ACROSTIC POEMS should practice editing or proofreading one’s work.

It is also  FREE FORM WRITING AND JOURNALS

ideal to ask other readers to evaluate one’s work to ensure good
The first letters of each line are aligned vertically to - Is a prewriting technique in which a person writes
flow of words and presentation of ideas.
form a word. The word is often the subject of the continuously for a set period of time without regard to
poem.  KNOW THE NATURE OF CREATIVE WRITING spelling, grammar, or topic. It produces raw, often
unusable material, but helps writers overcome blocks
CREATIVE WRITING - Every writer must learn that creative writing is not only about
and self-criticism.
using one’s imagination, but also present ideas, themes,
 Is a writing that expresses the writer’s thoughts and arguments, and questions.  JOURNAL WRITING
feelings in an imaginative, unique way. (Sil org, What is
Creative Writing?) - Deals with the personal thoughts, views, and memories of the
writer. It is written to record personal experiences without
 It is geared towards presenting one’s ideas and feelings Kinds of Creative Writing
looking into the writing structure consisting of a beginning,
rather than just conveying information. middle, and the end.
 POETRY
 Creative writing is any form of writing which is written  SHORT STORIES, NOVELS, NOVELLAS, AND FLASH
- literary work in which special intensity is given to the
with the creativity of mind: fiction writing, poetry FICTION
expression of feelings and ideas by the use of distinctive
writing, creative nonfiction writing and more. The
style and rhythm; poems collectively or as a genre of
purpose is to express something, whether it be feelings, - Short stories utilize the basic elements of fiction. This literary
literature.
thoughts, or emotions. form is commonly read and written. A short story is different
1. Narrative Poetry from a novel through the word count. Novels are similar to short
Reasons for writing creatively stories in that they also make use of the elements of fiction and
- Form of poem that tells a story or series of events follow the structure of stories that have a beginning, middle,
 WRITE TO BE ENTERTAINED
using poetic devices. Many of the same elements that and the end. However, a novel has chapters and more
 WRITE TO SHARE YOUR IDEAS AND EMOTIONS are found in a short story are also found in a narrative characters and a plot that is more complicated than the plot of
poem: character, setting, conflict and plot. a short story. Novellas are similar to novels, but are shorter,
 WRITE TO BE THE PERSON YOU WISH TO BE while still being longer than short stories.
2. Lyric poetry
 WRITE TO TOUCH PEOPLE’S LIVES  SCRIPT AND PLAYS
- A verse or poem that is, or supposedly of being sung to the
 accompaniment of a musical instrument (in ancient times, - Theater, radio, and television all involve creative writing.
usually a lyre) or that expresses intense personal emotion in a Scripts for plays, movies, or television shows require the use of
Principles of Creative Writing
manner suggestive of a song. creativity and artistry. A play is highly dependent on its script
 READ BEFORE WRITING since all the details in it reflect how it should be performed on
3. Dramatic Poetry
stage.
- Writers must be familiar with the fundamental techniques of
- Presents one or more characters speaking, usually to
fiction and non-fiction writing. This is achieved through
other characters, but sometimes to themselves or
extensive reading and examining published literary materials. By
directly to the reader.
doing so, the writer becomes aware of various strategies in
writing and learns about new writing styles.  LIMERICK
 LEARN TO MAKE REVISIONS - Similar to a poem, but it is more complex as it follows certain
conventions in writing. It is a poem consisting of five lines which
- Effective writers are always aware and conscious of their
contains a whimsical and suggestive thought.
writing craft. They criticize their own work to improve it. One
THE WRITING PROCESS • She was very pretty. • Describes specific sounds that are happening within
the story. This can be something like, “The rooster
 PRE-WRITING • What does “pretty” look like?
crowed at early dawn, a sign that it was time to start
 WRITING THE DRAFT • Grandmother’s painted crimson lips were always the day. John woke up, listening to the quiet murmurs
smiling, her high cheekbones and deep, topaz eyes of his children in the kitchen below; the clang of pots
 REVISING and pans signaled that breakfast was almost ready”.
reminded me of Elizabeth Taylor.
 EDITING • Auditory imagery could also appear in the form
The Importance of Using Imagery
of onomatopoeia. Words such as “bang!” “achoo!”
