DPSD CS8351 U1 PDF

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CS8351 DIGITAL
PRINCIPLES AND SYSTEM
DESIGN
Department: COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Batch/Year: BATCH 2019-23/II
Created by:
Dr. Sandra Johnson, Professor, CSE, RMKEC
Dr. S Selvi , Professor, CSE, RMKEC
Dr. B PrathushaLaxmi , ASP, IT, RMKEC
Dr. M A Berlin , ASP, CSE, RMDEC
Ms. J Geethapriya , AP, CSE, RMDEC
Dr. V Prasanna Srinivasan , ASP, IT, RMDEC
Ms P Prem Priya , AP, CSE, RMKCET
Date: 29th July 2020

Table of Contents
Sl. No. Contents Page No.
1 Contents 5
2 Course Objectives 6
3 Pre Requisites (Course Name with Code) 8
4 Syllabus (With Subject Code, Name, LTPC details) 10
5 Course Outcomes (6) 12
6 CO-PO/PSO Mapping 14
Lecture Plan (S.No., Topic, No. of Periods, Proposed
7 date, Actual Lecture Date, pertaining CO, Taxonomy 16
level, Mode of Delivery)
8 Activity based learning 18
Lecture Notes ( with Links to Videos, e-book reference,
9 20
PPTs, Quiz and any other learning materials )
Assignments ( For higher level learning and Evaluation
10 144
- Examples: Case study, Comprehensive design, etc.,)
11 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO) 147
12 Part B Qs (with K level and CO) 162

Supportive online Certification courses (NPTEL,
13 167
Swayam, Coursera, Udemy, etc.,)
14 Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry 169
Contents beyond the Syllabus ( COE related Value
15 171
added courses)
16 Assessment Schedule ( Proposed Date & Actual Date)
17 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books
18 Mini Project
Course Objectives
COURSE OBJECTIVES
To design digital circuits using simplified Boolean
functions.
To analyze and design combinational circuits.
To analyze and design synchronous sequential
circuits.
To analyze and design asynchronous sequential
circuits.
To understand Programmable Logic Devices.
To write HDL code for combinational and sequential
circuits.
PRE REQUISITES
PRE REQUISITES
SUBJECT CODE: NIL
SUBJECT NAME:
Syllabus
Syllabus
CS8351 DIGITAL PRINCIPLES AND SYSTEM DESIGN LTPC
4004
OBJECTIVES:
• To design digital circuits using simplified Boolean functions
• To analyze and design combinational circuits
• To analyze and design synchronous and asynchronous sequential circuits
• To understand Programmable Logic Devices
• To write HDL code for combinational and sequential circuits
UNIT I BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC GATES 12

Number Systems - Arithmetic Operations - Binary Codes- Boolean Algebra and Logic
Gates - Theorems and Properties of Boolean Algebra - Boolean Functions - Canonical
and Standard Forms - Simplification of Boolean Functions using Karnaugh Map -
Logic Gates – NAND and NOR Implementations.
UNIT II COMBINATIONAL LOGIC 12

Combinational Circuits – Analysis and Design Procedures - Binary Adder-Subtractor -
Decimal Adder - Binary Multiplier - Magnitude Comparator - Decoders – Encoders –
Multiplexers - Introduction to HDL – HDL Models of Combinational circuits.
UNIT III SYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL LOGIC 12

Sequential Circuits - Storage Elements: Latches , Flip-Flops - Analysis of Clocked
Sequential Circuits - State Reduction and Assignment - Design Procedure - Registers
and Counters - HDL Models of Sequential Circuits.
UNIT IV ASYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL LOGIC 12

Analysis and Design of Asynchronous Sequential Circuits – Reduction of State and
Flow Tables – Race-free State Assignment – Hazards.
UNIT V MEMORY AND PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC 12

RAM – Memory Decoding – Error Detection and Correction - ROM - Programmable
Logic Array – Programmable Array Logic – Sequential Programmable Devices.
TOTAL : 60 PERIODS
Course Outcomes
Course Outcomes
Course Description Knowledge
Outcomes Level
Design Digital Circuits using simplified Boolean
CO1 K4
functions
CO2 Analyze and Design Combinational Circuits K4
CO3 Analyze and Design Synchronous Sequential Circuits K4
CO4 Analyze and Design Asynchronous Sequential Circuits K4
CO5 Implement designs using Programmable Logic Devices K3

