VIII: THE PREPOSITION

Adverbs vs. Prepositions

934. The border-line between adverbs and prepositions is quite fluctuating,

and a formal distinction between these two groups is often totally lacking as in
the case of apres 'afterwards, after' < ad-pressu and aprop 'afterwards, with' <
ad-prope which may function as adverbs: apres cant ell s'en fon annatz (Appel
119, 109) 'afterwards when he had left'; no cuid aprob altre dols li demor
(Boeci: Appel 105, 42) Ί do not think that afterwards another sorrow remains',
as well as prepositions: bos er lo bes apres l'afan (B. de Ventadorn 1, 32) 'good
will the reward be after the suffering'; e ac ta gran valor aprob Mallio (Boeci:
Appel 105, 34) 'and he was in such high esteem with Mallio'. These are but two
instances out of many, and a similar fluctuation prevails in Latin. Thus Lat.
sübtus and versus, which were originally adverbs, yield the prepositions sotz
'under' and ves, vas, vers 'toward'. The two word-groups further share a mor-
phological characteristic in Occitan, the so-called adverbial s being added quite
freely to prepositions as well as to adverbs; ses 'without' < sine + s; denans
'before, in front o f < de-inante + s.
935. Oltra 'beyond, against' < Ultra is mostly confined to use as a preposi-
tion: ultra la mar (Bartsch-Koschwitz 3,32) 'beyond the sea'; outra rason (ibid.,
281, 25) 'against reason'; outra mon grat (.Jaufre, v. 7003) 'against my will'. It
occasionally serves as an adverb as for example in the locution passar oltra 'to
cross (to the other side)': oltr' a passatz (Bartsch-Koschwitz 39, 10) 'he crossed
to the other side' or 'he went across'. It also plays the role of an adverb in the
locution tot oltra 'point-blank' (SW V 476-77): e vam mandar tot otra qu'ab liey
mi colques (G. de la Barre, v. 2860) 'and she asks me point-blank to go to bed
with her', while an adverbial oltra 'on the other side' goes unmentioned by
Levy: si co'l solelhs pel freg cristal se lansa de tal esfors qu outra nais fuecs
ardens (Peirol VI 18) 'just as the sun breaks through the cold glass with such
force that on the other side a burning fire is started'.
936. The preposition per is used adverbially before an adjective in the
concessive construction per gran que sia 'however great he may be', imitated
from a similar locution involving the use of si or totz before the adjective.
Tobler (II 30-31), who dates the earliest occurrence of this syntax in Old
French to the 16th century, offers an Occitan example from the Regies des
chanoinesses: per propdana que sia 'however close he (i. e. the person) may be'.

322

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
 Similarly: per rics que sia (K. Bartsch: Denkmäler 76,13) 'however rich he may
be'. My only other examples of this construction show per modifying an adverb:
anc us no s'en tornec mendics de la cort, per pauc que valgues (G. de la Barre,
v. 4658) 'not one left court a beggar, however little he might be worth'; corron
tant leugierament con un fluvi per mot que corra (H. Suchier 344, V 25) 'they
run as fast as a river, however swiftly it may flow'. For the concessive per
preceding a noun, see § 856.
937. Certain past participles that have come to be considered prepositions,
such as trait, track 'except' from tractu, are part of an absolute construction in
which the case of the following noun is determined by its role vis-ä-vis the
subject or the object of the main clause and not by its position in relation to the
preposition: tota la soa gens monteron en destriers ..., trait li Campanes (Vidas
XVII, Q 36) 'all his people mounted their horses, except the Campanese', i. e.
'the Campanese being excepted'. As for the participle-preposition itself, it
shows grammatical agreement with the noun with which it is associated, a
nominative plural in the above example, an accusative plural in this passage:
tolgron al rei Peitieus, traitz alcanz castels (ibid., XVIII 26) 'they took Poitou
from the king, except some castles'. The notion of 'except' may also be ren-
dered by the learned exceptat: exceptat la ciotat denandicha (Pseudo-Turpin
481, 8) 'except the aforementioned city'. One would have expected it to agree
formally with la ciotat as part of an absolute construction: 'the city being excep-
ted', but it has already fully assumed the role of a preposition, and it may
further in this capacity be combined with de: exceptat de la part que era costa lo
fluvi (ibid., 486, 16) 'except for the section which was alongside the river'. A
slightly more popular form is septal: septatJozep (K. Bartsch: Denkmäler 281,
18) 'except Joseph'.

The Use of the Prepositions

938. While it is incumbent on lexicology rather than on syntax to provide

an exhaustive inventory of all the shades of meaning a preposition may serve to
express, it seems appropriate to offer a brief outline of some characteristic and
important uses of a few of the most common prepositions.
939. A construction with de has by and large replaced the Latin genitive
case: fofilhs de Dagobert (Saint Enimie, v. 39) 'he was the son of Dagobert'; li
viva colors de safassa (Flamenca, v. 552) 'the vivid color of her face'; las plagas
d'amor (ibid., v. 2676) 'the wounds of love'; ab la dolchor del temps novel
(Guillaume IX X 1) 'with the sweetness of the new season', but de does meet
with some competition in this function from the preposition a and from the
prepositionless juxtaposition-type genitive (§§ 74-87). A genitive de is used
freely with proper nouns as «ein Genitiv der Benennung im weitern Sinne»
(Stimming 257). In continuation of the Late Latin genitive construction urbs
Romae "the city of Rome', which had replaced the appositional urbs Roma of
Classical Latin (Väänänen § 361; Gamillscheg 109-10), de serves to link a

