Three-phase transformer with four wire output for 208Y/120 volt service: one wire for neutral, others

for A, B
and C phases

Three-phase electric power is a common method of alternating current electric

power generation, transmission, and distribution.[1] It is a type of polyphase system and is the most
common method used by electrical gridsworldwide to transfer power. It is also used to power
large motors and other heavy loads.
A three-wire three-phase circuit is usually more economical than an equivalent two-wire single-
phase circuit at the same line to ground voltage because it uses less conductor material to transmit a
given amount of electrical power. [2] Polyphase power systems were independently invented
by Galileo Ferraris, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, Jonas Wenström, John Hopkinson and Nikola
Tesla in the late 1880s.

Line and phase voltage[edit]

The conductors between a voltage source and a load are called lines, and the voltage between any
two lines is called line voltage. The voltage measured between any line and neutral is called phase
voltage.[3] For example, for a 208Y/120 volt service, the line voltage is 208 Volts, and the phase
voltage is 120 Volts.

Principle[edit]

Normalized waveforms of the instantaneous voltages in a three-phase system in one cycle with time increasing
to the right. The phase order is 1-2-3. This cycle repeats with the frequency of the power system. Ideally, each
phase’s voltage, current, and power is offset from the others’ by 120°.
Three-phase electric power transmission lines

Three-phase transformer (Békéscsaba, Hungary): on the left are the primary wires and on the right are the
secondary wires

In a symmetric three-phase power supply system, three conductors each carry an alternating
current of the same frequency and voltage amplitude relative to a common reference but with a
phase difference of one third of a cycle between each. The common reference is usually connected
to ground and often to a current-carrying conductor called the neutral. Due to the phase difference,
the voltage on any conductor reaches its peak at one third of a cycle after one of the other
conductors and one third of a cycle before the remaining conductor. This phase delay gives constant
power transfer to a balanced linear load. It also makes it possible to produce a rotating magnetic
field in an electric motor and generate other phase arrangements using transformers (for instance, a
two phase system using a Scott-T transformer). The amplitude of the voltage difference between two
phases is  (1.732...) times the amplitude of the voltage of the individual phases.
The symmetric three-phase systems described here are simply referred to as three-phase
systems because, although it is possible to design and implement asymmetric three-phase power
systems (i.e., with unequal voltages or phase shifts), they are not used in practice because they lack
the most important advantages of symmetric systems.
In a three-phase system feeding a balanced and linear load, the sum of the instantaneous currents
of the three conductors is zero. In other words, the current in each conductor is equal in magnitude
to the sum of the currents in the other two, but with the opposite sign. The return path for the current
in any phase conductor is the other two phase conductors.

Advantages[edit]
As compared to a single-phase AC power supply that uses two conductors (phase and neutral), a
three-phase supply with no neutral and the same phase-to-ground voltage and current capacity per
phase can transmit three times as much power using just 1.5 times as many wires (i.e., three instead
of two). Thus, the ratio of capacity to conductor material is doubled. [4] The ratio of capacity to
conductor material increases to 3:1 with an ungrounded three-phase and center-grounded single-
phase system (or 2.25:1 if both employ grounds of the same gauge as the conductors).
Constant power transfer and cancelling phase currents would in theory be possible with any number
(greater than one) of phases, maintaining the capacity-to-conductor material ratio that is twice that of
single-phase power. However, two-phase power results in a less smooth (pulsating) torque in a
generator or motor (making smooth power transfer a challenge), and more than three phases
complicates infrastructure unnecessarily.[5]
Three-phase systems may also have a fourth wire, particularly in low-voltage distribution. This is
the neutral wire. The neutral allows three separate single-phase supplies to be provided at a
constant voltage and is commonly used for supplying groups of domestic properties which are
each single-phase loads. The connections are arranged so that, as far as possible in each group,
equal power is drawn from each phase. Further up the distribution system, the currents are usually
well balanced. Transformers may be wired in a way that they have a four-wire secondary but a
three-wire primary while allowing unbalanced loads and the associated secondary-side neutral
currents.
Three-phase supplies have properties that make them very desirable in electric power distribution
systems:

 The phase currents tend to cancel out one another, summing to zero in the case of a linear
balanced load. This makes it possible to reduce the size of the neutral conductor because it
carries little or no current. With a balanced load, all the phase conductors carry the same current
and so can be the same size.
 Power transfer into a linear balanced load is constant, which helps to reduce generator and
motor vibrations.
 Three-phase systems can produce a rotating magnetic field with a specified direction and
constant magnitude, which simplifies the design of electric motors, as no starting circuit is
required.
Most household loads are single-phase. In North American residences, three-phase power might
feed a multiple-unit apartment block, but the household loads are connected only as single phase. In
lower-density areas, only a single phase might be used for distribution. Some high-power domestic
appliances such as electric stoves and clothes dryers are powered by a split phase system at 240
volts or from two phases of a three phase system at 208 volts.

