Balancing Theory 101 Version 2008

THE BALANCING INSTITUTE
A TUTORIAL GUIDE TO THE SEMINAR
CONTRACT SERVICES DIVISION
www.hofmann-global.com
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION
Introduction to Unbalance Theory ................................... 1
Physical Laws ……………………….............................. 2
Sources of Unbalance …………….................................. 3
Compensation Methods ……………............................... 4
Establishing Balance Tolerances …................................. 5
Errors in the Balancing Process …. ................................. 6
Anatomy of Balancing Machinery .................................. 7
Testing a Balancing Machine …….................................. 8
Appendix
Conversion Charts
©2006 American Hofmann Corporation,

All rights reserved.
Contact American Hofmann Corporation to arrange obtaining a copy of this material.
Section 1
Introduction to Unbalance Theory

Defining Unbalance is best described as:
“That condition which exists in a rotor when vibratory force or motion is imparted to
its bearings as a result of centrifugal force.”
An unbalanced rotor generates vibration and stress in the supporting structure.

Compensating for unbalance improves overall quality of the assembly and provides
numerous benefits, such as:
Increased bearing life

Minimized vibration
Reduced audible and signal noise
Reduced operator fatigue
More efficient power operation
Increased product quality
Satisfied customers
Unbalance is one component of an assembly that can contribute to assembly

vibration. This vibration results in excessive/premature wear or failure of bearings,
bushings, gears, shafts, spindles, etc. thus reducing the service life.
Vibrations create stresses in structural supports and frames which may lead to
complete failure. In addition, performance is decreased as the energy is absorbed by
the supporting structure. Vibrations can seriously impair the ability of a product to
function properly.
1.1
Vibration Characteristics
Vibration can be classified under two categories. Free Vibration and Forced
vibration. Free vibration occurs when a system oscillates as the result of forces
inherent in the mechanical structure, and no influence from external forces are
present. This source of vibration is referred to when a system is vibrating at
one of more of its natural frequencies. These natural frequencies are properties
of the system normally established by its mass and stiffness.
Vibration that takes place under the excitation of external forces is called
forced vibration. When the excitation is oscillatory, the system is forced to
vibrate at the excitation frequency. If the frequency of excitation coincides
with one of the natural frequencies of the system, a condition of resonance is
encountered, and dangerously large oscillations may result. The failure of
major structures, aircraft wings, and rotating masses can be devastating under
resonance. Thus, the calculation of the natural frequencies of major importance
in the study of vibrations.
Vibrating systems are all subject to damping to some degree because energy is
dissipated by friction and other resistances. If the damping is small, it has very
little influence on the natural frequencies of the system, and hence the
calculations for the natural frequencies are generally made on the basis of no
damping. On the other hand, damping is of great importance in limiting the
amplitude of oscillation at resonance.
The number of independent coordinates required to describe the motion of a

system is called degrees of freedom of the system. A rigid body will have six
degrees of freedom, i.e., three components of position and three angles
defining its orientation. A flexible, rotating mass may indicate an infinite
number of coordinates (three for each point on the body) to describe its
motion; hence, its degrees of freedom must be infinite. However, in many
cases, parts of such bodies may be assumed to be rigid, and the system may be
considered to be dynamically equivalent to one having finite degrees of
freedom. In fact, a surprisingly large number of vibration problems can be
treated with sufficient accuracy by reducing the system to one having a few
degrees of freedom.
In the balancing industry, vibration is defined as mechanical motion as

referenced from a point of equilibrium. Normally vibration tests do not
consider phase angles, but cover a range of frequencies. Usually 10 –
1500 Hz 1.2
Characteristics of vibration are amplitude and frequency and can be
measured by the following parameters:
Displacement- is an indication of level of motion and is measured in

mils or inches peak to peak
Velocity - is the rate of change of displacement and is measured

in terms of peak inches per second.
Acceleration- is the rate of change of velocity and the magnitude is

proportional to displacement and the square of the
vibration frequency. Acceleration is measured in terms
of gravity or “G”.
The frequency of vibration as related to unbalance is 1 X rotational speed

of a given rotor. As mentioned earlier, many factors contribute to
vibration and can usually be isolated by determining the vibration
frequency.
Vibration severity levels can be calculated from displacement, velocity or

acceleration.
1.3
Vibration Severity
Vibration severity is a measurement of the destructive energy in a system and a
measurement of displacement over time, or how fast an object moves as it
vibrates.
Under normal operating conditions, properly functioning rotating components emit a

specific vibration. These signals can be measured and recorded as “Signature
Frequencies”. Changes in a signature frequency indicate that something is wrong
and the rotating assembly needs to be investigated.
Vibration levels can be measured over a wide frequency band utilizing portable
balancing and vibration measuring systems, commonly available.
1.4
We defined Unbalance in the Introduction, therefore BALANCING is the

process of reducing uneven mass distribution in rotating elements by adding or
removing compensating mass.
To balance a rotor by either method we must determine the amount of

unbalance and the angle at which it’s located. Therefore, unbalance is a vector
quantity - it has magnitude and direction.
What is a vector?
Vector quantities differ from scalar quantities; scalar quantities have only
magnitude.
Remember this statement when we discuss machine testing and Quality
Control procedures. We will elaborate on this later.
Which quantities are scalar and which are vectors?
· Volume
· Distance
· Speed
· Wind Velocity
· Force
Magnitude as well as Direction must be considered when adding or subtracting

vectors.
The principles of vector addition will simplify the analysis of unbalance

correction.
The sum of vectors cam be determined graphically, geometrically, or

trigonometrically.
1.5
What causes Unbalance?

