Temperature Measurement PDF

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Temperature Measurement
Importance of Temperature
Measurement
• Industrial Process
• Efficient Energy Utilization
• Quality Control of Products
• Health
• Environmental Sustainability
• Food Production
• Quality Life
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Early Measuring Devices
1592 Galileo Galilei
• The Galilen thermometer works due to the

principle of buoyancy.
• Buoyancy determines whether objects float
or sink in a liquid, and is responsible for the
fact that even boats made of steel can float.
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History of Temperature
Measurement
• 1592 Galileo Galilei
1724 Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
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Fahrenheit Scale
• On the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing
point of water is 32 degrees Fahrenheit (°F)
• The boiling point 212 °F (at standard

atmospheric pressure), placing the boiling and
freezing points of water exactly 180 degrees
apart
Fahrenheit Temperature Conversion

Formulas
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1742 Anders Celsius

From 1744 until 1954, 0°C was
defined as the freezing point of water
and 100°C was defined as the
boiling point of water, both at a
pressure of one standard
atmosphere.
Centigrade Scale / Celsius
• In 1742 Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius

(1701–1744) originally created a "reversed"
version of the modern Celsius temperature scale
whereby zero represented the boiling point of
water and one hundred represented the
freezing point of water.
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Celsius Temperature
Conversion Formula
1848 William Thomson

“ Lord Kelvin ”
• Established the concept of
absolute zero, and his scale
remains the standard for
modern thermometry.
• The temperature where all

motion stops is called absolute
zero Temperature. This point is
reached at -273.15°C.
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Kelvin Scale
• Absolute zero, the hypothetical but
unattainable temperature at which matter
exhibits zero entropy, is defined as being
precisely 0 K and −273.15 °C.
• The temperature value of the triple point
of water is defined as being precisely
273.16 K and 0.01 °C.
Kelvin Temperature
Conversion Formula
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1859
William John Macquorn
Rankine
• Zero on both the Kelvin and Rankine
scales is absolute zero, but the
Rankine degree is defined as equal to
one degree Fahrenheit, rather than
the one degree Celsius used by the
Kelvin scale. A temperature of
−459.67°F is exactly equal to 0 °R.
Rankine Temperature
Conversion Formula
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Relating the Rankine Scale to

other Temperature Scales
Temperature Conversion between

Units
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International Practical Temperature Scale
To provide a standard for ensuring accurate and reproducible temperature

measurement, the International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) was developed
and adopted by the International Standard community. The IPTS was originally
developed in 1927 and has been revised about every 20 years to provide better
definition of fixed temperature conditions.
What is the International Temperature Scale

of 1990 (ITS-90)?
• The ITS-90 is much easier to realize than true thermodynamic temperature
• The ITS-90 is a specific recipe for “realizing” temperature including:

Reproducible fixed points (freezing point of Aluminum, etc)
The triple point of water is defined as 273.16 K ( 0˚C = 273.15 K)
• Defining interpolating instruments

Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometer (SPRT) (from 13.6K to 962 ˚C)
Spectral Radiation Thermometer (from 962˚C to all higher temperature)
• History of International Temperature Scales (revised approx. every 20 years)
1927 ITS-27
1948 ITS-48
1968 IPTS-68
1990 ITS-90
(Next revision is scheduled on 2010)
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Reference Temperature
• The International Temperature Scale of
1990 (ITS-90) defines both International
Kelvin Temperatures, symbol T90, and
International Celsius Temperatures,
symbol t 90. The relation between T90
and t 90 is the same as that between T
and t, i.e.: t90/°C = T90/K —273.15 .
High Temperature
Low Temperature
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Introduction
What is temperature ?
• Temperature is defined as the measure of

heat (thermal energy) associated with the
movement (kinetic energy) of the
molecules of a substance. This definition is
based on the theory that molecules of all
matter are in continuous motion that is
sensed as heat.
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Heat and Temperature

• Heat is the thermal energy of a substance.
• Addition or removal of heat, causes
temperature to increase or decrease.
• Two units used to measure heat are the BTU
and the Calorie.
• 1 BTU = 1 pound of water raise to 1°F
• 1 Calorie = 1 gram of water raise to 1°C
Temperature
• Temperature is the physical property of a system which underlies
the common notions of hot and cold;
• Physically, temperature is a measure of the random agitation of

matter and ambient protons, under the effect of thermal
fluctuations;
• The increase of temperature is due to the transfer of thermal

energy or heat between systems:
– When two systems have the same temperature both are in thermal
balance (equilibrium), so there is not transfer of heat;
– When there is a difference of temperature the heat is tranfered from

the system with higher temperature to the system with lower
temperature.
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Second Law of Thermodynamics

• The second law of thermodynamics states
that heat always flows from a material at
a high temperature to a material at lower
temperature. If the two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium and no thermal
energy is exchanged, the bodies are at the
same temperature.
What is Temperature Instrument?
It is a Measuring Device to measure

solid , fluid , gas temperature installed
in pipe or in vessel to assist in the
monitoring and or control of process.
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♦ Direct comparison with a standard is difficult

❖ Change of a temperature-dependent property is most often used:
• Physical dimension (Mechanical Temperature Elements)
Bimetallic strip
♦ Physical dimension change methods

❖ Liquid-in-glass thermometer
♦Change in pressure
❖ Constant-volume gas thermometer
❖ Pressure thermometer
♦Change in emitted thermal radiation (Radiative)

❖ Pyrometer
♦Changes in chemical phase

❖ Liquid crystals
♦Changes in electrical properties: (Thermoresistive, Thermojunctive)

❖ Thermocouples (TC’s), Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD’s),
Thermistors
Importance of Temperature
• Quality of products
• Measurement and standards
• Efficient use of energy & resources
• Research
• Safety
• The Environment
• Medical Applications
• Food safety
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Introduction
Heat Transfer
Heat is transferred between and within substances in one of the following ways:
Conduction, Convection and Radiation.
Conduction - is heat transfer through or between solids by the direct contact of molecules
in those solids. Thermal energy is transferred from one molecule to another when two
molecules bump each other.
Ex: One end of metal bar is heated, the heat passes from one molecule to the other until
the opposite end is also heated.
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Convection - Heat transfer involves the molecular movement of fluid masses (liquid
or gas) instead of the movement of molecules within solids.
Ex: Forced air heating system in which air is heated by furnace and travels through
the building in ducts warming the air in the rooms which it travels.
Radiation - Heat is transferred in the form of radiant energy through an empty

space.
Ex: Sun heats the earth by radiation.
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
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Heat Transfer by Radiation
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics states that heat always flows from a material at a
high temperature to a material at lower temperature. If the two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium and no thermal energy is exchanged, the bodies are at the same
temperature.
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Stem Losses and thermal shunting.
Stem loss and thermal shunting occurs when heat flows along the sensor and/or
the lead wire as a result of conduction or convection, as illustrated in the next
slide. In this example, a cylindrical temperature sensor is installed though a pipe
into a high temperature fluid. Temperature is measured at the tip of the sensor. If
the pipe wall or the sensor head is at the lower temperature than the fluid, heat
will flow up the sensor away from its tip. As a result, the temperature measured at
the sensor tip may not accurately reflect the temperature of the hot fluid.
The effect of thermal shunting

is similar to stem loss. The
figure at right , shows an
example of temperature sensor
installation with the potential for
thermal shunting errors. In this
case, a thermocouple is
attached to the outside of the
pipe to measure the pipe
surface temperature. If the lead
wires are exposed to a higher
or lower temperature than the
pipe wall, heat will flow along
the lead wires and
measurement errors will occur.
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Remedies for Potential errors:
• Longer sensor and better head insulation – stem loss.

• Lagging the wires or wrapping them around the pipe – thermal shunting.
Radiation
Measurement errors can also occur through the effects of radiation. Radiation is
heat transfers waves or particles through a transparent medium. Next slide shows
a typical example of radiative heat exchange. In this case, a temperature sensor is
installed to measure the temperature of the gas in a combustion chamber that is
used to heat water contained in tubes. Since the gas temperature around the
sensor is hotter than the water tubes, the sensor will radiate heat to the cooler
water tubes. As a result, the sensor reading will be lower than the temperature of
the hot gas.
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Installation with Potential Radiation Errors
Remedies for Potential Errors
• Install a special shield to isolate the sensor.

• Install the sensor where there is no direct of sight to materials.
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Frictional Heating
Frictional heating errors can occur in high velocity fluids. When a sensor is
inserted in a flowing fluid, the velocity of the fluid that impacts the sensor is
reduced. When the velocity of the fluid is reduced, its kinetic energy is converted
into heat. As a result, the surface of the sensor and a thin layer of adjacent fluid
will have a higher temperature than the rest of the fluid.
Remedy for Errors
 Install a shield design to absorb heat energy while allowing thermal contact
between the sensor and the lower velocity fluid.
Internal Heating
The effect of internal heating can also cause steady state measurement errors.
Internal heating occurs when extraneous heat is caused by electrical current or
nuclear radiation. Electrical heating is a potential problem in resistance
temperature devices and thermistors. These sensors depend on the
measurement on small current that is passed to the sensor. This cause Joule
heating power (power=current2 x resistance, P = I2R) which increases the
sensor problem.
Remedy for Potential Error
 Compensate Joule heating or limit the applied current to levels that causes
negligible errors.
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Nuclear Radiation
Nuclear radiation is a potential internal heat source for temperature sensor used in
nuclear reactor and processes involving radioactive materials. In these situations,
internal heating occurs because the sensors absorb gamma rays and neutrons.
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Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
Principles of Operations
The operation of a liquid-in-glass thermometer depends on the difference in the

thermal expansion of the liquid in the glass. The liquid usually mercury, has the
volume coefficient of expansion that is about eight times of the glass. For a
given temperature change, the change in the length of the liquid column in the
capillary will depend on the cross sectional area of the capillary.
Advantages and Limitation
Liquid-in-glass thermometer can usually be read directly and are quite accurate
when used correctly. However, because glass is fragile, liquid-in-glass
thermometer must be handled carefully and stored properly in order to obtain
stable readings and avoid breakage.
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Basic Components of liquid-in-glass thermometer
Bulb. The bulb is usually a thin walled glass chamber that serves a reservoir for
the liquid.
Stem. The stem is a glass tube that contains the capillary for the liquid.
Capillary. A capillary is a narrow passage within which the liquid can rise and
fall.
Scale. The scale is the series of markings that is used to read the temperature.
Immersion ring. An immersion ring provides indication for proper immersion

depth on partial immersion thermometers.,,
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Contraction and expansion chambers
These chambers are enlargement of the capillary. The contraction is located

between the bulb and the scale. It increases the volume of the capillary and
prevents total contraction of the fluid into the bulb at lower temperatures.
The expansion chamber is located beyond the top of the scale in order to contain
fluid at higher temperature, if it moves past the scale. In this way, the expansion
chamber protects the thermometer from rapture at high temperatures.
Liquid
For a given temperature change in the length of the liquid column in the capillary
will depend on the cross sectional area of the capillary. The liquid is usually
mercury, which has a volume coefficient of expansion that is about eight times
that of glass. Since mercury freezes at –38.9ºC, organic fluids, such as alcohol,
toluene, or pentane, are used for low temperature measurement. Organic fluids
are also used for inexpensive thermometers or in application where release of
mercury could not be tolerated in the event of breakage.
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Classification
Partial immersion thermometer
Partial immersion thermometer is inserted to a fixed point that is indicated by the

immersion ring. This at least accurate type of liquid-in-glass thermometer
because the temperature of the stem and any capillary liquid that is above the
immersion ring may differ significantly from the temperature of the immersed
portion. Since the glass stem is exposed to different temperatures, this will cause
a variation in the diameter of the capillary. It will also affect the column of the liquid
above the surface. Since the amount of variation will depend on specific
application, there is also no way to avoid or compensate fro the problem through
calibration.
Total immersion thermometer
A total immersion thermometer is immersed to the height of the liquid column, not
the entire length of the thermometer. Therefore, a total immersion thermometer
does not usually have an immersion ring marking.
Complete or full immersion thermometer
A complete or full immersion thermometer is totally submerged in the fluid to be

measured. These thermometers usually bears the inscription “ complete
immersion”. The often used in applications where the scale can be read through
the glass wall, window, or port.
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Types of liquid-in-glass thermometer
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Accuracy
Total Immersion
0.01ºC for lower temperature thermometers (0-150ºC) to 1ºC for higher

temperature thermometers (300-500ºC).
Partial Immersion
0.1ºC for lower temperature thermometers (0-150ºC) to 2ºC for higher

temperature thermometers (300-500ºC).
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Process Application
Liquid-in-glass thermometer can be read directly and are very accurate and
stable when used properly. Consequently, these thermometers are often
used in laboratories to monitor baths and to check calibrations of other
temperature sensors.
• Advantages • Disadvantages
– Very inexpensive – Need to make sure liquid is
– Give a reading quickly continuous in column and the
– Simple, so can maintain glass envelope is free of
accuracy for long periods of cracks
time
– Human perception of
– Useful in calibrating other readings results in
temperature measurement
inaccuracies
devices
 Limitation
Since glass is fragile, the thermometer must be handled carefully and
stored properly in order to obtain stable readings and avoid breakage
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Bimetallic Thermometer
Bimetallic Thermometers
TI
Thermowell
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Bimetallic-strip temperature sensors

