GEC02 - Understanding the Self

I. TITLE
Module 2: The Western and Eastern Concepts of Self

II. OVERVIEW
This chapter outlines the Western and Eastern concepts of self and how they differ
and agree on certain perspective. The Western thoughts tend to view the self as
autonomous, unitary, and stable. In contrast, in Eastern thought, the emphasis is
relational rather than individualistic. The self is considered not in isolation but in relation
to others, society, and the universe. One unique feature of Eastern is its great reverence
for nature.
The Western conceptualization of the self is presented in the four aspects and
divided into three periods of historical development while the Eastern concepts of the self
presented based on the four great systems of Eastern thought: Hinduism, Buddhism,
Confucianism, and Taoism.

One of the most effective ways to learn about oneself is by taking

seriously the culture of others. It forces you to pay attention to
those details of life which differentiate them from you.
-Edward T. Hall

III. LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
1. recognize how individuals view the self as a product of socialization;
2. understand how culture and self are complementary concepts;
3. identify the western and eastern concepts of self;
4. understand the western and eastern concepts of self as a way of life; and
5. examine your own conceptualization of self.

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IV. DISCUSSION

Glimpse on Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives of Self

Sociological
Sociology is a part of everyday life. The self is a relatively stable set of perceptions
of who we are in relation to ourselves, others, and to social systems. The self is socially
constructed in the sense that it is shaped through interaction with other people.
Monilla and Ramirez (2018), explained that the sociological perspective of the self
is based on the assumption that human behavior is influenced by group life. A particular
view of oneself is formed through interactions with other people, groups, or social
institutions. How sociology impacts students’ everday lives, and provide a pathway to
self uderstanding of “who you are and “what you are” in contemporary society. True
enough, modernization has significantly changed society, and this has affected how
individual builds and develops his or her self-identity.
Futhermore, according to Monilla and Ramirez, (2018), sociology as a scientific
study of social groups and human relationships generates new insights into the
interconnectedness between the self and other people. Hence, sociologist offer theories
to explain how the self emerges as a product of social experience.
Anthropological
As defined by Monilla and Ramirez (2018), anthropology is concerned with how
cultural and biological processes interact to shape human experience. Contemporary
anthropologists believe that culture and self are complementary concepts that are to be
understood in relation to one other. Also, the work of Otig, Gallinero, Bataga, et al., (2018),
reported that how individuals see themselves, how they relate to other people, and how
they relate to the environment are deeply defined by culture. If one finds the view that
the “self” is a product of society, then it is plausible that the ways of how the self is
developed are bound to cultural differences as well. In short, the self as embedded in
culture.
Moreover, Haviland et al., (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) explained that
anthopology considers human experience as an interplay of “nature”, referrings to genetic
inheritance which sets the individul’s potentials, and “nurture”, referring to the
sociocultural environment.
Therefore, it could be understood that both biological and cultural factors have
significant influence on the development of self-awareness among individuals within the
society. This could be the answer to the question, “Who am I?”.

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Western Concept of Self

Geertz (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) defined the Western concept of self
as “a bounded, unique, more or less integrated motivational and cognitive universe, a
dynamic center of awareness, emotion, judgment, and action organized into a distinctive
whole and set contrastively both againts other such wholes and against its social and
natural background”.
Moreover, Ho (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) described the Western self
as an individualistic self that is deeply aware of itself, its uniqueness, sense of direction,
purpose, and volition. The self is located at the center within the individual through which
the world is perceived. The self is also seen as “an entity distinct from other selves and
other entities”. This implies that the self belongs to the individual and to no other. The
focus is always looking toward the self.
The Western concept of self is holistically defined in terms of the following aspects.
This is how the term ‘self” is used in contemporary western discussion, according to
Johnson and Goldin (as cited in Otig et al., 2018)
1. Western Self as Analytic
- this is the “tendency to see reality as an aggregate of parts.” The “self” is an
observer separate and distinct from external objects (Me versus Other). This
implies that the Western way of thinking is analytic-deductive with emphasis on
the causal links (part-to-whole relationships). The whole is understood when
differentiated into parts. One must categorize and make distinctions to pursue
cause (Monilla and Ramirez, 2018).
2. Western Self as Monotheistic
- it involved the tendency toward unitary explanations of phenomena and a closed-
system view of “self” as modeled after a unitary, omnipotent power (“Man was
created by God, in His image). According to Monilla and Ramirez (2018), this is
the belief in one Supreme being coexisting with the universe condenses the
supernatural and human capabilities into bipolarity of both qualities and existence
(e.g. beautiful/ugly; kind/cruel; sacred/profane; strong/weak; etc.) and categories
of identity or experience (e.g., God/Satan; body/soul; love/lust; sinner/saint; etc.)
3. Western Self as Individualistic
- this is a quality of western thinking where self-expressiona and self-actualization
are important ways of establishing who one is, as well as in finding satisfaction in
the world. Monilla and Ramirez (2018) explained that Western individualism
exhibits the coexistence of favorable and unfavorable conditions inherent in
personal freedom. Although the right to individual freedom provides opportunities
for self-fulfilment, it also increases the likelihood of experiencing alienation and
frustration.