323

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
proper noun to a generic geographical term: en la terra de Proensa (P. Vidal V
40) 'in the land of Provence'; la ciutat d'Aire (B. de Born 27, 16) 'the city of
Aire'; en la marcha de Bordelz (Flamenca, v. 378) 'in the marche of Bordeaux',
and it is similarly used with nomen and with titles: qu'onra'l nom de Peitau (P.
Vidal XXIII54) 'for it honors the name of Poitou'; e l corns de Fois (B. de Born
1, 41) 'and the Count of Foix'; lo marques de Bellanda (ibid., 6, 12) 'the
marquis of Bellanda'; l'evesques de Clarmon (Flamenca, v. 474) 'the bishop of
Clermont'; lo senescal de Sanliz (ibid., v.7480) 'the seneschal of Senlis'. In
indications of time, de refers to such generic terms as mes 'month'; jorn
'day'; an 'year': el mes d'abril (J. Rudel IV 50) 'in the month of April'; al jorn
del jutjamen (G. d'Autpol: Appel 58,53) 'on the day of the last judgment'; estas
letras foro lo dia donadas de Sant Bertolmieu, Γan de la encarnation Dieu .M.
CC. LXXVIII. (A. de Sescas: Appel 100, 173) 'this letter was written on the
day of Saint Bartholomew, in the year of the incarnation of Christ 1278'. The
Latin genitive that appears in such expressions as monstrum mulieris 'a monster
of a woman' (Väänänen § 363), the so-called «genitivus definitivus» (Nyrop VI
§ 85, 6), is rendered in French by de (cf. un monstre de femme), and there are
also rare instances of this syntax in the South: parlem del trage de Guio (Daurel
et Beton, v. 736) 'let us talk about that traitor Guy'.
940. Serving in indications of quantity, de may be linked to a noun, an
adverb of quantity or a numeral: e n'a el siecle d'aquels tan (P. Vidal XLVIII
35) 'and there are so many of those in the world'; en motas de manieras (Appel
119,117) 'in many ways'; e d'autres sains ben .v. ο .vi. (Flamenca, v. 2121) 'and
easily five or six other saints'. De may also hold partitive meaning when used
without any reference word: de pan e de peysson li autre Ii an dat (Appel 8,211)
'the others gave him some bread and some fish'; fai de grans plazers (G. de
Bornelh 51, 42) 'it engenders great pleasures'.
941. The basic semantic function of de is that of marking origin, prove-
nance: ab domnas de Carcasses (P. de Vidal XXXV 12) 'with ladies from the
Carcasses region'; eil de Peitau (Flamenca, v. 7218) 'those from Poitou'; quar
.xvi. cavalz de Castella ... i gazanet (ibid., v. 7897) 'for there he won sixteen
horses from Castile'; quand encontra cellui d'estranh pais (Perdigon IV 11)
'when he meets a man from a foreign country'; ni'lfruchs del ram no m'agrada
(G. de Bornelh 19, 8) 'and the fruit from the branch does not please me'; es del
linh Pepi (Appel 6, 9) 'he is from the lineage of Pepin'.
942. In indications of place and time, de marks the point of departure:
quan mi suy partitz de lay (J. Rudel V 3) 'when I departed from there'; mou de
Fransa totz I'esglais (P. Vidal XXXII 17) 'from France comes all the fear'; al
torn que farai d'Espanha (G. de Bornelh 16, 28) 'until my return from Spain';
era lonh de Rotlan (Pseudo-Turpin 504, 35) 'he was far away from Roland'; anc
de l'ora qu'eu fui natz (G. de Bornelh 24, 62) 'never from the time when I was
born'; del tems que Deus fo natz (ibid., 60, 69) 'from the time when God was
born'. The notion of 'from - to' is rendered by de -α, de- en or de - (en)tro a:
de Flandris tro a Narbona (Flamenca, v. 7199) 'from Flanders to Narbonne'; de

324

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
 paret em paret (ibid., v. 5796) 'from wall to wall'; foron ... ρ res de .χι. entro a
.Ix. (Appel 121, 31) 'from forty to sixty were taken prisoner'.
943. It is the de marking point of departure which is found alternating with
que 'than' in the comparative clause (§ 889), where its function is to indicate the
starting point of a comparison: anc plus pros bars de lui no portet lansa (G. de
Bornelh 77, 77) 'never did a more valiant baron than he carry a lance'; mais sai
de Cato (ibid., 53, 20) Ί know more than Cato'. It is used rather consistently in
comparisons involving numerals: mais de cert (Guillaume IX V 69) 'more than a
hundred'; plus de mil ves (Flamenca, v. 2597) 'more than a thousand times'.
944. De is a common ingredient in a variety of temporal locutions, specifi-
cally those which provide a reply to the question 'when?': zo sun tuit omne qui
de joven sun bo (Boeci: Appel 105, 233) 'they are all men who are good in their
youth'; etz de mati somelhos (B. de Born 38, 26) 'you are sleepy in the mor-
ning'; lavar de ser e de maiti nos deuriam, segon razo (Marcabru XXXV 10) 'we
rightly ought to cleanse ourselves in the evening and in the morning'; de noih
prionda (B. de Ventadorn 4, 51) 'in the middle of the night'; mays ab virtud de
dies treys que altre emfes de quatro meys (Appel 2, 56) 'he had greater strength
when he was three days old than another child when four months old'. It is also
found in locutions expressing duration: qui bei volria lauzar d'un an no y poiri'
avenir (Guillaume IX IX 17) 'he who would want to praise her fittingly would
not succeed in a year'; e baizera'lh la bocha en totz sens, si que d'un mes i
paregra los sens (B. de Ventadorn 20, 39) 'and I would kiss her mouth all over,
so that for a month the mark would be visible'; qu'ieu avia malanans estat d'ans
.XX. fis amaire (G. Riquier XXIII 6) 'for, unhappy, I had been a faithful lover
for twenty years'. De carries partitive value in locutions such as de tot jorn 'the
whole day' and de cela nueit 'that night': de tot jorn nos levet del lieg (Flamenca,
v. 6330) 'the whole day he did not get out of bed'.
945. De is used in indications of dimension: ieu no'm puesc d'una pessa
mover (F. de Marselha XXI 36) Ί cannot move one step'; e l corns non es d'un
aill cregutz (R. de Vaqueiras II 80) 'and the count has not grown one iota', lit.
'by a bulb of garlic'; elflum creg ...de .iii. pes d'aut (Appel 121, 50) 'and the
river rose by three feet'. De marks distance in expressions such as Fr. cinq
lieues de Paris. Meyer-Lübke (III § 241) theorizes that this particular use of de
has resulted from the shortening of a more complete locution, that de, in other
words, originally referred to an adjective, an adverb or a verb serving to
mark the notion of distance. The following passage from Flamenca is suppor-
tive of this explanation: pres de Borbo de .xv. legas (v. 1802) 'fifteen miles from
Borbon', lit. 'near Borbon by fifteen miles'.
946. De may serve to express the change from one condition or state to
another: guerra fai de vila cortes (B. de Born Anhang II 13) 'war makes a
plebeian courtly', lit. 'makes out of a plebeian a courtly person'; de tort say dreg
faire (F. de Marselha XV 61) Ί know how to turn wrong into right'; oimais
d'enemic mortal m'auretz amic fin et leial (J. de Puycibot XI 23) 'henceforth,
instead of a mortal enemy you will have in me a faithful and loyal friend'.