Phase sequence[edit]
Wiring for the three phases is typically identified by color codes which vary by country. Connection of
the phases in the right order is required to ensure the intended direction of rotation of three-phase
motors. For example, pumps and fans may not work in reverse. Maintaining the identity of phases is
required if there is any possibility two sources can be connected at the same time; a direct
interconnection between two different phases is a short-circuit.

Generation and distribution[edit]

See also: Mains electricity by country
Animation of three-phase current

Left image: elementary six-wire three-phase alternator with each phase using a separate pair of transmission
wires.[6] Right image: elementary three-wire three-phase alternator showing how the phases can share only
three wires.[7]

At the power station, an electrical generator converts mechanical power into a set of

three AC electric currents, one from each coil (or winding) of the generator. The windings are
arranged such that the currents vary sinusoidally at the same frequency but with the peaks and
troughs of their wave forms offset to provide three complementary currents with a phase separation
of one-third cycle (120° or 2π⁄3radians). The generator frequency is typically 50 or 60 Hz, depending
on the country.
At the power station, transformers change the voltage from generators to a level suitable
for transmission in order to minimize losses.
After further voltage conversions in the transmission network, the voltage is finally transformed to the
standard utilization before power is supplied to customers.
Most automotive alternators generate three-phase AC and rectify it to DC with a diode bridge.[8]

Transformer connections[edit]
A "delta" connected transformer winding is connected between phases of a three-phase system. A
"wye" transformer connects each winding from a phase wire to a common neutral point.
A single three-phase transformer can be used, or three single-phase transformers.
In an "open delta" or "V" system, only two transformers are used. A closed delta made of three
single-phase transformers can operate as an open delta if one of the transformers has failed or
needs to be removed.[9] In open delta, each transformer must carry current for its respective phases
as well as current for the third phase, therefore capacity is reduced to 87%. With one of three
transformers missing and the remaining two at 87% efficiency, the capacity is 58% ( 2⁄3 of 87%).[10][11]
Where a delta-fed system must be grounded for detection of stray current to ground or protection
from surge voltages, a grounding transformer (usually a zigzag transformer) may be connected to
allow ground fault currents to return from any phase to ground. Another variation is a "corner
grounded" delta system, which is a closed delta that is grounded at one of the junctions of
transformers.[12]

Three-wire and four-wire circuits[edit]

Wye (Y) and delta (Δ) circuits

There are two basic three-phase configurations: wye (Y) and delta (Δ). As shown in the diagram, a
delta configuration requires only three wires for transmission but a wye (star) configuration may have
a fourth wire. The fourth wire, if present, is provided as a neutral and is normally grounded. The "3-
wire" and "4-wire" designations do not count the ground wire present above many transmission lines,
which is solely for fault protection and does not carry current under normal use.
A four-wire system with symmetrical voltages between phase and neutral is obtained when the
neutral is connected to the "common star point" of all supply windings. In such a system, all three
phases will have the same magnitude of voltage relative to the neutral. Other non-symmetrical
systems have been used.
The four-wire wye system is used when a mixture of single-phase and three-phase loads are to be
served, such as mixed lighting and motor loads. An example of application is local distribution in
Europe (and elsewhere), where each customer may be only fed from one phase and the neutral
(which is common to the three phases). When a group of customers sharing the neutral draw
unequal phase currents, the common neutral wire carries the currents resulting from these
imbalances. Electrical engineers try to design the three-phase power system for any one location so
that the power drawn from each of three phases is the same, as far as possible at that site.
[13]
 Electrical engineers also try to arrange the distribution network so the loads are balanced as much
as possible, since the same principles that apply to individual premises also apply to the wide-scale
distribution system power. Hence, every effort is made by supply authorities to distribute the power
drawn on each of the three phases over a large number of premises so that, on average, as nearly
as possible a balanced load is seen at the point of supply.

A delta-wye configuration across a transformer core (note that a practical transformer would usually have a
different number of turns on each side).

For domestic use, some countries such as the UK may supply one phase and neutral at a high
current (up to 100 A) to one property, while others such as Germany may supply 3 phases and
neutral to each customer, but at a lower fuse rating, typically 40–63 A per phase, and "rotated" to
avoid the effect that more load tends to be put on the first phase. [citation needed]
A transformer for a "high-leg delta" system used for mixed single-phase and three-phase loads on the same
distribution system. Three-phase loads such as motors connect to L1, L2, and L3. Single-phase loads would be
connected between L1 or L2 and neutral, or between L1 and L2. The L3 phase is 1.73 times the L1 or L2
voltage to neutral so this leg is not used for single-phase loads.