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4. Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic

- Western thinking tends to discredit explanations that do not use anayltic-
deductive modes of thinking. According to Monilla and Ramirez (2018), the
western way of thinking is focused on material “things” and favors a rational-
empirical approach over magical and superstitious explanations of immaterial
“things”.

The Historical Development of the Western Concept of Self

(Monilla and Ramirez. 2018. Understanding the Self)

Stage Period Historical Development

1 Pre-christian ●There were philosophical and theological attempts to characterize
times until 1850 the self through the concepts of soul and mind with emphasis on
conscious experience of the individual, distinction between physical
and mental nature of man (mind-body dualism), and the causality
of human behavior.
2 1850-1940 ●The establishment of experimental psychology in mid-nineteenth
century led to a change in emphasis from abstract concepts of soul
and mind to observable and measurable aspects of human faculties.
●The concept of self re-emerged within the social-interactionist
framework in the early the early 1900s.
3 1940-present ●There is multidirectional and continuous development of concept
of self:
a. Sociological and psychological theories of self encompass all
three levels of self, namely inner self, interpersonal self, social self.
b. Existentialists and phenomenologists, both in philosophy and
psychology, engaged in holistic approach integrating the inner,
interpersonal, and social aspects of self.
c. At present, there is convergence in some conceptualization of the
self among psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists,
philosophers, and linguists whose studies focus on the actual,
multivariate, and situational contexts of the self employing new
frameworks and methodologies.

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Eastern Concept of Self

The most well-known conceptions of the self in Eastern are represented by
the views of Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. This is because in the
East, philosophy and religion are twisted together. According to Garcia (as cited in
Monilla and Ramirez, 2018), these Eastern intellectual traditions differ greatly in features
and approaches to various issues about selfhood. For this reason, the eastern thought
is described as pluralistic.

Moreover, Villaba (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) reported that although
these four systems of Eastern thought differ in their approaches about the concept of self,
they share the same goal – to teach how to become a perfect person.

The Self in Four Great Systems of Eastern Thought

1. Hinduism

Hinduism views the essence of human life as consisting in suffering and

asserts that this is caused by having a fallacious conception of the self. Therefore,
the true self is permanent and unchanging, the non-true self is impermanent and
changes continually.

According to Monilla and Ramirez (2018), the Hindu concept of self is

expounded in Vedanta, a major school of Indian though based on Upanishads, the
classical Indian philosophical treatises. It has been stated that Brahman
absolute reality; and Atman (soul or spirit), the true knowledge of self, is identical
to Brahman.

Moreover, Monilla et al., (2018), explained that vedanta characterizes

human suffering as the result of failure to realize the distinction between the true
self (permanent and unchanging) and the non-true self (impermanent and changes
continually). The goal of the person is to have a knowledge of the true reality –
Brahman. Ho (as cited in Monilla et al., 2018) reported that self-realization is being
united to all embracing Brahman. But the realization of true selfhood will result in
a complete dissolution of individual identity.