Unbalance is caused by an uneven distribution of mass about the axis of rotation of a
rotor.
Uneven mass distribution comes from:
· Asymmetric design (uneven lobes on a crankshaft, key ways)

· Material irregularities
· Operational conditions (thermal expansion, foreign matter on rotor)
· Process factors (tolerances, coatings applied, handing)
Balancing issues can be minimized by incorporating symmetrical designs in rotating

masses and by establishing sufficient tolerances to minimize radial movements.
Large levels of unbalance require large corrections. High unbalance levels will
require a significant amount of material be removed in the opposite direction. Such
large masses may not be available to remove. A similar obstacle may be in the case
of material addition. Large amounts of mass may have to be added to a rotor to
compensate for large unbalance.
In either case, additional cost is involved and the integrity of the rotor may be
compromised.
Sources of unbalance are contributed to things such as portions of castings which

cannot be held concentric or symmetric with respect to the shaft axis.
Tolerances or processes which permit eccentricity with respect to the journal axis are
sources of unbalance as well. You should become familiar with, and know the
difference between the “Mass Axis” and the “Shaft Axis”.
1.6
PRINCIPLE AXIS OF INERTIA (MASS AXIS)
MASS AXIS
SHAFT AXIS
The mass (weight) of a part is evenly distributed about its principle axis of inertia.
Mass Axis is another name for principle axis of inertia.
The Mass Axis always includes the center of gravity of the part.
The principle axis of inertia (mass axis) is the axis about which the mass of the part
is evenly distributed. Unbalanced parts want to rotate about the principle axis of
inertia. However, they are restrained to rotate about the shaft axis by the bearings in
which the part is supported.
The displacement of these axes causes vibration and stress in the product by the
tendency of the part to pull away from its centerline.
1.7
Unbalance 101…What is unbalance?

Basically it is:
U=mxr
“U” is Unbalance
“m” is unbalance mass (weight)
“r” is radius (distance from shaft axis)

Unbalance is a mass multiplied by its distance from the shaft axis. In most cases,
unbalance is measured in terms of ounce-inches or gram-millimeters. Other
examples are gram-inches, kilogram-millimeters, and sometimes even ounces or
grams at a specified radius.
As an example, 1 ounce located at a 1” radius indicates the same unbalance as .5

ounces at a 2” radius. In either case the mass, multiplied by the distance from the
shaft axis produces the same unbalance level. A given mass will create a specific
unbalance, depending on the distance from the shaft axis.
A rule to remember when balancing “rigid rotors”: A given mass at a given radius
represents the same unbalance, regardless of the rotational speed. A rotor will have
unbalance whether it’s rotating or at rest. One thing to note is that sometimes
certain components may shift or distort at high speeds, thus requiring that the rotor
be balanced at the operating speed.
n Example of measured unit
= 1 oz-in + 1 oz +
2”
.5 oz
1”
= 1 oz-in = 1 oz-in 1.8

There is a direct relationship between the displacement of the center of gravity of a

rotor from its shaft axis and the resulting unbalance. This relationship is extremely
important when considering tooling design.
U = W Xe where
U = unbalance
W = weight ( mass) of part
e e = eccentricity
UNBALANCE
MASS
U
e= W
e can be seen a specific unbalance. ISO standards for balancing
Often express permissible unbalance in e.
EFFECTS OF UNBALANCE AND ROTATIONAL SPEED
When an unbalanced rotor is spun, a periodic force is exerted on the bearings and the
housing. The rotor bearings support offers some restraint, forming a spring-mass
system with damping properties. The reality is that no rotors are entirely rigid and
have a resonance, or “natural frequency”. When the rotor speed is below this
frequency the principle axis of inertia moves outward radially. When the rotor speed
increases a small time lag between the measurement points radially exists. This is
called “angle of lag”. As the speed increases, further resonance of the rotor will
occur. At this speed the angle of lag is 90 degrees. As the speed increases further, a
large increase in the vibration amplitude and angle of lag changes rapidly.
1.9
TYPES OF UNBALANCE
STATIC UNBALANCE (SINGLE PLANE)
Unbalance which displaces the principal axis of inertia parallel to the Shaft axis is
Static Unbalance. This could be represented as a single mass located at the center of
gravity, or two or more equal masses in phase in different planes, equidistant from
the center of gravity.
Static Unbalance is most common in large, narrow rotors and can be corrected by a
single mass placed opposite the center of gravity on a line perpendicular to the shaft
axis and intersecting the CG.
In some cases static unbalance can be detected utilizing a gravity type method,
commonly known as “knife-edges”. The rotor is placed on the knife edges and will
turn until the heavy spot reaches the bottom. Static unbalance can be measured
much more accurately by rotating on a balancing machine and measuring the
centrifugal force generated by the unbalance mass. Of course static balancing is
recommended for slow moving rotors or individual components that are
subsequently part of an assembly, and then balanced in two planes as an assembly.
Unbalance which displaces the principal axis of inertia parallel to the

Shaft axis. This could be represented as a single mass located atat
the center of gravity, or two or more equal masses in phase
in different planes, equidistant from the center of gravity.
Static Unbalance is most common in large, narrow rotors.
Mass Axis
Shaft Axis
1.10
COUPLE UNBALANCE (MOMENT UNBALANCE)
Unbalance which displaces the principle axis (mass axis) from the shaft axis and the
principle axis of inertia intersects the shaft axis at the center of gravity of rotor.
This is caused by equal unbalance in two planes exactly 180 degrees out of phase. It
is interesting that a rotor with this condition will not rotate when placed on a set of
knife-edges. The rotor must be rotated fast enough to generate centrifugal force,
vibrating in opposite directions at each bearing journal.
2 2
Couple unbalance can be expressed in ounce-in or gram-mm where the second
dimension is the distance between the two correction planes.
Unbalance which displaces the principle axis ( mass axis)

from the shaft axis and the principle axis of inertia
Intersects the shaft axis at the center of gravity of rotor.
This is caused by equal unbalance in two planes,