In North America, a high-leg delta supply is sometimes used where one winding of a delta-
connected transformer feeding the load is center-tapped and that center tap is grounded and
connected as a neutral as shown in the second diagram. This setup produces three different
voltages: If the voltage between the center tap (neutral) and each of the top and bottom taps (phase
and anti-phase) is 120 V (100%), the voltage across the phase and anti-phase lines is 240 V
(200%), and the neutral to "high leg" voltage is ≈ 208 V (173%).[9]
The reason for providing the delta connected supply is usually to power large motors requiring a
rotating field. However, the premises concerned will also require the "normal" North American 120 V
supplies, two of which are derived (180 degrees "out of phase") between the "neutral" and either of
the center tapped phase points.

Balanced circuits[edit]
In the perfectly balanced case all three lines share equivalent loads. Examining the circuits we can
derive relationships between line voltage and current, and load voltage and current for wye and delta
connected loads.
In a balanced system each line will produce equal voltage magnitudes at phase angles equally
spaced from each other. With V1 as our reference and V3 lagging V2 lagging V1, using angle notation,
and VLN the voltage between the line and the neutral we have: [14]
These voltages feed into either a wye or delta connected load.

Wye (or, star; Y)[edit]

 Three-phase AC generator connected as a wye or star source to a wye or star connected load

The voltage seen by the load will depend on the load connection; for the wye case, connecting
each load to a phase (line-to-neutral) voltages gives: [14]
where Ztotal is the sum of line and load impedances (Ztotal = ZLN + ZY), and θ is the phase of the
total impedance (Ztotal).
The phase angle difference between voltage and current of each phase is not necessarily 0
and is dependent on the type of load impedance, Zy. Inductive and capacitive loads will
cause current to either lag or lead the voltage. However, the relative phase angle between
each pair of lines (1 to 2, 2 to 3, and 3 to 1) will still be −120°.

A phasor diagram for a wye configuration, in which Vab represents a line voltage and Van represents
a phase voltage. Voltages are balanced as:

 Vab = (1∠α − 1∠α + 120°) √3 |V|∠α + 30°

 Vbc = √3 |V|∠α − 90°
 Vca = √3 |V|∠α + 150°
(α = 0 in this case.)

By applying Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) to the neutral node, the three phase currents sum
to the total current in the neutral line. In the balanced case:

Delta (Δ)[edit]
 Three-phase AC generator connected as a wye source to a delta-connected load

In the delta circuit, loads are connected across the lines, and so loads see line-to-line
voltages:[14]
(Φv1 is the phase shift for the first voltage, commonly taken to be 0°; in this case,
Φv2 = −120° and Φv3 = −240° or 120°.)
Further:
where θ is the phase of delta impedance (ZΔ).
Relative angles are preserved, so I31 lags I23 lags I12 by 120°. Calculating line
currents by using KCL at each delta node gives:
and similarly for each other line:
where, again, θ is the phase of delta impedance (ZΔ).

A delta configuration and a corresponding phasor diagram of its currents.

Phase voltages are equal to line voltages, and currents are calculated as:

 Ia = Iab − Ica = √3 Iab∠−30°

 Ib = Ibc − Iab
 Ic = Ica − Ibc
The overall power transferred is:
 S3Φ = 3VphaseI*phase

Inspection of a phasor diagram, or conversion from phasor notation to

complex notation, illuminates how the difference between two line-to-
neutral voltages yields a line-to-line voltage that is greater by a factor
of √3. As a delta configuration connects a load across phases of a
transformer, it delivers the line-to-line voltage difference, which
is √3 times greater than the line-to-neutral voltage delivered to a load in
the wye configuration. As the power transferred is V2/Z, the impedance
in the delta configuration must be 3 times what it would be in a wye
configuration for the same power to be transferred.

Single-phase loads[edit]
Except in a high-leg delta system, single-phase loads may be
connected across any two phases, or a load can be connected from
phase to neutral.[15] Distributing single-phase loads among the phases of
a three-phase system balances the load and makes most economical
use of conductors and transformers.
In a symmetrical three-phase four-wire, wye system, the three phase
conductors have the same voltage to the system neutral. The voltage
between line conductors is √3 times the phase conductor to neutral
voltage:[16]
The currents returning from the customers' premises to the supply
transformer all share the neutral wire. If the loads are evenly
distributed on all three phases, the sum of the returning currents in
the neutral wire is approximately zero. Any unbalanced phase
loading on the secondary side of the transformer will use the
transformer capacity inefficiently.
If the supply neutral is broken, phase-to-neutral voltage is no longer
maintained. Phases with higher relative loading will experience
reduced voltage, and phases with lower relative loading will
experience elevated voltage, up to the phase-to-phase voltage.
A high-leg delta provides phase-to-neutral relationship of VLL = 2 
VLN , however, LN load is imposed on one phase.[9] A transformer
manufacturer's page suggests that LN loading not exceed 5% of
transformer capacity.[17]
Since √3 ≈ 1.73, defining VLN as 100% gives VLL ≈ 100% × 1.73 =
173%. If VLL was set as 100%, then VLN ≈ 57.7%.
Unbalanced loads[edit]
When the currents on the three live wires of a three-phase system
are not equal or are not at an exact 120° phase angle, the power
loss is greater than for a perfectly balanced system. The method
of symmetrical components is used to analyze unbalanced
systems.