Write HDL code for Combinational and Sequential
CO6 K3
Circuits
Knowledge Level Description
K6 Evaluation
K5 Synthesis
K4 Analysis
K3 Application
K2 Comprehension
K1 Knowledge
CO – PO/PSO Mapping
CO – PO /PSO Mapping Matrix
CO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PS PS PS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 O1 O2 03
1 3 2 1 1 3
2 3 3 2 2 3
3 3 3 2 2 3
4 3 3 2 2 3
5 3 3 2 2 3
6 3 2 1 1 3
Lecture Plan
Unit I
Lecture Plan – Unit 1 - BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
AND LOGIC GATES
Sl. Topic Numbe Proposed Actual CO Taxo Mode
No r of Date Lecture nomy of
. Period Date Level Deliver
s y
1 Number 1 15/6/2020 15/6/2020 CO1 K3 PPT /
Systems Online
Lecture
2 Arithmetic 1 15/6/2020 15/6/2020 CO1 K3 PPT /
Operations Online
Lecture
3 Binary 2 22/6/2020 22/6/2020 CO1 K3 PPT /
Codes- Online
Boolean Lecture
Algebra and
Logic Gates -
Theorems
and
Properties of
Boolean
Algebra
4 Boolean 2 23/6/2020 23/6/2020 CO1 K3 PPT /
Functions - Online
Canonical Lecture
and Standard
Forms
5 Simplification 4 26/6/2020 26/6/2020 CO1 K5 PPT /
of Boolean & & Online
Functions 29/6/2020 29/6/2020 Lecture
using
Karnaugh
Map
6 Logic Gates 2 01/7/2020 01/7/2020 CO1 K3 PPT /
– NAND and Online
NOR Lecture
Implementati
ons
Activity Based Learning
Unit I
Activity Based Learning
1 Crossword Puzzle – Number Systems 44
2 Binary Number System - Games 45
3 Sudoku – Hexadecimal Number System 46
5 Mind Map – NAND/NOR Implementation 139
6 Jigsaw Puzzle – Boolean Theorems 140

Lecture Notes – Unit 1
UNIT I BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC GATES

Digital Systems – Introduction; Advantages;
1 26
Disadvantages; Applications
2 Number Systems 25
Number System Conversions:
 To decimal (from binary; octal; hexadecimal; any
base)
 From decimal (to binary; octal; hexadecimal; any
base)
3 28
 To binary (from octal; hexadecimal)
 From binary (to octal; hexadecimal)
 Octal to hexa and vice versa
 Other number system conversions – any base
 Fractional conversions
4 Binary Arithmetic 47
5 Signed Binary Number Representation 52
6 Complements: 1’s; 2’s; 9’s & 10’s complement 54

Binary Arithmetic: Subtraction using 1’s; 2’s; 9’s & 10’s
7 59
complement
8 Decimal Arithmetic using Complements 65
BCD Addition; BCD Subtraction (using 9’s & 10’s
9 71
complement)
10 Binary Codes – Classification; examples 81
Boolean Algebra; Theorems and Properties of Boolean
11 86
Algebra
Boolean functions; Simplification of Boolean functions
12 93
using theorems
13 Canonical and Standard Forms 96
Converting Boolean functions to Standard SOP/POS
14 98
form
UNIT I BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC GATES

Simplification of Boolean Functions using Karnaugh
Map
 SOP expressions (2; 3; 4 variables)
15  SOP simplification in POS form 101
 POS simplification
 Using Don’t cares
 Simplification of 5; 6 variables Boolean functions
16 Logic Gates 122
17 Universal gates 127
18 Basic gates implementation using NAND/NOR 128
19 Converting AND-OR circuit to all NOR diagram 132
20 Converting OR-AND circuit to all NAND diagram 136

1. Digital Systems
Introduction
Analog
 Information is represented by continuously
varying values such as spatial position,
voltage, etc.
 Analog components have infinite number of
possible values.
 Discrete steps are not possible. Small change

