low-lying river valley formed by deposition of
sediments during times of floods.
 The river widens its valley by lateral erosion.
 At times of high discharge, the river has plenty of energy so carries a lot material in
suspension.
 When the river floods, the water spreads across the flat land.
 The sudden increase in friction will reduce the water’s velocity and the fine silt is
deposited.
 Each time the river floods, it deposits a layer of fine silt.
 This is a flood plain.
Diagram

Examples of floodplains
 Mississippi Floodplain.USA
 Zambezi floodplain. Zambia.
 Nile floodplain Egypt
 Ganges valley, Bangladesh.
Features of floodplains
Levees:
 When a river floods, the coarsest material is deposited first (so on the edges of the
river) forming a natural embankment called a levee.
 Continuous deposition leads to the formation of a raised bank or a levee.
 People can build artificial levees to prevent flood waters from flowing into adjacent
areas.

Deferred Tributaries
 It is a tributary of a major river which flows parallel to the main river due to the
existence of levees.
  It will eventually join the main river at the deferred junction.
Bluffs
 It is sloping land that marks the boundary between the floodplain and the higher
ground.
Alluvium
 It is a thick layer of deposited silt on the floor of the flood plain.
 It is formed as a result of successive deposition of sediments during times of flooding.

Braided channels/River braids/river islands

 River braids are small islands formed by deposition of sediments on the river bed.
 Braids occur when a river subdivides into numerous streams and islands during times
of low discharge or when a river experiences a sudden increase in its sediments.
Diagram

Floods: it refers to the sudden flow of water into the surrounding area from a river as a result
of too much rain or dam failure.
 Flooding occurs when river fail to confine water within their banks and water flows
into the adjacent area.

Causes of flooding:
Physical or natural causes.
 A steep-sided channel - a river channel surrounded by steep slopes causes fast surface
run-off.
 A lack of vegetation or woodland - trees and plants intercept precipitation (i.e. they
catch or drink water). If there is little vegetation in the drainage basin then surface run-off will
be high.
 A drainage basin, consisting of mainly impermeable rock - this will mean that water
cannot percolate through the rock layer, and so will run faster over the surface.
 Low-lying plains are also prone to flooding-e.g. floodplains and deltas.

Human causes

 A drainage basin in an urban area - these consist largely of impermeable concrete,

which encourages overland flow. Drains and sewers take water quickly and directly to the
river channel. Houses with sloping roofs further increase the amount of run-off.
 Deforestation: It leaves the ground bare and increases rates of surface run-off.
 Overgrazing-It leaves the area bare and this increases the rates of surface runoff.
 Over cultivation
 population pressures cause soil erosion causes sediment to go into rivers decreasing
the cross-sectional area

Flood management: afforestation, dams, canalising rivers, artificial levees, flood relief
canals, warning systems, dredging, cutting off meanders to straighten river, flood gates

Dams:

 Dams are often built along the course of a river in order to control the amount of
discharge. Water is held back by the dam and released in a controlled way.This controls
flooding.
 Water is usually stored in a reservoir behind the dam. This water can then be used to
generate hydroelectric power or for recreation purposes.
 Building a dam can be very expensive.
 Sediment is often trapped behind the wall of the dam, leading to erosion further
downstream.
 Settlements and agricultural land may be lost when the river valley is flooded to form
a reservoir.
River engineering:
 The river channel may be widened or deepened allowing it to carry more water. A
river channel may be straightened so that water can travel faster along the course. The channel
course of the river can also be altered, diverting floodwaters away from settlements.
 Altering the river channel may lead to a greater risk of flooding downstream, as the
water is carried there faster.

Afforestation:

Trees are planted near to the river. This means greater interception of rainwater and lower
river discharge. This is a relatively low cost option, which enhances the environmental quality
of the drainage basin.
Managed flooding:
The river is allowed to flood naturally in places, to prevent flooding in other areas - for
example, near settlements.
 Planning:
 Local authorities and the national government introduce policies to control urban
development close to or on the floodplain. This reduces the chance of flooding and the risk of
damage to property.
 There can be resistance to development restrictions in areas where there is a shortage
of housing. Enforcing planning regulations and controls may be harder in LEDCs.

Hydrographs:

A hydrograph is a line graph or bar graph which is drawn to represent discharge of a river at
a given place.
Discharge-It is the amount of water passing through a given point at a giventime. Discharge
varies from time to time and from place to place.