Exactly 180 degrees out of phase
Mass Axis
Shaft Axis
1.11
Couple unbalance is sometimes expressed in terms of

unbalance mass times the distance between planes
Uc = m x r x d
Shaft Axis
Couple unbalance cannot be compensated by a single correction in one correction

plane. Two masses, in two correction planes, 180 degrees from each other. You
need a couple to correct for a couple. The axial location of the correction couple is
not important, as long as its value is equivalent in magnitude, opposite to the
direction of the unbalance couple.
1.12
DYNAMIC UNBALANCE (TWO PLANE)
Dynamic Unbalance is unbalance which displaces the principle axis of inertia from
the shaft axis, which does not intersect the shaft axis. This is a result caused by two
masses in two distinct planes where the masses are out of phase with each other.
Mass Axis
Dynamic Unbalance
+
+
Mass Axis
Shaft Axis
Dynamic or two plane unbalance is the most common unbalance present in most
rotating masses.
1.13
Why don’t we balance everything in two correction planes?
Rotor configurations can be as varied as one can imagine. How do we

establish if a rotor should be balanced in a single correction plane or in two
correction planes?
The Industry accepted "differential point", that divides single plane and two
planes, is 6:1. Stating, if the impeller diameter is less than 6 x the distance
between the correction planes then the impeller will be balanced in two
correction planes. If the diameter is greater than 6 X the distance between
correction planes, usually a static (single plane) correction is performed.
This is stated officially in the Pump Industry Specification API-610 8th Edition,
and is unofficially embraced by the ISO (ISO TC 108, which is responsible for
balancing standards), although they have been hesitant to put this in writing up
to this point. For balancing machines It is generally accepted that the distance
between the bearing points MUST be less than 10 times the distance between
the balancing planes or this 6:1 ratio becomes invalid and plane separation
breaks down. For example, if the distance between the planes is 1", the
distance between the bearing points must be less than 10" to obtain plane
separation on a 6" diameter rotor.
1.13
Notes:
1.14
Section 2
PHYSICAL LAWS
Recall the definition of unbalance:
“That condition which exists in a rotor when vibratory force or motion is imparted
to its bearings as a result of centrifugal forces”.
Unbalance generates a centrifugal force when the rotor is put into motion, causing
vibration.
Asymmetrical mass, spinning about an

axis exerts radial force on the body.
This is called centrifugal force.
Centrifugal
Force
The larger the asymmetrical mass, the stronger the

centrifugal force .
The faster the rotation, the stronger the centrifugal
force.. Much more
2.1
How centrifugal force is related to asymmetrical mass

and rotational speed:
FC = k x U x rpm2
Where Fc is centrifugal force
k is a factor to convert unbalance and rpm
to pounds force
U is unbalance
rpm is rotational speed
FC = k x U x rpm2
To find Fc in pounds force use these k factors
Units of Unbalance k factor

lb-ft 0.000341
lb-in 2.85 x 10-5
oz-in 1.78 x 10-6
gm-in 6.26 x 10-8
gm-mm 2.47 x 10-9
2.2
BALANCING SPEED vs. OPERATING SPEED
The rotor design engineers determine the allowable force that can be exerted upon its
bearings at maximum service, or operating speed.
From these determinations, we can calculate the allowable unbalance in a given rotor
for a specific application.
Remember, unbalance is constant. The force caused by unbalance increases with the
rotor speed. If the speed is doubled, the force is four times greater; if the speed is
tripled, the force is nine times greater.
MOMENTS
Moment is considered a vector. Its motion is clockwise or counterclockwise. A

moment can be shown as:
FORCE x perpendicular distance from an axis.
Everyday examples of moments:
LEVERS or SEE SAWS

FORCE
LEVER ARM
AXIS
2.3
When is balancing necessary, and how do we apply it?
H
o
How does the individual balance in each component affect the total balance of the
rotor assembly?
2.4
Individual unbalances can be calculated by considering moments from the center of
axis of rotation. Remember the CW and CCW rule.
2
.
5
2.5
Notes:
2.6
Section 3
SOURCES OF UNBALANCE
Unbalance is generated from numerous factors. As an example, an armature has
several components that contribute to unbalance:
SOURCES of UNBALANCE
PROCESS/MATERIALS
- COOLING FANS
- COMPONENTSTACKING PROCESS
- KEYWAYS
- FLANGES
- NON-PRECISE MACHINING TOLERANCES
- SHAFT VARIATIONS
Manufacturing variations are a leading contributor to unbalance. If you refer to the

formula reviewed earlier: U=m x r, and apply that to rotors that may be out-of-
round, you can see how that can contribute to unbalance.
As an example, if rotor lamination is out-of-round, or the center hole is not in the

center of the lamina, the mass is greater on one side of the lamina than the other with
respect to the shaft axis; contributing to unbalance.
3.1
T.I.R. (RUNOUT)
Another application to consider is components added to the rotor shaft which may
have been balanced in another process. Theoretically, assume a fan has been
balanced to zero and it is installed on a rotor shaft that may be .002” smaller in
diameter than the fan bore.
Once you tighten the set screw that the holds the fan in place, you can effectively
shift the mass .002”. This produces a runout of .002”. If the fan weighs 100 ounces,
the result will introduce .1 ounce-inches of unbalance in the rotor.
U = W Xe where
U = unbalance
W = weight ( mass) of part
e e = T. I . R. / 2
3.2
Stack up of tolerances:
Stacking up the unbalance of each component can be additive or subtractive to the
total rotor unbalance, depending on the phase angle of the individual unbalance
components.
source amount
U1 Impeller .002
U2 Gear .001
U3 Pulley .0005
U4 Spacer .0001
U5 Spacer .0002
U6 Bearing Runout .0008
UT = √ 2 2 2 2
U1 + U2 + U3 + U4 + U5 + U6
2 2
As you can see, if we derive an estimate from the formula, reducing the unbalance in
only one component, without reducing the unbalance in the remaining components,
we produce unsatisfactory results.
3.3
Notes:
3.4
Section 4
UNBALANCE COMPENSATION METHODS