 PUBLISHING
• Because we experience life through our senses, a strong “cacaw!” all work to describe sounds that most people
Difference Between Creative Writing and Technical Writing composition should appeal to them through the use of are familiar with.
imagery. Descriptive imagery launches the reader into
 Technical writing- conveys specific information about a the experience of a warm spring day, scorching hot 3. OLFACTORY (smell)
technical subject to a specific audience for a specific summer, crisp fall, or harsh winter. It allows readers to
• Pertains to odors, scents, or the sense of smell.
purpose. directly sympathize with characters and narrators as
they imagine having the same sense experiences. • Let’s say you’re about to bite into a warm, steaming
 Creative writing- fiction-poetry, short stories, plays and
Imagery commonly helps build compelling poetry, plate of maple smoked bacon. How would that smell?
novels and is the most different from technical writing
convincing narratives, vivid plays, well-designed film An author may describe it as, “The sweet scent of
sets, and descriptive songs. maple wafted through the room, causing Stephanie to
stop what she was doing and sniff the air. A second
waft of scent carried the underlying smoky scent of
Types of Imagery bacon; a scent only bacon straight off the grill could
have”.
1. VISUAL (sight)
DICTION
• Pertains to graphics, visual scenes, pictures, or sense
of sight. • Diction is word choice, or the style of speaking that a
_________________________________________ writer, speaker, or character uses. The diction that you
• Plays the largest role in imagery in literature. It use when you speak or write should be matched to
describes what a scene or character looks like. If an purpose or audience.
author writes something such as, “The deep blue hues
SENSORY IMAGES (IMAGERY) of twilight were reflected in the still water; the slight • In formal writing-essays, speeches-diction should be
glint of moonlight peeked through the clouds just formal. Words used should be used correctly, so that
• Is an author’s use of vivid and descriptive language to
enough to make out the silhouette of a passing ship”, the writer or speaker sounds intelligent. However, if
add depth to his or her work. It appeals to human
the reader can imagine a still, ocean scene at twilight you are speaking with your friends, diction can be more
senses to deepen the reader’s understanding of the
as if they were standing on the edge of the water casual-you may use informal words and even slang. In a
work.
themselves. work of fiction, the diction of the characters often tells
• Is created with details that help the reader see, smell, us a lot about the characters. We can tell if they are
hear, taste, and feel (tangibly) things without actually 2. AUDITORY (sound) intelligent, educated, or even what part of the world or
experiencing them. country they are from.
• Pertains to sounds, noises, music, or the sense of
• For example the writer is describing the grandmother: hearing. This kind of imagery may come in the form of
Onomatopoeia.
FIGURES OF SPEECH 6. Euphemism: The substitution of an inoffensive term for one Example: That kitchen knife will take a bite out of your hand if
considered offensively explicit. you don't handle it safely.
•  is a language that uses words or expressions with a
meaning that is different from the literal interpretation Example: Differently-abled instead of handicapped or disabled 16. Pun: A play on words, a joke exploiting the different possible
(actual words used), often to describe something by meanings of a word or the fact that there are words that sound
7. Hyperbole: An extravagant statement; the use of exaggerated
comparing it to something else or to create mental alike but have different meanings.
terms for the purpose of emphasis or heightened effect.
pictures with words.
Example: Jessie looked up from her breakfast and said, "A boiled
Example: I have a ton of things to do when I get home.
• is vivid and descriptive, it can create an image in your egg every morning is hard to beat.“
mind, reading it can cause emotional reaction 8. Irony: The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal
17. Simile: A stated comparison (usually formed with "like" or
meaning. Also, a statement or situation where the meaning is
• Using original figures of speech in our writing is a way "as") between two fundamentally dissimilar things that have
contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the idea.
to convey meanings in fresh, unexpected ways. Figures certain qualities in common.
can help our readers understand and stay interested in Example: A marriage counselor files for divorce.
Example: Roberto was white as a sheet after he walked out of
what we have to say. 
10. Litotes: A figure of speech consisting of an understatement the horror movie.
in which an affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite.
19. Synecdoche: A figure of speech in which a part is used to
1. Alliteration: The repetition of an initial consonant sound. Example: The ice cream was not too bad. represent the whole.