325

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
 947. Matter is expressed by means of de: portet d'espinas corona (G. de
Bornelh 67, 42) 'he wore a crown of thorns'; causas d'aqel meseis drap (Jaufri,
v. 541) 'breeches of that same cloth'; en caussas de pali (Flamenca, v. 797) 'in
breeches of a silken fabric'; amans deu portar cor de ferre (ibid., v. 2065) 'a
lover must have a heart of iron'. Competing with ab, de may also carry instru-
mental value: chi nos redims de so sang (Boeci: Appel 105, 153) 'who re-
deemed us with his blood'; tal li doned el cab del bran (Sainte Foi, v. 388) 'he
gave her such a blow on the head with the sword'; voi pagatz d'autrui borcel
(Cercamon VII 54) 'you pay with somebody else's purse'; a Messina vos cobri
del blizo (R. de Vaqueiras: Epic Letter II17) 'at Messina I covered you with the
shield'; cassar d'austor ο de falcon (Β. Calvo: Riquer 296, 31) 'hunt with a hawk
or with a falcon'; en un verger tot claus de marbre (Jaufre, v. 3041) 'in a garden
all enclosed with marble'.
948. De may serve to introduce a quality or a characteristic feature: corps
avez de genta tenor (Sainte Foi, v. 241) 'you have a body with ä beautiful
posture'; no cuid qu'e Roma om de so saber fos (Boeci: Appel 105, 33) Ί do not
think that in Rome there was a man of his knowledge'; homes de fellonia
(Appel 8, 41) 'villainous people'; dona de gran valor (J. de Puycibot XVI21) 'a
lady of great value'. It may indicate manner or degree: d'aital faisso (F. de
Marselha V 53) 'in such a way'; e l rei Daire feric de mort eel qu'el noiric (P.
Vidal XXXVIII 48) 'and King Darius was mortally wounded by the person he
had raised'; eu am la de fin cor (ibid., XI 5) Ί love her sincerely'; qui d'avinen
sap trahir (A. de Peguilhan 18, 2) 'he who knows how to betray in a fitting
manner'; de plan (Perdigon IV 41) 'directly'; de myei mort (Appel 8, 52) 'half
dead'; davan lieis de ginoils estet (Flamenca, v. 2804) 'he kneeled down before
her' (cf. Fr. se mettre ä genoux)·, anar de galobs e de sals (ibid., v. 7698) 'to
gallop and to run' (cf. Fr. au galop).
949. De may express cause or motif: tremble de paor (B. de Ventadorn 1,
43) Ί tremble with fear'; morir me faran de dol (G. de Bornelh 19, 9) 'they will
make me die from sadness'; laissa rics sos filhs de sa nomansa (ibid., 69, 47) 'he
leaves behind his sons rich because of his fame'; non mangeron ren de gran
tristor (H. Suchier 393, 3) 'they did not eat anything because of great sadness'.
It may also mark agreement or accordance, being synonymous with segon: de
lui mi tenc per certas, ... qu'un don de ton pretz n'auras (J. de Puycibot IV 37)
Ί am certain that from him you will receive a gift in accordance with your
merit'. De rarely competes with per in expressions of intention: abril ni may
non aten de far vers (E. Cairel: Riquer 229, 1) Ί am not waiting for April or
May in order to write a vers'. De may introduce the motif of a complaint or the
cause of an emotion: ieu no m planh de re (F. de Marselha V 52) Ί am not
complaining about anything'; chan d'aco don deiplorar (G. de Bornelh 53,18)
Ί am singing about what I ought to cry over'.
950. Many nouns, adjectives and verbal locutions admit of a construction
with de, serving to introduce certain modifications, precisions or restrictions:
ab chan d'auzels (G. de Bornelh 1, 4) 'with bird-song'; que no sui de re certz

326

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
(ibid., 2, 56) 'for I am not certain about anything'; anc nofo de be-far adormida
(ibid., 7, 85) 'she was never tired of doing good'; de cavalgar sui totz las
(Flamenca, v. 1295) Ί am very tired from riding'; de Jaufre devem parlar
(Jaufri, v. 3020) 'we must talk about Jaufre'. Many reflexive verbs are con-
structed with de and an infinitive: de chantar me gic (B. de Ventadorn 31, 59) Ί
abstain from singing'. The use of de with infinitives has expanded to such a
degree that the preposition itself is often void of any semantic significance. Two
different constructions, both involving de, are encountered with aver paor 'to
be afraid': paor ai del trachor (Daurel et Beton, v. 653) Ί am afraid of the
traitor' vs. ac de l'enfan pahor (ibid., v. 660) 'she feared for the safety of the
child' (cf. Fr. avoir peur pour Γ enfant). In the passive voice, the person per-
forming the action is sometimes introduced by de, while the norm calls for per
as seen in § 668. This is particularly common where an emotion rather than an
action is expressed: sei que volra de Dieus esser amatz (P. Cardenal LXXIX 29)
'he who wants to be loved by God'; era temsutz d'amdos los reis (Vidas XVII, Q
76) 'he was feared by both kings'. De is sometimes used in indirect questions
expressing a limited choice: ni sai del mal ni del ben, quals se sobra (G. Riquier
VII 3) 'nor do I know whether it is evil or good that predominates' (§ 1113).
951. The de that appears in a sentence like es bergougnous de menti,
quoted by Camproux (p. 416). 'il est honteux de mentir', is rather difficult to
account for historically as well as semantically. Camproux refers to it as a de
introductif, and what this de serves to introduce is the logical subject of the
verb: 'lying is shameful'. Other examples are: nos lavet cap nis ras la barba;
d'aquella semblet una garba de civada (Flamenca, v. 1325) 'he neither washed
his head nor shaved his beard; that (i. e. the beard) looked like a sheaf of oats';
so qe pot esser d'aqest crit? (Jaufre, v. 4399) 'what can this cry be?'. From
examples such as OFr. de povrete est granz mehainz 'poverty is a great
calamity', Tobler (I 5-20) concludes that estre de may originally have carried
the stronger meaning of 'sortir de', but this explanation does not apply to all
instances of this use of de. This shortcoming may be remedied by leaving the
value of the verb intact while assigning to the preposition the meaning of
'concerning, as for' (S. de Vogel § 266). Since an infinitive construction with de:
OFr. bone chose est d'aprendre 'learning is a good thing', is encountered earlier
than one involving a noun: OFr. bone chose est de pais 'peace is a good thing',
Kjellmann seeks the origin of this syntax in Latin: tempus miserendi > tens est
d'aveir merci (Lerch I 59, 214). Such constructions do not seem to occur in
medieval Occitan. What is commonly found, however, is the use of de serving
to introduce the logical subject in an impersonal construction (§ 659): moutmi
plai del vostre gen cors gai (G. Faidit 7, 76) 'your beautiful and joyous body
pleases me very much'. De may serve to introduce the object of an exclamation
(cf. Sp. / dichoso de ti!)\ oy Dieus, de l'alba! tan tost ve (Appel 53, 4) 'oh God,
dawn, so soon it comes'; e Deus, dis el, d'aqesta gen! (Jaufre, v. 3834) 'oh God,
he said, those people!'. Gallo-Romance use of de in exclamations may have
originated in the South; Ronjat (III § 764) notes that paure de iiu 'poor me' is a

327

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
 construction that has been introduced into French at a relatively recent date by
writers from the Midi.
952. De may achieve greater independence in the sentence, being used with
the meaning of 'as to, as regards, concerning, with respect to' and serving
primarily to emphasize a sentence element, mostly the subject, by moving it
into the main clause: sermo fes de Nostre Senor comen san Joan tan amet
(Flamenca, v. 476) 'he made a sermon about how Our Lord loved Saint John so
much'; non deu nuils creir' a nuil sen de sidonz en cui s'enten quefailla neis si
faillia (J. de Puycibot II26) 'nobody should believe for any reason that the lady
he is in love with errs even if she was at fault'. For details on this syntax, see §§
1134—40.
953. A continues ad and has also taken over some of the functions of ab.
Ad evolves to az in antevocalic position: az estros (Guillaume IX V 53) 'quick-
ly', with ad representing but an earlier stage in this development: ad ella (Sainte
Foi, v. 445) 'to her', while a is preconsonantal: a so (G. de Bornelh 3, 62) 'to
that'. The merger of ad and ab dates back to Vulgar Latin, and hence it is not
possible to trace each separate use of a back to one or the other of these
sources.
954. A serves originally to designate proximity: Deus a ssa part lo te (Boeci:
Appel 105, 105) 'God keeps him by his side'; an Jaufre lai'ns atrobat dormen, a
sun cap sun escut (Jaufri, v. 3218) 'they found Jaufre asleep in there, with his
shield by his head'. From the basic notion of'near, in the vicinity o f , a may then
come to be used with the value of 'in, inside': eplatz m'a ric home franqueza
(Lo Monge de Montaudö: Appel 44, 5) 'and a noble disposition in a rich man
pleases me', and it may occasionally appear with that meaning before the name
of a city: a Conchas (Sainte Foi, v. 435) 'at Conques'; a Vilamur (B. de Born,
12, 24) 'at Vilamur'; anc a Tebas ni a Tessala (Flamenca, v. 3484) 'never at
Thebes nor at Thessaly'. For the far more common use of en here, see § 966.
955. A indicates direction or goal: I'om no I laiset a salvament annar (Boeci:
Appel 105, 69) 'they did not let him go to his salvation'; d'aqui a Monpeslier
(Appel 6, 175) 'from here to Montpellier'; a si dons venc (Flamenca, v. 5202)
'he came to his lady'; a Νa Gaucelma vuelh quesn'an (F. de Marselha XV 69) Ί
want it to go to Lady Gaucelma'; be ma aduch Amors a so (D. de Bornelh 2,61)
'love has truly brought me to that'. It may indicate direction in a hostile man-
ner, being the equivalent of contra 'against': qui al rey Xersen ab tal tenzon
(Appel 2,38) 'who led a great struggle against King Xerxes'; fortz afrevol non a
poder (R. de Vaqueiras XXVI 7) 'the strong man has no power against the
weak'; sias me chabdeus eguirens a ma domna (G. de Bornelh 12,64) 'guide me
and protect me against my lady'. Constructed with an infinitive, a may express
goal or obligation (§ 720): car nos avem granre α faire (Appel 9, 21) 'for we
have much to do'; d'als m'aven a consirar (G. de Bornelh 4, 22) Ί must think of
something else'. With its value of movement, goal, intention, interest, a quite
naturally comes to take over the function of the dative case: a Mo Cortes ...
tramet lo vers (B. de Ventadorn 1, 57) Ί send this vers to Mon Cortes'; a vos sui