Analog Thermometer
in one implies small change in another.
Digital
• Digital describes electronic technology that

generates, stores, and processes data in terms
of two states: Positive & Non-positive.
• Information is represented as numbers.
• Digital components have discrete values.
Digital Thermometer
Digital Systems
 Digital System is a interconnection of digital modules.
 It is designed to manipulate logical information or physical quantities

which are represented in digital form.
o Ex: Digital computers, Digital cameras
 Signals are represented in binary form (‘0’or ‘1’)
 All communications within the system are carried out in digital manner.
1. Digital Systems
Advantages of digital systems
1. Easy to design: Since the circuits used in a digital system are switching circuits
and there is no need of exact values of voltage and current.
2. Storage: The storage of digital information is easy.
3. Precision: Can increase the number of digits simply by adding switching
circuits.
4. Noise: Less affected by noise, since can easily distinguish the binary ‘0’ and
binary ‘1’ signal.
5. In digital IC’s, a large number of digital circuits can be incorporated compared
to analog ICs.
6. Simple, inexpensive and safe implementation of complex data processing
algorithms.
7. Simple design and implementation procedures.
8. High immunity to noise. Each digital component behaves as a filter eliminating
the noise on its inputs.
Disadvantages of digital systems
1. All physical quantities are analog in nature.

2. Large number of transistors are required for performing some operations, that
can be implemented using simpler analog hardware.
3. In some situations, the operation speed is lower than the speed offered by
equivalent analog circuits.
Number System
System of naming or representing numbers. There are various types of number

system.
1. Binary Number system – Base or radix 2

2. Decimal Number System – Base or radix 10
3. Octal Number System – Base or radix 8
4. Hexadecimal Number System – Base or radix 16.
2. Number Systems
Decimal Number System
• Base or radix of decimal number system is 10 because it uses 10 digits and the
coefficients are multiplied by powers of 10.
• The coefficients are any of the 10 digits (0-9)
Ex: (5678.9)10 = 5000 + 600 + 70 + 8 +0.9
In powers of 10, we can write as
(5678.9)10 = 5x103 + 6x102 + 7x101 + 8x100+ 9x10-1
102 101 100 10-1 10-2

.
LSD
MSD Radix Point
Binary Number System

• Base or radix of binary number system is 2 because it uses 2 digits (0 & 1) and
the coefficients are multiplied by powers of 2.
• Binary digit is called bit.
Group of 4 binary digits is nibbles
Group of 8 binary digits is bytes
22 21 20 2-1 2-2
.
LSB
MSB Radix Point
2. Number Systems
Octal Number System
• Base or radix of octal number system is 8 because it uses 8 digits and the
coefficients are multiplied by powers of 8.
• The coefficients are any of the 8 digits (0-7)
82 81 80 8-1 8-2
LSD
MSD Radix Point
Hexadecimal Number System

• Base or radix of hexadecimal number system is 16, because it uses 16 digits and
the coefficients are multiplied by powers of 16.
• The coefficients are any of the 16 digits (0-9, A-F)
162 161 160 16-1 16-2
LSD
MSD Radix Point
Number System Conversions
Steps for conversions of a number in base ‘r’ to decimal
i. Expand the number in a power series with radix ‘r’

ii. Add all the terms
iii. If the number includes a radix point, it is necessary to separate the
number into an integer part and a fraction part, since each part must be
converted differently.
2. Number Systems
Number System Equivalency table
3. Number System Conversions
Examples:
1. Binary Number System to Decimal Number System (radix 2

to radix 10)
i) (1110011)2 = (?)10
Decimal = 64+32+16+0+0+2+1 = 115

(1110011)2 = (115)10
ii) (1101.11) 2 = (?)10
Decimal = 8+4+0+1+0.5+0.25 = 13.75

(1101.11) 2 = (13.75)10
2. Octal Number System to Decimal Number System
(radix 8 to radix 10)
i) (123.4)8 = (?)10
Decimal = 64+16+3+0.5 = 83.5

(123.4)8 = (83.5)10
ii) (475.28)8 = (?)10
Decimal = 256+56+5+0.25+0.078 = 317.328

(475.28)8 = (317.328)10
3. Hexadecimal Number System to Decimal Number System (radix 16 to
radix 10)
i) (B44B)16 = (?)10
Decimal = 45056+1024+64+11 = 46155

(B44B)16 = (46155)10
ii) (DF8.28)16 = (?)10
Decimal = 3328+240+8+0.125+0.031 = 3576.156

(DF8.28)16 = (3576.156)10
4. Radix ‘r’ to Decimal Number System
i) (4021.2)5 = (?)10
Here radix r = 5
Decimal = 500++10+1+0.4 = 511.4

(4021.2)5 = (511.4)10
ii) (198)12 = (?)10
Here radix r = 12
Decimal = 144+108+8 = 260