River velocity.

It is the speed of flowing water at a given time at a given place. The velocity of a river varies
from time to time or place to place due to:
 The roughness of the river bed and banks-If the river bed is rough and comprises of
hard rocks, the speed of water is greatly reduced.
 The amount of flowing water-the greater the amount of water flowing in a river, the
higher the speed of flowing water.
  The type of load-if a river is carrying a lot of angular load, its energy is reduced and its
velocity is also reduced.
 The gradient-rivers flowing through steep areas flow faster than rivers flowing in low
lying plains.

2.2.3. Marine processes

Types of waves:
• Constructive waves: have a low wave height & usually the beach gradient is gentle.
• The waves spill forward gently creating a strong swash. The water drains away through the
beach material so the backwash is weak.
• These waves deposit material & build up beaches.
• Destructive waves: have a high wave height & the beach tends to be steep.
• The wave plunges forward onto the beach so the swash is weak, but the rotation of the water
causes a strong backwash.
• These waves tend to erode beaches.

Components of Waves:
Swash: when a wave breaks & washes up the beach.
Backwash: when the water drains away back into the oncoming wave.
The size of waves depends upon three factors:
1. The strength of the wind.
2. The length of time the wind has been blowing.
3. The fetch or distance over which the wind can blow.
Methods of erosion:
Corrasion – large waves hurl beach
material at the cliff
Corrosion – salts and acids slowly
dissolve a cliff
Attrition – waves cause stones to collide
and disintegrate
Hydraulic action – force of waves compresses air in the cliffs
Longshore Drift:
• When waves approach the coast at an angle the swash moves up the beach at an angle.
• The backwash, however, drains straight back down the beach.
• This will gradually move sand/stones along the beach in a zig-zag motion.

Cliff and wave-cut platform formation:

• Wave erosion is concentrated at the foot of the cliff so a wave-cut notch is formed.
• The cliff is undercut & collapses.
• Repeated collapse causes retreat of the cliff producing a platform of flat rock at the cliff foot
extending out to sea.
Caves, Arches and Stacks:
•A band of weaker rock extends
through a headland.
• More erosion occurs producing
caves on both sides of the headland.
• Continued erosion produces an
arch through the headland.
• Eventually the roof is weakened &
collapses forming a stack
Beaches:In bays the waves diverge
outwards. The wave energy is
dissipated creating a low energy
environment hence deposition to
form beaches.
Bays and Headlands:
• Bays are formed due to softer rock
getting eroded easily.
• Headlands are usually formed since they are made of resistant rock and so is eroded more
difficultly.
Spits:
• Spits form when the coastline changes direction. Longshore drift continues to carry material
in the same direction.
• Sand & shingle is built up to form the spit.
• The end of the spit curves round due to wave refraction or secondary winds.
Sand Dunes:
• Sand dunes form behind wide sandy beaches.
• Onshore winds pick up the dry sand from above the high-water mark & carry it landward by
saltation.
• If they encounter an obstacle the wind loses energy & deposits sand in the lee of the
obstacle.
• Eventually a dune is formed. Plants then grow on it which stabilize it & trap more sand.
Salt Marsh:
• Mud is deposited by the tides. The beach builds up above sea level forming mudflats.
• Plants start to grow in the mud & trap more sediment. This forms into a salt marsh.
Coral Reefs:
-Conditions required for the growth of coral reef:
Warm water/seas; temperatures above 20 degrees C (dev)
Shallow water; not more than 60 metres deep (dev)
Water free from sediment/clear/availability of light;
 Plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpolluted;
Plentiful supply of plankton;
Lack of strong currents etc.
- Fringing reef: Coral reefs grow in the shallow water of the coast in tropical areas (4A)
- Barrier reef: Due to plate tectonics the island starts to sink the reef grows to keep up with
the sinking, but a lagoon develops between the reef & the land (4B)
- Coral atoll: These form around islands that are sinking. The coral growth keeps up with this
& the island keeps sinking (4C)
- Eventually the island sinks below sea level forming a ring of coral with a lagoon in the
centre.

2.3 Weather, climate and natural

vegetation
2.3.1 Weather
Weather Instruments
1. Rain gauge: Is a fixed diameter so that they collect the same
amount of water & so comparisons can be made.
• Made of a hollow cylinder (C) containing:
• Funnel (A) to collect the water.
• A container to collect the water. This might be graduated or
water can be poured into a measuring cylinder. It is emptied once
every 24hrs at the same time. Rain is measured in millimetres.
• Is sunk into the ground, but not level with the surface so that
splashes or surface water cannot get into it.