Example: She sells seashells by the seashore. 11. Metaphor: An implied comparison between two dissimilar Example: Tina is learning her ABC's in preschool.
things that have something in common. 
2. Anaphora: The repetition of the same word or phrase at the 20. Understatement: A figure of speech in which a writer or
beginning of successive clauses or verses. Example: "All the world's a stage." speaker deliberately makes a situation seem less important or
serious than it is.
Example: Unfortunately, I was in the wrong place at the wrong 12. Metonymy: A figure of speech in a word or phrase is
time on the wrong day.  substituted for another with which it's closely associated; also, Example: ”He is not too thin” while describing an obese person.
the rhetorical strategy of describing something indirectly by
3. Apostrophe: Directly addressing a nonexistent person or an
referring to things around it.
inanimate object as though it were a living being.
Example: Let me give you a hand.
Example: "Oh, you stupid car, you never work when I need you
to," Bert sighed. 13. Onomatopoeia: The use of words that imitate the sounds
associated with the objects or actions they refer to.
4. Assonance: Identity or similarity in sound between internal
vowels in neighboring words. Example: The clap of thunder went bang and scared my poor
dog.
Example: How now, brown cow?
14. Paradox: A statement that appears to contradict itself.
5. Chiasmus: is the reversing the order of words in the second of
two parallel phrases. This rhetorical device is also referred to as Example: "This is the beginning of the end," said Eeyore, always
reverse parallelism the pessimist.
Example: The famous chef said people should live to eat, not eat 15. Personification: A figure of speech in which an inanimate
to live. object or abstraction is endowed with human qualities or
abilities.
POETRY 4. SHAPE AND FORM B. LINE TYPES
 The actual shape and form of poems can vary  A reader pauses when there is a period at the end
• Poetry, literature that evokes a concentrated dramatically from poem to poem. You will of a line. A reader continues reading when the lines
imaginative awareness of experience or a specific encounter two forms: structured and free are written in continuing manner.
emotional response through language chosen and verse. Structured poetry has predictable  There are lines called end-stopped lines, which end
arranged for its meaning, sound, and rhythm. patterns of rhyme, rhythm, line length and at usual pauses and are indicated by a comma or a
stanza construction. In free verse, the poet period
• Poetry is literature in meter form. It is a form of written
word that has pattern and rhythm and rhyme. It can be
experiments with the form of the poem. The  But there are lines called free verse, it doesn’t
rhythm, number of syllables per line and follow the standard form
serious or it can be fun. Poetry is as creative as you
stanza construction do not follow a pattern.
make it
C. STANZAS
5. MOOD & TONE  Stanzas are a series of lines grouped together and
 The mood and tone of the poem is the feeling separated by an empty line from other stanzas. They
THE ELEMENTS OF POETRY
that the poet creates and that the reader are the equivalent of a paragraph in an essay. One way
• The basic elements of poetry include the speaker, senses through the poet's choice of words, to identify a stanza is to count the number of lines.
content, theme, shape and form, mood or tone, rhythm, rhyme, style and structure. Poems Thus:
imagery, diction, figurative language and sound-effect may express many moods— humorous,  couplet (2 lines)
devices. sarcastic, joyous, angry or solemn.  tercet (3 lines)
 quatrain (4 lines)
1. SPEAKER 6. IMAGERY  cinquain (5 lines)
 The poem's speaker is the person who is  This is a device by which the poet makes his  sestet (6 lines) (sometimes it's called a sexain)
addressing the reader. Sometimes, the speaker meaning strong, clear and sure.  septet (7 lines)
is the poet, who addresses the reader directly
 octave (8 lines) 
or another person. The poet reveals the 7. DICTION
identity of the speaker in various ways. Choice  The poet chooses each word carefully so that D. RHYME
of words, focus of attention and attitudes will both its meaning and sound contribute to tone  Rhyme is the repetition of similar sounds. In
indicate the age, perspective and identity of and feeling of the poem. The poet must poetry, the most common kind of rhyme is the end
the speaker. consider a word's denotation — its definition rhyme, which occurs at the end of two or more
according to the dictionary and its connotation lines. It is usually identified with lower case letters,
2. CONTENT — the emotions, thoughts and ideas and a new letter is used to identify each new end
 Content is the subject of the poem. It answers associated with and evoked by the word. sound. Take a look at the rhyme scheme for the
the question "what?", What is the poem all
STRUCTURE OF POETRY following poem :
about? What happens in the poem?