• Fundamental principle
based on differential
thermal expansion of two
different metals bonded
together
– Produces a deflection when
heated or cooled
• Commonly used in simple
temperature control units
such as household furnaces
• Disadvantage: are not
extremely accurate
Bi-metallic Thermometers
Based on the principle that metals expand as they are heated and contract
as they are cooled.
Composed of 2 dissimilar metal strips welded together, each metal changes

its length in accordance with their individual rates of thermal expansion
Commonly used in simple temperature control units such as household

furnaces
Disadvantage: are not extremely accurate
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75
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Bimetallic Strip Thermometer
Principle of Operation: Bimetallic

Thermometer
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Spiral Bimetallic Thermometer
Spiral Bimetallic Thermometer
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TYPES OF BIMETALLIC RECEIVING ELEMENTS – FLAT, HELIX
BIMETALLIC INDUSTRIAL-TYPE THERMOMETER, HELICAL ELEMENTS
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BIMETALLIC STRIP AS A SWITCH
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Filled Thermometers
TI
Thermowell
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Principle of Operation
The filled-system thermometer is designed to provide an indication or record of

temperature at some distance from the point of measurement. Completely filled
with a liquid, this type of system operates on the principle that liquid expands with
an increase in temperature. When the liquid expands, it causes the pressure to
increase. This causes the bourdon tube to uncoil and move the needle on the
scale.
Basically designed to
measure the
temperature, which
operate on the change of
shape of bourdon tube on
account of internal
pressure variation due to
change in volume of fill
liquid or gas inside the
sensor probe caused by
the change in
temperature
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Components
Bulb
The temperature-sensing element which contains a fluid that changes its

volume or pressure with temperature. Typically, inert hydrocarbons, such as
xylene, are used because of their coefficient of expansion. Another liquid that is
commonly used is mercury.
Bourdon, Bellows, or Diaphragm
The pressure-sensitive element which responds to these changes by delivering

a motion or force to a device which transduces the signal to usable form. This
is commonly a mechanical linkage which drives a pointer or pen, but may be a
pneumatic or an electrical device which transmits the temperature signal over
long distances.
Capillary tubing
The connecting element from the bulb to the pressure-sensitive element.
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Bourdon Tube
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Filled-system thermometer
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Bulb and Capillary Sensor
Bulb and Capillary Sensor
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Standards
 Bulb Size:
3/8” O.D. X 3” L
Brass, copper or stainless steel
 Capillary Length:
3 feet to 125 feet max.
Brass, copper or stainless steel
Classification
Filled-system thermometers may be separated into two fundamental types,
those in which the bourdon responds to :
• Volume changes
Those that respond to volume changes are completely filled with a liquid. The
liquid expansivity with temperature is greater than that of the bulb metal, the
net volume change being communicated to the bourdon.
• Pressure changes
The systems that respond to pressure changes are either filled with a gas or
partially filled with a volatile liquid. Changes in gas or vapor pressure with
changes in bulb temperature are communicated to the bourdon.
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Filled-system thermometers have been classified

as follows:
Volumetric principle
Liquid-filled (other than Hg) Class I

Mercury-filled Class V
Pressure Principle
Vapor-filled Class II
Gas filled Class III
Liquid-Filled Thermal Systems

These systems operate on the principle that the temperature signal is
generated by and proportional to a volume change in the bulb. They often are
referred to as liquid-expansion type.
Scientific Apparatus Makers Association (SAMA) Classification:
1. SAMA Class IA (Full Compensation). The compensating means is a second

thermal system minus the bulb, or an equivalent means of compensation. See
fig 2
2. SAMA Class ID (Case Compensation). Here the only compensation is a
means provided within the instrument case. See fig 3.
3. SAMA Class IB (Case Compensation). The compensating means is a
second thermal system minus the bulb, or an equivalent means of
compensation.
4. SAMA Class VB (Case Compensation). Here the only compensation is a
means provided within the instrument case. See fig 3.
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Fig. 2 Fully compensated liquid-,

mercury-, or gas-filled thermal system
(Class IA, IIIA, or VA).
Fig. 3 Case-compensated liquid-,
mercury-, or gas-filled thermal system
(Class IB, IIIB, or VB).
Vapor-Pressure Thermal System

This system is defined by SAMA as "a thermal system partially filled with a
volatile liquid and operating on the principle of vapor pressure." Four types
are employed:
1. Class IIA. Designed to operate with the measured temperature above

the temperature of the rest of the thermal system. See fig 7
2. Class IIB. Designed to operate with the measured temperature below
the temperature of the rest of the thermal system. See fig 8
3. Class IIC. Designed to operate with the measured temperature above
and below the temperature of the rest of the thermal system. This type
normally requires a larger sensitive portion than Class IIA or IIB. . See fig 9
4. Class IID. Designed to operate with the bulb temperature above, below,
and at the temperature of the rest of the thermal system. See fig 10. In this
type, the volatile liquid is confined to the sensitive portion and a second
relatively nonvolatile liquid is used to transmit the vapor pressure to the
expansible device.
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Vapor-pressure thermal
system (Class IIA).
system (Class IIB).
system (Class IIC).
system (Class IID).
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Gas-Filled Thermal System: Class III

This system is defined by SAMA as "a thermal system filled with a gas and
operating on the principle of pressure change with temperature change." The
system is usually compensated for ambient temperature effects in one of two
ways:
1.Class IIIA
With a second thermal system minus the bulb, or an equivalent means of
compensation.
2.Class IIIB
With compensating means within the case only.
Operating Range
Maximum and Minimum Temperatures

and Range Spans
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Liquid Filled Thermal System
The minimum temperature is limited to the freezing point of the organic liquid
employed as a filling medium. This is usually between -75 and -200°C (-103
and -328°F), depending on the liquid used.
The maximum temperature to which the liquid is stable is approximately 300°C

(572°F). The minimum range span is determined by the maximum bulb size
that is practical, generally 12 to 25°C (22 to 45°F), although spans as short as
5°C (9°F) are used.
Mercury-filled thermal systems may be used between -38 and +650°C (-39 and
+1202°F). Organic liquids freeze at a much lower temperature and are
commonly used between -75 and +300°C (-103 and +572°F). Because of the
higher expansivity, organic-filled systems are more adaptable to short spans,
while the lower compressibility of mercury makes it easier to use on long spans.
In either case, the minimum span usually is limited by the largest practical bulb
size.
Bulb volume versus span, Class I

and Class V systems (maximum
and minimum values shown
extremes among manufacturers).
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Vapor Pressure Thermal System
The maximum temperature is limited by the critical point of the liquid employed
and by the tendency of most known organic liquids to change chemically at
316°C (600°F) or higher.
The minimum temperature is generally limited to approximately -40°C (-40°F)

because of loss in reading sensitivity at lower temperatures coupled with the
requirement that the bourdon must be able to withstand the vapor pressure of the
liquid fill at room (or possibly shipping) temperatures.
Gas Filled Thermal System: Class III
Gas thermal systems are able to cover the widest range of temperature of any of
the filled systems. They are usually limited on the low side by the critical
temperature of the gas used, and on the high side by the bulb materials (commonly
5 K and 925 K).
The maximum span is limited only by the above conditions of use and the
nonlinearity due to mass flow from the bulb.
The minimum span is limited by the pressure at which the bourdon becomes
overstressed.
The gas system lends itself to use with a transducer with biasing springs, making
many more ranges, especially with short spans (25 K), available.
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Relative Advantages and Limitations Advantages
Advantages
1. Fundamental simplicity of the system allows rugged construction, minimizing

the possibility of damage or failure in shipment, installation, and use. The
amount of upkeep is generally minor.
2. Simplicity of the system allows inexpensive design.
3. As used in the process industries, sensitivity, response time. and accuracy are
generally the equal of any other temperature measuring instruments available.
4. The capillary allows considerable separation between the point of
measurement and the point of indication. Although capillary lengths of 400 ft
(120 m) have been used successfully, it is usually more economical to employ
transducers for signal transmission of 100 ft (30 in) or more.
5. The measuring system is self-contained. It does not need auxiliary power
unless it is combined with a pneumatic or an electric transmission system.
6. The system can be designed to deliver significant power if necessary to drive
indicating or controller mechanisms, including valves.
Limitations
Thermal systems are limited as follows:
1. The bulb size may be too large to fit the available space.
2. The performance characteristics vary considerably with the type of filling
fluid, and the user must be certain that he does not apply a particular type of
system.
3. The maximum temperature is more limited than that in some electrical
measuring systems.
4. In case of system failure, the entire unit must be replaced or repaired.
5. Separation of sensing and indicating elements may be limited, depending
on other characteristics, such as filling liquid and accuracy requirements.
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Resistance Temperature
Detectors
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1. General and historical background
• Resistance thermometers belong to the general group of modulating sensors.
• Modulating sensors (Electrical thermometers):
 sense temperature by convective and conductive heat transfer.
 require the supply of energy to support the flow of acquired information.
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1. General and historical background

• Metallic thermo-resistance sensor should be:
 Made from a large temperature coefficient of resistance and high resistivity.

 Material should be long term stability and reliability of physical properties and
structure.
 The most commonly encountered in resistance thermometry are like:
platinum, copper, nickel, nichrome and constantan.
• Resistance thermometers use the temperature dependence of the resistance of a

material in temperature measurement.
• Platinum is the most used for resistance thermometers.
• Pt-RTD: Platinum-Resistance-Thermometer-Detector.
• Can operate in the temperature range [-260,700]°C
• With good repeatability and stability
2. The Callendar-Van Dusen Relations for Metallic Thermoresistors.
 
RT  Ro 1  a T   0.01T  10.01T    0.01T  10.01T 
3

• ITS-90: International Temperature Scale of 1990. (www.its-90.com)
• The interpolation equations specified in ITS-90
• It improves the compatibility between Pt-RTDs, which use change of resistance
with temperature.
• In the case of a thermo-resistor, with a resistance RT is measuring temperature in
the neighbourhood of some reference temperature T0 (usually assumed to be 0°C).
• The equation is expanding in a Taylor series about T0 gives the resistance, RT, of
sensor.
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2. The Callendar-Van Dusen Relations for Metallic Thermoresistors.
• RT is resistance at temperature T, R0 is resistance at 0°C and T is the

temperature given as degrees of Celsius
• A, B and C are constants, which are defined through constants α, β and δ
specific to
• Pt100 sensor (α = 0.00385, β = 0.10863 and δ = 1.5). β = 0
when temperature T is higher than 0°C.
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3. Errors in Metallic Resistance Thermometry
• Errors in temperature measurement using thermoresistor due to intrinsic or

extrinsic factors (scatter of the mean value of the temperature coefficient of
resistance, scattering of initial resistance values, changes in coefficients α-β-γ or
lead wire effects.
• Error will occur when the sensor temperature is not exactly the same as that the
body under measurement.
• Self-heating of the sensor due to the electrical current flowing in the circuit.
Principle of Operation of RTDs
An RTD consists of a sensing element fabricated of metal wire or metal fiber which
responds to temperature change by changing its resistance. The sensor is connected
to a readout instrumentation that monitors the resistance, typically through the use of
a bridge circuit, and then converts resistance to a temperature value.
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Graph below shows the relationship between temperature and resistance for some
metals that are commonly used for RTDS. On this graph, the resistance axis values
represent the ratio of wire resistance at the measured temperature (Rt) to wire
resistance at 0ºC (Ro).
Resistance versus temperature for some common RTD materials
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Resistance–temperature
characteristics of thermoresistive
material at elevated temperatures.
Platinum and nickel are the most
commonly used metals for
inductrial applications.
RTD Resistance vs. Temperature

ohm
2000
1800
1600
1400 Type
Pt50
1200
Pt100
1000 Pt500
800
Ni120
Cu10
600
400
200
0
°C
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Calendar Van-Dussen Equation

 
RT  Ro 1  a T   0.01T  10.01T    0.01T  10.01T 
3

• α, β, and δ constants
• T is temperature in Celsius
• β = 0 for T > 0 β = 0.11 for T < 0
Concept Understanding Assessment

• An RTD probe has a resistance of 100 ohm at 0°C. The
Calendar Van-Dussen constants are α = 0.00392, δ = 1.49,
and β = 0 for T > 0°C. What will be the resistance at 350°C?
 