The manufacturing industry, as well as the balancing industry adapt terms that
become acceptable, but not technically true. While most state that we correct
unbalance, we actually compensate for the unbalance condition in a rotating mass.
Unbalance is defined as uneven mass distribution in a rotating body. It can be
compensated for by adding an equivalent mass 180 degrees opposite to, or by
removing the mass at the heavy spot.
Unbalance compensation by material addition is usually utilized in applications with
higher balance tolerances because of the inherent issues with specific correction
weights, as well as limited locations where the compensation weight may be added.
Material removal is the preferred method for most unbalance compensation
applications on smaller rotors with tighter tolerances.
Material Removal
Benefits for compensation by material removal include:

· Easier
· Faster
· Cost Effective
· Adaptable for Automation ( High Production )
Methods for material removal include:

· Drilling
· Milling
· Grinding
· Laser
4.1
Material Addition
Material addition is generally an economical approach to balancing. As mentioned
earlier, this process is usually selected for rotors with higher unbalance tolerances.
This process depends on three key components:
· Work Piece Design

· Work Piece Geometry
· Operating Characteristics
Weight addition is accomplished utilizing fixed or pliable weights such as:
Fixed Weights: Pliable Weights:
Washers Two Part Epoxy

Rivets UV Epoxy
Screws Lead Tape
Steel weights
Clips
Both methods of unbalance correction; sorry, I mean, unbalance compensation can

introduce errors in the process of balancing.
Types of errors introduced in the balancing process include Angle, Amount and
Correction Plane Location.
Weight Removal:
Ø Some methods do not permit accurate amount determination.
Ø Locating and compensating at the precise angle is not always possible.
Weight Addition:
Ø Using incremental fixed weights can lead to over or under
correction.
Ø Selecting pliable weight amount is often trial and error
Ø Difficult to control accurate angle of applied weight.
4.2
Although material addition and material removal are the two most common
unbalance compensation processes, other compensation methods are sometimes
utilized.
These include:
Ø Mass Centering
Ø Match Balancing
Ø Overbalancing
Ø Vector Balancing (Weight Splitting)
Methods are available to assist in improving the balancing process by minimizing

errors introduced in the process. Some tools available are:
Ø Utilizing scales to measure balancing weights

Ø Using a ruler to accurately measure correction radius and correction planes.
Many balancing machines have optional software and firmware available to make
the compensation process more efficient. Features include:
Ø Angle Locating Device (Remote Angle Feature)

Ø Automatic Correction Plane Optimization Software
Ø Mill or Drill Correction Curve Programs
Ø Programmable, Fixed Weight Combination Addition Software
Ø Component Unbalance Display
Without the use of software tools, the balancing process can be time consuming and
a significant training period for operators is usually required to make the process as
efficient as possible.
4.3
Notes:
4.4
Section 5
ESTABLISHING BALANCING TOLERANCES

Selecting the proper balance tolerance for your rotor application is a very important
function to consider when designing a rotor, considering the cost to manufacture and
the reliability benefits.
Time is money and the lower the balance tolerance, the time and cost to balance the
product can increase exponentially.
Many times customers overestimate the tolerance required to insure smooth

operation. Factors to consider include the application and maximum service speed.
As reviewed earlier, balancing results in less noise, increased bearing life, minimum
power losses and improved quality.
Where does one start and what level is acceptable? Well, a good rule of thumb is:
“Set your tolerance as high as possible to achieve the results you are looking for.”
Unbalance values are stipulated the following ways:
Units of mass x radius Units of displacement

• Oz-in “e”
• lb-ft
• g-mm ( gm-mm ) • inches
• g-cm • mils
• kg-mm • microns
• N-m • micro-inches
5.1
The relationship between unbalance and CG displacement is important in determining a

method for selecting balance tolerances.
Remember the following?
Reference: U = W x e
Allowable residual unbalance are stated in terms

Of “e” or “e per”
Allowable unbalance can be found by multiplying the rotor weight by “e”.
Displacement terms are utilized in international guidelines for establishing balance