The vast cultural differences in India led to the emergence of different

strands of Hindu traditions, each different for every region, villages or families.
Nevertheless, all believe in the spiritual progress of the human soul called
karma. This works through reincarnation in which a person goes through a cycle
of death and rebirth which depends on the moral quality of a previous life. The law
of karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism. Individual actions will lead to
either good or bad outcomes. This is equivalent of the old saying, “what you sow
is what you reap”. To recieve happinnes, peace, love and friendship, one must be
happy, peaceful, loving and a true friend. People get exactly what they

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deserve. If you do good things, you will be rewarded, if you do bad, you will be
punished. Thus, it is important for Hindus to know and follow one’s dharma
or moral responsibilities.
2. Buddhism
It began in India when Siddharta Gautama travelled and meditated in search
for the answers troubling him concerning human suffering. During his meditation
under the Bodhi tree, he obtained Bodhi or enlightenment. Thus, he became the
Buddha or the Enlightened One. The root word of Buddhism is budh meaning to
awake which leads to more undestanding of the self and the world. According to
Mansukhani (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018), based to the teachings of
Buddhism, every person has the seed of enlightenment, hence, the potential to
be a Buddha. But the seed shall be nurtured.
Monilla et al., (2018), explained that the Four Noble Truths are the basic
principles of Buddhism: (1) life is suffering; (2) suffering is caused by attachement
to desires; (3) suffering can be eliminated; and (4) elimination of suffering of
suffering is through the practice of the Eightfold Path (right view, right aspiration,
right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right
concentration.
Futhermore, Villaba (as cited in Monilla et al., 2018) reported that in
Buddhist philosophy, man is just a title for the summation of the five parts (matter,
sensation, perception, mental constructs, and consciousness) that compose the
individual, however each of the parts distinctly is not man. Man has no self (or no-
soul). There is only nothing and all else is an illusion. There is nothing permanent
but change. The ignorance of the impermanence of everything may lead to an
illusion of selfhood.
Thus, Buddhists believe that any person can also achieve what that Buddha
attained-enlightenment. By following the Buddha’s teachings which are the four
noble truths and the observation of the eightfold path, one certain can attain
Nirvana or the state of spiritual enlightenment and peace. This is also called a
state of transcendence devoid of self-reference which can be achieved through
meditation.
3. Confucianism
The concept of self, according to Confucianism, is related to the social
aspect of human existence. The self is conceived as a “relational self” – “one
which is intensely aware of the social presence of other human beings”. In
this way, the individual self is dependent on all other selves. The self is thus an
obedient self, which follows the appeals of social requirements, rather than its
own needs and desires. The ideal self, according to this doctrine, can be
achieved through a harmonization of one’s everyday communication with other
individuals in society at large. Thus, the core of Confucian thought is the Golden

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Rule or the principle of reciprocity: “Do not do to others what you would not
want others to do to you.”

According to Monilla and Ramirez (2018), the most important of

relationships are the Five Cardinal Relationships: between ruler and minster,
between father and son, between husband and wife, between brothers, and
between friends. Hence, the self is known as a relational self. Another important
feature in Confucian though is the individual’s greatest mission of attaining self-
actualization wherein self-cultivation is instrumental. Self-cultivation could be
accomplished by knowing one’s role in society and acting accordingly.

4. Taoism
According to Ho (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018), Taoism is a
Chinese counterculture. Taoists reject the Confucian idea of a relational self. To
them, the self an extension of the cosmos, not of social relationships. The self
described as one of the limitless form of the Tao.
Further, Garcia (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) explained that the
Tao is commonly regarded as the nature that is the foundation of all that exists.
It is not bounded by time and space. The ideal is to identify with the Tao. Chuang-
tzu (as cited in Otig et al., 2018) expounded that “the perfect man has no self; the
spiritual man has no achievement; the true sage has no name”. The ideal of
Taoism, therefore, is the achievement of a lack of self or “selflessness”.
Selflessness is attained when the distinction between “I” and “other:
dissolves. In sum, the conception of selfhood entails conscious self-
transformation leading to the atttibutes of balanced life in harmony with both
nature and society.