RT  Ro 1  a T   0.01T  10.01T    0.01T  10.01T 
3

RT = (100) {1 + (0.00392) { (350) – (1.49) [ [(00.1) (350) – 1] [ (00.1) (350)]}}
RT = 232.09893 ohms (see table for Pt 100 with α = 0.00392)
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For Platinum: For Nickel:

Below 0 °C: Below 180 °C:
R = R0·(1 + A·t + B·t2 + C·(t - 100)·t3) R = R0·(1 + A·t + B·t2 + C·t4)
Above 0 °C: Above 180 °C:

R = R0·(1 + A·t + B·t2) R = R0·(1 + A·t + B·t2 + C·t4 + D·t6)
R0 = Resistance of material at 0 °C R0 = Resistance of material at 0 °C

A, B and C = constants depending on A, B, C and D = constants depending on
purity of material purity of material
The Platinum RTDs

• There are several variations of the Platinum RTD. Though the IEC Pt100 is the
most common now, several old national standards have been used in the
past.
– Different resistance slope: “alpha”
– Different resistance at 0 °C: R0
R100 - R0
“alpha” =
R0·(100 - 0)
Type R0 “alpha”
Pt50 IEC 50 ohm 0.003850
Pt100 IEC 100 ohm 0.003850
Pt500 IEC 500 ohm 0.003850
Pt50 JIS 50 ohm 0.003916
Pt100 JIS 100 ohm 0.003916
Old SAMA and MIL standards have an “alpha” of 0.003920
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Relative resistance Rt/Ro at 0ºC
Resistivity
-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
g .cm
•Metal
Alumel 28.1 1.00 1.239 1.428 1.537 1.637 1.726 1.814 1.899 1.982 2.066
Copper 1.56 0.117 0.557 1.00 1.431 0.862 2.299 2.747 3.210 3.695 4.208 4.752 5.334
Iron 8.57 1.00 1.650 2.464 3.485 4.716 6.162 7.839 9.790 12.009 12.790
Nickel 6.38 1.00 1.663 2.501 3.611 4.847 5.398 5.882 6.327 6.751 7.156
Platinum 9.83 0.177 0.559 1.00 1.392 1.773 2.142 2.499 3.178 3.178 3.500 3.810 4.109
Silver 1.50 0.176 0.596 1.00 1.480 1.827 2.256 2.698 3.616 3.616 4.094 5.586 5.091
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RTD Readout Instrumentation

Temperature measurement with an RTD is actually a measurement of the sensor's
resistance, using the sensor calibration to convert the measurement into temperature.
This is achieved by connecting the sensor to a transducer that has a bridge circuit,
typically a Wheatstone bridge or Mueller bridge. The sensor leads are connected so
that the RTD forms one leg of the bridge circuit.
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Circuits for RTDs

• Wheatstone bridge
is a common circuit
to measure
resistance change
for an RTD
Vsup ply  2Vo
RRTD  R2
Vsup ply  2Vo
RRTD  Vo I
Two wire RTD and Wheatstone bridge circuit
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Voltage
Resistance = RRTD + Rlead = -------------
Current
Initially, Rs is adjusted to match the resistance value the sensor exhibits at some
reference temperature, such as 0°C. The bridge then operates in the non-balanced
mode. In this mode, the three circuit resistors are fixed and the sensor (RT) acts as a
variable resistor. A change in the resistance of the sensor will cause a proportional
change in the measured voltage drop (E). The voltage output of the circuit (E) is
then converted to a temperature that corresponds to the resistance of the sensor.
Sensors are usually located far from the readout instrumentation. Copper leads are
commonly used as connecting wires. The lead wires represent a resistance in series
with the RTD. Over long distances, the resistance of the copper leads may be
significantly greater than the resistance of the RTD sensor, resulting in
measurement errors. For this reason, RTD sensors are available with two, three, or
four wires. A two-wire sensor does not allow for lead compensation. However,
when the readout instrument is located near the sensor installation, allowing the
use of short leads, a two-wire sensor can provide good accuracy.
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RTD Measurement
• The temperature transmitter measures the resistance of the
RTD.
• From the resistance the temperature may be calculated from the
inverse of the resistance function.
• Lead wire resistance offsets the temperature reading, and must
therefore be eliminated
Platinum RTD when RS > R0 :
A A2 1 R
RS t=- + - +
2·B 4·B2 B 2· R0
RS = Resistance of sensor
t = Temperature
R0, A, B and C = Sensor dependent coefficients
Three-wire and four-wire sensors provide compensation for lead resistance. In the
three-wire lead circuit, L1, and L2, are in opposite legs of the bridge, which cancels
their effect on the bridge. L3 is connected in series with the input voltage and cannot
unbalance the bridge.
Three-wire and four wire RTD in Wheatstone bridge
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The three-wire configuration is most commonly used for industrial applications. The four-
wire sensor connection provides greater accuracy than the three-wire connection.
However, since this configuration requires frequent rebalancing and lead reversal, it is not
commonly used in industrial applications.
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Resistance Temperature Detector

2- Wire RTD
RTD TYPES
4- Wire RTD
3- Wire RTD
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Connection for compensation of resistance thermometer leads
WHITE WHITE WHITE

WHITE
RED RED
RED RED RED
2-WIRE CONNECTION 3-WIRE CONNECTION 4-WIRE CONNECTION
ONE WIRE IS CONNECTED TWO WIRES ARE TWO WIRES ARE

TO ONE END OF THE RTD. CONNECTED TO ONE END CONNECTED TO EACH END
GENERALLY USED WHEN OF THE RTD AND ONE WIRE OF THE RTD. THIS TYPE OF
THE CHANGE IN TO THE OTHER. THIS IS CONNECTION IS USED FOR
LEADWIRE RESISTANCE THE MOST COMMON USED HIGH PRECISION
DUE TO AMBIENT CONFIGURATION. THE INSTRUMENTS.
TEMPERATURE CHANGES THIRD WIRE COMPENSATES
CAN BE IGNORED. FOR CHANGES IN
LEADWIRE RESISTANCE.
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RTD: Lead Wire Resistance Compensation

• Lead wire resistance offsets the temperature reading,
and must therefore be eliminated:
• 2-wire
RS
– No compensation
RL
• 3-wire
– Lead-wire resistance is separately measured
RS continuously and subtracted.
RL RS = (RS + RL ) - RL
• 4-wire
– Sensing current is sourced through a wire pair
RS separate from the wire pair used to sense the
resulting voltage drop through high impedance
RL
inputs.
Resistance Sensing (ohm/RTD)
I
V • 2-wire
V
I • 3-wire
V
V
I
• 4-wire
I
V
H • Differential
V L
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Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
• High accuracy.
• Narrow span.
• Good reproducibility
• Remain stable and accurate for many years.
• Temperature compensation not necessary.
• Fast response.
• More linear than a thermocouple
• Does not require special extension wire
Disadvantages
• Relatively expensive to thermocouple.

• Bulb size larger than thermocouple.
• Self-heating can be a problem.
• Mechanical abuse or vibration can be a problem.
• Limited measuring range
• A power supply failure can cause erroneous readings.
• Low absolute resistance
Failure Modes of RTD

An open circuit in the RTD or in the wiring between the RTD and the bridge will cause a
high temperature reading.
Loss of power or a short within the RTD will cause a low temperature reading
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Sensor Designs
Generally, there are three main components of RTD. They are sensing element,
insulating materials, and the housing or metal sheath. The sensing element of an
RTD usually consists of a wire cut to a length that provides a predetermined
resistance at OºC. The wire may be coiled within or wound around an insulating
material. A critical factor in the design of RTD sensors is the manner in which the
metal wire or film is supported. This is because strain, as well as temperature, can
cause a change in the resistance of the metal.
Ideally, the mounting should impose no strain on the metal for the entire range of
temperatures for which the sensor will be used. To achieve this, it would involve
the use of unsupported, flexible metal elements, which would be very fragile and
impractical for industrial use.
Typical Sheathed RTD
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Birds Cage
The bird cage design offers the least amount of support. In this design (see figure
below, the wires hang in a vapor space and are threaded through thin disks which
separate the wires. The disks are usually made of mica or ceramic material. With this
design, the wires are free to move, so strain is negligible. Due to their fragility and
cost, bird cage design RTDs are used most often for laboratory measurements where a
high degree of accuracy is required.
Bird cage RTD
Partially Supported RTDs
RTDs with partially supported elements are well suited for industrial applications. There
are several types of designs that resist shock and can be used for temperature
measurement from –260ºC to 800ºC. One type of partially supported design is shown in
the next slide. With this design, tight coils of wire are inserted into small axial holes in an
insulating mandrel. The mandrel material must be pure to prevent contamination of the
wires. It is typically made of aluminum oxide or magnesium oxide. An adhesive is
injected into the holes and the assembly is fired. This secures part of each turn of the
coil to the mandrel, leaving the remainder of each turn free to move.
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Partially supported RTD
Another type of partially supported design, a wall mount RTD, is shown in the figure
below. In this case, insulating cement is used to secure a coil of wire to the interior wall
of a sheath. Only part of each loop is secured, leaving the remainder free to move.
Figure 5.4 Wall mount, partially supported RTD
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Fully Supported RTDs
Fully supported element design offers greater shock resistance and are more rugged
than partially supported design. While fully supported element designs are
satisfactory for most industrial applications, they place more strain on the element.
One type of fully supported element is shown in the next slide. This type of sensor is
manufactured by winding a wire around an insulating mandrel and coating it with an
insulator by means of painting, dipping, or flame spraying. Since the wires are totally
constrained, any difference in thermal expansion between the wire and the mandrel
or insulation will cause strain on the wire. While careful design can minimize this
stress, it cannot be totally eliminated.
Fully supported RTD.
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Fully supported RTD sensor with a protective coating
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Thin Film Metallic Thermo-resistors

• Thin film platinum resistance temperature detectors (Pt-RTD) consist of a thin film
platinum deposited on a ceramic substrate.
• Thin film Pt-RTD’s provide cost advantages when compared to wire wound Pt-RTD’s
because of their lower material cost factor.
• Manual winding is replaced by automated film (thin film tracks)
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General Purpose RTD
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RTD Materials of Construction

The metals used in the fabrication of RTD sensing elements must meet several
requirements.
• High resistivity so the size of the element will be of practical use.
• Chemical inertness with other materials used for structural components, electrical
insulation, and packaging of the sensor.
• Good ductile or tensile strength to permit it to be made in to wire or film and then
wound or coiled to form a sensing element.
Another property that is desirable for metals used in RTDs is good linearity between
resistance and temperature. While this property is not essential, it simplifies the
readout instrumentation. Table 5-1 shows some of the properties of metals used for
RTDS. Platinum is the most widely used metal in the manufacture of RTD elements.
The resistance of platinum is nearly linear with temperature; it has a reasonably high
resistivity, a high melting point, and a relatively large temperature coefficient of
resistance. Other metals used for RTD elements include copper, nickel, nickel alloys,
and tungsten. While copper has the most linear of all known temperature versus
resistance relationships, its useful temperature range is narrow. Nickel has a high
temperature coefficient of resistance. However, its temperature-resistance
relationship becomes quite nonlinear above 300ºC. Tungsten is being developed as an
RTD material because of it usefulness for high temperature measurements. However,
tungsten cannot be fully annealed, and is less stable than platinum.
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Properties of Metals used for RTDs
Platinum Copper Nickel Tungsten

Average
temperature
coefficient of 0.00385 to
0.0042 0.0067 0.0045
resistance over 0.003925
0o to 100oC
( / oC)
Resistivity 9.81 x 10-16 5.91 x 10-6 5.91 x 10-6 4.99 x 10-6
Linearity of the
resistance
Excellent Excellent Poor Fair
versus
temperature
Useful
Temperature -260-800 -100 to 150 -100 to 150 -70 to 2700
range (oC)
RTD Accuracy
Factors that influence the accuracy of RTD temperature measurement
Lack of a single standard for RTDS
There are several Standards that specify different values for the temperature
coefficient of resistance for a given metal. In addition, manufacturers observe
different tolerances in the manufacture of RTDS. Therefore, accuracy problems
can occur when RTDs from different manufacturers are used in the same system,
or when an RTD from one manufacturer is replaced with an RTD from another
manufacturer.
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Self-heating
An RTD is a passive element that requires the application of a current flow in

order to measure its resistance. Heat generated by the current can affect
accuracy if it raises the temperature of the RTD element above the process
temperature, resulting in a transfer of heat to the process. The self-heating
effect depends on the design of the RTD element as well as its environment
(i.e., fluid velocity past the element). To minimize self-heating, industrial
readout instrumentation usually limits current in the bridge to 0.003 amps.
Temperature Element Assembly

Terminal Block Head
Nipple-Union-Nipple
(Lagging Extension)
Thermowell
Sensor Element Transmitter
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Temperature Transmitter
Industrial RTD thermowell assembly
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Temp. Element Assembly
Head Nipple-Union-Nipple Thermowell