Non-linear loads[edit]
With linear loads, the neutral only carries the current due to
imbalance between the phases. Gas-discharge lamps and devices
that utilize rectifier-capacitor front-end such as switch-mode power
supplies, computers, office equipment and such produce third-order
harmonics that are in-phase on all the supply phases.
Consequently, such harmonic currents add in the neutral in a wye
system (or in the grounded (zigzag) transformer in a delta system),
which can cause the neutral current to exceed the phase current. [15]
[18]

Three-phase loads[edit]
See also: Industrial and multiphase power plugs and sockets
An important class of three-phase load is the electric motor. A
three-phase induction motor has a simple design, inherently high
starting torque and high efficiency. Such motors are applied in
industry for many applications. A three-phase motor is more
compact and less costly than a single-phase motor of the same
voltage class and rating, and single-phase AC motors above 10 HP
(7.5 kW) are uncommon. Three-phase motors also vibrate less and
hence last longer than single-phase motors of the same power
used under the same conditions.[19]
Resistance heating loads such as electric boilers or space heating
may be connected to three-phase systems. Electric lighting may
also be similarly connected.
Line frequency flicker in light is detrimental to high speed
cameras used in sports event broadcasting for slow motion replays.
It can be reduced by evenly spreading line frequency operated light
sources across the three phases so that the illuminated area is lit
from all three phases. This technique was applied successfully at
the 2008 Beijing Olympics.[20]
Rectifiers may use a three-phase source to produce a six-pulse DC
output.[21] The output of such rectifiers is much smoother than
rectified single phase and, unlike single-phase, does not drop to
zero between pulses. Such rectifiers may be used for battery
charging, electrolysis processes such as aluminium production or
for operation of DC motors. "Zig-zag" transformers may make the
equivalent of six-phase full-wave rectification, twelve pulses per
cycle, and this method is occasionally employed to reduce the cost
of the filtering components, while improving the quality of the
resulting DC.
 Three phase plug commonly used on electric stoves in Europe

One example of a three-phase load is the electric arc furnace used

in steelmaking and in refining of ores.
In many European countries electric stoves are usually designed
for a three-phase feed. Individual heating units are often connected
between phase and neutral to allow for connection to a single-
phase circuit if three-phase is not available.[22] Other usual three-
phase loads in the domestic field are tankless water heating
systems and storage heaters. Homes in Europe and the UK have
standardized on a nominal 230 V between any phase and ground.
(Existing supplies remain near 240 V in the UK, and 220 V on much
of the continent.) Most groups of houses are fed from a three-
phase street transformer so that individual premises with above-
average demand can be fed with a second or third phase
connection.

Phase converters[edit]
Phase converters are used when three-phase equipment needs to
be operated on a single-phase power source. They are used when
three-phase power is not available or cost is not justifiable. Such
converters may also allow the frequency to be varied, allowing
speed control. Some railway locomotives use a single-phase
source to drive three-phase motors fed through an electronic drive.
[23]