tolerances by ISO. (International Standards Organization)
ISO has collected data for millions of rotors since the early 1960’s and utilized the data to
develop quality guidelines. These guidelines are a good starting point for establishing
rotor balance tolerances.
ISO 1940 1-2 specifies rotor tolerances in terms of CG displacement. These classifications
range from G 4000 to G 0.4, with G 4000 the highest level of acceptable and G 0.4 the
most sensitive.
The tolerance recommended by the ISO applies to “rigid rotors” and are reference from the
bearing journals. Balance tolerance at the correction planes may be different depending on
the rotor configuration. Refer to the section on calculating unbalance at the correction
planes.
For most applications rotors can be classified as “rigid”. Nevertheless, rotors in theory are
not truly rigid and can have numerous resonance properties that can affect unbalance
measurements and vibration levels at various speeds.
Flexible rotor balancing is a different process, and can be application specific, which may
be very time consuming and complex depending on the rotor properties and application.
5.2
ISO table referenced below describes various applications and balance quality grades. You
can use table 1 to select your quality grade and then go to the chart indicating service speed
and quality grade to find displacement. Next, you can calculate the recommend balance
tolerance. This calculation is the total tolerance. For dynamic applications (two plane), the
amount has to be divided by 2.
5.3
5.4
Using the formulas below, desired unbalance tolerance levels can be calculated using
ISO guidelines.
Utol = k x G x W/n
Example: Part weight in lbs. and tolerance in oz-in
U tol = 6. 30 x G x W (lbs) / n (rpm)
A useful tool is this ISO balance tolerance calculation chart. Just fill in the shaded
areas and the total tolerance can be calculated for you.
Click on the link:
5.5
Allocation of permissible residual unbalance to the tolerance planes.
Single Plane
In the case of single plane correction Uper is used for the entire rotor.
Two Plane
7.2.1 General
The permissible residual unbalance Uper is allocated in proportion to the distances
from the mass centre to the opposite tolerance plane If the tolerance planes are the
bearing planes A and B, the following equations apply:
where
Uper A is the permissible residual unbalance in bearing plane A;
Uper B is the permissible residual unbalance in bearing plane B;
Uper is the (total) permissible residual unbalance (in the mass centre plane);
LA is the distance from mass centre plane to bearing plane A;
LB is the distance from mass centre plane to bearing plane B;
L is the bearing span.
1
Mass Ctr
A B
La Lb
Uper A = Uper x LB UperB = Uper x LA

L L
5.6
Section 6
ERRORS IN THE BALANCING PROCESS

As with any measuring process, errors exist and limit the ability for accurately
measuring and compensating for unbalance.
Balancing errors are contributed to the manufacturing process of the rotor as well as
the balancing process.
Another thing to note: A balancing machine is a measuring device, however unlike

most manufacturing processes which utilize a scalar measurement to determine a
process capability, unbalance measurements are vectors. In addition, “balance” is an
attribute, not a variable. This will be discussed in more detail in Section 8.
What causes errors in unbalance measuring:
THE PROCESS:
Ø BALANCING CONSIDERATIONS IN ROTOR DESIGN

Ø FABRICATION OF ROTOR
Ø CONFIGURATION TO BE BALANCED
Ø HANDLING
Ø MEASURMENT
Ø COMPENSATION
Ø AUDIT
Ø ASSEMBLY
Ø LACK OF PRESERVING THE BALANCE CONDITION
ERRORS COME FROM: Faulty Measuring, Inaccurate Compensation
6.1
What are the consequences?
- Inefficient process (part will be balanced but at what cost)

- Extra Runs
- Compensate too many times
- Machine falsely indicates part is in tolerance
Balance errors can be grouped by
- Amount
- Angle
- Plane Separation (Two Plane)
6.2
ISO 2953 refers to tests to determine balancing machine accuracy and sensitivity. A
balance system can have numerous accumulated errors resulting in undesirable
process capability.
Examples of the types of errors are as follows:
Measuring Acuracy
0.8
0.7
0.6
Actual
Amount = 0.5
.6 gm 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
A measuring system can be somewhat repeatable, however not accurate.
Measuring Repeatability
0.8
0.7
0.6
Actual
Amount = 0.5
.6 gm 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
A measuring system may not indicate repeatable amount/angle indications.
6.3
Other factors include:
6.4
6.5
ANGLE ERROR % U remaining
3 degrees 5.2 %
5 degrees 8.7 %
10 degrees 17.4 %
15 degrees 26.0 %
30 degrees 49.9 %
60 degrees 100.0 %
6.6
Errors in adapting rotors to arbors:
Software features such as tooling compensation can electronically minimize the error
in mounting rotors on arbors.
6.7
Tooling Compensation
electronically eliminates:
· tooling eccentricity or run out
· increases through put
· increased accuracy
How Tooling Compensation Works:
· First spin – Readout indicates resultant of unbalances from all

sources. Compensate for indicated unbalance.
· Index part 180 degrees – Unbalance in work piece is sole

vector that is moved.
· Second spin – Readout now is of tooling unbalance and

eccentricity effect plus twice part unbalance (i.e. part
unbalance and compensation for unbalance in the first run).
6.8
First compensation run (Nilling)
Second compensation run
6.9
Resolution of second vectors into indicated unbalance
6.10
Section 7
ANATOMY OF A BALANCING MACHINE

A balancing machine serves numerous functions. These functions include measuring
unbalance, compensating for unbalance by interfacing with a type of correction
device, serving as an audit unit, and providing material handling, part transport as
well as sorting.
In order to measure and compensate for unbalance the machine is required to

provide:
Ø Amount
Ø Angle
Ø Correction Plane Location
Measuring Systems
A balancing machine may comprise of a non rotating (static) measuring system used
for single plane applications with high balance tolerances, or the most widely used, a
dynamic (rotating) measuring system. The dynamic system is the most widely used
and is what we will focus our attention on in this workbook.
A good measuring system must have the following attributes:

• Accurate
• Repeatable
• Ease of Operation
• Adaptable to a wide range of parts
• Eliminate / min. outside influences on measurements
.1
SOFT BEARING MEASURING SYSTEMS
A soft bearing measuring system derived its name from the fact that the work
supports the rotor rests in are actually flexible, permitting the rotor to move freely;
usually in a direction perpendicular to the shaft axis.
Soft bearing systems are sometimes referred to as:

“Displacement Measuring Systems”.
The critical frequency or resonance of the rotor and journal assembly occurs at ½ or
less of the lowest balancing speed. When the balancing speed is reached, the angle
of lag and the displacement amplitude are stable and normally a very accurate
measurement can be obtained.
Some disadvantages of a soft bearing system include the requirement to recalibrate

the system if the rotating speed changes, the weight of the work piece changes, or if
the journal supports (rollers) are changed. These changes cause a change in the
displacement of the measuring support system, due to the change in mass. In
addition, care must be taken when loading and unloading rotors to prevent damaging
the moving work supports.
7.2
HARD BEARING MEASURING SYSTEMS
Hard bearing balancing systems have the same basic construction as a soft bearing
system except the work supports are considerably stiffer in the horizontal measuring
direction. Normally, the machine base has more parasitic mass as well, resulting in
the resonance of the machine to be several orders of magnitude greater than that of a
soft bearing measuring system.
Since the system measures well below the resonance, the phase angle lag is
practically zero; the amplitude of vibration is very small and directly proportional to
the forces produced by unbalance.
A hard bearing system, otherwise known as a “force measuring system” is not

influenced by bearing mass, or rotor weight. As the centrifugal force from an
unbalance rises with the square of the speed, so does the output from the pickups.
The measuring instrument can reduce the signal inversely proportionally to the
square of the speed, resulting in a steady unbalance indication.
7.3
Examples of measuring work supports:
Round Spring, Force

Measuring Table
Used for Self Drive

Applications, Rotor
Assemblies. Tooling
adapted to measuring table
to accommodate rotors.
Independent
Horizontal
Force Measuring Work
Supports
Universal Applications.
Work Supports are rigid,
Independently adjustable
Soft Bearing,
Displacement
Measuring
Work Supports
Universal Applications,
Work Supports are flexible
and independently adjustable.
7.4
Once the signal is processed, the data is displayed as an unbalance amount and the
angle location of the amount with reference to the RPM mark or indicator. Utilizing
this information, an operator can compensate for the rotor unbalance by adding or
removing material as indicated on the display of the measuring instrument.
This sounds straight forward, however it can be quite complex because of the
numerous influences that affect the indications on the balancing machines. This
subject is covered in more detail in the section defining
“Errors in the Balancing Process”.
7.5
How a balancing system measures unbalance in established correction planes.
Unbalance in rotors produce centrifugal forces against a rotor’s bearing journals.

Unbalance can be minimized and reduce the forces exerted at the bearing journals,
however correction cannot be performed at the journal locations, and thus correction
planes are normally defined for a specific rotor.
ISO Standards Handbook, Section -1940, establishes recommended balancing

tolerances in terms of “e”. This is equivalent to the displacement of the center of
gravity. Balance tolerance, classified as Balance Quality Grade “G”, is defined as
follows:
Note 2: In general for rigid rotors with two correction planes, one half of the
recommended residual unbalance is to be taken for each plane; these values apply
for any two arbitrary planes, but the state of the unbalance may be improved upon
the bearings.
When a correction is made at a location on one end of a rotor, the forces are reduced
significantly on that end; however, it also affects the forces exerted on the opposite
journal to some degree. This is defined as correction plane interference (cross effect)
and defined as:
“The change of the balancing machine indication at one correction plane of a given
rotor, which is observed for certain changes of unbalance in the other correction
plane.”
Balancing Machinery incorporates “Plane Separation Network Circuitry” to provide

a means to calculate a location to add or remove mass from each plane, and
minimize cross effect.
7.6
Utilizing the plane separation network provides a means for machine operators to
measure the physical distance from correction plane locations with reference to the
bearing journals or pickup locations. The dimensions are entered into the measuring
instrumentation and thus allows for corrections in each specified correction plane
with minimum influence on the opposite unbalance indication measured on the
opposite journal.
Without the ability to enter the proper dimensions of the measured correction planes
with respect to the pickups, or journal locations, the operator simply cannot make
unbalance corrections in a reasonable time frame. Every time a correction is made at
one point, it has an affect on the unbalance display on the opposite end and vice
versa. The plane separation or correction plane feature eliminates the “Trial and
Error” approach for balance correction. In other words, it can reduce the time
required for balancing a specific rotor from hours to minutes.
7.7
Figure 1: formula for transposing unbalance from measuring planes to correction

planes
A | B | C
| |
U3 U4
U1 U2
U3 = U1 ( B + C ) + U2 ( C )
A+B+C
U4= U1 ( A ) + U2 ( A + B )
A+B+C
7.8
Tooling Requirements for the

Balancing Machine
•Tooling Introduces Errors

•Reduces sensitivity
•Expensive
Used when: Rotors without their own journals

Horizontal Applications ( Arbor )
Vertical Applications ( Spindle )
Assembly Balancing
End Drive Balancing Machines
Tooling for balancing applications can comprise a fixture to hold rotor bearings, such as
half shells, a clamping fixture to support a complete rotor assembly, for various special
applications, such as self drive rotor assemblies, or what is referred to as “balancing
arbors”.
Tooling contributes to measuring errors. Set-up errors are almost always evident because
of manufacturing tolerances and how the rotor is positioned with respect to the work
supports or measuring spindle.
The tooling becomes part of the rotor being balanced, and therefore several things must be
considered regarding their design, manufacture and use.
Balancing machine tooling should be as light as possible to have minimum affect on

machine sensitivity. The tooling mass is particularly important when used on a soft
bearing machine. It is also just as important that while the tooling should remain as light
as possible, it must be rigid enough not to flex or bend at balancing speeds.
Tooling for horizontal systems should be designed so the rotor mounts near the center of
the measuring pickups. For vertical systems, arbors need to be designed to accommodate
the rotor bore as close as possible. This will be discussed in more detail in the section
describing “Errors in Balancing”.
7.9
Tooling designed for horizontal application
Tooling designed for a vertical application
7.10
Notes:
7.11
Section 8
TESTING A BALANCING MACHINE