328

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
fis (F. de Marselha II 34) Ί am faithful to you'; dei una chanso al cortes rei
d'Arago (P. Vidal XXXVI1) Ί owe a song to the courtly king of Aragon'; et al
bon rei don Dieus fors' (ibid., IV 48) 'and may God give strength to the good
king'. The close relationship between the dative and the genitive case leads to
the use of a possessive a: fraire al rei de Fransa (Appel 6, 9) 'brother of the King
of France' (§ 83). For the absolute, i. e. prepositionless dative, see §§ 88-91.
956. In certain locutions which normally carry a double accusative, one
direct object may be replaced by a prepositional locution introduced by a which
here serves to express purpose or design, i. e. 'to want or to choose somebody
for a specific purpose or in a specific capacity': per zo no I volg Boecis a senor
(Boeci: Appel 105, 47) 'therefore Boeci did not want him as his lord'; tolc a
marit un chavalier de Catalogna (Ussel, p. 102) 'she married a knight from
Catalonia'. A is found competing with per here: dieus per espoza mi vol (G.
Riquier: Appel 65, 36) 'God wants me as his spouse' (§§ 65-70).
957. A is used in temporal locutions to express duration or, more often,
point in time: a mo viven (G. de Bornelh 35, 36) 'as long as I live'; joios a ma
vida serai (ibid., 31, 55) Ί shall be joyous all my life'; a l'issen de martz (ibid.,
12, 6) 'at the end of March'; al comensamen (ibid., 26, 29) 'at the beginning'; a
totz jorns m'etz plus bei' (F. de Marselha II 25) 'you are more beautiful to me
every day'; cantavon a sun colgar (Jaufre, v. 3196) 'they were singing as she
went to bed'; de quelparlet a l'autre dia (Flamenca, v. 2339) 'which he talked to
him about the other day' or 'recently'. This temporal construction is found
alternating with the prepositionless continuation of the Latin ablativus tem-
poris: lo dolz charts d'un auzel, ... me desviet l'altrer de mo chamin (G. de
Bornelh 55,1) 'the sweet song of a bird turned me away the other day from my
path'; eel jorn portet armas le reis (Flamenca, v. 803) 'on that day the king bore
arms'.
958. A designates what is suitable or fitting or what is in conformity with a
given standard or custom: eu mi despoillei a lor grat (Guillaume IX V 62) Ί
undressed at their pleasure'; a ma guia (G. de Bornelh 31, 36) 'as I please'; si
quecs se trob' a so talan (ibid., 58, 9) 'if everybody writes according to his
desire'. It serves to indicate manner: a lei francesca (Sainte Foi, v. 20) 'in the
French manner'; viur' ad onor (G. de Bornelh 6, 5) 'live honorably'; selh que
destruys son frair' a trassio (R. de Vaqueiras: Epic Letter II 40) 'the one who
killed his brother in treacherous fashion'; al mielhs qu'ieu sai la serv (Peirol VII
22) Ί serve her in the best manner I know', and it is a common ingredient in a
variety of adverbial locutions denoting manner: a lairo (R. de Vaqueiras: Epic
Letter II 56) 'furtively, secretly'; a rescos (B. de Born 24, 43) 'secretly'; a celat
(B. de Ventadorn 21, 15) 'secretly'; a saubuda (B. de Born 32, 40) 'openly,
publicly'; a razo (B. de Ventadorn 44, 16) 'rightly'; a tort (Appel 7, 204)
"wrongly'; afrau (A. Daniel XVIII5) 'stealthily'; a jornal (J. de Puycibot XI47)
'always'. A may express accompanying circumstance: no pose sofrir c'a la dolor
de la den la lenga no vir (G. de Bornelh 40,1) Ί cannot help moving the tongue
when I have a tooth-ache', and it is occasionally used with instrumental value:

329

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
cant los aurem totz mortz alfer e a l'asier (Appel 6, 180) 'when we have killed
them all with the sword', lit. 'with the iron and the steel'; feren ad espero (ibid.,
101,6) 'spurring on their horses'; a det mostratz (G. de Bornelh 46,90) 'pointed
at with the finger'. A may assume distributive function: ab tantas gens ... qu'az
un de nos eron cen (Appel 101, 42) 'with so many people that for each one of us
they were a hundred'. A may appear in exhortations: drutz, al levar! (ibid., 54,
6) 'lover, arise!'.
959. Per < per serves in its basic local connotation to denote extension in
space, carrying such meanings as 'through, across, over', etc.: irai per tot (B. de
Born 32, 17) Ί shall go everywhere'; per mar (G. de Bornelh 12, 37) 'on the
sea'; per tot lo mon (ibid., 64, 27) 'through the whole world'; e'lsancfai correr
per las venas (Appel 114, 91) 'and it makes the blood run through the veins'; e
es s'en el vergier intratz per una porta c'a trobada (Jaufre, v. 3172) 'and he
entered the garden through a gate he had found'; abtan s'en passon per la plaza
(Flamenca, v. 2331) 'then they cross the square'. With local value, it further
serves to indicate the place where somebody or something is being seized, held,
hit, etc.: gentet lam n'aditzed perl bratz (Sainte Foi, v. 174) 'bring her to me
gently by the arm'; s'ieu per la gola non lo pen (Appel 5, 87) 'if I do not hang
him by the throat'; sipelsus de son elm li pot u colp ferir (Appel 6, 69) 'if he can
deal him a blow on the top of his helmet'. In descriptions of the body, a
substantival complement may be linked to an adjective by means of per: son bei
per la cara (P. Cardenal XXXIV 17) 'their face is beautiful'; fon delgatz per la
sentura (Jaufre, v. 535) 'he had a narrow waist'; era bels per corps (Pseudo-
Turpin 500, 5) 'his body was beautiful'. Old French makes use of de in this
context: gente de cors, de vis bele 'she had a beautiful body, a beautiful face'.
Per, like de (§ 945), may be used in indications of distance: era lonh de Rotlan
per .viii. milhas (ibid., 504, 35) 'he was eight miles away from Roland'. Per is
commonly found with temporal value, expressing duration: per tostemps (Ap-
pel 8, 144) 'forever'; pel suau termini (G. de Bornelh 18, 2) 'during the gentle
season'.
960. Per represents the prepositional norm in the passive voice where it
serves to introduce the agent, meeting only with slight competition from de (§
950), and it is also encountered in the reflexive passive: quar amatz suy per Heys
(G. Riquier XXVII 15) 'for I am loved by her'; prezatz pels pros (G. de
Bornelh 14, 14) 'valued by the noble'; en aytals dictatz que's fan per diversas
personas (Appel 124, 109) 'in such compositions which are written by different
persons'. Per may serve to indicate that an action or a condition is limited to
one person: zo ve chascus per si meteis (Flamenca, v. 2383) 'everybody sees that
for himself; ans aura quecx per se paor (G. d'Autpol: Appel 58, 52) 'on the
contrary, everybody fears for himself.
961. Per may serve to express a variety of relationships, such as means,
mediation, conformity, cause or motif: ieu per lone esperar ai conquista gran
doussor (K. Bartsch: Lesebuch 67, 61) 'by hoping a long time I have gained
great sweetness'; per son joy pot malautz sanar, e per sa ira sas morir (Guil-