A rotary phase converter is a three-phase motor with special

starting arrangements and power factor correction that produces
balanced three-phase voltages. When properly designed, these
rotary converters can allow satisfactory operation of a three-phase
motor on a single-phase source. In such a device, the energy
storage is performed by the inertia (flywheel effect) of the rotating
components. An external flywheel is sometimes found on one or
both ends of the shaft.
A three-phase generator can be driven by a single-phase motor.
This motor-generator combination can provide a frequency changer
function as well as phase conversion, but requires two machines
with all their expenses and losses. The motor-generator method
can also form an uninterruptible power supply when used in
conjunction with a large flywheel and a battery-powered DC motor;
such a combination will deliver nearly constant power compared to
the temporary frequency drop experienced with a standby
generator set gives until the standby generator kicks in.
Capacitors and autotransformers can be used to approximate a
three-phase system in a static phase converter, but the voltage and
phase angle of the additional phase may only be useful for certain
loads.
Variable-frequency drives and digital phase converters use power
electronic devices to synthesize a balanced three-phase supply
from single-phase input power.
 Alternatives to three-phase[edit]
Split-phase electric power
Used when three-phase power is not available and allows double the normal utilization
voltage to be supplied for high-power loads.
Two-phase electric power
Uses two AC voltages, with a 90-electrical-degree phase shift between them. Two-phase
circuits may be wired with two pairs of conductors, or two wires may be combined, requiring
only three wires for the circuit. Currents in the common conductor add to 1.4 times the
current in the individual phases, so the common conductor must be larger. Two-phase and
three-phase systems can be interconnected by a Scott-T transformer, invented by Charles F.
Scott.[24] Very early AC machines, notably the first generators at Niagara Falls, used a two-
phase system, and some remnant two-phase distribution systems still exist, but three-phase
systems have displaced the two-phase system for modern installations.
Monocyclic power
An asymmetrical modified two-phase power system used by General Electric around 1897,
championed by Charles Proteus Steinmetz and Elihu Thomson. This system was devised to
avoid patent infringement. In this system, a generator was wound with a full-voltage single-
phase winding intended for lighting loads and with a small fraction (usually 1/4 of the line
voltage) winding that produced a voltage in quadrature with the main windings. The intention
was to use this "power wire" additional winding to provide starting torque for induction
motors, with the main winding providing power for lighting loads. After the expiration of the
Westinghouse patents on symmetrical two-phase and three-phase power distribution
systems, the monocyclic system fell out of use; it was difficult to analyze and did not last long
enough for satisfactory energy metering to be developed.
High-phase-order systems
Have been built and tested for power transmission. Such transmission lines typically would
use six or twelve phases. High-phase-order transmission lines allow transfer of slightly less
than proportionately higher power through a given volume without the expense of a high-
voltage direct current (HVDC) converter at each end of the line. However, they require
correspondingly more pieces of equipment.

Transmission lines are sets of wires, called conductors, that carry electric powerfrom

generating plants to the substations that deliver power to customers. ... At numerous
substations on the transmission system, transformers step down thepower to a lower voltage
and deliver it to distribution lines.

Why 3-Phase Wye?

There are two types of circuits used to maintain equal load across the three hot wires in
a 3-phase power system: Let’s compare Delta vs. Wye.

The Delta configuration has the three phases connected like a triangle. Delta systems
have four wires total: three hot wires and one ground wire.

Wye systems utilize a star configuration, with all three hot wires connected at a single
neutral point. One neutral wire and one ground wire make for a total of five wires in 3-
phase Wye systems.

When comparing Delta vs. Wye systems, both measure 208VAC between any two hot
wires, but 3-phase Wye systems also measure 120VAC between any hot wire and
neutral wire. In other words, the Wye system’s neutral wire is what allows two different
voltages and powers both 3-phase and single-phase devices in the data center.

Wye systems utilize a star configuration, with all three hot wires connected at a single neutral
point. ... In other words, the Wye system's neutral wire is what allows two different voltages and
powers both 3-phase and single-phase devices in the data center.

Don’t Forget About Delta

Delta systems still have their place, mainly used for any large motors or heaters that
don’t need a neutral wire. Delta systems are also used in power transmission because
it’s expensive to run a fourth neutral wire all those miles.

That’s why distribution transformers are wired as Delta-Wye. This creates the neutral
that allows the transformer to deliver power for single-phase loads.

Delta-wired devices can also be fed from a Wye source by simply omitting the neutral
wire. In a data center, for example, a Delta power distribution unit (PDU) can be used
when there’s only a need for 208VAC; Wye PDUs are used when there’s a need for
120VAC and 208VAC voltages.
In STAR Connection, the starting or finishing In DELTA Connection, the opposite ends of
ends (similar ends) of three coils are connected three coils are connected together. In other
together to form the neutral point. A common words, the end of each coil is connected with
wire is taken out from the neutral point which is the starting point of another coil, and three
called Neutral. wires are taken out from the coil joints.
There is a Neutral or Star Point. No Neutral Point in Delta Connection.
Three phase four wire system is derived from Three phase three wire system is derived from
Star Connections (3-Phase, 4 Wires System). Delta Connections (3-Phase, 3 Wires System).
We may Also derive 3 Phase 3 Wire System i.e. 3 Phase, Wire system is not possible in
from Star Connection Delta Connection.
Line Current is Equal to the Phase Current. i.e.
Line Current is √3 times of Phase Current. i.e.
Line Current = Phase Current
IL = √3 IPH
IL = IPH

In Star Connection, the Total Power of three Phases could be In Delta Connection, the Total
found by: Power of three phases could
 be found by:
P = √3 x VL x IL x CosФ …. Or
P = √3 x VL x IL x CosФ … Or
P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ
P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ
P = √3 V x 1
P = 3 x V (1/√3)
The speeds of Delta connected
The speeds of Star connected motors are slow as they motors are high because each
receive 1/√3 voltage. phase gets the total of line
voltage.
In Star Connection, Smooth starting and operation with nominal In Delta Connection, Motor
power, normal operation without overheating can be achieved. receives highest Power output.
In Delta connection, The phase
In Star Connection, the phase voltage is low as 1/√3 of the line voltage is equal to the line
voltage. Therefore, it needs a low number of turns, hence saving voltage, hence it needs more
in copper. number of turns which
increase the total cost.
Low insulation required as phase voltage is low as compared to High insulation is required as
Delta. Phase voltage = Line Voltage.
Star Connection is a common Delta Connection is a typical
and general system which is system used in Distribution
used in Power transmission. system and Industries.
The line-to-line voltage of a three-phase system is v3 times the line to neutral voltage. ...
The power transmission grid is organized so that each phasecarries the same magnitude of
current out of the major parts of the transmission system.