Comparative Matrix of Western and Eastern Approaches to

Understanding the Self
(Monilla and Ramirez. 2018. Understanding the Self)

Dimension Western Thought Eastern Thought

Frame of Reference There is a separation Religion and philosophy are
between philosophy and intertwined.
religion/ spirituality.
Examples of Schools of Scholasticism Hinduism
Thought/Belief Systems Rationalism Buddhism
Empiricism Confucianism
Phenomenology Taoism
Notable Philosophers Greek Triumvirate: Confucius, Lao Tzu
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Siddharta Gautama(Buddha)
Rene Descartes, John
Locke

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Source of Knowledge Has made use of reason Has trusted intuition and is often
rather to pursue wisdom. associated with religious beliefs.
Modes of Cognition Analytic and deductive Synthetic and Inductive
Emphasis Distinctions and Commonalities and harmonies
oppositions.
View of the Universe and Life Linear Circular
View of Self Egocentric Sociocentric
Subject-Object Distinction Duality of self-as- Simultaneously subject and object
(Bipolar Qualities of Self) subject(knower) and self- (The experience of self as both the
as-object(known) knower and known)
Theological View Monotheistic Polytheistic(Pluralistic)
Ideal Self-actualization through To achieve a balanced life and find
personal growth one’s role in society
Cultural Framework Individualism Collectivism
a. The self is a distinct and a. The self is an integrated part of
autonomous entity; it is the universe and the society.
an independent part of
the universe and the
society.
b. Independence and self- b. Interdependence and
reliance are core values. connectedness are core values.

c. Prioritize personal goals c. No distinctions between

over group goals. personal and group goals, or if
there is distinction, the personal
goals are subordinate to the group
goals.
d. Characterized by d. Characterized by communal
exchange relationship. relationship.

e. Uniqueness, sense of e. Conformity and obedience are

direction, purpose and essential social behaviors.
volition are the
acknowledged features of
self.

f. Personal success is f. Duty towards all others is

important. important.
The application of the different perspectives and approaches contributed to
improvements in the conceptualization of self. The Western and Eastern perspectives of
the self grew from a combination of sociology, anthropology, psychology, theology, and
religion. The Western and Eastern thoughts attempt to combine the good elements of
the diffirent disciplines to totally understand the self.

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V. EVALUATE
A. TRUE OR FALSE. Read and analyze the statements. Write T if the statement
is correct and F if the statement is wrong.
______ 1. Human experience is not an interplay of nature and nurture.
______ 2. The eastern concept of self is collectivistic.
______ 3. Taoists reject the Confucian idea of a relational self.
______ 4. For Hindus it is important to know and follow one’s dharma.
______ 5. In sociological perspective of self the self emerges as a product of social
experience.
______ 6. The western concept of self is individualistic.
______ 7. Confucianism believes that there will be harmonious relationships when
individuals follow the rules of proper social behavior.
______ 8. The self is not embedded in culture.
______ 9. The doctrince of Hinduism focused on the four noble truths.
______ 10. Siddharta Gautama is the founder of Taoism.

B. IDENTIFICATION. Identify the terms and concepts described in the following

terms.
______ 1. The most important doctrine of Hinduism.
______ 2. It means the enlightened one.
______ 3. The state of transcedence in Buddhism.
______ 4. The ideal of Taoism.
______ 5. The golden rule of Confucianism.

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VI. ASSESS
You already know the western and eastern concepts of self and their
characteristics. Now, using a venn diagram, compare and contrast the western and
eastern concepts of self and your representation of the Filipino self.

Western Concept of Self

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VII. REFLECT
Why are Filipinos known for being a collectivistic culture? Do you personally agree
that you are a collectivist? Why? Share a concrete experience why you think your
orientation is on individualism or collectivism.

VIII. REFERENCES

Alata, EJ. P., et al., (2018). Understanding the self. Rex Book Store, Inc.
Monilla, MJ. G. & Ramirez, N. C. (2018). Understanding the self. C & E Publishing, Inc.
Vergie, S. O.,et. al. (2018). A holistic approach in understanding the self. Mutya
Publishing House, Inc.

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