2. Maximum-minimum thermometer: Records max. & min.

temps. over a 24hr period.
• Maximum thermometer contains mercury the minimum
contains alcohol.
• As temperature rises mercury expands & pushes up a metal
index when it cools & mercury contracts the index is left in
place at highest temp.
• As temperature falls alcohol contracts & pulls metal index
with it, but as the alcohol expands it flows passed the index
leaving it in place at the lowest temp.
• Both indexes are read once every 24hrs from the bottom of
the index.
 3. Wet and dry bulb thermometer (hygrometer): Dry bulb is a
normal mercury thermometer it measures actual air temp.
• Wet bulb is the same but the bulb is covered with a fine cloth
which is connected to a reservoir of water.
Water evaporates from the cloth & cools the temperature so it
reads a few degrees lower than air temp.
• Both the wet & dry bulb temperatures are read.

4. Barometer: Measure air pressure.

• An aneroid barometer has a corrugated chamber containing a
vacuum.
• As air pressure rises & falls the chamber contracts & expands.
• Levers conduct this movement to a spindle which moves the
pointer on
the dial which records the air pressure in mm of mercury.

5. Anemometer: Measures wind speed.

• Three light rotating cups are blown around by the wind the
revolutions are counted & converted into; metres per sec.; km per hour; knots etc.
6. Wind vane: Records wind direction.
• The fang is blown by the wind so that the arrow head points into the wind.
• Both are mounted on a high pole.

Stevenson’s Screen: Contains the thermometers.

• Painted white to reflect the sun with a double lid for
insulation.
• Slatted sides to let the air circulate, but slanted
downwards to prevent light getting in.
• Legs 1m long to prevent heating from ground.
• On short grass so it’s standardised
i.e. same amount of reflectivity.

Cloud types:
Cumulus: These clouds usually have flat bases lumpy tops & distinctive boundaries.
Cumulonimbus: The cloud type associated with a thunderstorm & heavy rain, (at high levels
cooled water droplets convert to ice crystals).
Altocumulus: These clouds are a good indicator of medium level instability and high
moisture content -and often the precursor for widespread thunder activity within the following
24 to 48 hours.
Stratocumulus: Low-level cloud type, varying from thin, well broken layers with little
impact for general weather, to deep, sometimes unstable character, and a risk of moderate
turbulence & moderate icing. Little rain.
Nimbostratus: Heavy cloud layer, often dark in appearance. Often combined with continuous
falling rain/drizzle or snow
Stratus: Are thin-layered clouds
• Are low to the earth’s surface
• Look like stripes or streaks in the sky.
• No rain.
Cirrus: Thin because they form in the higher levels of the atmosphere where little water
vapor is present. No rain. Made of ice crystals

Locating weather stations

 They should be on short grass. (Concrete reflects heat, tarmac absorbs it.)
 They should be in an open area away from obstacles like buildings & trees so there is
no shade or protection from the wind or rain

Weather symbols
Cloud cover is measured in eighths:Hold the sheet directly above your head & estimate the
cloud cover directly above you.

Warm and cold front symbols:

2.3.2 Climate
Tropical rainforest:
Location: Tropical rainforests are located in a band around the equator, mostly in the area
between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N latitude) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S
latitude). This 3,000 mile (4800 km) wide band is called the "tropics." Tropical rainforests are
found in South America, West Africa, Australia, southern India, and Southeast Asia.
Mean temperature of the hottest month:about 25°C
Mean temperature of the coldest month:about 25°C
Annual temperature range:less than 5°C
Rainfall – amount: exceeds 2000mm
Rainfall – seasonal distribution: same throughout year
Wind: low
Cloud: heavy
Humidity:high
Pressure: low