 I saw a fairy in the wood,
• In general, structure has to do with the overall He was dressed all in green.
organization of the lines of the poem and/or the He drew his sword while I just stood,
3. THEME
conventional patterns of sound And realized I'd been seen.
 Theme of the poem is the meaning of the
poem— the main idea the poet is trying to A. POETIC LINE
communicate. The theme may be stated  Line length and break produce a unique
directly or it may be implied. structure which the reader may find appealing
 Each line allows the reader to pause
  The rhyme scheme of the poem is abab. c.     Anapest (Anapestic): two weak syllables followed by a Irregularity: Many metered poems in English avoid perfectly
 Internal rhyme occurs in the middle of a line, as in strong syllable. regular rhythm because it is monotonous. Irregularities in
these lines from Coleridge, "In mist or cloud, on rhythm add interest and emphasis to the lines.
mast or shroud" or "Whiles all the night through
• Blank Verse: Any poetry that does have a set metrical
fog-smoke white" ("The Ancient Mariner").
pattern (usually iambic pentameter),
Remember that most modern poems do not have
but does not have rhyme, is blank verse.
rhyme. d.     Dactyl (Dactylic): a strong syllable followed by two
weak syllables. • Free Verse: Most modern poetry no longer follows
E. METER
strict rules of meter or rhyme, especially throughout an
• the systematic regularity in rhythm; entire poem. Free verse, frankly, has no rules about
this systematic rhythm (or sound pattern) is usually meter or rhyme whatsoever! [In other words, blank
identified by examining the type of "foot" and verse has rhythm, but no rhyme, while free verse
the number of feet. • 2. The Number of Feet: The second part of meter is the has neither rhythm nor rhyme.]
number of feet contained in a line.
• 1. Poetic Foot: The traditional line of metered poetry
contains a number of rhythmical units, which are
called feet.
Thus:
The pattern, or foot, is designated according to one foot=monometer
the number of syllables contained, and the relationship in two feet=dimeter
each foot between the strong and weak syllables. three feet=trimeter
four feet=tetrameter
Thus: five feet=pentameter
six feet=hexameter
__ = a stressed (or strong, or LOUD) syllable
U = an unstressed (or weak, or quiet) syllable Poems with an identifiable meter are therefore identified by
the type of feet (e.g. iambic) and the number of feet in a
TYPES OF FOOT line (e.g. pentameter). The following line is iambic
pentameter because it (1) has five feet [pentameter], and
a. Iamb (Iambic) - weak syllable followed by strong
(2) each foot has two syllables with the stress on the second
syllable.
syllable [iambic].

b.     Trochee (Trochaic): strong syllable followed by a weak

syllable.
RESEARCH - The process of obtaining information to seek Quantitative Research  Quantitative experiments also filter out external
solutions to problems is used to quantify the problem by way of generating factors, if properly designed, and so the results gained
It may also involve formulating a tentative answer to research numerical data or data that can be transformed into usable can be seen as real and unbiased.
questions. This tentative answer is called hypothesis, which may statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors,  Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the
be tested and verified by engaging in research. and other defined variables – and generalize results from a results gained by a series of qualitative experiments,
 To improve their critical thinking as well their reasoning larger sample population. Quantitative Research uses leading to a final answer, and a narrowing down
skills. measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in possible directions for follow up research to take.
 To develop their problem-solving skills that they research. Quantitative data collection methods are much more
learned from Statistics and Probability. structured than Qualitative data collection methods. DISADVANTAGES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARSCH
 To understand various issues. Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of  Quantitative experiments can be difficult and expensive
 To prove lies and support truth. surveys – online surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys and and require a lot of time to perform.
RESEARCH is important kiosk surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews,  They must be carefully planned to ensure that there is
• in science, technology, and engineering longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and complete randomization and correct designation of
• in business and advertising equally important in the systematic observations. control groups.
fields humanities and social sciences  Quantitative studies usually require extensive statistical
1. Both involve investigation or questioning about analysis, which can be difficult, due to most scientists
something; different from each other, in that, research not being statisticians. The field of statistical study is a
requires more complex procedural activities than whole scientific discipline and can be difficult for non-
inquiry. mathematicians.