The Measuring Function
A balancing machine is a measuring device. Just as other devices, it should be qualified

for use before it is put into service, then periodically calibrated
Again, we recommend you refer to ISO 2953. This ISO reference specifies various tests to
determine the following:
Ø Accuracy
Ø Minimum Achievable Residual Unbalance (Umar)
Ø Unbalance Reduction Ratio (Urr)
Ø Couple Interference Test (ISC)
Recommended routine Balancing Machine Calibration:
Certifying a machine is calibration is accomplished by utilizing a test rotor and

installing test masses that have been weighed on a scale, confirming the amount of
the test mass.
Normally, the test mass is traversed around the test rotor. The readouts of balancing
runs are recorded, documenting the test mass indication, angle location, and usually
the cross effect reading from the installed test mass.
The machine should be adjusted to indicate the actual amount of the test mass, If the
indication is equivalent to the test mass and the angles track as the weight is inserted
at various locations, then the machine is considered calibrated.
It’s important to remember that depending on the application, test mass and rotor
weight, slight variations in the test mass indication may be displayed. You should
consider what levels are acceptable for your specific applications.
8.1
Many companies have defaulted to what is known as Gauge Repeatability and

Reproducibility, know as (GR&R) studies. While this can be a valid test to determine a
baseline for the measuring system repeatability, many companies misapply this statistical
study. Many companies have spent thousands of dollars and have required balancing
machine manufacturers to spend thousands of dollars in order to achieve a capability of
10% GR&R or less.
The oversight is just what an unbalance measurement is. When a balancing tolerance is
established, the process goal is to achieve the specified level of unbalance or less. A rotor
balance tolerance is defined as an attribute. The rotor is either acceptable of reject, at or
below tolerance. A balancing measuring system variation is mostly directly related to the
condition of the part being measured, worn tooling or bad journal supports.
Environmental conditions can affect balancing systems measuring capability. Excessive

change in ambient temperature can cause the measuring indications to vary because of a
change in rotor temperature.
A balancing system measures displacement of a rotor in millions of an inch. Consider this

and you see how important rotor characteristics are in measuring variability.
A manufacturer should consider these points before establishing specific guidelines for
quality control of the balancing process. The cost to achieve further minimal results can be
extremely high and unrepeatable.
8.2
GAGE R & R STUDY Customer: PRESTOLITE
NOTE: DATA ASSUMES (2) TRIALS DATE: 1/4/2001
NOTE: DATA ASSUMES (2) OPERATORS ROTOR:
SETUP NUMBER:
PLANE TO BE
TESTED: RIGHT
STATION TO BE
TESTED: MEASURE
MACHINE TO BE
TESTED: 00/4/119
OPERATOR A: OPERATOR B:
SAMPLE
2ND
No. 1ST TRIAL TRIAL RANGE 1ST TRIAL 2ND TRIAL RANGE TOTAL
range
1 0.9210 0.9000 0.0210 0.9260 0.9200 0.0060 0.0270
2 0.9110 0.9100 0.0010 0.9260 0.9260 0.0000 0.0010
3 0.9090 0.9150 0.0060 0.9270 0.9220 0.0050 0.0110
4 0.9130 0.9220 0.0090 0.9270 0.9200 0.0070 0.0160
5 0.9140 0.9250 0.0110 0.9260 0.9160 0.0100 0.0210
6 0.9150 0.9250 0.0100 0.9280 0.9220 0.0060 0.0160
7 0.9160 0.9280 0.0120 0.9280 0.9200 0.0080 0.0200
8 0.9140 0.9270 0.0130 0.9000 0.9190 0.0190 0.0320
9 0.9130 0.9160 0.0030 0.9190 0.9180 0.0010 0.0040
10 0.9100 0.9170 0.0070 0.9210 0.9190 0.0020 0.0090
TOTALS 9.1360 9.1850 0.0930 9.2280 9.2020 0.0640

9.1850 9.2020
9.1360 0.0093 9.2280 0.0064
Ra-BAR Rb-BAR
SUM 18.3210 SUM 18.4300
Xa-BAR 0.9161 Xb-BAR 0.9215
Max X-BAR 0.9215 Ra-BAR 0.0093

Min X-BAR 0.9161 Rb-BAR 0.0064
SUM 0.0157
X-BAR DIFF. 0.0055 R-BAR 0.0079
ENTER TOLERANCE HERE: 0.8000 grmm
RANGE UPPER CONTROL LIMIT: (R-BAR) X (D4) = 0.0257

D4 (2 trials) 3.27
MEASUREMENT UNIT ANALYSIS:

REPEATABILITY - EQUIPMENT VAR: E.V. = (R-BAR) X (K1) = 0.0358
K1 (2 trials) 4.56
REPRODUCIBILITY - OPERATOR VAR: O.V.=SQ.RT((X-BAR DIF)X(K2))2-(EV)2 /20= 0.0182

K2 (2 trials) 3.65
REPEATABILITY AND REPRODUCIBILITY (R & R) = SQ.RT. OF (E.V.)2+(O.V.)2 = 0.0402
PERCENT TOLERANCE ANALYSIS:

PERCENT EQUIPMENT VARIATION: %E.V. = 100[(E.V.)2/((R&R)X(TOLERANCE))] = 3.99%
PERCENT OPERATOR VARIATION: %O.V. = 100[(O.V.)2/((R&R)X(TOLERANCE))] = 1.03%
PERCENT R&R: = SQ.RT. OF [ (%E.V.)2 + (%O.V.)2 ] = 4.12%