(Lagging Extension)
Industrial RTD thermowell assembly
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Temp. Element Assembly
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Thermocouples
Principles of Operation
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Thermocouple Effects
The Seebeck Effect
The Seebeck effect concerns the net conversion of thermal energy into electric
energy with the appearance of an electric current. The Seebeck voltage refers
to the net thermal electromotive force (emf) set up in a thermocouple under
zero-current conditions. The direction and magnitude of the Seebeck voltage Es
depend on the temperature of the junctions and on the materials making up the
thermocouple. For a particular combination of materials, A and B, for a small
temperature difference
dEs = αA,B dT
where αA,B is a coefficient of proportionality called the Seebeck coefficient.
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Seebeck’s Circuit
The direction and magnitude of the Seebeck voltage E, depend on the

temperature of the junction and on the materials making up the thermocouple.
For a particular combination of materials A and B over small temperature
difference, dEs = αA, B dT , where αA, B is a coefficients of proportionality called
the Seebeck coefficient.
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Thermocouple: Seebeck Effect

 When a metal wire is exposed to a temperature difference, a
voltage is generated along it. The voltage depends on:
 The temperature difference between the two ends
 The Seebeck coefficient of the material
V
t1 + - t2
V = S( t) = S(t2 - t1)
S = Seebeck function of material
The Thermocouple
 A thermocouple is made up of two wires of dissimilar materials joined
together in one end inserted into the point of measurement.
 Since the materials are different, their Seebeck voltages do not cancel out,
leaving a resulting voltage in the open end.
Va
Reference Junction
tCJ - + tMJ Measurement
(at terminal block) +
a.k.a. Cold Junction V - Junction
- +
V = Va - Vb Vb
Va = Sa(tMJ - tCJ)
Vb = Sb(tMJ - tCJ)
V = Sa(tMJ - tCJ) - Sb(tMJ - tCJ) = Sab(tMJ - tCJ)
Sa = Seebeck function of material “a”

Sb = Seebeck function of material “b”
Sab = Combined Seebeck function of materials “a” and “b”
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Junction J1 is at the process; its voltage is V1. Junction If the temperature at J2 is not 0º C then
J2 is reference (or cold) junction; voltage here is V2
V = V1 – V2 (the measured voltage is not
Measured voltage = voltage at J1 – voltage at J2 equal to the process voltage because V2 is
not equal to zero)
Since the variables here are voltages, these can reverse
polarities depending upon the applied temperatures
V = V1 – V2
If the temperature at J2 is 0º C then V2 is equal to zero.
Therefore
V = V1 (measured voltage is equal to the process
voltage)
Thermocouple: Measurement
 The temperature transmitter measures the voltage generated by
the thermocouple.
 From the voltage the temperature difference may be calculated
from the inverse of the Seebeck function.
 To obtain the real temperature at the measurement junction,
the cold junction must be kept at 0 °C (which is not practical) or
Cold-Junction Compensation must be done.
tCJ tMJ
V +-
V = Sab( t)
t = Kab( V)
(Special case: tMJ = Kab( V) if tCJ = 0 because t = tMJ - tCJ = tMJ - 0)
Kab = Inverse of the combined Seebeck function of materials “a” and “b”
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Laws Governing Thermocouples
Laws Governing Thermocouples

Laws of Thermoelectric Circuits
Numerous investigations of thermoelectric circuits in which accurate
measurements were made of the current, resistance, and emf have
resulted in the establishment of three basic laws. These laws have
been confirmed experimentally beyond a reasonable doubt and may
be accepted in spite of lack of theoretical development.
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Law of Homogeneous Metals
A thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single

homogeneous material, however, varying in cross section, by the
application of heat alone. A consequence of this law is that two different
materials are required for any thermocouple circuit.
There are a couple of important laws governing the operation of

Thermocouples. First, the Law of Homogeneous Circuits states that if
thermocouple conductors are homogenous, they are unaffected by
intermediate temperatures. If a junction of two dissimilar metals is
maintained at T1 while the other is at T2, the thermal emf developed is
independent and unaffected by any temperature distribution along the
wires T3 and T4. This law forms the basis for the use of thermocouple
grade extension wire. (see figure below)
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In figure below, we see that because of the Law of Homogeneous

Circuits, if the thermocouple wire is homogeneous, and if junctions T3
and T4 is less than or greater than T1, no affect in the measurement
output emf will be seen.
Law of Intermediate Metals
The algebraic sum of the thermo electromotive forces in a circuit

composed of any number of dissimilar materials is zero if all of the
circuit is at a uniform temperature.
The result of this law is that a third homogeneous material can

always be added to a circuit with no effect on the net emf of the
circuit as long as its extremities are at the same temperature. There-
fore, a device for measuring the thermo electromotive force may be
introduced into a circuit at any point without affecting the resultant
emf, provided all the junctions added to the circuit by introducing the
device are at the same temperature. It also follows that any junction
whose temperature is uniform and which makes a good electrical
contact does not affect the emf of the thermocouple circuit regardless
of the method employed in forming the junction.
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Emf is not affected

When applying this law, it follows that, if the thermal emfs of any two
metals with respect to a reference metal are known, then the emf of
the combination of the two metals is the algebraic sum of their emf's
against the reference metal. See figure below.
Emf algebraic sums
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Thermocouple EMF algebraic sums.
The second important law in thermocouple temperature measurement is the

Law of Intermediate Metals. The Law of Intermediate Metals states that a third
metal can be introduced into the circuit without creating errors if the junctions of
the third metal to the thermocouple conductors are at the same temperature.
When using thermocouples, it is usually necessary somewhere in the loop to
introduce additional metals into the circuit. This happens when an instrument is
used to measure the output of the thermocouple and the instrument input
terminals are of a different metal (usually brass or gold) and when the junction is
brazed or welded. It would seem that this introduction of other metals would
change the emf output of the thermocouple and add error to the signal.
However, as long as the junction of the third metal with the other two metals are
at the same temperature, no error signal is produced (see figure below).
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The law of intermediate metals comes into play when, for example, one uses a
thermocouple with a brass terminal block in the connection head. The wires
from the thermocouple element are attached to the terminal block to connect to
the wires to the instrument. As long as there is no temperature gradient across
the terminal block, no error will be introduced and the emf in the circuit will
remain unaffected.
In figure below we see two dissimilar metals A and B with their junctions at T1
and T2 and a third metal C. joined on one leg. If C is kept at a uniform
temperature along its length, the total emf in the circuit will not be affected.
A good example of the practical use of the Law of Intermediate Metals is

shown is figure below. In industrial applications, thermocouples are often
terminated in a junction box where they are joined to thermocouple extension
wire which extends back to the instrumentation in the control room. The
terminal blocks used in the junction box are often constructed of a metal such
as brass or nickel plated copper. Either of these metals represents an
intermediate metal. According to the Law of Intermediate metals, as long as
there is no difference in temperature between terminals T1 and T2 and
between terminals T3 and T4, there will be no error introduced into the circuit
by the intermediate metals (see figure below).
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Law of Successive or Intermediate Temperatures
If two dissimilar homogeneous metals produce a thermal emf of E1 when

the junctions are at temperatures T1, and T2, and a thermal emf of E2
when the junctions are at T2 and T3, the emf generated when the
junctions are at T1, and T3 will be E1 + E2. The application of this law
permits a thermocouple calibrated for a given reference temperature to be
used with any other reference temperature through the use of a suitable
correction. See figure below for a schematic example.
Emf’s are additive for temperature intervals.
Law of Successive or Intermediate Temperatures
Another example of this law is that extension wires having the same
thermoelectric characteristics as those of the thermocouple wires can be
introduced into the thermocouple circuit (from region T2 to region T3 in
the next slide) without affecting the net emf of the thermocouple.
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Emf’s are additive for temperature intervals
Components
Basically, there three are basic components of a thermocouple:
1. Measuring junction
Its is a point wherein two dissimilar metals are joint together to form a circuit.
This measuring junction is exposed to the fluid or medium being measured.
2. Reference Junction
The reference junction is held at a constant, or reference temperature. In
many cases, the junction is kept at the temperature of melting ice, which
allows temperature to be read directly from an indicator without the need for
calculating a correction.
3. Thermowell
The housing or shield of the thermocouple.
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Thermocouple Types,
Characteristics, and Accuracy
Types of Thermocouple
Iron-Constantan (ANSI Symbol J)
The iron-Constantan J-curve thermocouple with a positive iron

wire and a negative Constantan wire is recommended for
reducing atmospheres. The operating range for this alloy
combination is 1600ºF (871ºC) for the largest wire sizes. Smaller
wires should operate at correspondingly lower temperatures. It is
not recommended for use below 32ºF (0ºC) because of possible
rusting and embrittlement of the iron.
Copper-Constantan (ANSI Symbol T)
The copper-Constantan T-curve thermocouple, with a

positive copper wire and a negative Constantan wire, is
recommended for use in mildly oxidizing and reducing
atmospheres up to 750ºF (399ºC). It is suitable for
applications where moisture is present. This alloy is
recommended for low-temperature work, since the
homogeneity of the component wires can be maintained
better than that of other base metal wires. Therefore, errors
due to in-homogeneity of wires in zones of temperature
gradients are greatly reduced.
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Chromel-Alumel (ANSI Symbol K)
The Chromel-Alumel K-curve thermocouple, with a positive

Chromel wire and a negative Alumel wire, is recommended
for use in clean oxidizing atmospheres. The operating
range for this alloy is 2300ºF (1260ºC) for the largest wire
sizes. Smaller wires should operate at correspondingly
lower temperatures. Type-K thermocouples are subject to
green rot in oxygen-starved atmospheres at high
temperatures. This condition causes the chromium to
migrate in the material and destroys the calibration. This
usually occurs in metal protection tubes containing
insulation leaving no air.
Chromel-Constantan (ANSI Symbol E)
The Chromel-Constantan thermocouple may be used for

temperatures up to 1600ºF (871ºC) in vacuum or in inert, mildly
oxidizing, or reducing atmospheres. At subzero temperatures,
the thermocouple is not subject to corrosion. This thermocouple
has the highest emf output of any standard metallic
thermocouple.
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Platinum-Rhodium Alloys (ANSI Symbols S, R, and B)
Three types of noble metal thermocouples are in common use:
1. Type S (international transfer standard), a positive wire of 90%

platinum (Pt) and 10% rhodium (Rh) used with a negative wire of
pure Pt.
2. Type R (Japanese standard), a positive wire of 87% Pt and 13%
Rh used with a negative wire of pure Pt.
3. Type B, a positive wire of 70% Pt and 30% Rh used with a
negative wire of 94% Pt and 6% Rh.
These thermocouples have a high resistance to oxidation and

corrosion. However, hydrogen, carbon, and many metal vapors can
contaminate a Pt-Rh thermocouple. The recommended operating
range for Pt-Rh alloys is 2800ºF (1538ºC), although temperatures as
high as 3270ºF (1799ºC) can be measured with the type B Pt-30%
Rh versus Pt-6% Rh alloy combination.
Platinel Alloys
Platinel was designed to duplicate the type-K thermocouple

curve because of greater stability at higher temperatures
than Chromel-Alumel. Platinel is produced in two versions,
Platinel I and Platinel 11. The negative lead in both versions
is a 65% gold-35% palladium alloy. The positive lead for
Platinel I is 83% palladium, 14% platinum, and 3% gold, and
the positive lead in Platinel 11 contains 55% palladium, 31%
platinum, and 14% gold. Platinel is generally used when the
type-K thermocouple is desired but cannot be used because
of a potential green rot atmosphere or other environmental
conditions. Its temperature range is the same as that of the
type-K thermocouple, to 2300ºF (1260ºC).
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Tungsten-Rhenium Alloys (industry Symbols G, C, and D)
Three types of refractory metal thermocouples are in common

use for measuring temperatures up to 5000ºF (2760ºC). These
thermocouples are made from tungsten-rhenium alloys and have
inherently poor oxidation resistance. They should be used only in
vacuum, hydrogen, or inert atmospheres.
Nicrosil-Nisil (Industry Symbol N)
Nicrosil-Nisil thermocouples were developed to complement type-

K thermocouples by working at high temperatures under
conditions unsuitable for a type-K thermocouple. Most notably,
type-N thermocouples are not subject to green rot when used in
oxygen-starved atmospheres at temperatures up to 2300ºF
(1260ºC).
Thermal emf curves for

ISA standard
themocouples. Thermal
emf plots are based on
IPTS-68 (1974).
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Thermocouple EMF vs. Temperature

mV
80
70
60 Type
50 J
K
40 E
T
30 S
R
20
B
10 N
0 °C
-10
Sab(t) = K0 + K1 · t1 + K2 · t2 + K3 · t3 + K4 · t4 + K5 · t5 + K6 · t6 + K7 · t7
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 Type J  Type E
 Iron / Constantan  Chromel /
 White, Red
 0 to 760 °C
Constantan
Most common  Purple, Red
+ -