Tropical desert:
Location: between 5° and 30° north and south of the equator
Mean temperature of the hottest month: 30°C
Mean temperature of the coldest month:no less than 18°C
Annual temperature range: less than 5°C
NOTE: during the day it can get to 50°C but during the night it gets to about 0°C so the
average is lower.
Rainfall – amount: less than 250mm in a year
Rainfall – seasonal distribution: irregular rainfall
Wind:strong
Cloud: virtually cloudless skies
Humidity: low
Pressure: high
Contributing factors:
distance from oceans;
winds blow over large areas of land;
winds blow offshore/do not blow from sea hence no source of moisture/water sources;
low humidity;
lack of evaporation;
sparse vegetation;
lack of transpiration;
high air pressure;
descending air;
cold offshore currents etc.
Factors affecting temperature:
-latitude: closer to the equator = higher temperature
-distance from the sea: coastal area = warmer winters and cooler summers
-prevailing winds: the seasonal difference in heating between land and sea (land heats
up more quickly in summer and cools more rapidly than the sea in winter) affects the
temperature of the prevailing wind. Warm prevailing wind = rise in temperature
-ocean currents: warm currents raise winter temperatures in coastal areas; cold
currents cool them down in summer
-altitude: higher altitude = lower temperature (1° per 100m)
-Pressure systems & wind belts:

 The angle of the sun creates pressure

belts: low pressure at the equator &
mid latitudes; high pressure at the
tropics & poles.
 Wind blows out of high pressure into
low pressure creating a global pattern
of winds.
 The direction of the prevailing winds
affects the climate of places. Making it
warmer or colder, wetter or dryer.
 The pressure & wind belts move with
the overhead sun. So prevailing wind
directions can change with the seasons.

Types of rainfall:
Convectional rain:
1. The sun’s rays heat the ground.
2. This heats the air above it so it rises.
3. As the air rises it cools.
4. Condensation point is reached & cloud forms producing thunder storms.
Frontal Rain:
This happens mostly at mid-latitudes where warm tropical air meets cold polar air.
1. Warm air moves towards the cold air.
2. Being less dense the warm air rises over the cold air.
3. The air cools as it rises.
4. Condensation occurs & clouds form to produce rain.
Relief Rain:
1. When warm, moist air hits mountains it is forced to rise.
2. As it rises it cools. Condensation occurs producing clouds & rain or snow.
3. On the leeward side the cool air sinks getting warmer.
 4. The air behind the mountains is warmer & dryer so there’s less rain. The rain shadow
area.

2.3.3 Ecosystems
Tropical rainforest:
Vegetation grows in distinct layers.
 Emergent layer: tall trees up to 50m. Few lower branches. Grow above others to get
full sunlight.
 Main canopy: trees 30-40m forming a continuous canopy. Few lower branches.
 Under canopy: trees 20m high (& young trees) – less dense can survive in less
sunlight.
 Shrub layer: low shrubs & saplings. Shade plants.
Forest floor: little grows except fungi – too little light.
 Since the trees grow so tall they have large buttress roots to give them support.
 Lianas use the large trees as a support in order to reach the sunlight.
 Epiphytes grow on trees to get light & have hanging roots that collect rainwater.
 Leaves shed the water easily having drip tips & “channels” to direct the water.

Tropical desert:
Plants such as cacti:
 have thick, waxy cuticles to reduce transpiration;
  fleshy stems to store water;
 leaves reduced to spines to reduce surface area for transpiration & prevent animals
eating them& sunken stomata.
Shrubs have:
 small, waxy leaves & like cacti long tap roots to reach down to the water table and/or
shallow roots to collect any moisture before it evaporates.
 Seeds can lie dormant for years. After rain they germinate quickly, flower & produce
seeds within 2-3 weeks.

2.4 Inter-relationships between the natural environment and human activities

Environmental hazards to humans include:
-volcanic eruptions
-earthquakes
-tropical storms
-flooding
-drought
Environmental opportunities for humans:
-energy source renewable e.g. solar, hydroelectric etc, or non-renewable e.g. coal
-where there are droughts, lack of cloud is ideal for solar power
-volcanic areas are good for geothermal energy
-medical research and genetic engineering of crops using genetic material
-flooding rivers have alluvium deposits which make very fertile land
-exotic foods from Amazon rainforest
-tourist destination = source of wealth
-tropical rainforests provide wood for making paper, furniture etc.
-volcanic eruptions (and forest fires) produce fertile soil (Merapi)
Corals create a tourist attraction:
-it is beautiful/unique/visually attractive/spectacular/to see one before they die out
completely;
-fishing;
-diving;
-boat trips;
-lots of species of fish/exotic fish/plants/large biodiversity etc.
Volcanoes:
Positive:
fertile/volcanic soils;
geothermal power;
attracttourists/tour guides/souvenirs etc.;
resource extraction/or examples e.g. sulphur;
researchers/vulcanologists live close by to study volcanoes;
they have lived there all their lives/sentimental attachment;
close to family/friends;
work/education in area;
cannot afford to move;
pressure of living space;
confidence in prediction/safety;
willing to take the risk/they don’t think it will erupt etc.
Negative:
-death by jumping in volcano :p
-death by tripping over tree root which has grown because of the fertile ash deposits
-if the ash and mud from a volcanic eruption mix with rain water or melting snow, fast
moving mudflows are created (lahars)
-clears settlements/woodland/agriculture
-changes landscape