330

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
laume IX IX 25) 'with her joy a sick person can recover, and with her wrath a
healthy person can die' ; eel que dona per sa manentia (G. de Bornelh 69, 12)
'he who gives in accordance with his wealth'; arte per trop donar ... rics om no
fo cochatz (ibid., 63,14) 'never did a rich man get into trouble because of giving
too much'; per nton grat no seria (L. Cigala: Appel 32, 38) 'it would not be to
my taste'; per eveia lo mesdren epreiso (Boeci: Appel 105, 27) 'out of envy they
put him into prison'; mas per poor que no us sembl' enoios (F. de Marselha IX
20) 'but for fear it may seem vexing to you'; es hom laires per emblar (P.
Cardenal XIV 3) 'one is a thief because one steals'; un gran desert, en lo qual
neguna persona non pot habitar per la gran calor que la fa (H. Suchier 356,
XXVII 1) 'a big desert in which nobody can live because of the great heat that
prevails there'. It may also denote manner or degree: fez u breu faire per grän
decepcio (Boeci: Appel 105 , 52) 'he had a letter written in a very deceitful
manner'; nafratz per morir (A. de Maruelh XXIII 6) 'mortally wounded'.
962. Per is widely used in assertions and confirmations by oath: pel cap
sanh Gregori (Guillaume IX VIII 17) T?y the head of Saint Gregory'; per
aquest' armal (A. Daniel XVIII20) 'by this my soul'; per Dieu (F. de Marselha
XII1) 'by God'; per mafe (Jauf κ, v. 3299) 'by my faith'; pel chap mo paire (G.
de Bornelh 25, 92) 'by my father's head'; per eel ni per solelh ni per la clardat,
que resplan, no sai de que ns anem parlan (ibid., 58, 43) 'neither by the sky nor
by the sun nor by the light that shines do I know what we are talking about'.
963. A different per from the above is obtained from Lat. pro (cf. Fr. pour
as opposed to par) which originally meant 'before' and then came to mean
'instead o f , etc. It is this per which serves to render such notions as destination,
goal, purpose, and which designates the person who benefits from an action or
for whose sake an action is carried out: del Cel czai deissended per nos (Sainte
Foi, v. 303) 'he descended from heaven to earth for our sake'; lo dia ... qe'l
seus fo per l'estraing trai'z (Marcabru VI 23) 'the day when hers (i. e husband)
was betrayed for the benefit of the stranger'; qual esfortz fatz per vos (F. de
Marselha XIV 41) 'what effort I make for you'; ilh es cela per cui eu chan (G. de
Bornelh 1, 10) 'she is the one for whom I sing'; mas chan per abelimen e per
plazer de la gen (ibid., 24, 21) 'but I sing for the pleasure and the enjoyment of
people'. Constructed with an infinitive, per marks intention or destination: ieu
chan ... per far grat a la gen (J. de Puycibot X 28) Ί sing in order to please
people'; estan ab mi per adobar (Flamenca, v. 6419) 'they are with me in order
to be knighted'; a terra'is fer per plus viatz morir (A. de Peguilhan 18, 12) 'it
plunges to the ground in order to die more rapidly'; los maritz d'aquellas non
son per batalhar, mas per dieus a pregar (H. Suchier 358, XXIX 29) 'the
husbands of those women are not destined for fighting, but for praying to God'.
Per may modify an adjective, serving to restrict its range: chanzos q'es leusper
entendre et avinenz per chantar (Uc de Saint Circ XX 1) 'a song which is easy to
understand and pleasant to sing'; bonsper manyar (H. Suchier 357,10) 'good to
eat'. A construction with per, similar to the use of a discussed in § 956, may
replace a second accusative in locutions expressing the purpose for which a

331

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
person is wanted or selected: re nous deman mas quem prendatz per servidor
(B. de Ventadorn 1,49) Ί do not ask anything of you, except that you take me
as your servant'; ela no m'acolh ni m sofre per entendedor (G. de Bornelh 29,
38) 'she does not receive me nor does she accept me as her lover'; e tolc la per
moillier (Vidas LXXXVII, Β 56) 'and he married her'.
964. Retaining its primitive meaning of 'instead o f , per may serve to ex-
press exchange or replacement: aquest non er ja camjatz ni per aur ni per argen
(Guillaume IX 118) 'this one will never be exchanged neither against gold nor
silver'; s'eu per estanh do mon aur (G. de Bornelh 47,86) 'if I give my gold in
exchange for tin'; c'om totz sos ans do per dos ο tres semblans (ibid., 7,12) 'in
such a way that one would give one's entire life in exchange for two or three
looks'; ai camjat mal per pejor (A. de Peguilhan 4,2) Ί have changed bad for
worse'; per caval vol amblan palafre (Sorden XXIV 34) 'instead of a horse he
wants an ambling palfrey'. It is in an ulterior development from here that per
comes to serve in multiplicative function, linking un to another cardinal as in
per un dos lit. 'instead of one two' > 'twofold': chascun jorn creis I'amors per un
dos (Α. de Peguilhan 7,20) 'every day my love grows twofold'. For further
details and additional examples, see § 188. Here are a couple of examples of
this structure that are somewhat less formulaic in nature: e'n deman per un mot
cen (P. Vidal XIX 6) 'and for each single word I ask for a hundred'; car per un
bo son cen Ii sordeior (G. de Bornelh 69,29) 'for for each good one there are a
hundred bad ones'. Per may be used with distributive value: cant Guillems ac
comjat pres de las domnas per una et una (Flamenca, v. 7440) 'when Guillaume
had taken leave of the ladies, one by one'.
965. Per may serve to introduce the reason why a happening takes place:
per leis pert mo veiaire (G. de Bornelh 31, 17) 'because of her I am losing my
reason'. This causal per may aquire the concessive value of 'in spite of when a
negation is added, as the preposition then comes to signal an insufficient cause,
an obstacle which has been overcome (Tobler 125-26): no me col per remaner
la melher (G. de Bornelh 35, 85) 'the best lady does not accept me in spite of
my perseverance'; ges de sobrevoler no'm tolh per folha d'arbre ni per flor
(ibid., 29, 2) Ί do not at all cease to cherish boundless desires in spite of the
foliage and the flowers'. Another example is given in § 1077. In a further
development, per carries concessive value when followed by a relative clause in
the subjunctive mood (§ 856). Locutions formed in this manner serve to indi-
cate that a given quality or substance is present to an extent that remains
undetermined. This quantity, however large it may be, is considered incapable
of bringing about a change in the stated action or condition (Tobler II 24-34;
Diez 1028): e ja per plag que m'en mueva no'm solvera de son liam (Guillaume
IX VIII 5) T)ut never, for whatever quarrel she may stir up over it, will she
detach me from her bond'; que jes Rozers, per aiga que I'engrois, non a talbriu
(A. Daniel XV 26) 'for never does the Rhone, however much water may fill it,
make such a tumult'; per nulh maltrag qu'ieu senta (Sordel 119) 'whatever pain
I may suffer'; ja per guap ni per menassa que mos mals maritz me fassa