+ -
 0 to 900 °C
 Most sensitive
 Type K  Type T
– Chromel / Alumel – Copper / Constantan
» Yellow, Red » Blue, Red
» 0 to 1150 °C » -180 to 371 °C
» Most Linear output » Highly resistant to
+ - + - corrosion from
moisture
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ADDITIONAL
Type E -200 to 0 ºC ± 1 ºC or ± 0.5 %; Type T –200 to 0 ºC ± 0.5 ºC or ± 0.8%

*Not an ANSI thermocouple types
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Thermocouple Comparison
ISA Positive Temperature Range Good For Remarks Color Code
o
Type Negative Degrees F Atmosphere/
Environment
B Pt70-Rh30 350 to 3,308 °F Inert or Oxidizing Good for extremely + gray
Pt94-Rh6 high Temperature - Red
E Chromel -454 to 1,832 °F Oxidizing Highest EMF/ + purple
Constantan degrees F - red
J Iron -346 to 1,400 °F Reducing Lowest initial cost + white
Constantan Tends to corrode - red
Good Linearity
K Chromel -454 to 2,502 °F Oxidizing Good for high + yellow
Alumel Temperature - red
Most linear type
R Pt87- Rh13 -58 to 3,214 °F Oxidizing Good for extremely + Black
Platinum high temperature - Red
Small size
Fast Response
Expensive
S Pt90-Rh10 -58 to 3,214 °F Oxidizing Good for extremely + black
Platinum high Temperature - red
Small size
Fast response
Expensive
T Copper -454 to 752 °F Oxidizing or Good versus + blue
Constantan reducing moisture - red
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Thermocouple Tables
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Common International Colour Codes
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Separate all
Color Coding : Thermocouple B

ANSI/MC 96.1 DIN 43714 JIS C 1610
+ + +
- - -
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Color Coding : Thermocouple E

ANSI/MC 96.1 IEC 584 BS 1843 DIN 43714 NF C 42-323 JIS C 1610
+ + + + + +
- - - - - -
Color Coding : Thermocouple J

+ + + + + +
- - - - - -
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Color Coding : Thermocouple K

+ + + + + +
- - - - - -
Color Coding : Thermocouple L

DIN 43714
+
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Color Coding : Thermocouple N

ANSI/MC 96.1 IEC 584 BS 1843
+ + +
- - -
Color Coding : Thermocouple R

+ + + + + +
- - - - - -
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Color Coding : Thermocouple S

+ + + + + +
- - - - - -
Color Coding : Thermocouple T

+ + + + + +
- - - - - -
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Color Coding : Thermocouple U

DIN 43714
+
Color Coding
 For ANSI Negative is always Red
 For IEC Negative is always White
 For BS Negative is always Blue
 For DIN Positive is always Red
 For NF Positive is always Yellow
 For JIS Positive is always Red
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International Thermocouple Color Codes — Thermocouple and Extension
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Compensation Method
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Steps in Cold Junction Compensation

1. Measure Cold Junction Temperature and note the voltage from T/C
table corresponding to that temperature. This is the Cold Junction
Compensation voltage.
2. Measure V.
3. Add the Cold Junction Compensation voltage to V.
4. Convert V to temperature from T/C table.
A separate junction is created whenever we connect a thermocouple

using
ordinary wire. To avoid this, special extension wires designed for the
particular thermocouple should be used. The extension wire in effect,
brings the thermocouple junction to the indicator terminals where cold
junction
compensation is realized.
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Thermocouple: Cold Junction Compensation

 The transmitters measures the cold junction temperature using
a Pt100 located at the cold junction (terminal block).
 The temperature is converted to its equivalent reference
junction voltage.
 The reference junction voltage is added to the measured
thermocouple voltage before converted to temperature.
tCJ tMJ
Terminal block +
V -
(isothermal)
Cold Junction
Temperature Sensor
tMJ = Kab( V + VCJ)
VCJ = Sab(tCJ)
tMJ = Kab( V + Sab(tCJ))
VCJ = equvalent reference junction voltage for the cold junction temperature
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THERMOCOUPLE PROBLEMS
Example 1 The voltage across a thermocouple circuit of the form illustrated in

below using a type J thermocouple is 12.470 mV. Determine the
temperature.
Connection leads submerged in an ice bath
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231º C 12.498 mV
X ºC 12.470 mV
230º C 12.442 mV
There is a need to interpolate since 12.470 mV has no exact

temperature equivalent in the table
231º C – 230º C 12.498 mV – 12.442 mV

------------------------ = ----------------------------------
231º C – X º C 12.498 mV – 12.470 mV
X = 230.5º C
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If the reference junction is at some temperature other than 0°C then the reference
tables cannot be used directly and a further calculation must be undertaken. The
temperature of the reference junction must be measured by an independent means
or its value estimated. This value must then be used to determine the emf that
would occur for the thermocouple if the tip was at the reference temperature and
the reference junction was at 0°C. This value of emf must then be added to the
measured value and the tables used to determine the temperature of the tip.
The procedure is as follows:
1. Measure the emf across terminations.
2. Measure the reference temperature at the terminations by some

independent means such as using a thermistor.
3. Convert the reference temperature into an equivalent emf using the tables.
4. Add the measured emf to the equivalent emf to give a total emf.
5. Convert the total emf to a temperature using the tables. This is the
temperature of the thermoelectric junction (also commonly referred to as
the tip).
Example 2 A circuit with a type J thermocouple of the form illustrated in the

figure below indicates a voltage of 8.54 mV. The temperature of the
reference junction was measured to be 21.1°C using a thermistor.
Determine the temperature of the thermoelectric junction.
Use of connection leads for a thermocouple
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22º C 1.122 mV
21.1º C X mV
21º C 1.070 mV
22º C – 21º C 1.122 mV – 1.070 mV

------------------------ = -------------------------------
21.1º C – 21º C X mV – 1.070 mV
X = 1.0752 mV (this is the mV produced at the cold junction, CJ)
V = VMJ – VCJ
VMJ = V + VCJ
VMJ = 8.54 mV + 1.0752 mV
VMJ = 9.6152 mV (convert this to equivalent voltage)
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180º C 9.667 mV
X ºC 9.6152 mV
179º C 9.612 mV

180º C – 179º C 9.667 mV – 9.612 mV

------------------------ = ----------------------------------
X º C – 179º C 9.6152 mV – 9.612 mV
X = 179.058º C (this is the temperature of the measuring

junction, MJ)
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Advantages
• Small units can be mounted conveniently.

• Wide variety of designs for standard and special application.
• Electrical output adaptable to a variety of readout and/or control devices.
• Fast response compared to filled system.
• Wide measuring range, from nearly absolute zero to 5000ºF.
• Low cost.
• Good accuracy.
• Calibration checks made easily.
• Transmission distance can be long.
• Good reproducibility
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Disadvantages
• Temperature voltages relationship not linear.

• Accuracy less than that of the resistance bulb.
• Stray voltages pick-up must be considered.
• Temperature spans not as narrow as filled systems or resistance bulb.
• Requires an amplifier for many measurements.
• Hot junction “age” in same service.
• Requires expensive accessories for control application.
Extension Wires
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THERMOCOUPLE EXTENSION WIRES MUST HAVE THE

SAME ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf) TEMPERATURE
CHARACTERISTICS AS THE THERMOCOUPLE TO WHICH THEY
ARE CONNECTED. THIS WILL, IN EFFECT, TRANSFER THEIR
REFERENCE JUNCTION TO THE END AWAY FROM THE
THERMOCOUPLE TO A POINT WHERE THE EFFECT OF
TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS CAN BE COMPENSATED. THE USE
OF INCORRECT EXTENSION WIRE WILL CAUSE ERRORS IN
THE TEMPERATURE READINGS BY CREATING SPURIOUS
THERMOCOUPLE TERMINAL BLOCK OR IN THE INSTRUMENT.
THERMOCOUPLE EXTENSION WIRES (AVAILABLE

EITHER IN PAIRS OR BUNDLES WITH MULTIPLE PAIRS)
SHOULD BE INSTALLED AS DESCRIBED IN API RP 550. PART 1
SECTION 7.
Extension Wires
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Extension Wires
MATERIALS FOR THEMOCOUPLE EXTENSION WIRES MAY BE

SELECTED AS FOLLOWS:
ANSI THEMOCOUPLE EXTENSION WIRE

SYMBOLS MATERIALS MATERIALS
EX CHROMEL- CONSTANTAN CHROMEL-CONSTANTAN
JX IRON - CONSTANTANT IRON – CONSTANTAN
KX CHROMEL - ALUMEL CHROMEL - ALUMEL
SX PLATINUM 10% OR 13 % COPPER-
RHODIUM PLATINUM COPPER NICKEL ALLOY
TX COPPER-CONSTANTAN COPPER-CONSTANTAN
THE WIRE SIZES NORMALLY USED FOR EXTENSION WIRE

EITHER SINGLY OR IN PAIRS ARE 14, 16, AND 20 AMERICAN WIRE
GAGE (AWG), WITH 16 GAGE BEING THE MOST COMMON SIZE USED.
WHEN BUNDLED AND REINFORCED,TO PROVIDE STRENGTH FOR
PULLING, 20 GAGE AND SMALLER MAY BE USED.
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Thermocouple Extension Wire

 Thermocouple wire is too expensive to run for long distances.
 Normal copper wire cannot be used because errors will be caused as
additional thermocouples will be formed at the junctions with the sensor.
 Special compensating extension wires with thermocouple like characteristics
within a limited range is used.
 Compensation wires are fragile and three times as expensive as copper wire.
 Avoid them! Connect transmitter close to the sensor!
tCJ a’ tEJ a tMJ
b’ b
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Protective Elements
Insulation
The purpose of insulation is to impose a dielectric material between adjacent

thermocouple wires (primaries) to prevent shorts. Good insulators are Teflon,
asbestos, fiberglass, etc. Wire supplied in duplex form includes an outer jacket
which may be extruded, wrapped, or stranded over the insulated primaries. This
outer layer is referred to as the overall insulation.
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Selection Criteria-Duplex Wire
When recommended environmental constraints for insulation are

exceeded, shorts develop between conductors, resulting in erroneous
thermocouple readings. A thermocouple will indicate the temperature at the
short and not the temperature at the end-measuring junction. In most
cases, this situation will result in lower than expected readings. When
several shorts occur, the temperature at the short closest to the
instrumentation will be indicated. When selecting thermocouple wire, the
user should bear in mind the temperature limitations of the thermocouple
material itself, as well as the limitations of the insulation.
Thermocouple Wire Insulation
Insulations are rated for a maximum temperature both for continuous

usage and for a single expo-sure. It is important to observe the
temperature limits when selecting an insulating material. At elevated
temperatures even insulations which remain physically intact may become
conductive. Under these conditions, the output of the thermocouple may
be a function of the highest temperature to which the insulation is exposed,
rather than the temperature of the measuring junction. The change in
insulation resistance may be permanent if it is caused by the deterioration
of organic insulants or binders which leave a carbon residue. In
considering the temperature to which the insulation is exposed, it should
not be assumed that this is the temperature of the measuring junction. A
thermocouple may be attached to a massive specimen which is exposed to
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a high-temperature source to achieve a rapid heating rate. Parts of the

thermocouple wires not in thermal contact with the specimen can be
overheated severely, while the junction remains within safe temperature
limits. With this in mind, high-quality insulation should be used when rapid
heating rates are expected. Very little factual information is available on
actual deterioration rates and magnitudes, but' the condition is real, so a
conservative approach is a requisite of good engineering practice.
Insulation characteristics are given in Table 5.
The basic types of flexible insulations for elevated temperature usage

are ceramic fiber, fiberglass, fibrous silica, and asbestos. Of the four
materials, ceramic fiber has the highest temperature rating. Modern
technology has led to the development of ceramic fibers which markedly
increase the upper use temperature of flexible insulations. These
insulations, if properly applied and handled, allow base metal
thermocouples to be used to their maximum temperature limits within
the limitations of exposure to the environment in which they are placed.
Table 5 Insulation Wire Characteristics

Materials Abrasion Flexibilit Water Max. Temp. Min. Temp.
resistance y submersion (oC) (oC)
1.Polyvinyl Good Excellen Good 104 -40
chloride Excellent t Poor 149 -53
2.Nylon Excellent Good Good 316 -268
3.kapton Excellent Good Excellent 260 -268
4.Teflon (PFA) Excellent Good Excellent 204 -78
5.Teflon (FEP) Fair Good Good 200 -78
6.Silicone rubber Good* Excellen Poor 528 -78
7.Asbestos Poor t Poor 482 -78
8.Glass Poor Good Poor 871 -78
8.Refrasil Fair Good Poor 1427 -17.8
9.Nextel Good
Good
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(continuation Table 5…)
Resistance
Material solvent Acid Base Flame Humidity
1.Polyvinyl chloride Fair Good Good Good Good
2.Nylon Good Poor Good Poor Good
3.Kapton Good Good Good Good Excellent
4.Teflon (PFA) Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent
5.Teflon (FEP) Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent
6.Silicone rubber Fair Poor Good Poor Good
7.Asbestos Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Poor
8.Glass Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Fair
9.Refrasil Excellent Good + Good + Excellent Poor
10.Nextel Excellent Good + Good + Excellent Fair
* Below 500ºF + Attacked by hydrofluoric acid,H3PO4, and strong alkalies
Table 6. Additional Protection Tube material