The Correction Process
A balancing system can incorporate correction equipment, usually a drilling system or a

mill system. These correction systems are interfaced with the balancing machine
measuring instrumentation as well as a PLC for machine control.
Another common misrepresentation of statistics is to apply a CPK to the correction

process. Again, we have to remember that unbalance correction cannot be considered a
variable. The process does not have a target dimension with a plus and minus variant
allowed.
What is CPK?
An index combining CP and K to indicate whether the process will produce units within
the tolerance limits. CPK has a value equal to CP if the process is centered on the mean
specification; if CPK is negative, the process mean is outside the specification limits; if
CPK is between 0 and 1 then some of the 6 sigma spread falls outside the tolerance limits.
If CPK is larger than 1, the 6 sigma spread is completely within the tolerance limit.
CPK = The lesser of:

(USL- MEAN) or (MEAN –LSL)
3sigma 3sigma
A correction system capability is greatly dependant upon the initial unbalance of the rotor,
remember we of compensating to reduce the unbalance to an established level or better.
Usually, if the initial unbalance does not exceed 10 x tolerance, and there is enough
material available for removal, the compensation can yield acceptable process at least 95%,
first pass. Of course, this depends on the unbalance tolerance level of the rotor.
It is important to remember what the cost will ultimately be to try and achieve a process
control greater than necessary.
8.4
LIST OF AVAILABLE TECHNICAL STANDARDS TO BALANCING AND BALANCING

MACHINERY
Terminology and Definitions
ANSI S2.7 – 1982 Balancing Terminology

ISO 1925: 1980 Mechanical Vibration – Balancing – Vocabulary
Balancing Machinery
ANSI S2.60- 1987 Balancing Machines- Enclosures and other safety measures
ISO 2953; 2000 Balancing Machines- Description and evaluation
ISO 7475: 1984 Balancing Machines- Enclosures and other safety measures
ARP 587 Balancing Machines- Description and evaluation – Horizontal,

two plane, soft bearing type for gas turbine
ARP 588 Balancing Machines- Description and evaluation – Vertical

single plane, soft bearing type for gas turbine
ARP 4048 Balancing Machines- Description and evaluation – Horizontal,

two plane, soft bearing type for gas turbine rotors
ARP 4050 Balancing Machines- Description and evaluation – Vertical

two plane, hard bearing type for gas turbine
ARP 1382 Design criteria for balancing machine tooling
ARP 4162 Balancing machine proving rotors
Balancing
ANSI S2.19- 1975 Balancing quality of rotating rigid bodies
API STD 610 Centrifugal pumps for petroleum, heavy duty chemical, and gas
Industry services
ISO 1940 -1: 2003 Mechanical vibration- Balancing quality requirements of rigid rotors
ISO 1940-2 1997 Balancing Errors
ISO 5343 1983 Criteria for evaluation flexible rotor balance
ISO 5406 1980 The mechanical balancing of flexible rotors
ISO 8821 1989 Mechanical vibration- Balancing- Shaft and fitment key convention

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What are the two categories of vibration?

What are the two categories of vibration?

What is resonance and its effects?

What is resonance and its effects?

THE BALANCING INSTITUTE

A TUTORIAL GUIDE TO THE SEMINAR

CONTRACT SERVICES DIVISION

Introduction to Unbalance Theory ................................... 1

Physical Laws ……………………….............................. 2

Sources of Unbalance …………….................................. 3

Compensation Methods ……………............................... 4

Establishing Balance Tolerances …................................. 5

Errors in the Balancing Process …. ................................. 6

Anatomy of Balancing Machinery .................................. 7

Testing a Balancing Machine …….................................. 8

©2006 American Hofmann Corporation,

Introduction to Unbalance Theory

An unbalanced rotor generates vibration and stress in the supporting structure.

Increased bearing life

Unbalance is one component of an assembly that can contribute to assembly

The number of independent coordinates required to describe the motion of a

In the balancing industry, vibration is defined as mechanical motion as

Displacement- is an indication of level of motion and is measured in

Velocity - is the rate of change of displacement and is measured

Acceleration- is the rate of change of velocity and the magnitude is

The frequency of vibration as related to unbalance is 1 X rotational speed

Vibration severity levels can be calculated from displacement, velocity or

Under normal operating conditions, properly functioning rotating components emit a

We defined Unbalance in the Introduction, therefore BALANCING is the

To balance a rotor by either method we must determine the amount of

Which quantities are scalar and which are vectors?

Magnitude as well as Direction must be considered when adding or subtracting

The principles of vector addition will simplify the analysis of unbalance

The sum of vectors cam be determined graphically, geometrically, or

What causes Unbalance?

Uneven mass distribution comes from:

· Asymmetric design (uneven lobes on a crankshaft, key ways)

Balancing issues can be minimized by incorporating symmetrical designs in rotating

Sources of unbalance are contributed to things such as portions of castings which

PRINCIPLE AXIS OF INERTIA (MASS AXIS)

Unbalance 101…What is unbalance?

“m” is unbalance mass (weight)

“r” is radius (distance from shaft axis)

As an example, 1 ounce located at a 1” radius indicates the same unbalance as .5

n Example of measured unit

= 1 oz-in = 1 oz-in 1.8

There is a direct relationship between the displacement of the center of gravity of a

THE BALANCING INSTITUTE

EFFECTS OF UNBALANCE AND ROTATIONAL SPEED

STATIC UNBALANCE (SINGLE PLANE)

THE BALANCING INSTITUTE

Unbalance which displaces the principal axis of inertia parallel to the

Static Unbalance is most common in large, narrow rotors.

COUPLE UNBALANCE (MOMENT UNBALANCE)

THE BALANCING INSTITUTE

Unbalance which displaces the principle axis ( mass axis)

This is caused by equal unbalance in two planes,

THE BALANCING INSTITUTE

Couple unbalance is sometimes expressed in terms of