Electrical Energy
There is more to electricity than simply turning on a light switch. Since the creation of
electric power in the 1800s, major technology breakthroughs have evolved that have
become necessities for the human race, like:  light bulbs, telephones, stove-top ovens,
refrigeration, heat ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC), hot water heaters, washers
and dryers, TV’s, computers, security systems, internet, LED lighting, and so on…
These new conveniences have greatly improved our standard quality of life, and they
continue to progress. None of this would have been possible without the formation of
electric power. If we look at the entire electric power system in three parts, electricity is:
(1) generated at power plants, (2) transmitted over transmission lines, and then
(3) distributed to the end users or customers.

Power Generation
Electric power is generated as three phase alternating current (AC) by turning
mechanical turbines from the forces of water, steam, or other means in order to turn
generators, thereby, converting the mechanical energy into electric energy. In the US,
the generators turn at 60 revolutions per second or at 60 hertz (Hz). As the generators
spin, it produces such a flow of electrons that they must have a place to go. This flow of
electrons travels on electrical conductors, such as, copper or aluminum. Shown below
in figure 1, taken from Wikipedia’s “Electricity Generator”, it illustrates a modern steam
turbine generator housed in a generating power plant.

Figure 1: Wikipedia, Electricity Generator

As generators rotate with its separate coils, stators, and rotors, it produces 3-phase
power via a magnetic field with each phase angle in the sinusoidal power flow curves for
phases A, B, and C that are equally spread apart at 120 degrees. The 3-phase power
flow with phase angles at 120 degrees apart continues from generation
to transmissionto distribution and to the end power users.

Both electric transmission and distribution are used to deliver the generated electric
energy or electric power from one place to another. The transmission and distribution
(T&D) systems transport or deliver power for different purposes. As the electricity leaves
the generator, the voltage is stepped up with the use of step-up transformers located in
what is known as generating stations or substations. After leaving the step-up
transformer, the electricity is transmitted to power substations and ultimately
distributed to end users. Shown below in figure 2, taken from Wikipedia’s “Electricity
Grid”, it illustrates the generating station in red along with a generator step-up (GSU)
transformer which shows all three phases of AC power. The blue color illustrates the
transmission network to the substation and step-down transformer, and the green color
shows the distribution network with three-phase or single-phase connections of AC
power.
Figure 2: Wikipedia, Electricity Grid

Electric Transmission
Electric transmission plays the role of sending electricity over very long distances at
very high voltage levels. Electric power is transmitted at higher voltages to limit the
power losses that can occur in long distance transmission lines. Power can be
transmitted across states, from one side of the country to the other, or across different
countries. Electricity is transmitted over transmission lines suspended in air on very tall
transmission towers with large insulators in order to maintain proper electrical potential
clearances from the ground, structures, or phases. These transmission conductors are
not insulated and are comprised of several steel-aluminum alloy strands. Transmission
towers can house multiple circuits or multiple conductors. A particular tower can have
one set of 3-phase transmission lines (A, B, and C phases) on one side and another set
on the other side, ultimately, delivering two sets of 3-phase transmission lines. Figure 3
below shows a picture of a typical 3-phase transmission system with transmission
towers and transmission lines.
Figure 3: Wikipedia, Electric Power Transmission

The electricity can be transmitted at various voltage levels. Typically, transmission

voltage levels are at 60kV and above – 69, 115, 138, 161, 230, 345, 500, 765, etc. In
order for electric transmission to take place, it requires voltage transformations at
two substations, (1) the generation station (voltage step-up) and (2) the substation
(voltage step-down) where distribution takes over. At generating stations, a GSU
transformer is required to increase the voltage level for transmitting electricity over long
distances. At the substation, there are step-down transformers for bringing the high
voltage down to lower voltages for distribution uses. The electricity is carried across
transmission lines where the electric power can flow both ways or bi-directional. This
allows the electricity to flow from the supply side (generation) to the demand side (end
users).

Transmission lines can be buried underground in the form of insulated underground

cables. Generally, these underground cables need less right-of-way (ROW) and less
real estate compared to overhead transmission lines (TLs). Also, underground
transmission is usually not affected by the weather like overhead TLs, but their
installation costs are much higher compared to overhead transmission costs.