332

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
(Cadenet 81, 37) 'in spite of whatever scorn or threat my evil husband may
heap on me'.
966. The basic role of en < in is to designate the place inside which some-
thing or somebody is found: e Roma (Boeci: Appel 105, 33) 'in Rome'; en la
prada (Marcabru XXVIII 2) 'in the meadow'; sai en Vianes (G. de Bornelh 20,
57) 'here in the Vienne region'; I'autrier fuy en paradis (Lo Monge de Mon-
taudö: Appel 93, 1) 'the other day I was in paradise'. In this acceptation, it is
sometimes found alternating with dinz, dins: en vergier ο dinz cambra (A.
Daniel X V I I I 6 ) 'in a garden or in a chamber', and it may itself be reinforced by
inz, ins: esser cujaras inz e Nantas (Flamenca, v. 7478) 'you would think you
were in Nantes'. En may be used about a place in a book: so trobam els auctors
(G. de Bornelh 47, 88) 'this we read in the authors', and about persons: en lieys
es proez' e jovens (F. de Marselha XXI 29) 'in her are merit and youth'. Used
figuratively, en is applied to abstracts with the same local meaning: ins e mon
cor l'amarai (ibid., VII49) 'deep in my heart I shall love her'; mout es Guillems
en greu torment (Flamenca, v. 1832) 'Guillaume is in a very grave torment'.
967. En is not only static, but may also designate the place into which
something or somebody penetrates: per eveia lo mesdren epreiso (Boeci: Appel
105, 27) 'because of envy they put him into prison'; säl en estänt (ibid., 105, 68)
'he stands up'; quar en vostra mantenensa me mis (F. de Marselha XIII10) 'for I
placed myself in your power'; en la cambra es venguda sa osta (Flamenca,
v. 3475) 'his hostess came into the room'; cant vol intrar en cortal (Appel 125, 7)
'when it wants to enter into a barn-yard'. From an indication of movement, en
may come to express direction or goal: en l'issla de Lerins tenon lur dreyta via
(ibid., 8, 221) 'they head straight for the island of Lerins'. Not surprisingly, the
en indicating movement meets with some competition from a: quan le corns a la
cambr' intret (Flamenca, v. 225) 'when the count entered the room', and a may
even replace the static en: foron fag ins a Doais (ibid., v. 2201) 'they were made
in Douai'.
968. Transferred to the intellectual sphere, en is used with the verbs creire,
esperar, pensar, entendre, which means that the action of believing, hoping,
etc., is conceived as a movement towards a place: drez es e bis que l'om e Deu
s'esper (Boeci: Appel 105, 120) 'it is just and well that man places his hope in
God'; tant pes en lieys (Sordel II 9) 'so much am I thinking about her'; car ilh
creyan en Crist (Appel 108, 10) 'for they believed in Christ'; e eel (es) paubres
qu'en trop ricor enten (F. de Marselha XII 36) 'and he is poor who seeks to
attain excessive wealth'; aqella en qi els'entendia (Appel 122d, 15) 'the lady he
was in love with'; us cavalliers d'Englaterra s'entendet en ella (ibid., 122c, 12) 'a
knight from England fell in love with her'.
969. Transcending its primitive value of 'within' or 'into', en may come to
denote position on the surface of an object: sui e mon destrier (Sordel XXIII 8)
Ί am on my steed'; per Dieu, q'en crotz estet (D. de Pradas II 51) 'by God, who
was (put) on the cross'; en la crotz fon levatz (B. de Venzac VI 31) 'he was put
on the cross' (cf. Fr. mourir en croix as a relic of this use of en) \ en testa porton

333

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
capel (Appel 115, 201) 'on the head they wear a hat'; cilh frug qu'en I'albre
estan (ibid., 115, 225) 'those fruits that are on the tree'. The combination en
mieg < in mediu stresses the notion of 'in the middle of: sei qu'e mieg de l'albr'
estai (F. de Marselha VII 18) 'he who is in the middle of the tree'.
970. En is frequently found in temporal locutions: en may (J. Rudel V 1)
'in May'; en sob dos sers (G. de Bornelh 22, 39) 'in only two evenings'; en
pascor (ibid., 29, 3) 'in the spring': el terns des ancias (ibid., 68, 25) 'in the time
of the ancients'; e jovent (Boeci: Appel 105, 102) 'in one's youth'. En may
express manner: en auta votz escrida (Appel 7, 280) 'he cries out in a loud
voice'; eram torn en urnil vas mo Bel-Senhor char (G. de Bornelh 48,71) 'now I
turn humbly to my dear Bel-Senhor'. Constructed with a gerund, en marks
simultaneity, manner or means (§§ 747-749): en chantan vos apel (G. de Bor-
nelh 54, 11) Ί call you while singing'; pens de vos en estans (ibid., 18, 31) Ί am
thinking of you when I am up'.
971. Ves, vas, vaus < versu, past participle of vertere 'to turn', and the
compounded enves and deves, all meaning 'towards', serve to indicate direction
or goal: ves Rochachoart m'eslais (B. de Born 32, 36) Ί hurry towards
Rochechouart'; que plus me tra'l cors vas amor (B. de Ventadorn 1, 3) 'for my
heart draws me more strongly towards love'; ab l'alen tir vas me I'aire (P. Vidal
XIX 1) 'with my breath I draw towards me the air'; Jaufre vas sun caval cor
(Jaufri, v. 3270) 'Jaufre runs towards his horse'; en orason vaus Dieu s'aclina
(Flamenca, v. 3133) 'in prayer he bows towards God'. An element of movement
is not always implied, in which case ves is more or less the equivalent of'near':
vas Dornas (Marcabru XXXV 36) 'near Damascus'; deves Josaphas (ibid.,
XXXV 8) 'near Josaphat'; lai vas Viana (B. de Ventadorn 36, 62) 'down there
near Vienne'; deves vostre pais (ibid., 26, 2) 'near your country'.
972. Ves may also be used with temporal value, its basic function here
being to express an approximate point in time: vas lo torn de I'an (G. de
Bornelh 43, 12) 'towards the end of the year'; en yvern vas lo calender (Appel
114, 77) 'in winter at Christmas time'; en estieu ο vas lo pascor (ibid., 114, 73)
'in summer or towards spring': vas la mieia nueg (ibid., 125, 2) 'around mid-
night'. In this usage, ves meets with some competition from contra (§ 975).
973. Used figuratively, ves commonly serves to render an attitude of total
submission to one's lady, to love or to God: cascus tot franchamen ves son par
s'umelia (Peirol XXIII 41) 'each one quite sincerely humbles himself towards
his mate'; e vos, dompna, ves cui estau aclis (G. Ademar X 31) 'and you, lady,
to whom I am obedient'. In this acceptation, ves is found alternating with a
dative construction as seen in § 624 where additional examples are offered.
Noteworthy is also the use of ves to express a hostile opposition: ers se vas Deu
(Sainte Foi, v. 118) 'he rose against God'; ο s'es ves mi azirada (Marcabru
XXVIII 25) 'or she is angry with me'; sol que vas Dieu no sia ergulhos (F. de
Marselha XIX 54) 'provided he is not haughty towards God'; e no m par que si
defenda ves el (B. de Born 13, 21) 'and it does not seem to me that he defends
himself against him'. The syntax of defendre is discussed in § 634.