Materia Recommen Oxidizing Hydroge Vacuum Iner Application
l -ded max. n t
temp. oF
304SS 1700 Very Good Very Very Recommend
good Good Goo ed for
d general
chemical
application,
food
application,
oil refinery
use, and
steam lines
Inconel 2100 Very Good Very Very Recommend
600 Good Good Goo ed for gas
d furnace, lead
baths, and
mixture
containing
cyanide. Do
not use in
salt baths
contaminate
d by sulfur.
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Table 7 High temperature sheath Materials

Sheath Max. Workabili Working Approx. Remarks
material operatin ty environme meltin
g temp. nt g point
(oC) (oC)
Molybdenu 2205 Brittle Inert, 2610 Relatively good hot
m vacuum strength; sensitive to
reducing oxidation above 500oC;
resist many liquid metals
and most molten glasses
Tantalum 2482 Malleable Inert,vacu 3000 Resist most acid and
um alkalies; very sensitive to
oxidation above 300oC
Platinum- 1677 Malleable Oxidizing 1875 No attack by S02 at 1093oC;
Rhodium inert silica is detrimental;
alloy vacuum halogen attack at high
temperature
Inconel 600 1149 Malleable Oxidizing 1410 Excellent resistance to
inert, oxidation at high temp.; do
vacuum not use in presence of
sulfur above 538oC;
hydrogen tends to
embrittle
PILI
Table 8 Temperature insulation and wires

Material Approx. upper Approx. melting Remarks
useful temp. (oC) point (oC)
1.Magnesia (MgO) 1650 2800 Hygroscopic compact wells

1.Alumina (Al2O3) 1540 2015 Requires considerable volume reduction to
compact satisfactorily
1.Beryllia (BeO) 2315 2550 Compact wells; high thermal conductivity
(beryllium oxide and thorium are toxic)
1.Pt-6% Rh versus Pt-30% Rh. 1650 1770 Some decalibration at continued high
2.Pt-10% Rh versus Pt temperature use because of rhodium
3.Pt-13% Rh versus Pt volatilization
1.W versus W-26% Re 2320 3100 Brittle; avoid flexing
2.W-5% Re versus W-26% Re
3.W-3%Re versus 25% Re
Note: Approximate upper useful temperature values are for compacted

insulation. For uncompacted hard-fired insulators, useful temperature range
can be 100 to 200ºF higher.
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Ceramic Insulators
Protection of Thermocouple
Metal sheaths are frequently used to protect thermocouples. Although sheath
materials have excellent pressure ratings (up to 50,000 psi, 345 MPa), a
thermowell is generally used in high-pressure applications.
Protection Tube
A protection tube is a tube designed to enclose a temperature-sensing device and

protect it from the deleterious effects of the environment. It may provide for
attachment to a connection head but is not primarily designed for pressure tight
attachment to a vessel. A bushing or flange may be provided for the attachment of
a protection tube to a vessel (see next slide).
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Typical head-well assembly
Thermowell
Thermowell
Sensor
 The thermowell allows the sensor to

be removed without shutting down
the process.
 Spring loading ensures that the
sensor is in contact with the bottom
of the thermowell
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Thermowells are used to provide an isolation

between a temperature sensor and the
environment, either liquid, gas or slurry.
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Generic types of metal thermowells are:

Threaded-straight, weldable-tapered,
flanged-tapered and socket-tapered.
Integral Sensor
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Ceramic Protection Tubes
Table 9 lists the properties of the two materials most commonly used for
ceramic protection tubes, mullite and high-purity alumina. Although ceramic
tubes are used primarily in high-temperature applications, they may also be
used at lower temperatures where corrosive atmospheres can harm metal
protection tubes. See Fig. 15. Ceramic is also used for insulation of bare
thermocouple wire. See Fig. 16.
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High-purity alumina tubes should always be used with platinum thermocouples

above 2200ºF (1200ºC) to ensure long life and maximum accuracy. Mullite
tubes contain impurities which can contaminate platinum above 2200ºF
(1200ºC). See Table 9.
Figure 14 Representative of well assemblies
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Fig. 15 Representative ceramic protection tubes.
Thermowells are used to

protect the thermocouple
and to allow maintenance
on the sensor without taking
the pipe or vessel out of service.
Thermowell Installation
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Measuring Junctions
Measuring Junctions
Exposed Junction
This junction is recommended for the measurement of static or flowing

non-corrosive gas temperatures where the response time must be
minimal. The junction extends beyond the protective metallic sheath to
give a fast response. The sheath insulation is sealed at the point of
entry to prevent penetration of moisture or gas.
Ungrounded Junction
This type of junction is recommended for the measurement of static or

flowing corrosive, gas and liquid temperatures in critical electrical
applications. The welded wire thermocouple is physically insulated from
the thermocouple sheath by soft magnesium oxide (MgO) powder.
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Grounded Junction
This junction is recommended for the measurement of static or

flowing corrosive gas and liquid temperatures and for high-pressure
applications. The junction of this thermocouple is welded to the
protective sheath, giving a faster response than the ungrounded
junction type.
Measuring junctions: (a) exposed junction; (b) ungrounded

junction; (c) grounded junction.
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Thermocouple Measuring
Junctions
Grounded Junction Exposed Junction
Ungrounded Junction
Thermocouple Construction
Single Single Dual Dual Dual

Grounded Ungrounded Grounded Ungrounded, Ungrounded,
Un-isolated Isolated
Ungrounded thermocouples
• guard against interference by electrical noise
• Input to output isolation in transmitter is an advantage
• sensor internal insulation can be expected to reduce with
increasing temperature
• hence possibility of error due to electrical leakage.
Grounded thermocouples
• thermally and electrically connected to the sheath
• hence offer the fastest response times
• to be used with a transmitter with electrical isolation between input
and output.
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Thermocouple: Isolation
 Grounded thermocouples have their measuring junction welded
to the sensor sheath creating an electrical path between ground
and the sensor.
 If the sensor in the cold-junction end has a path to ground of
different potential, a ground loop will be formed.
 Therefore galvanic isolation from ground is required in the
transmitter to prevent the ground loop.
Grounded
Thermocouple
Ground Loop Current
Ground Potential Difference
Thermocouple Assembly
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Thermocouple Assembly
This assembly consists of a thermocouple element and one or more associated
parts, such as a terminal block, connection head, or protection tube or thermowell.
Terminal Block
This is a block of insulating material used to support and join the

termination of conductors. See Fig. 13.
Connection Head
A connection head is a housing enclosing a terminal block for an

electrical temperature sensing device and is usually provided with
threaded openings for attachment to a protection tube and for
attachment of a conduit. See Fig. 13.
Connection Head Extension
A connection head extension is a threaded fitting or an assembly of

fittings extending between the thermowell or angle fitting and the
connection head.
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Typical head-well assembly

Terminal Block Head
Nipple-Union-Nipple
(Lagging Extension)
Thermowell
Sensor Element Transmitter
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Thermocouple Head Assembly
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Head Nipple-Union-Nipple Thermowell

(Lagging Extension)
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Integral Sensor
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Voltage Sensing (mv/Thermocouple)
+
V  Single-ended
+
V H
+
 Differential
V L
Alternate Thermocouple Circuits
This article has concentrated on the use of thermocouples one at a time.

However, multiple thermocouples can be used in numerous configurations
Thermocouple in parallel.
Thermpcouples in series (thermopile). Note: VB,

VD, and VF are negative thermoelectric voltages
compared with VA, VC, VE, and VG. However, the
alloys are also reversed, creating a net voltage.
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Thermocouple Applications
Thermocouples are best applied in measurement situations where the
following criteria are critical.
Fast Response
Thermocouples can be made from wire pairs as small as 0.0005 in in diameter for
millisecond
response.
High Shock
Except for the refractory group (tungsten versus tungsten-rhenium),

thermocouples are rugged and will withstand high shock.
High Temperature
Of the base metal thermocouples, type K will provide good continuous service up
to as high as 2300°F (1250°C) under oxidizing conditions in bare wire form. In
Inconel-sheathed form, they are rated to 2100°F (1150°C). Platinum alloy
thermocouples can be used in clean oxidizing environments to 3000°F
(1650°C) in wire form. They are good up to the same temperature with a
platinum-rhodium alloy or high-purity alumina sheath. Tungsten-rhenium alloy
thermocouples cane used only in vacuum or in an inert atmosphere and will go as
high as 4500°F (2500°C) in wire form. Tantalum-sheathed tungsten-rhenium
will withstand temperatures up to 4200°F (2300°C) under the same vacuum or
inert atmosphere conditions.
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Small Size
Thermocouples can be drawn in metal-sheathed form to as small as 0.010 in

(-0.25 mm) O.D. In wire form, 0.0005-in (-0.013-mm) thermocouples can be
made. Thermocouples can be made in foil form to a thickness of 0.0005 in
(-0.013 mm).
Probe Flexibility
Thermocouple wire is available in solid or stranded wire form. Sheathed probes

with compacted oxide insulation can be bent to a radius of curve three times the
sheath outer diameter.
Heavy Duty Construction
Thermocouples can be made from heavy-gage wire or even round stock to

withstand the most severe applications.
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Cost
On a probe-for-probe basis, thermocouples are the least expensive temperature

transducers. Exotic sheath materials or designs bring the price up accordingly.
System costs can also escalate for long extension runs.
Low Temperature
Types T and E can be used to 50 K (-223°C). Below this temperature, use gold-
atomic iron (Au-0.07% Fe) paired with Chromel-P.
Advantages of Thermocouples
Simple, rugged construction.

Has a wider temperature range.
Self-powered.
Wide variety.
Low cost.
Disadvantages of Thermocouples
Expensive extension grade thermocouple wires or compensating cables have to be used.

Sensitive to induction interference.
Slower response.
Non-linear, least stable and least sensitive.
Reference required.
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Failure Modes of Thermocouple
An open circuit in the thermocouple detector means there is no path for current
flow, thus it will cause a low temperature reading.
A short circuit in the thermocouple detector will cause a low temperature

reading because it creates a leakage current path to the ground and a smaller
measured voltage.
Limitations of Thermocouples
Accuracy
Limits of error are wider than those of resistance-temperature detectors or

thermistors.
Resolution
Instrumentation must resolve tens of microvolts per degree.
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Drift
Thermocouples should be checked periodically when used at elevated temperatures.
Leads
Only thermocouple wire can be used. Type B may use copper. A cold junction
reference is required, usually to 32°F (O°C).
Thermistors
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A thermistor is an electrical device made of a solid semiconductor with a high-

temperature coefficient of resistivity which would exhibit a linear voltage-current
characteristic if its temperature were held constant.
The name "thermistors" is derived from thermally sensitive resistors, since the
resistance of a thermistor varies as a function of temperature.
Thermistors
• Is a semiconductor device
• Has a temperature dependent resistance
• Generally work best at lower temperatures (below
300°C)
• Used frequently in automobiles to measure engine
water temperature
• Nonlinearity can be compensated for by having a
non-linear scale on the readout dial
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 Exponential changes with temperature
With the calibration constant or characteristic

temperature as β, the thermistor is accurate to
R= Ro e [β (1/T – 1/To)]
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Two types
 If β is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing
temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
 NTC thermistors are made from a pressed disc of sintered
metal oxide. Raising the temperature of a semiconductor
increases the number of electrons
 If β is positive, the resistance increases with increasing
temperature, and the device is called a positive temperature
coefficient (PTC) thermistor, Posistor.
 PTCs are made of a doped polycrystalline ceramic containing
barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds. Used for
switching…
 Thermoresistance (Resistance thermomether detector)