Electric Distribution
Distribution electricity is delivered over distribution lines that are suspended in air at
much shorter distances from the ground compared to transmission lines due to lower
voltage levels. The electrical clearance distances to ground or per phase are much
shorter due to the reduced voltage levels (reduced potential differences) compared to
transmission clearances. The distribution conductors, if insulated, can also be buried
underground.

Distribution voltage levels are typically 60kV and below – 46, 25, 13, 4, 2,
etc. Distributing the electricity to end users, such as:  industrial facilities,
manufacturing, commercial, retail, businesses and residential; requires shorter
distances at lower voltage levels to limit large power losses with the impedances and
higher current within the distribution lines. Distribution lines are much smaller than
transmission lines. The end user (residential and small commercial) typically uses one
phase of electricity, and the larger customers or users (large commercial and industrial)
require 3-phase power for operating larger motors and machinery. The voltage levels
sent directly to the smaller customers are generally single-phase AC and at 240VAC.
Larger customers may require 480VAC or higher at 3-phase power. These smaller
voltage levels are delivered to the end users by either pole mounted or pad mounted
distribution transformers usually located outside the facility. These distribution
transformers will step-down the voltage to 240VAC, 480VAC, etc., before insulated
conductors enter the building or facility. Figure 4 below shows a picture of a pole
mounted, single-phase distribution transformer.
Figure 4: Wikipedia, Electric Power Distribution

The electric flow in distribution power circuits is generally one direction to the end
user. With the push of renewables, distributed generation (DG), microgrids, and the
implementation of smarter grids (the Smart Grid), this allows for bi-directional power
flow on distribution networks. Simple power flow on radial lines has now become
more complex with bi-directional power flows with the use of DG and smart grids (SGs).
This will continue to be a challenge for distribution power utilities in changing their
protection philosophy schemes from simple over-current protection against current
shorts or electrical faults to differential, distance, and transfer trip schemes.

Three-Phase Alternator
Let’s take the three-phase alternator design laid out earlier and watch what happens
as the magnet rotates.

Three-phase alternator
The phase angle shift of 120° is a function of the actual rotational angle shift of the
three pairs of windings. If the magnet is rotating clockwise, winding 3 will generate its
peak instantaneous voltage exactly 120° (of alternator shaft rotation) after winding 2,
which will hit its peak 120° after winding 1. The magnet passes by each pole pair at
different positions in the rotational movement of the shaft. Where we decide to place
the windings will dictate the amount of phase shift between the windings’ AC voltage
waveforms. If we make winding 1 our “reference” voltage source for phase angle (0°),
then winding 2 will have a phase angle of -120° (120° lagging, or 240° leading) and
winding 3 an angle of -240° (or 120° leading).
Phase Sequence
This sequence of phase shifts has a definite order. For clockwise rotation of the shaft,
the order is 1-2-3 (winding 1 peak first, them winding 2, then winding 3). This order
keeps repeating itself as long as we continue to rotate the alternator’s shaft.

Clockwise
rotation phase sequence: 1-2-3.
However, if we reverse the rotation of the alternator’s shaft (turn it counter-clockwise),
the magnet will pass by the pole pairs in the opposite sequence. Instead of 1-2-3,
we’ll have 3-2-1. Now, winding 2’s waveform will be leading 120° ahead of 1 instead
of lagging, and 3 will be another 120° ahead of 2. (Figure below)

Counterc
lockwise rotation phase sequence: 3-2-1.
The order of voltage waveform sequences in a polyphase system is called phase
rotation or phase sequence. If we’re using a polyphase voltage source to power
resistive loads, phase rotation will make no difference at all. Whether 1-2-3 or 3-2-1,
the voltage and current magnitudes will all be the same. There are some applications
of three-phase power, as we will see shortly, that depend on having phase rotation
being one way or the other.
Phase Sequence Detectors
Since voltmeters and ammeters would be useless in telling us what the phase rotation
of an operating power system is, we need to have some other kind of instrument
capable of doing the job.
One ingenious circuit design uses a capacitor to introduce a phase shift between
voltage and current, which is then used to detect the sequence by way of comparison
between the brightness of two indicator lamps in the figure below.

Phase sequence detector

compares the brightness of two lamps.
The two lamps are of equal filament resistance and wattage. The capacitor is sized to
have approximately the same amount of reactance at system frequency as each
lamp’s resistance. If the capacitor were to be replaced by a resistor of equal value to
the lamps’ resistance, the two lamps would glow at equal brightness, the circuit is
balanced. However, the capacitor introduces a phase shift between voltage and
current in the third leg of the circuit equal to 90°. This phase shift, greater than 0° but
less than 120°, skews the voltage and current values across the two lamps according
to their phase shifts relative to phase 3.