Food Shortages:
Causes:
Human Causes:
-poverty
-poor distribution/transport difficulties
-war and civil conflict
-commercial farming
-overpopulation
-poor government management of resources
Physical causes:
-soil exhaustion
-drought
-flood
-tropical cyclones
-pests
-disease
Effects:
-hunger
-susceptible to infectious diseases
-impair physical and mental development
-reduce labour productivity
-increase risk of premature death
-5 to 10% reduction in lifetime earnings
Solutions:
The Green Revolution
The introduction of modern farming methods to poorer countries to increase their food
production, such as:
1. High-yield Varieties (HYVs)
Advantage: faster growing & resistant to disease
Disadvantage: need N fertilisers & pesticides = less sustainable due to damage to the
environment
2. Irrigation - overcoming unreliable weather
 3. Appropriate technology – simple wells, low cost sustainable schemes
4. Land reform – improve efficiency, increase farm size for small landowners, set an
upper limit of land owned by the wealthy, give surplus land to landless people (this is
done in the Lower Ganges Valley)
5. Nitrogen fertilisers – increasing yield, surplus can be sold for profit but, expensive,
possible eutrophication
Food aid - collecting and transporting food to crisis areas

Theme 3: Economic development and the use of resources

3.1 Agricultural systems
An agricultural system is made up of three parts: inputs, outputs and processes.

Inputs can be physical: amount of rain, season temperatures, length of growing season, relief,
soil and drainage
Inputs can be human/economic/social/political: labour, rent, transport costs,
machinery/technology, fertiliser and pesticides, market demand, accessibility to market,
government control, seeds – livestock, farm buildings, energy (electricity)

Processes include the patterns and methods of farming

Outputs are the products (milk, meat etc.) and in developed countries, usually a profit

Classification of farming types:

Specialisation: either arable (crops), pastoral (animals) or mixed (both)
Economic Status: either commercial (for profit) or subsistence (for yourself)
Intensity of land use: either extensive (farm size is very large in comparison with either the
amount of money spent on it or the number of workers) or intensive (small farm size in
comparison with either the amount of money spent on it or the number of workers).
Land tenure: either shifting (and nomadic) where farmers move from one area to another or
sedentary farm location is permanent
Factors influencing farming:
temperature determines crops grown;
crops need to be grown where there is an adequate growing season;
there must be sufficient rainfall for crops to grow/irrigation needed if insufficient rain;
cereal crops/vines need sunshine to ripen;
too much rainfall may waterlog/flood crops/require a drainage system;
in areas with frost/long winter hardy animals may be kept;
if it is windy wind breaks are needed etc.
3.2 Industrial systems
Primary industry: an industry, such as farming, fishing, forestry and mining, that extracts
raw materials directly from the land or sea.
Secondary industry: an industry that processes or manufactures primary raw materials (such
as steelmaking) assembles parts made by other industries (such as cars) or is part of the
construction industry.
Tertiary industry: an occupation, such as health, education, transport and retailing, which
provides a service to people

Employment structure (how the workforce is divided up between employment sectors) of

anMEDC e.g. UK
 Low proportion of people working in primary industry.
 Mechanisations of jobs in the primary sector.
 Also, as primary resources have become exhausted (e.g. coal)
 A lot of resources are now imported.
 The number of people employed in the secondary sector is falling.
 Mechanisation - as machines are taking over jobs in factories.
 The tertiary sector is the main growth area.
 Most people work in hospitals, schools, offices and financial services.
 Greater demand for leisure services as people have more free time and become
wealthier.
 More jobs become available in the tertiary sector.
Employment structure of anLEDC e.g. Ghana
 The majority of people work in the primary sector.
 This is due to the lack of machinery available in farming, forestry and mining.
 Farming is very important because people often grow the food they eat.
 Few people work in secondary industries due to the lack of factories –
 machinery is too expensive
  Multi-national companies rely on the raw materials available in Ghana to assist
in manufacturing products
 Tertiary sector can be larger than secondary sector.
 Most informal work is in the tertiary sector
 Growth of jobs in tourism
Employment structure of a NIC e.g. Brazil
Brazil is a NIC or Newly Industrialized Country. While it is developing its economic base
there are still a large number of people employed in primary industries such as farming. There
are a large proportion of people employed in tertiary industries. One reason for this is because
of the growth of Brazil as a tourist destination. Also, there have been significant
improvements in the provision of health care, education and transport.