2. Research because it involves several stages of searching  The requirements for the successful statistical
for truth. confirmation of results are very stringent, with very few
3. By adopting a logical or systematic way of searching experiments comprehensively proving a hypothesis;
truth there is usually some ambiguity, which requires
4. Production of invalid results. retesting and refinement to the design. This means
5. No, research approach tells you the kind of data another investment of time and resources must be
analysis to do. committed to fine-tune the results.
6. yes, because both involve investigative thinking.  Quantitative research design also tends to generate
7. Familiarity about something will not stop you from only proved or unproven results, with there very little
Qualitative Research
inquiring further about its ins and outs. room for grey areas and uncertainty. For the social
is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an
8. Yes, they signal your desire for genuine or truthful sciences, education, anthropology and psychology,
understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations.
things on earth. human nature is a lot more complex than just a simple
It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or
9. Answers vary yes or no response.
hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Qualitative
10. Answers vary
Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions,
ADVANTAGES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARSCH CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
and dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection
 Quantitative research is an excellent way of finalizing  The data is usually gathered using structured research
methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques.
results of proving or disapproving hypothesis. The instrument.
Some common methods include focus groups (group
structure has not changed for centuries, so is standard  The results are based on larger sample sizes that are
discussions), individual interviews, and
across many scientific fields and disciplines. representative of the population.
participation/observations. The sample size is typically small,
 After statistical analysis of the results, a comprehensive  The research can usually be replicated or repeated,
and respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota.
answer is reached, and the results can be legitimately given its high reliability.
discussed and published.
  Researcher has a clearly defined research question to performance of their children. A person’s religious affiliation is Nominal measures are limited to descriptive categories.
which objectives are sought an independent variable and can be measured through how Although you can count the frequencies or occurrences of these
 All aspects of the study are carefully designed before much influences one’s voting preference. categories, nominal measures cannot be ranked. A variable
data is collected. measured on a nominal scale may have two or more
 Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often Dependent Variables or outcome variables subcategories depending the extent of the variation.
arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual These are effects brought by the independent variables. Example: Gender (male or female); college major (English,
forms. In quantitative research, we predict or associate the values of Mathematics, Political Science etc.) religion (catholic,
 Project can be used to generalize concepts more the dependent variable through the values of the independent Muslim)
widely, predict future results, or investigate causal variables.
relationships. -also referred as outcome, effect, or response variable ORDINAL VARIABLES
 Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires, or Example: the number of migrants to a host country is a have all the characteristics of a nominal variable but
computer software, to collect numerical data. dependent variable of the socio-economic conditions in a source ranked in a certain order. The relative position of one case is
 The overarching aim of quantitative research study is to country. Low income levels in a source country may influence known.
classify features, count them, and construct statistical more people to migrate Examples: Social class (upper, middle, low); competition results
models in an attempt to explain what is observed. such as election results (first, second, third); typhoon signal
Intervening Variables number (1,2,3,4)
are the links between dependent and independent
Quantitative Variables
variables. There are certain phenomena in which, without the INTERVAL VARIABLES
 Because quantitative methodology requires
intervening variable, there will be no observed significant effect are a type of numerical variable. An interval measure
measurement, the concepts being investigated need to
to the dependent variable from independent variable (Kumar) describes a variable whose attributes are rank-ordered and have
be defined in a way that can be
A study looking into the impact of a country’s regime type and a equal distances between adjacent attributes. When comparing
measured. Organizational change, reading
country’s support for LGBT rights may be influenced by that two interval variables, we say that they differ from each other
comprehension, emergency response,  or depression are
country’s level of freedom of assembly. and that one is more than the other. Interval variables are those
concepts but they cannot be measured as
that do not have a “ true zero” value, since zero does not
such. Frequency of organizational change, reading
Antecedent Variables actually represent none or nothing.
comprehension scores, emergency response
are independent variables which precede other Examples: Fahrenheit temperature scale (the difference
time, or types of depression can be measured. They are
independent variables. These are the variables which affect the between 70 and 80 degrees is the same as 30 and 40 degrees;
variables (concepts that can vary).
link between the cause, connecting, and effect variables. They but 0 degree does not mean no temperature); Standardize
Quantitative research involves many kinds of variables. There
increase or decrease the strength of the relationship between intelligence test scores (IQ scores); age
are four main types:
independent and dependent variables.