334

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
 974. Ves is commonly used in comparisons with the meaning of 'compared
to, in comparison with': la neus ... par vas lei brun' et escura (B. de Ventadorn
16, 39) 'the snow, compared to her, seems brown and dark'; totz autres mals es
niens vas lo dezir (ibid., 14,13) 'any other suffering is nothing compared to the
desire'; tuih sonfaus vas me liplus leyal (ibid., 24, 16) 'the most sincere are all
false compared to me'. Ves shares this usage with contra (§ 977).
975. Contra may express direction towards something: can vei la lauzeta
mover de joisas alas central rai (ibid., 31, 1) 'when I see the lark joyfully move
its wings towards the sun's ray'; ela met alas e va contra la nau (Appel 125, 94)
'it puts on wings and moves towards the ship', and it may appear with temporal
value: contra'l Pascor (Marcabru X X I V 1) 'towards Easter'; contra'l ser (P.
d'Alvernhe I 24) 'towards evening'.
976. Contra often marks a hostile opposition: car s'era contra Deu levatz
(G. de Bornelh 70, 38) 'for he had risen against God'; mantenrai los frevols
contra Is fortz (R. de Vaqueiras VIII 16) 'and I shall support the weak against
the strong', but is much less frequently used about a friendly relationship: fis
contra leis (L. Cigala: Appel 32, 29) 'loyal towards her'. From the notion of an
opposition, contra may come to express the idea of an exchange: que control
frech m'agr' obs vestirs e central tort, qu'eu pren, merces e control trop tazer
chantars (G. de Bornelh 66, 4) 'for against the cold I would need clothing and
instead of the wrong I suffer mercy and instead of the excessive silence singing'.
977. Contra and encontra are used rather extensively in comparisons as
synonyms of ves (§ 974): ja mos chantars no m'er onors encontral gran joi c'ai
conques (B. de Ventadorn 36, 1) 'never will my singing deserve honor com-
pared to the great joy I have acquired'; el mon non es emperis ... que contra
vos nomfos grans paubretatz (G. de Bornelh 13, 38) 'in the world there is no
empire which compared to you would not be great poverty to me'; Alixandres
fo niens contra qu'eu seria (P. Vidal XXII 15) 'Alexander was nothing com-
pared to what I would be'; tuit li autre no sabo escontra lui un dat (Croisade
Albigeoise 58,17) 'compared to him all the others do not know the worth of a
pair of dice'.
978. Ab, am, amb 'with' < apud replaces cum and is also the equivalent of
Fr. chez. It serves to express proximity, community, company: ses cor viu, car
ab me no l'ai (G. de Bornelh 31, 23) Ί live without a heart, for I do not have
mine with me'; ab leis me remanh (ibid., 11, 36) Ί stay with her'; ab nos
albergara (Appel 7, 435) 'he will stay with us'; ab tota sa companha (ibid., 7,
436) 'with all his company', and it may be used about a hostile union: can ab lo
cardenal mosenhor contendretz (ibid., 7,249) 'when you have a dispute with my
lord the cardinal'.
979. Ab serves to express a variety of relationships. It marks accompanying
circumstance: cilh quemfai viur' ab langor (G. de Bornelh 6, 46) 'the lady who
makes me live with languor'; car ven estatz ab sas clartatz (ibid., 8, 5) 'for
summer comes with its light'; respon ab aquel sospir (Jaufre, v. 6961) 'he an-
swers with that sigh', and motivating circumstance or cause: ab la dolchor del

335

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
temps novel foillo Ii bosc (Guillaume IX X 1) 'thanks to the sweetness of the
new season, the woods are leafing out'; ab so dolz ris a mo cor el seu mis (G. de
Bornelh 7, 52) 'with her sweet laughter she has united our hearts'. It may
designate means, and it may indicate the tool with which an action is carried
out: qu'ap servir et ab honrar conquier horn de bon senhor don (K. Bartsch:
Lesebuch 67, 25) 'for by serving and honoring one acquires gifts from a good
lord'; la man ab que m prezist (G. de Bornelh 19, 42) 'the hand with which you
seized me'; leus sui ad enfoletir ab so gen mentir (ibid., 20,47) Ί am easy to fool
with her sweet lies'; s'ab los huoills vos vezia (F. de Marselha XI 45) 'if I saw
you with my eyes'; tallar tot ab un coutel (Flamenca, v. 3465) 'cut everything
with a knife'; ab un de sos rais la feri (ibid., v. 2493) 'it hit her with one of its
rays'. Ab may express quality or characteristics: (es) en fachs gentils, ab solatz
avinen (G. de Bornelh 1,17) 'she is noble in deeds, with pleasant conversation';
Caraduis ab lu bras cort (Jaufri, v. 109) 'Caraduis with the short arm'. It ap-
pears infrequently in comparisons, competing with ves (§ 974) and contra (§
977): paucs en conosc c'ab vos valhon un gan (G. de Bornelh 69, 50) Ί know
few who in comparison with you are worth a glove'; sa color que par flors ab
neu quan chai (Sordel XII 37) 'her color which looks like a flower against the
falling snow'. This last example shows how ab, from marking a contrast, can
come to establish a comparison.
980. Sobre < super denotes position on or above an object: sobr un pueg
au (Guillaume IX IV 12) 'on a high hill'; dorm sobr' arch' ο sobre banc (G. de
Bornelh 18, 26) Ί sleep on a trunk or on a bench'; sobre lor destrers correns
(ibid., 61, 32) 'on their swift steeds'; estava sobre terra tant aut (Appel 119, 86)
'she was suspended so high above the ground'; tugh li auzel caronhier estavan
tot jorn sobre la vila (ibid., 121, 19) 'all the vultures were hovering above the
city all day'. It may also take on the meaning of 'close to, following immediately
behind': estara I'una anima sobre l'autra, asi com estan los anhels sobre las
ovelhas (ibid., 117, 46) 'one soul will be close to the other, just as the lambs
follow immediately behind the ewes'. Sobre is occasionally encountered with
the meaning of 'against': Dieus ... lo guid e'ill fass' amparansa sobreis fals
Turcs desbateiatz (F. de Marselha XXVII51) 'may God guide him and give him
protection against the false Pagan Turks'. Levy (SW VII 697) lists examples of
sobre used with temporal value: sobre jorn 'during the day' sobre semana 'dur-
ing the week'; this is probably a late development, comparable to conditions in
French where a temporal sur is not found in the old language (S. de Vogel §
396; Gamillscheg 291). Sobre may mean 'concerning, as regards': sobre'l vielh
trobar el novel vuelh mostrar mon sen (P. d'Alvernhe 3, 1) 'concerning the old
and the new style of writing, I want to show my opinion'.
981. Sobre is often used in comparisons where it renders the notion of
'above, more than, surpassing': aquest deu sobre totz granar (Guillaume IX IX
10) 'this one must bear fruit above all others'; lo Reis sobr' autres reis s'enansa
(P. Vidal VII 43) 'the king distinguishes himself above all other kings'; bei' es
sobre tota beutat (ibid., XXXII53) 'she is beautiful above all beauty'; sobre totz