(198)12 = (260)10
Decimal to other number System conversions
There are two methods:
1. Sum of weights method
2. Repeated division method by radix ‘r’
1. Decimal Number System to Binary Number System
1. Divide the dividend, that is, the decimal number by two and obtain the
quotient and remainder.
2. Divide the quotient by two and obtain the new quotient and remainder.
3. Repeat step 2 until the quotient is equal to zero (0).
4. The first remainder produced is the least significant bit (LSB) in the
binary number and the last remainder is the most significant bit (MSB).
Accordingly, the binary number is then written (from left to right) with
the MSB occurring first (list the remainder values in reverse order).
This is the binary equivalent.
Examples:
i) (254)10 = (?)2
Therefore, answer is (a7a6a5a4a3a2a1a0) = (11111110)2

ii) (250.5)10 = (?)2
Fractional Part
Note: Multiplication is continued until the fractional part becomes zero or until the
number of digits have sufficient accuracy.
Therefore, answer is (a7a6a5a4a3a2a1a0) = (11111110.0)2
2. Decimal Number System to Octal Number System
1. Divide the dividend, that is, the decimal number by 8 and obtain the
2. Divide the quotient by 8 and obtain the new quotient and remainder.
octal number and the last remainder is the most significant bit
(MSB). Accordingly, the octal number is then written (from left to
right) with the MSB occurring first (list the remainder values in
reverse order). This is the octal equivalent.
Examples:
i) (41)10 = (?)8
Therefore, answer is (a1a0) = (51)8
ii) (20.75)10 = (?)8
Fractional part
Combine both integer and fractional part results.

Therefore, answer is = (24.6)8
3. Decimal Number System to Hexadecimal Number System
1. Divide the dividend, that is, the decimal number by 16 and obtain the
2. Divide the quotient by 16 and obtain the new quotient and remainder.
hexadecimal number and the last remainder is the most significant bit
(MSB). Accordingly, the hexadecimal number is then written (from left
to right) with the MSB occurring first (list the remainder values in
reverse order). This is the hexadecimal equivalent.
Examples:
i) (687)10 = (?)16
Therefore, answer is (a2a1a0) = (2AF)16

ii) (20.75)10 = (?)16
Fractional part

Therefore, answer is = (14.C)8 [ since 12 hexadecimal equivalent is C]
4. Decimal Number System to radix ‘r’ System
1. Divide the dividend, that is, the decimal number by ‘r’ and obtain the
2. Divide the quotient by ‘r’ and obtain the new quotient and remainder.
radix ‘r’ number and the last remainder is the most significant bit
(MSB). Accordingly, the radix ‘r’ number is then written (from left to
right) with the MSB occurring first (list the remainder values in reverse
order). This is the radix ‘r’ system equivalent.
Examples:
i) (687)10 = (?)5
Therefore, answer is (a4a3a2a1a0) = (10222)5

ii) (20.75)10 = (?)5
Fractional part

Therefore, answer is = (40.33)5
Conversions to Binary (Expansion Method)
1. Octal Number System to Binary Number System
1. Separate the digits of the given octal number

2. Find the equivalent binary number for each digit of octal number.
Add 0’s to the left if any of the binary equivalent is shorter than 3
bits.
3. Write the all group’s binary numbers together, maintaining the same
group order provides the equivalent binary for the given octal
number
Examples
i) (7472)8 = (?)2
(7472)8 = (111100111010)2
ii) (370.526)8 = (?)2
(370.526)8 = (011111000101010110)2
2. Hexadecimal Number System to Binary Number System
1. Separate the digits of the given Hexadecimal number