 Independent variables (IV).
Example: You are looking into the positive relationship between RATIO VARIABLES
 Dependent variables (DV).
internet usage and political participation. You encountered have the characteristics of nominal, ordinal, and
 Sample variables.
similar studies which disapprove the relationship due to internet interval measures. They are based on a fixed starting point or a
 Extraneous variables.
access and censorship. Thus, internet access and censorship may “true zero point” (Kumar 1996: Babbie 2010). The value
be treated as the antecedent variable to internet usage represents none or nothing.
Independent Variables/Change Variables
(independent variable) and political participation (dependent Examples: Annual Family Income in Thousands of pesos (Php
Variables that cause changes in a phenomenon or
variable) 1,200, Php 2,750, Php 5,644); Number of students per classroom
situation. It occurs prior to all variables. It is also called
(38, 47, 54); voter turnout per presidential election (38, 162,
treatment, antecedent, manipulated, or predictor variables.
NOMINAL VARIABLES 985, 33, 510,092,27,782,735)
-Example: the level affection exhibited by parents is an
enable the classification of individuals, objects, or
independent variable which influences the academic
responses based on a common property or characteristics.
How do we identify a problem in a research? Features of a good research design
Research hypothesis
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem,
 It must be a phenomenon problem. The researcher hypothesis is a predicative statement that relates
usually involves the following features.
an independent variable to dependent variable.
 Specify the research objectives.  The mean of obtaining information.
Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing
 The availability and skills of the researcher and his
When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it
 Review the environment. staff, if any.
us termed as hypothesis testing research.
 The objective of the problem to be studied.
 Explore the nature of the problem. It can be experimental or non-experimental
 The nature of the problem to be studied.
 The availability of time and money for the research
Experimental and Control Groups
work.
WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN ? Control Group - when a group is exposed to usual conditions
Experimental group - when the group is exposed to be some
Features of a good research design
special condition
Task of defining the research problem is the preparation of the A research design appropriate for a particular research problem,
Treatments -The different conditions under which Experiment
research project, popularly known as the “research design & usually involves the following features.
and control groups are put up usually
quote;  The mean of obtaining information.
Experiment - the process of examining the truth of a statistical
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what  The availability and skills of the researcher and his
hypothesis, relating to some research problem. We
means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a staff, if any.
can conduct an experiment to examine the usefulness of a
research design.  The objective of the problem to be studied.
certain newly developed drug or others.
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection  The nature of the problem to be studied.
and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance  The availability of time and money for the research
RESEARCH DESIGN
to the research purpose with economy in procedure. work.
in case of exploratory research design exploratory research
Important concepts relating to research design
method are also termed as formulative research studied. The
Research design have following parts 1. Dependent and independent variables:
main purpose is that of formulate the research problem .
a concept which can take on different quantitative values is
1.Sampling designs called a variable.
Three methods are
Which deals with the methods of selecting items to be A phenomena which can take on different qualitatively values
1. The survey of concerning literature
observed for the study. even in decimal value are called continues.
This is most simple and fruitful method of formulating the
2. Observational design research problem. Hypothesis is taken earlier workers and their
Which relates to the condition under which the observation Extraneous variables
usefulness be evaluating as a basis for further Research.
are to be create. That are not related to the purpose of the study but may effect
2. The experience survey
3. Statistical design on the dependent variables
-means the survey of people who had practical experience.
Which concern the question of the of How the information Example of this Suppose a researcher want to test the
The object is to obtain new ideas relating to the research
and data gathered are to be analyzed? hypothesis that there is a relationship between children gains in
problem.
4. Operational design social studies achievement and their self concept.
3.The analysis of ‘inside-stimulating
Which deals with techniques by which the procedures In this case self-concept =independent variable
It is also a fruitful method of suggesting the hypothesis. It is
satisfied in sampling. Social studies achievement =dependent variable
particularly suitable in the areas where there is little
Intelligence may as well affect on the social achievement. But it
experience to serve as a guide. In this method the existing
is not related to the study undertaken by the researcher so it is a
records may be examined.