This resistance thermomether allow to know the
temperature of the environment through the relation
between the electrical resistance of a material and its
temperature; the most of thermoresistances are done
with platine but can also be done with niquel.
 Thermistor
Thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure temperature
changes, relying on the change in its resistance with changing
temperature. There are two types of thermistors:
 PTC (Positive temperature coefficient)- thermistors with a positive

change in temperature (+ T ); the resistance increases with
increasing temperature;
 NTC ( Negative Temperature coefficient)- Thermistors with a negative

change in temperature( - T); the resistance decreases with increasing
temperature.
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Resistance-temperature characteristics of thermistors
Thermistor Construction Techniques
A number of metal oxides and their mixtures, including the oxides of cobalt,
copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, nickel, tin, titanium, uranium, and zinc,
are among the most common semi - conducting materials used in the
construction of thermistors. Usually compressed into the desired shape from
the specially formulated powder, the oxides are then recrystallized by heat
treatment, resulting in a dense ceramic body. The leadwires are then attached
while electric contact is maintained, and the finished thermistor is then
encapsulated.
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Beads are made by forming small ellipsoids of material suspended on two fine
leadwires approximately 0.10 in (2.5 mm) apart. The material is sintered at
elevated temperatures, and the leadwires become tightly embedded within the
bead, making electric contact with the thermistor material. For more rugged
applications, the bead thermistor is sealed into the tip of a glass, ceramic, or
suitable metal sheath.
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Disk thermistor configurations are manufactured by pressing the semiconductor

material into a round die to produce a flat, circular probe. These pieces are
sintered and then silvered on the two fiat surfaces. Thermistor disks range from
0.1 to 1.0 in (2.5 to 25 mm) in diameter and 0.02 to 0.5 in (0.5 to 13 mm) in
thickness. Disk thermistors are commonly applied where a moderate degree of
power dissipation is required
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Washer-type thermistors are manufactured like disk thermistors, except that a

hole is formed in the center of the sensor to provide for bolt mounting. Normal
washer configurations are approximately ¾ in (19 mm) in diameter and are
applied where high power dissipation is a primary requirement.
Rod-type thermistors (Fig.14d) are extruded through dies, resulting in long,

cylindrical probes commonly varying from 0.05 to 0.175 in (1.3 to 4.4 mm) in
diameter and from 0.25 to 2.0 (6.4 to 51 mm) in length, with leadwires usually
attached at the ends of the rod. Rod configurations are generally of high
terminal resistance and are generally applied where power dissipation is not a
principal concern.
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Table 3 summarizes thermistor configurations and their respective properties.
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Thermistor Applications
The application of thermistors primary temperature elements follows the usual

principle of resistance thermometry. Conventional bridge or other resistance
measuring circuits, as well as constant current circuits, as outlined in the previous
section are employed. Special application considerations must be given to the
negative and highly nonlinear resistance-temperature relationship, as previously
noted. Common to resistance thermometers, consideration must be given to
keeping the measuring circuit small enough to avoid significant heating in order
that the element resistance shall be solely dependent on the temperature of the
measured medium.
The use of thermistor as temperature sensing elements in industrial applications

has increased in recent years. Although many applications for thermistors are
restricted to the laboratory, increased use in industrial applications, resulting from
advanced controlled manufacturing techniques and development of related process
instrumentation, will continue.
Advantages
The response time is faster than RTD &TC.
Two-wire resistance measurement.
The high resistance of thermistors (compared to RTDs) eliminates
the problems associated with lead wire resistance compensation.
Can be constructed to have either positive or negative slope
Disadvantages
Non-linear response.
Limited temperature range.
Very fragile.
Current source required.
Self-heating
Thermistors are not generally interchangable as there may be
considerable differences in resistance at room temperature.
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Thermistors
Principles of Radiation Pyrometry
Temperature measurement with radiation pyrometers is based on the fact that all
objects emit radiant energy. Radiant energy is emitted in the form of electromagnetic
waves, considered to be a stream of photons traveling at the speed of light. The wave-
lengths of radiant energy emitted by a hot object range from the visible light portion
(0.35 to 0.75 microns) to the infrared portion (0.75 to 20 microns) of the
electromagnetic spectrum (see next slide). In visible light portion of the spectrum,
radiant energy appears as colors. The expression "red hot" is derived from the fact that a
sufficiently hot object will emit visible radiation. Common examples include a piece of
red-hot steel and a tungsten filament lamp.
Although some of the radiant energy emitted by a hot object is in the visible light
portion of the spectrum, much more is emitted in the infrared portion where it is not
visible. For example, steel at 850ºC emits 100,000 times more infrared radiation than
visible light.
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Pyrometers
• At high temperatures, non-
contact devices are required =>
pyrometers
• Measure temperature by
sensing thermally generated
electromagnetic radiation
emitted from a body
– Stefan-Boltzmann black body Eb  T 4
equation
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Radiation pyrometers measure the temperature of an object by measuring the intensity

of the radiation it emits. The intensity and wavelength of the radiation emitted by an
object depends on the emittance and the temperature of the object. Emittance is a
measure of an object's ability to send out radiant energy. It is inversely related to
reflection of the object's surface.
Since emittance will differ from one object to another, a standard, called a blackbody,' is
used as a reference for calibrating radiation pyrometers and serves as the basis for the
laws that define the relationship of the intensity of radiation and wavelength with
temperature. A blackbody is an object having a surface that does not reflect or pass
radiation. It is considered a perfect emitter because it absorbs all heat to which it is
exposed and emits that heat as radiant energy.
The relationship of radiant intensity and wavelengths for a blackbody at different

temperatures is shown in Figure 7-2. Total radiant intensity is given as the area under a
curve. This illustration shows two important effects.
• The intensity of radiant energy increases as temperature increases.

• The peak of radiation moves to lower wavelengths as temperature increases. In the
visible light portion of the spectrum, the effect can be seen by the change in color of
heated metals. They change from red to yellow to white to blue-white as temperature
increases.
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The dependence of the intensity of radiation on temperature and

wavelength for a blackbody is provided by the formula for Planck's
radiation law.
C1
H ( , T )  C2
T
5 (e  1)
where:
H(λ,T) = Intensity of radiation emitted by the

black-body at temperature T and Wavelength 1
λ = Wavelength (cm.)
T = temperature (oK)
C1 = a constant of 3.74 x 10-12 W.cm2
C2 = a constant of 1.44 cm.oK
Radiation intensity as a function of wavelength and temperature (Planck’s Law)
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Radiant emission of thermal radiation from a blackbody at various

temperatures (in Kelvin).
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This formula provides the curves shown in Figure 7-2. Other formulas
used for radiation pyrometry can be derived from Planck's radiation law.
For example, for a given temperature, the total radiation intensity for a
blackbody is given by the area under the curve. The Stefan-Boltzmann
law provides the following formula for calculating total radiation for a
blackbody at a given temperature
H(t) = σ T4
where:
H(t) = total radiation per unit area. W

 = Stefan-Boltzman constant ( 5.669 x 10-12 )
T = temperature (K)
cm 2 K 4
This law illustrates that total emitted energy is proportional to the fourth power of the
temperature. Therefore, a small increase in temperature will result in a significant
increase in total radiation emitted by a blackbody. For example, increasing the
temperature by a factor of 2, will increase the total radiation by a factor of 16, or 21.
The theoretical laws relating temperature to radiation apply for a perfect blackbody.
However, few materials have an emittance property that even approximates that of a
blackbody. As a result, a non-blackbody emits less radiant energy than a blackbody
radiates at the same temperature. Therefore, in practice, modifications must be made
to account for the emissivity of the object, or non-blackbody, being monitored for
temperature. Emissivity is the ratio of the total radiation emitted by the non-blackbody
to the total radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature.
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Blackbodies may be obtained commercially or they may be fabricated on site.

Typically, a blackbody consists of a hollow metal sphere with a small hole drilled
through the wall. The interior wall is coated with a substance that is a good emitter,
such as carbon black, platinum black, zinc black, or carborundum. When the exterior
of the sphere is heated, the radiant energy emitted through the hole in the sphere
closely approximates the radiant energy a perfect blackbody would emit under the
same conditions.
The emissivity of a non-blackbody can be determined using a radiation pyrometer to

measure the total radiation emitted by a blackbody and the total radiation emitted by
the non-blackbody at the same temperature. The ratio of the two measurements is
the emissivity of the non-blackbody. A value of I is assigned for the emissivity of a
blackbody. Since a non-blackbody emits less radiant energy than a blackbody at the
same temperature, the emissivities of non-blackbodies range between 0 and 1. If the
emissivity of a body is constant at all wavelengths, the body is said to be gray. If the
emissivity varies with wavelength, the body is referred to as non-gray.
Stefan-Boltzmann law is amended as follows:
H(T) = T4
Table 7-1 shows the emissivities of some common metals at different

temperatures. Table 7-2 shows emissivities of some materials at
wavelengths of 0.65 microns. These values are representative and should
not be viewed as exact because surface conditions vary.
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Emissivities of metals (Surface oxidized)
Emissivities of metals at 0.65 Microns
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THE IDEAL MATERIAL IN NON-CONTACT

MEASUREMENT AND IN FACT THE SOURCE
AGAINST WHICH INSTRUMENT ARE CALIBRATED
IS THE BLACK BODY.
MATERIAL WHICH ARE GOOD BLACK BODIES.

a) CARBON
b) ASBESTOS
c) RUBBER
BLACK BODY IS A MATERIAL THAT HAS AN

ABSORPTION AND THEREFORE AN EMISSION OF
1, SURFACE REFLECTANCE OF 0 AND
TRANSMITTANCE OF 0.
GREY BODY IS MATERIAL WHICH WE OFTEN

FIND IN ACTUAL SITUATION.
EXAMPLE:
EMISSIVITY OF MATERIAL = 0.7
(THIS MEANS THAT ITS ABILITY TO EMIT
ENERGY IS ONLY 70% AS COMPARED TO A
BLACK BODY AT THE SAME TEMPERATURE)
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A A+R+T=1
E=A
R E+R+T=1
T
BLACK BODY GREY BODY

A A
E = A = 1, R = 0, T = 0 E = A = 0.7, R = 0.3, T = 0
Advantages and Limitations of Radiation

Advantages:
1. Can measure very high temperature
• Very high temperature.

• Moving objects.
• Large areas.
• Inside vacuum or pressure vessel.
• Inside semitransparent objects.
2. Does not contact (hence not mar) object of measurement.
3. Instrument not physically exposed to temperature its measures (as are devices which
requires physical contact).
4. Rapid response.
5. High differential sensitivity.
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Advantages and Limitations
1. Relatively high cost
• Initial
• Installation
• Required maintenance
2. Application Engineering required to solved some problem.
3. No uniform calibration tables.
Pyrometer Pros and Cons
• PROS • CONS
– Can measure high – Most bodies are not
temperatures without black bodies
melting or oxidizing – Are not as accurate as
– Can also be used at other methods of
lower temperatures measurement
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Types of Pyrometers
A radiation pyrometer consists of optical components that collects the radiant energy
emitted by the target object, a radiation detector that converts the radiant energy
into an electrical signal, and an indicator that provides a readout of the
measurement.
The Optical Pyrometer
The optical pyrometer, also known as the brightness pyrometer, requires manual
adjustment based on what is viewed through a sighting window. Because it relies on what
can be seen by the human eye, an optical pyrometer is designed to respond to a very
narrow band of wavelengths that fall within the visible light portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
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Component Function:
1. Filter - A filter is used to obtain the desired range of wavelengths. Typically, a red
filter is used because it will transmit radiation with wavelengths above 0.63
microns and block radiation with smaller wavelengths. The human eye has
diminishing sensitivity to wavelengths above 0.63 microns. Therefore, the red filter
and human eye act together as a band pass filter for the radiation entering the
pyrometer.
2. Objective Lens - The objective lens focuses the radiant energy emitted by the target
object on a lamp filament.
3. Lamp Filament – the lamp filament, supplied with the current from the measuring
circuit, also emits radiant energy and served as reference.
Basic Configuration and Principle of Operation of a Typical Optical Pyrometer.
The target object is viewed through a microscopic lens and filter and appears as a
background behind the lamp filament. The brightness of the filament light is manually
adjusted by changing the lamp current until the filament disappears against the
background. This causes the lamp current to be proportional to the energy emitted by
the target object. Since the lamp current of the pyrometer is calibrated against the
temperature of a blackbody, measurement of the current provides a temperature
reading of the target object.
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Typical Configuration of an Optical Pyrometer
Optical Pyrometers
Principle
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Optical pyrometers are versatile, provide reliable performance, and, when properly
calibrated and used, they provide a good degree of accuracy.
Table 7-3 shows the calibration uncertainty for both primary standard and good
commercial optical pyrometers at different temperatures.
Table 7-3
Temperature (oC) Primary standard quality Good commercial quality

optical pyrometer optical pyrometer
uncertainty (oC) uncertainty (oC)
800 1 2
2200 2 4
4000 10 20
TYPICAL IR RADIATION THERMOMETER SYSTEM
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The Automatic Optical Pyrometers:
There are also automatic optical pyrometers that use solid-state photo detectors, or
photo multiplier tubes, to replace the human eye as the detector. In this type of
pyrometer, the lamp current is automatically adjusted by a detector that alternately
views the target and the lamp filament.
Basic components of a typical Automatic Optical Pyrometer.
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Principles of Operation:
Light from the target enters the pyrometer through an objective lens and is focused
on an optical modulator. The modulator is usually a mirror or disk that oscillates at
high speed and alternately passes the radiation from the target and the lamp filament
to a filter. The filter passes radiation at the selected wavelength from the target and
the lamp filament to the photo detector. The detector then compares the radiation
emitted by the target with the radiation from the filament. Using a null balance
system, the current through the lamp filament is automatically adjusted until the
radiation emitted by the filament equals the radiation emitted by the target.
Measurement of the adjusted lamp current provides an indication of target
temperature. Since lamp current is continuously adjusted by a self-balancing
operation, temperature is indicated continuously.
Total Radiation Pyrometers
A total radiation pyrometer responds to wavelengths in both the visible and infrared
portions of the spectrum. Ideally, it would measure all wavelengths within this range.
However, the glass window filters out some wavelengths. Any gases or vapors between
the target and pyrometer will also attenuate certain wavelengths.
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Radiant energy emitted by the target passes through a lens or is reflected by a