The industrial system has 3 parts: inputs, processes and outputs

Inputs include: physical (natural) which are the resources such as coal and iron ore, or
human/economic (artificial) such as labour and costs.
Processes include: turning raw materials into usable things such as steelmaking and also
turning the usable things into other things for example assembling cars.
Outputs include: profit or loss + waste materials e.g. slag + products for sale
Locating an industry:
Physical factors:
-power/energy: the industry should be near the raw materials or a port/station where the
materials come from
-natural routes: river valleys and flat land is good for transport
-site and land: flat land & enough space might be needed, cheap land
Human and economic factors:
-labour: quantity (industry might need many people) and/or quality (very-skilled workers,
close to a university)
-capital (money)
-markets: size and location of market
-transport: cost increases when items are bulky (steel), fragile (glassware) , heavy (steel) or
perishable (fruit/veg.)
-government policies
-improved technology: e.g. people who reply to phone calls as a job (noobs)
-leisure facilities: countryside views / amenities
High-tech industries are footloose as they do not need to be near raw materials so are located:
-in a pleasant working environment near to large markets and major transport routes
Or
-especially in the case of foreign companies, been tempted by government policies to locate in
former industrial areas which often had higher levels of unemployment

3.3 Leisure activities and tourism

Tourism has increased because:
-greater affluence: higher salary + holiday with pay
-greater mobility: increase in car ownership + more aircraft
-improved accessibility and transport facilities:
-better roads
-larger airports, online reservation, package holidays
-more leisure time: longer vacations, shorter working hours, people work from
home, more elderly
 -changing lifestyles: changing fashions, earlier retirements
-change in recreational activities
-advertising of holiday destinations: TV and interwebz
-green tourism
Advantages of tourism:
-growth in income
-an increase in foreign exchange
-employment opportunities
-the development of infrastructure and facilities which may be used by the local
population
-the encouragement of other developments to take place in an area
-cultural advantages
Disadvantages of tourism:
-seasonal unemployment
-under-use of facilities at certain times of the year (ski-towns in summer)
-increased congestion, pollution (the Lake District)
-a shortage of services e.g. water supplies
-social/cultural problems
-damage to the physical landscape (foot path erosion in the Lake District)
Growth of tourism in an area will depend on factors such as:
-accessibility
-scenery
-climate
-accommodation
-amenities
-sustainability
3.4 Energy and water resources
FIY the syllabus only asks for the significance of renewable and non renewable and the siting
of 3 types of power station but I’m going to add a little bit more to that.
Types of resources
 Non-renewable resources: These are finite.Fossil fuels were initially produced by
photosynthesis. In theory they are renewable, but it takes millions of years for them to
form. E.g. coal, oil, gas, (uranium).
 Renewable resources: These are continuous e.g. solar, wind, water, geothermal. They
are therefore sustainable.
Non-renewable resources:
Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) used mainly by MEDCs
Uranium for nuclear energy
Fuel-wood non-commercial source of energy in MEDCs but important in LEDCs; women
have to walk long distances each day to collect wood.They cook over open wood fires or
wood burning stoves.

Renewable energy supplies:

-reduce dependence upon fossil fuels
-alleviate the world’s energy crisis
-offer opportunities for the development of alternative energy sources
-they do not pollute
 -they do not add to Global Warming
-the source lasts forever

Renewable energy supplies are:

-geothermal
-wind
-solar
-bio fuel (since photosynthesis equals the amount of CO2 from combustion)
-hydroelectric
-tidal

Thermal power stations:

 In a thermal power station, fuel (coal or natural gas) is burned in a boiler to convert water
to steam.
 The high-pressure steam is directed into a turbine, which turns the turbine shaft.
 This shaft, connected to an electrical generator, produces electricity as it turns.
 A condenser converts the spent steam from the turbine back to water that is reused in the
boiler.
 The condenser cooling water comes from the reservoir and is returned for reuse.
They need:
 A large area of flat land
 A water source
 A rail link
 Isolated area for nuclear
 Cooling towers
Positioning a power station (the 3 you have to know):
Generator house Chimney stacks
Cooling towers

Water source e.g. river

Rail link Large area of flat land
 Water source

Reactor house

Cooling tower
Cooling ponds

Large area of flat land with security zone

Isolated area

Mountains = more cloud & rain Impermeable rock

Steep-sided narrow valley

Reservoir to create “head of water

Small surface area = less evaporation

Little occupied rural area

Short, high dam

 Heavy precipitation (relief rainfall) over high mountains

 Snow and glaciers provide spring water
 Large drainage basin traps more water
 Natural glacial lake or reservoir provides constant supply of water
 Impervious rock prevents water infiltration = surface runoff
 Steep-sided glaciated valley helps dam construction, water travels faster
 Site of former waterfall provides a head of water
 Nearby industrial and domestic demand
 Small surface area = less evaporation

Resource Advantages Disadvantages

Coal Lasts 300yrs, now become Cost of production high, produces
 more efficient, needed to lot of GH gases, dangerous, open
make coke cast = visual pollution, costly to
transport, acid rain
Oil More efficient than coal, Lasts only 50-70yrs, oil spills,
easier to transport, diversity releases GH gases, prices fluctuate,
of uses, petro-chemicals refineries use lot of space, acid rain
Gas Cleanest of fossil fuels, Releases methane, explosive, prices
cheaper than oil, easy to fluctuate, acid rain, GH gases.
distribute

Water uses:
-Agriculture: to water the plants etc.
-Domestic: cooking, cleaning and drinking
-Industrial: heated to make steam in order to turn turbines, and for cooling down reactors

3.5 Environmental risks and benefits: resource

conservation and management
Problems with development:
Soilerosion: occurs in farms, where the rainforest is cleared – soil is washed away by rain
because there are no tree roots to retain it. In the Amazon rainforest, eroded soil goes into
rivers and pollutes the drinking water.
Global warming:the greenhouse effect is when infrared radiation passes through the
atmosphere, and some is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas
molecules. The effect of this is to warm the Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere. Global
warming happens as a result of too much greenhouse gas
The effects:
-melting ice-sheets
-rising sea levels
-increase in storms
-change in the distribution of precipitation
-plants and wildlife might not have the time to adjust
-lower crop yields in Africa, parts of Asia and Latin America too, may increase in northern
America and Europe
-more people at risk from insect-borne and water-borne diseases
Greenhouse gases are:
-CO2 from burning fossil fuels or wood in power stations, cars and homes
-methane from decomposing organic matter and waste gases from digestion – cows
fartinghaha
-CFCs or chlorofluorocarbons from aerosols, air conditioners, foam packaging and
refrigerators (now banned)
-nitrous oxide from car exhausts, power stations and agricultural fertiliser
Air pollution: cars (transport) and power stations (energy production)
Carbon monoxide – incomplete combustion of carbon-containing substances causes oxygen
starvation
Sulphur dioxide – combustion of fossil fuels causes respiratory problems and acid rain
Nitrogen oxides – nitrogen and oxygen from air combine in a hot environment (hot furnace or
car engine) same effect as sulphur dioxide
Lead oxide: damages nervous system, from burning leaded petrol/diesel
Water pollution:
-industrial waste because it is cheap, does not take up land (as opposed to a land-fill site), and
people favour economic growth over the protection of the environment
-soil in rivers due to soil erosion (as shown in the Amazon)
-nitrates from fertilisers and phosphates from manure cause eutrophication
-oil spilling into the sea
-acid rain lowers pH (increases acidity) of lakes/ponds and leaches aluminium out of the soil
causing:
-the fishes gills to be damaged eventually killing them, fixed by adding calcium hydroxide
(slaked lime)
-destroys the top of the trees and the aluminium damages tree roots = dead tree, important
nutrients leached away
-health hazards for humans
-damages limestone buildings and sculptures
-fewer crops can be grown on an acidic field
Visual pollution: all those things are ugly compared to unspoiled nature
Noise pollution: vehicles (including planes) – transport, tractors – agriculture, mining or
quarrying (Lake District) probably produces noise, noisy tourists who stay up late partying,
music – tourism.