Structural Features of Solids: Lesson 1.5
Structural Features of Solids: Lesson 1.5
Structural Features of Solids: Lesson 1.5
Lesson 1.5
Structural Features of Solids
Contents
Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 2
Warm Up 2
Bibliography 14
Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids
Lesson 1.5
Structural Features of Solids
Introduction
Diamond came from the Greek word ‘Adamas’ which means indestructible or invincible. It’s
no wonder as they are known to be the hardest natural substance to exist in this world.
Solids, unlike liquid and gas, have definite shape and volume. But not all solids are like
diamonds, some are very soft and can be easily manipulated, while others are brittle and
have a strong resistance to any change in shape. Some conduct electricity, whereas others
do not. In this lesson, you will discuss the structural features of solids as well as the
physical properties associated with these features.
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 1
Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids
Warm Up
Materials
● magnifying glass
● hammer
● water bath
● table sugar
● table salt
● pepper
● candle
● nail
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 2
Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids
Procedure
1. Get a pinch of each material (sugar, salt, and pepper) and placed it on a clean tissue
or paper.
2. Use different magnifying glasses with different powers to examine each material.
3. List your observations in Table 1.5.1.
4. Place one piece of a candle on top of a clean mat or tissue. Break the candle using a
hammer. Do the same with a piece of nail.
5. List your observations in Table 1.5.2. Answer the guide questions below.
6. Using a water bath, heat one piece of candle.
7. Do the same with a pinch of sugar. Record the melting point for both samples in
Table 1.5.3.
8. Answer the guide questions below.
Observation Table
Table 1.5.1. Physical properties of salt, sugar, and pepper
Table 1.5.2. Physical properties of candle and nail
Candle Nail
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 3
Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids
Table 1.5.3. Observation on candle and sugar after being heated
Candle Sugar
Guide Questions
1. Can you see the difference between the three solid samples? Which looks similar to
each other? Which looks different?
2. Which of the material looks like a crystal?
3. What happens to the materials when you break them using a hammer?
4. Which sample melted first? Which sample has a definite melting point?
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 4
Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids
Fig. 1.5.1. Particles in solids
Structure of Solids
Solids can appear in different forms. Structurally, it has two main categories—crystalline
solids and amorphous solids.
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 5
Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids
Fig. 1.5.2. Silicon dioxide (SiO2), also known as quartz, is a crystalline solid.
Amorphous Solids
An amorphous solid (from the Greek words which mean “without form”) is the exact
opposite of crystalline solid. It lacks the order found in crystalline solids. The structures of
amorphous solids at the atomic level are similar to the structures of liquids. However, the
atoms, ions, or molecules have little freedom to move, unlike in crystalline solids.
Amorphous solids do not have the well-defined shapes of a crystal. Some examples of this
include obsidian (volcanic glass) and rubber.
Fig. 1.5.3. Obsidian (typically KAlSi3O8) is an amorphous solid.
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 6
Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids
Remember
Crystalline solids consist of particles in an organized form, while the
particles of amorphous solids are not formed in an orderly manner.
Properties of Solids
Solids exhibit characteristic properties that are distinguishable from other states of matter.
These properties are, of course, dependent on the composition of the solids.
Melting Point
When solid is heated, it loses its definite shape and is converted to a liquid. This process is
called melting, and melting point is the temperature at which this occurs. Conversely,
freezing occurs when liquid changes to solid, and the temperature at which it occurs is the
freezing point. The melting and freezing points of a substance are the same. At this
temperature, solid and liquid forms are in equilibrium with each other.
Crystalline solids have a precise melting point, while amorphous solids may melt over a
wide range of temperatures. The melting point of a solid also depends on the strength of
the interactions between its components: A stronger interaction has a higher melting
point.
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 7
Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids
Consider the examples of solids shown in Fig. 1.5.4. Cristobalite, a type quartz polymorph,
melts at precisely 1 713 °C. On the other hand, sugar, also a crystalline solid, melts at 186 °C.
The difference in melting point shows that cristobalite has a stronger intermolecular force
(held together by covalent bonds) compared to sugar, which is held together by London
dispersion forces. Soda-lime glass, meanwhile, can melt anywhere between 550 °C and 1450
°C.
Heat of Fusion
As mentioned earlier, the melting point of a solid and the freezing point of its liquid are the
same, and they coexist in equilibrium at that temperature. If heat is added uniformly to a
solid-liquid mixture at equilibrium, the temperature does not change while the solid melts.
When all the solid is melted, the temperature begins to rise. On the other hand, if heat is
removed uniformly in the same mixture, the liquid also freezes at a constant temperature.
The quantity of heat necessary to melt a solid is the enthalpy of fusion. The enthalpy of
fusion can be expressed using the equation presented below.
Solids with stronger intermolecular forces have higher values compared with the weaker
ones, such as London dispersion forces. For a crystalline solid, the heat of fusion is fixed and
definite. While for the amorphous solid, it has no precise value of the heat of fusion.