mirror and focuses on a heat sensitive element that serves as the detector. The
temperature of the element is converted into an electrical signal, which provides
temperature readout. A thermopile (multiple thermocouples) is commonly used as
the detector. Other devices used for detection include photocells, RTDS, and
thermistor.
While thermal detectors are responsive to a wide range of wavelengths, different

optical components are used for different applications. Pyrometers with glass
lenses are used for high temperatures, quartz lenses are used for medium
temperatures, and mirrors are used for low temperatures (down to 150ºC).
Total radiation pyrometers are based on the Stefan- Boltzmann law which states that
total radiation is proportional to the fourth power of temperature. These pyrometers
are calibrated using a blackbody and therefore measure the temperature based on the
total radiation a blackbody would emit. As a result, it is necessary to account for the
emissivity of the target object to determine the true temperature. The true
temperature (T) is related to the indicated temperature (T,) amending the Stefan-
Boltzmann law as follows:
T = T1()-1/4
The filtering effect of glass windows and any intervening gases or vapors may also
affect calibration. Consequently, total radiation may not vary exactly as T. One way
to overcome the filtering effect in field applications is to use an optical pyrometer to
calibrate the total radiation pyrometer under actual operating conditions. This
technique is feasible because optical pyrometers can be designed to be quite
insensitive to the absorption of selected wavelengths by intervening glass, gas, or
vapor.
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Total Radiation Pyrometer (two typical design)
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Ratio Pyrometer
This type pyrometer is closely related to the total radiation pyrometer which provides
accurate measurement of surface temperature. A ratio pyrometer uses a quantum, or
photon detector, to measure ft radiation at two different wavelengths in the visible
light spectrum. The ratio of the two measurements is used to determine the
temperature.
The operation of a ratio pyrometer is based on the principle that energy radiated at
one wavelength increases with temperature at a different rate from radiation at
another wavelength. Measuring radiation at two wavelengths reduces the effect of the
target's emissivity on the measurement. However, the accuracy of the temperature
measurement depends on the target having the same emissivity at the two
wavelengths or emissivity that does not change rapidly with wavelength.
In the next slide shows the components of one type of ratio pyrometer. The two
wavelengths are provided by a rotating filter wheel. The filter wheel consists of a
rotating disk with red windows that only pass radiation at the red wavelength of the
spectrum, and blue wavelength. As the disk rotates, it provides the detector with
alternate radiation pulses at two different wavelengths. The detector senses incident
energy in the form of surface electrons that are released as a result of radiation
incident at certain frequencies. The pulses from the two wavelengths are amplified,
separated, and compared in amplitude. The resulting ratio is a function of temperature.
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Ratio Pyrometer
Another ratio pyrometer design uses two detectors. The two wavelengths from the
target are split by a special mirror which then passes each signal to a separate
detector. To prevent measurement errors, both detectors must be maintained at
the same temperature or any difference in temperature must be compensated.
The ratio pyrometer provides measurement of the true temperature even though
the target is not a blackbody. It is considered to be the most accurate instrument
for measuring surface temperature, provided the target's emissivity at the filter
wavelengths is constant or changes very slowly.
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Optical Pyrometers
SAMPLE
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SAMPLE
Advantage Feature on Different Types of Pyrometers:
Each type of radiation pyrometer has distinctive features that influence the
selection of a pyrometer for a specific application.
• Optical pyrometers are simple to use and provide accurate measurement of

radiation within the relatively narrow band of visual light.
• Total radiation pyrometers respond to both visible and infrared radiation and
have a high output signal level that provides good sensitivity.
• Ratio pyrometers provide very accurate measurement of surface temperature,

providing the object has constant or slow changes in emissivity.
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Pyrometer Accuracy
In addition to proper calibration, several techniques can help to ensure accurate

measurement with radiation pyrometers. It is important that the radiation observed
by the pyrometer is actually emitted by the target object, not radiation reflected
from its surface.
There is no relationship between the temperature of a surface and the radiation

that it reflects. One technique for ensuring that emitted radiation rather than
reflected radiation is being observed is to drill a hole in the target object and aim
the pyrometer into the hole. It is recommended that the depth of the hole be about
five times its diameter. This technique provides a closer approximation to blackbody
radiation than surface radiation.
Uncertainty regarding the emissivity of target objects also affects the accuracy of
measurements. One method for overcoming problems due to uncertainties in
emissivity is to use a sighting tube to create a condition that approximates a blackbody.
A long tube with a sealed end provides a good approximation of a blackbody if the
pyrometer is sighted at the closed end. The sighting tube is inserted into the medium
being measured. This technique can be used in applications where suitable tube
materials, such as refractory metal are available.
Measurement accuracy can also be affected by the presence of gases or vapors

between the target and pyrometer. Gases and vapors can filter out some radiation
wavelengths. One technique for resolving this problem is to use fans to disperse any
gases or fumes. A film of dirt on the viewing window or lens will also affect
measurement accuracy. In some applications, it may be necessary to use a purge to
prevent soot or other particles from being deposited on the viewing window or lens.
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Application:
Radiation Pyrometers are capable of measuring temperature to approximately 400°C

without touching the object being measured. It is then suitable for application wherein
contact measurement is impractical particularly if the object to be monitored is moving
or when the medium is corrosive, abrasive or at extremely high temperate that could
destroy the sensor.
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INFRARED THERMOMETRY AND

THERMOGRAPHY
(OPTIONAL)
Radiation or IR Thermometry – the science of temperature

detection and measurement by using infrared radiation
measurements
IR Thermography – the method of inspecting mechanical,
electrical, and other similar equipment by obtaining heat
distribution pictures using radiation thermometry.
Radiation Thermometer = single-point temperature measurement

Thermograph = multipoint or area temperature measurement
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Infrared Thermometry
• Infrared thermometers measure the amount
of radiation emitted by an object.
• Peak magnitude is often in the infrared region.
• Surface emissivity must be known. This can
add a lot of error.
• Reflection from other objects can introduce
error as well.
• Surface whose temp you’re measuring must
fill the field of view of your camera.
Benefits of Infrared Thermometry

• Can be used for
– Moving objects
– Non-contact
applications where
sensors would
affect results or be
difficult to insert or
conditions are
hazardous
– Large distances
– Very high
temperatures
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Field of View
• On some infrared thermometers, FOV (field
of view) is adjustable.
Emissivity
• To back out temperature, surface
emissivity must be known.
• You can look up emissivities, but it’s not
easy to get an accurate number, esp. if
surface condition is uncertain (for example,
degree of oxidation).
• Highly reflective surfaces introduce a lot of
error.
• Narrow-band spectral filtering results in a
more accurate emissivity value.
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Ways to Determine Emissivity

1. Measure the temperature with a thermocouple and an infrared
thermometer. Back out the emissivity. This method works well if
emissivity doesn’t change much with temperature or you’re not dealing
with a large temperature range.
2. For temperatures below 500°F, place an object covered with masking
tape (which has e=0.95) in the same atmosphere. Both objects will be at
the same temperature. Back out the unknown emissivity of the surface.
3. Drill a long hole in the object. The hole acts like a blackbody with e=1.0.
Measure the temperature of the hole, and find the surface emissivity
that gives the same temperature.
4. Coat all or part of the surface with dull black paint which has e=1.0.
5. For a standard material with known surface condition, look up e.
Spectral Effects
• Use a filter to eliminate longer-wavelength atmospheric radiation (since
your surface will often have a much higher temperature than the
atmosphere).
• If you know the range of temperatures that you’ll be measuring, you can
filter out both smaller and larger wavelength radiation. Filtering out small
wavelengths eliminates the effects of flames or other hot spots.
• If you’re measuring through glass-type surfaces, make sure that the glass
is transparent for the wavelengths you care about. Otherwise the
temperature you read will be a sort of average of your desired surface and
glass temperatures.
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Price and Accuracy

• Prices range from $500 (for a cheap handheld)
to $6000 (for a highly accurate computer-
controlled model).
• Accuracy is often in the 0.5-1% of full range.
Uncertainties of 10°F are common, but at
temperatures of several hundred degrees, this
is small.
Thermographic Inspection
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417
What is Thermography?
• All object of which the absolute temperature is greater than the 0 K. radiates infrared
rays. The amount of radiation depends on the temperature (the amount of infrared rays
radiated is proportional to the forth power of the temperature raise).
• The thermography is a device to measure the temperature and the distribution by

using this law. The thermography consists of camera part and processor part. The sensor in
the camera detects the amount of infrared rays radiated from the object, converts it to
electric signals and transmits to the processor. The processor converts these signals to
temperature information and displays the temperature distribution distinguished by using
different colors. Then, the temperature at a certain point on the monitor can be read
directly by a numeric value.
• For simply saying, thermography is a device with utilizing infrared rays display the area of
a high temperature in a red and the area of low temperature in blue.
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Thermal Scanner has following features over those currently

in use:
1. Non-contact measurement
It is able to measure the temperature at the place apart from the object without
contact to the object, not like thermoelectric couple.
2. Passive measurement
Because it only receives infrared rays radiated by an object. It does not provide any
damage or disturbance to the object unlike x-rays.
3. Area measurement
Unlike point measurement of thermoelectric couple or radioactive thermometer, it
can measure the temperature on wide area as two-dimensional information.
4. Real time measurement
Unlike thermoelectric couple of slow response, it can measure precisely the
temperature of the object of which the temperature changes quickly and the temperature of
the object moving.
5. Easy recording and analysis
The thermal image can be recorded easily onto and accessed from a floppy. The data
can be analyzed in detail by a personal computer.
As described above, the thermography features non-contact and real-time area
processes for the measurement. By these features, a measurement that was impossible of
execution until now in the conventional measurement at a point with contact became
possible.
Uses of Thermal Scanner
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Distribution Lines Thermal Image
Circuit Breaker Analysis
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Circuit Breaker Analysis

• Findings
Overheating at lineside connection, L1 of circuit breaker no.2
• Recommendations
Cut wire and re-tighten connection to required torque upon assembly.
Pipe Thermal Analysis
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Motor Thermal Analysis
Some Uses Of Infrared Thermography
Electrical Inspections
Hot Connections
Failing Components
Overloaded Circuits
213

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5/26/2020

Early Measuring Devices

1592 Galileo Galilei

• The Galilen thermometer works due to the

1724 Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit

• The boiling point 212 °F (at standard

Fahrenheit Temperature Conversion

1742 Anders Celsius

Centigrade Scale / Celsius

• In 1742 Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius

1848 William Thomson

• The temperature where all

Relating the Rankine Scale to

Temperature Conversion between

International Practical Temperature Scale

To provide a standard for ensuring accurate and reproducible temperature

What is the International Temperature Scale

• The ITS-90 is a specific recipe for “realizing” temperature including:

• Defining interpolating instruments

• History of International Temperature Scales (revised approx. every 20 years)

• Temperature is defined as the measure of

Heat and Temperature

• Physically, temperature is a measure of the random agitation of

• The increase of temperature is due to the transfer of thermal

– When there is a difference of temperature the heat is tranfered from

Second Law of Thermodynamics

What is Temperature Instrument?

It is a Measuring Device to measure

♦ Direct comparison with a standard is difficult

♦ Physical dimension change methods

♦Change in emitted thermal radiation (Radiative)

♦Changes in chemical phase

♦Changes in electrical properties: (Thermoresistive, Thermojunctive)

• Measurement and standards

• Efficient use of energy & resources

Conduction, Convection and Radiation.

Radiation - Heat is transferred in the form of radiant energy through an empty

Ex: Sun heats the earth by radiation.

Heat Transfer by Radiation

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Stem Losses and thermal shunting.

The effect of thermal shunting

Remedies for Potential errors:

• Longer sensor and better head insulation – stem loss.

Installation with Potential Radiation Errors

Remedies for Potential Errors

• Install a special shield to isolate the sensor.

Remedy for Errors

Remedy for Potential Error

The operation of a liquid-in-glass thermometer depends on the difference in the

Advantages and Limitation

Basic Components of liquid-in-glass thermometer

Immersion ring. An immersion ring provides indication for proper immersion

Contraction and expansion chambers

These chambers are enlargement of the capillary. The contraction is located

Partial immersion thermometer

Partial immersion thermometer is inserted to a fixed point that is indicated by the

Complete or full immersion thermometer

A complete or full immersion thermometer is totally submerged in the fluid to be