336

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
sui rics e manens (G. de Bornelh 12, 13) 'above all others I am powerful and
rich'. For further details on sobre, see SW VII 695-700.
982. The use of sobre in the locution jurar sobre follows from the basic
local meaning of the preposition since, traditionally, the placing of one's hand
on a holy book or on a cross plays a prominent part in the solemn ceremony of
swearing: jur sobre saings evangelis (Charles 193, 5) Ί swear on the holy go-
spels'. The primitive meaning of sobre is quite clearly in evidence where tocatz is
used: Bernada jura sobre .iiii."' evangelia corporalment toquadz de sas mas
(ibid., 232, 23) 'Bernada swears on four gospels physically touched by her
hands'; jure sobre sainz evangelis tocatz e sobre I'altar saint Salvador (ibid., 112,
11) Ί swear on the holy gospels and on the altar of Saint Salvador'. This last
example literally means: Ί swear on the holy gospels touched', i. e. Ί swear
with my hands touching or placed upon the gospels'. The primitive syntax may
have involved an abolute construction: jure los s. avangelis tocatz (ibid., 304,17
& 305, 30) Ί swear, the holy gospels having been touched'. Sainz presumably
stands for sainz avangelis rather than for 'saints': Rigalz juret sobres-sainz
(ibid., 94, 16) 'Rigalz swore on the holy gospels'; jurar sobre sains (R. de
Vaqueiras II 75) 'swear on the gospels' (edit, translates: 'swear by sacred ob-
jects'), but it may be from such cases that sobre has come to compete with per,
the preposition normally used in oaths (§ 962): per ma fe (Jauf re, v. 3299) 'by
my faith' vs. sobre Deu e sobre mafe (ibid., v. 7006) 'by God and by my faith'.
For Fr. sur ma foi, sur mon honneur, see Gamillscheg 292; for the transitive
jurar son cap, jurar sa testa 'to swear by one's head', see SW IV 282.

Preposition and Complement

983. The complement of a preposition is a noun, a pronoun or a noun

equivalent. While in Classical Latin, the complement of a preposition is either
in the accusative or the ablative case, Vulgar Latin retains only the accusative,
and this syntax is continued in Occitan where prepositions almost invariably
govern the accusative case: entr els prims fuoills (A. Daniel VIII1) 'among the
first leaves'; pel joi (ibid., II40) 'because of the joy'; dels auzels (ibid., IX 7) 'of
the birds'. Cases of the nominative are very rare, occurring only with a few
specific locutions.
984. Fors 'except' does not succeed in breaking the link between the noun
it governs and the main verb of the sentence, as the following example will
show: tuit li ant otreiat can que lor quis, fors li cons Aimars (G. de Rossillon:
Appel 1, 685) 'they have all granted him everything he asked of them, except
Count Aimar'. Li cons Aimars is not felt as being governed by fors, but rather
as being aligned with tuit: 'all, but not Count Aimar'; fors, in other words, does
not act like a full-fledged preposition here, but rather like a conjunction as seen
also in these examples: tug issiranfors li diable (H. Suchier 161, 150) 'all will
come out, except the devils'; res fors Deus no'm pot pro tener de peiurar (G. de
Bornelh 11, 38) 'nobody except God can protect me against decline'. What the

337

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM
 examples quoted above have in common is the fact that the complement oifors
is aligned with the subject of the sentence, serving to express a restriction
(Togeby § 41,5); Nyrop (VI §§ 52, 2 & 143,3) equates this use o f f o r s with si ce
n'est which would justify the use of the nominative case, while on the other
hand, he considers fors to be a preposition whenever it is constructed with an
accusative (VI § 162, 3). Tobler (1278-82) finds no justification for considering
fors a conjunction or an adverb, suggesting instead (III 97-98) that the use of
the nominative may be a case of attraction. Prepositions meaning 'except' are
frequently constructed with a nominative; rather than a prepositional 'except
him', the prevalent structure appears to be that of an absolute locution: 'he
being excepted', as is the case with trait, trach (§ 937).
985. Tener se per 'to consider oneself to be' is mostly, if not exclusively,
constructed with a nominative: era m tenh per enganatz (P. Vidal XXV 14)
'now I consider myself deceived'. This unusual syntax is easily explained, since
the locution tener se per is the semantic equivalent of a predicate denoting
existence (§ 50). Following are a few additional examples: jes per aisso no is
tenga per blasmatz; enanz s'en deu tener per ben lauzatz (Cadenet 14,14) 'may
he not consider himself blamed for it, but rather he must consider himself well
praised for it'; jas tenia sol per vostras salutz totz hom ses plus per rics e per
guaritz (A. de Peguilhan 22, 35) 'every man used to consider himself rich and
healthy because of your greetings alone'; caschus per garitz si ten (Flamenca,
v. 5314) 'everybody considers himself cured'. The preposition a may occasional-
ly replace per in this locution: per qu'eu... me tenh a be menatz (G. de Bornelh
42, 97) 'for I consider myself happy'. Alleging strong pressure from the typical
prepositional structure, Stimming (p. 230) asserts that the accusative is quite
commonly found after tener se per: «es braucht wohl nicht besonders her-
vorgehoben und belegt zu werden, daß neben dieser Construction nach dem
Sinne auch die streng grammatische fast gleich häufig vorkommt». However,
my only examples of the accusative contain the non-reflexive tener alcu per 'to
consider somebody to be': per vielh lo tenh (B. de Born 40, 35) Ί consider him
old'; reis de Franza, ie us tenh per franc (ibid., 16, 36) 'King of France, I
consider you noble', with the sole exception of the following passage involving
tener se a and where the position in rhyme may be responsible for the flexional
infraction: en luec don si ten a pagat (Flamenca, v. 2179) 'in a place with which
he considers himself satisfied'.
986. There are a few other constructions of a similar nature where the
nominative case appears following a preposition, depenher se a 'to describe or
depict oneself as' and reconoisser se per 'to admit or acknowledge to be': be's
deu guardar qui a drutz si depeis (B. de Born 29, 6) 'he must watch out who
described himself as a lover'; reconoc se per pecayre (G. de la Barre, v. 4456)
'he admitted that he was a sinner'.

338

Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated
Download Date | 1/8/20 4:57 AM