Sublimation
Sublimation is the process of direct passage of molecules from solid to the vapor phase,
bypassing the liquid state. The reverse process, deposition, is the immediate passage of
molecules from vapor to a solid phase.
When sublimation and deposition occur at equal rates, solid and vapor coexist in
equilibrium. The quantity of heat to convert solid to vapor is called enthalpy of
sublimation. Sublimation (solid → vapor) is equivalent to melting (solid → liquid), followed
by vaporization (liquid → vapor) at the sublimation point.
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 8
Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids
One of the most known solids with significant sublimation pressures is ice. Although the
temperature may not rise above 0 °C, the snow may disappear from the ground without
melting because it sublimes. The sublimation pressure of ice at 0° C is 4.58 mmHg.
Fig. 1.5.5. Ice exhibits an appreciable sublimation pressure.
Anisotropy is the property of substances where the physical and mechanical properties
vary with different orientation and molecular axes. On the contrary, when the physical and
mechanical properties are equal in all directions, it is said to be isotropic. Crystalline solids
are anisotropic, while amorphous solids are isotropic.
Malleability and Ductility
Malleability describes the ability of the solid to undergo compressive stress without
breaking it. Compared to non-metals, metals are highly malleable. Hence, metals can be
shaped through forging, rolling, extrusion, and indenting.
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 9
Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids
Fig. 1.5.6. Gold is known to be the most malleable and ductile.
Conductivity
Electrical conductivity is the measurement of the ability of atoms, molecules, or ions to
transfer electrons from one to another. Some solids have metallic bonds that make outer
electrons relatively free to move between adjacent atoms making an electrical current easy
to move from one end to another. While other solids have ionic or covalent bonds that are
very rigid, making it hard to conduct electricity. Solids that do not conduct electricity are
called electrical insulators.
Thermal conductivity is when the temperature is used as a measurement of the
movement of atoms, molecules, or ions. The movement of one molecule, ion, or atom
requires it to be easily transferable to its neighbor for a solid to conduct heat. Solids that
have metallic bonds are also a good heat conductor because of the non-directional nature
of such bonds. On the other hand, solids with bonds such as covalent have low conductivity
because of the rigidity between atoms.
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 10
Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids
Fig. 1.5.7. Copper is used to make coins since it is a good conductor.
As mentioned earlier, crystalline solids are anisotropic, so properties such as malleability,
ductility, thermal and electrical conductivity vary on the direction from which the force is
applied. For some types of crystalline solids, the bonds are non-directional, making the
movement easier between atoms, these results in having high malleability and ductility and
being good conductors. While others have very rigid bonds, making it more challenging to
transfer. Solids with these types of bond rigidness are expected to be brittle and have low
heat conductivity and are called heat insulators instead. Conversely, amorphous solids
exhibit isotropy because the amount of conductivity is equal throughout regardless of the
orientation from which force is applied.
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 11
Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids
Key Points
___________________________________________________________________________________________
● In solids, the molecules are being held by strong covalent and ionic
intermolecular forces between neighboring particles to keep them in a fixed
position and rotate and vibrate in place.
● Crystalline solids are arranged in a definite repeating pattern held together by
uniform, strong intermolecular forces.
● Amorphous solids do not have a repeating pattern arrangement and the exact
opposite of crystalline solid.
● Solids exhibit characteristic properties:
○ The melting point is the temperature at which the solid loses its definite
shape and converts to liquid when heated.
○ The quantity of heat necessary to melt a solid is the enthalpy of fusion.
○ Sublimation is the process of direct passage of molecules from solid to the
vapor phase, bypassing the liquid state.
○ Malleability describes the ability of the solid to undergo compressive stress
without breaking it.
○ Ductility is the ability of a solid to undergo tensile stress.
○ Electrical conductivity is the measurement of the ability of atoms,
molecules, or ions to transfer electrons from one to another.
○ Thermal conductivity is when the temperature is used as a measurement of
the movement of atoms, molecules, or ions.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________ 1. It is the type of solid that does not have a repeating
pattern arrangement.
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 12
Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids
___________________________ 4. It is the quantity of heat needed to convert solid to
vapor.
___________________________ 5. It is the type of solid that does not have a repeating
pattern arrangement.
___________________________ 9. It is the quantity of heat needed to convert solid to
liquid.
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 13
Unit 1: Intermolecular Forces of Attractions and Solids and Liquids
_______ 5. The quantity of heat necessary to freeze a liquid is the enthalpy of fusion.
Challenge Yourself
Bibliography
Brown T.L. et al. 2012. Chemistry: The Central Science. Pearson Prentice Hall.Brown.
Chemistry: The Central Science. Prentice-Hall, 2005.
Ebbing, Darrell and Steven Gammon. 2016. General Chemistry. Boston: Cengage Learning.
Hill, James C., Theodore L. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce Edward. Bursten, Catherine J.
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 14
Unit 8: Heats of Reaction and Chemical Change
1.5. Structural Features of Solids 15