Extraneous variable
 establish the rationale, significance, and justification in pursuing will also benefit from the publication of one’s research as they
the research study. build on or add to the study.
a. In case of descriptive and diagnostic research 3. Formulate hypothesis MEASUREMENT SCALES
a. In case of descriptive research study –one those studied A hypothesis is an educated guess that serves as the tentative
which are concerned with describing the characteristics answer to the posed research questions at the beginning of the
of a particular individual , or a group. inquiry process. The hypothesis directs the researcher to the To measure different variables, we have four measurement
b. In diagnostic research study determine the frequency data gathering procedures to be used in the study as well as the scales:
which some thing occur. data analysis that can be employed to interpret the
findings.
Nominal Scale
4. Prepare the research design
Different research design
Is the “blueprint” of the research. It provides the details of how classifies persons or objects into two or more categories.
1. In case of Exploratory research study data will be collected, analyzed, and interpreted. It also includes Members of a category have a common set of characteristics,
the instruments that will be used to collect data. and each member may only belong to one category. Other
2. In case of descriptive and diagnostic research 5. Collect data names: categorical, discontinuous, dichotomous (only two
The most important step in the research process because it categories)
3. In case of hypothesis-testing research studies
involves obtaining the necessary information to answer the True vs. artificial categories
3. In case of hypothesis-testing research studies posed research question. Data can also be collected obtaining True categories are those to which the member naturally falls,
information from participants (demographics), documents, and such as gender (male vs. female).
Hypothesis-testing research studies known as experimental related literature. Artificial categories are those to which the researcher places the
studies are those researcher tests the hypothesis of casual 6. Analyze and interpret data members, such as learning style (field independent versus field
relationship between variables. Data analysis paves the way to make sense of the collected data dependent)
by transforming them into appropriate tables and graphs. An
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH DESIGN appropriate data analysis ensures the validity of the conclusions
1. Define the research problem of the study. Ordinal Scale
Identify a research topic and transform it into a researchable 7. Write the research report. Ordinal variables allow us to rank order the items we measure in
problem or question that can be investigated. You may confer After the collection and analysis of data, a researcher should terms of which has less and which has more of the quality
with people knowledgeable in your field of interest or read report the findings of the study into a comprehensive research represented by the variable, but still they do not allow us to say
published journals. paper. This process allows one to see the connections of the &quote; how much more.“
Formulating research questions involves asking questions that research questions, research design, data collection, and data Example: Ranking students
can be answered by means of collecting data. A well-crafted analysis. Ordinal Scale both classify subjects and rank them in terms of
research question gives a clue to the kind of variables to be After all, the primary purpose of conducting research is to seek how they possess the characteristic of interest. Members are
investigated as well as the data gathering procedures solutions to problems; thus, writing the results of the research placed in terms of highest to lowest, or most to least. Students
(e.g., observations, interviews, survey questionnaires) to be confirms that the research questions are answered. may be ranked by height, weight, or IQ scores. Ordinal scales do
undertaken by researchers. 8. Report the research findings. not, however, state how much difference there is between the
The usefulness of any research rests on its dissemination for ranks.
public consumption. It is the responsibility of the researchers to
2. Do the review of related literature
communicate their findings through research forums and other
Obtaining background information the research topic is the main
public discussions as well as through the publication of the
purpose of the interview of related literature. A review of
research itself.
related literature, such as peer-reviewed journal articles, helps
Communicating the results to the different stakeholders is a
form of advocacy of one’s research interest. Other researchers
Interval Scale
Not only rank order the items that are measured, but also to
quantify and compare the sizes of differences between them.
For example: students performance on a spelling test A score of
16 will be higher than 14 and lower than 18 and the difference
between them is 2 points (equal intervals).
Interval scales normally have an arbitrary minimum and
maximum point. A score of zero in a spelling test does not
represent an absence of spelling knowledge, nor does a score of
20 represent perfect spelling knowledge.

Ratio Scale

Very similar to interval scale; has all the properties of interval

variables, it has absolute zero point. Height, weight, speed, and
distance are examples of ratio scales. Measurements made with
ratio scales can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided.
For example, we can say that a person who runs a mile in 5
minutes is twice as fast as a person who runs the mile in 10
minutes. Because ratio scales are often used in physical
measurements (where absolute zero exists), they are not often
employed in educational research and testing.