SPICE Analysis for Phase Sequence

Detectors
The following SPICE analysis, “phase rotation detector—sequence = v1-v2-v3,”
demonstrates what will happen: (Figure below)
 SPICE
circuit for phase sequence detector.
phase rotation detector -- sequence = v1-v2-v3
v1 1 0 ac 120 0 sin
v2 2 0 ac 120 120 sin
v3 3 0 ac 120 240 sin
r1 1 4 2650
r2 2 4 2650
c1 3 4 1u
.ac lin 1 60 60
.print ac v(1,4) v(2,4) v(3,4)
.end

freq v(1,4) v(2,4) v(3,4)

6.000E+01 4.810E+01 1.795E+02 1.610E+02

The resulting phase shift from the capacitor causes the voltage across phase 1 lamp
(between nodes 1 and 4) to fall to 48.1 volts and the voltage across phase 2 lamp
(between nodes 2 and 4) to rise to 179.5 volts, making the first lamp dim and the
second lamp bright.
Just the opposite will happen if the phase sequence is reversed: “phase rotation
detector—sequence = v3-v2-v1“

phase rotation detector -- sequence = v3-v2-v1

v1 1 0 ac 120 240 sin
v2 2 0 ac 120 120 sin
v3 3 0 ac 120 0 sin
r1 1 4 2650
r2 2 4 2650
c1 3 4 1u
.ac lin 1 60 60
.print ac v(1,4) v(2,4) v(3,4)
.end

freq v(1,4) v(2,4) v(3,4)

6.000E+01 1.795E+02 4.810E+01 1.610E+02

Here, (“phase rotation detector—sequence = v3-v2-v1”) the first lamp receives 179.5
volts while the second receives only 48.1 volts.
We’ve investigated how phase rotation is produced (the order in which pole pairs get
passed by the alternator’s rotating magnet) and how it can be changed by reversing
the alternator’s shaft rotation. However, the reversal of the alternator’s shaft rotation is
not usually an option open to an end-user of electrical power supplied by a nationwide
grid (“the” alternator actually being the combined total of all alternators in all power
plants feeding the grid).

Exchanging Hot Wires

There is a much easier way to reverse phase sequence than reversing alternator
rotation: just exchange any two of the three “hot” wires going to a three-phase load.
This trick makes more sense if we take another look at a running phase sequence of
a three-phase voltage source:

1-2-3 rotation: 1-2-3-1-2-3-1-2-3-1-2-3-1-2-3 . . . 3-2-1 rotation: 3-2-1-3-2-1-3-2-

1-3-2-1-3-2-1 . . .

What is commonly designated as a “1-2-3” phase rotation could just as well be called
“2-3-1” or “3-1-2,” going from left to right in the number string above? Likewise, the
opposite rotation (3-2-1) could just as easily be called “2-1-3” or “1-3-2.”
Starting out with a phase rotation of 3-2-1, we can try all the possibilities for swapping
any two of the wires at a time and see what happens to the resulting sequence in the
figure below.
 All
possibilities of swapping any two wires.

No matter which pair of “hot” wires out of the three we choose to swap, the phase
rotation ends up being reversed (1-2-3 gets changed to 2-1-3, 1-3-2 or 3-2-1, all
equivalent).

REVIEW:

 • Phase rotation, or phase sequence, is the order in which the voltage waveforms
of a polyphase AC source reach their respective peaks. For a three-phase
system, there are only two possible phase sequences: 1-2-3 and 3-2-1,
corresponding to the two possible directions of alternator rotation.
 • Phase rotation has no impact on resistive loads, but it will have an impact on
unbalanced reactive loads, as shown in the operation of a phase rotation
detector circuit.
 • Phase rotation can be reversed by swapping any two of the three “hot” leads
supplying three-phase power to a three-phase load.
Key Differences between Single Phase and Three Phase
Supplies
The key differences between single phase and three phases include the following.

 The definition of the single-phase power supply is, the power supplies through a single
conductor
 The definition of the three-phase power supply is, the power flows through three
conductors.
 The single-phase power supply has one distinct wave cycle whereas; three phase has
three distinct wave cycles.
 Single phase requires the single wire to connect the circuit whereas; 3-phase needs 3-
wires.
 The voltage of the single phase is 230V, whereas three phase voltage is 415V.
 The phase name of the single phase is split phase, whereas three phase has no other name.
 The capacity of power transfer in the single phase is minimum, whereas three phase has
the maximum.
 The connection of single phase is simple whereas in 3-phase is complicated.
 The power failure happens in a single phase, but not occurs in three phase.
 The loss in single phase is maximum whereas in three phase is minimum.
 The single-phase efficiency is less whereas in three phase is high.
 The single-phase is inexpensive whereas the 3-phase is expensive.
 The single-phase AC power supply is utilized for home appliances and three phase power
supply is used in huge industries to run heavy loads.