2. Find the equivalent binary number for each digit of octal number.
Add 0’s to the left if any of the binary equivalent is shorter than 4
bits.
3. Write the all group’s binary numbers together, maintaining the
same group order provides the equivalent binary for the given
hexadecimal number
Examples:
i) (B44B)16 = (?)2
(B44B)16 = (1011010001001011)2
ii) (DF8.28)16 = (?)2
(DF8.28)16 = (11011111100000101000?)2
Binary Number System to Other Number Systems
1. Break the binary digits into groups of three starting from the binary point
and convert each group into its appropriate octal digit.
2. For whole numbers, it may be necessary to add zeros as the MSB, in order to
complete a grouping of three bits. Note that this does not change the value of
the binary number.
3. For Fractional part, it may be necessary to add zeros as the LSB, in order to
complete a grouping of three bits.
Examples
i) (010110101000)2 = (?)8
(010110101000)2 = (2650)8
ii) (10101.1101)2 = (?)8
(10101.1101)2 = (25.64)8
2. Binary Number System to Hexadecimal Number System
1. Break the binary digits into groups of four starting from the binary
point and convert each group into its appropriate hexadecimal digit.
2. For whole numbers, it may be necessary to add zeros as the MSB, in order to
complete a grouping of four bits. Note that this does not change the value of
the binary number.
3. For Fractional part, it may be necessary to add zeros as the LSB, in order to
complete a grouping of four bits.
Examples
i) (101100111)2 = (?)16
(101100111)2 = (167)16
ii) (1011110011.00110010)2 = (?)16
(1011110011.00110010)2 = (2F3.32)16
Other Number System Conversions
1. Octal Number System to Hexadecimal Number System
1. Separate the digits of the given octal number

2. Find the equivalent binary number for each digit of octal number. Add 0’s to
the left if any of the binary equivalent is shorter than 3 bits.
3. Write the all group’s binary numbers together, maintaining the same group
order.
4. Separate the binary digits into groups, each containing 4 bits or digits from
right to left. Add 0’s to the left if the last group contains less than 4 bits.
5. Find the hexadecimal equivalent for each group.
6. Write all hexadecimal equivalent of each group together in the same order
provides equivalent hexadecimal number.
Example
i) (3472.56)8 = (?)16
(3472.56)8 = (73A.B8)16
2. Hexadecimal Number System to Octal Number System
1. Separate the digits of the given hexadecimal number

2. Find the equivalent binary number for each digit of hexadecimal number. Add
0’s to the left if any of the binary equivalent is shorter than 4 bits.
3. Write the all group’s binary numbers together, maintaining the same group
order.
4. Separate the binary digits into groups, each containing 3 bits or digits from
right to left. Add 0’s to the left if the last group contains less than 3 bits.
5. Find the octal number equivalent for each group.
6. Write all octal number equivalent of each group together in the same order
provides equivalent octal number.
Example
i) (D43E.5A)16 = (?)8
(D43E.5A)16 = (152076.264)8
Number System [PPT]

Cross Word Puzzle
The Number system
1
2
6
7
8
10
Across Down
3. Each hexadecimal digit converts to binary digits. 1. In binary number system, first digit bit from right
4. The code represents alphanumeric characters to left is termed as
as seven-bit binary numbers. 2. Which numbering system can only represent the
5. The necessary condition for a weighted code to 10 decimal digits
be self complemented is that the sum of its 7. Digital electronics is based on which numbering
weights must be equal to system
6. The parameter through which 16 distinct values
can be represented is known as
8. Name of the number system which includes
both numbers and alphabets
9. Any signed negative binary number is
recognized by its
10. The number system which contain 5 symbols
0, 1, 2, 3 and 4, is
GAMES
https://games.penjee.com/binary-numbers-game/
https://games.penjee.com/binary-bonanza/
Activity-Sudoku for Hexa Decimal
Numbers
The rules of the game are simple: each of the 16 blocks has to contain all the
numbers 1-9,A-F within its squares. Each number can only appear once in a row,
column or box.
i. Each row should have the numbers 1-9,A-F.
ii. Each Column should have the numbers 1-9,A-F.
iii. Each of the sixteen 4X4 squares should have the numbers 1-9,A-F.
Lets Find !
1 C 7 2 F
2 A 7 D 5 1
3 9 8 D 1 0 2
A 3 C 8
6 3 2 C 4 7 9 F
E 2 4 1 8 7
9 6 8 D 3 A C E 2
B 0 9 E A C 5
A 3 D 5 9 1 E
8 6 E 3 F 1 7 0 5
1 2 D C 4 6
4 F 6 9 E 5 A 8
A C 4 2
6 0 F E 9 8 4
1 9 A 5 B E
1 C 0 3 7
4. Binary Arithmetic
In computers, numbers are represented in binary form. The arithmetic operations
performed by a computer therefore involves binary numbers.Binary arithmetic is
essential part of all the digital computers and many other digital system.In binary
number system there are only 2 digits 0 and 1, and any number can be represented by
these two digits.
Example: Electricity is Either On or Off.
1=On
0=Off
Types of Binary Arithmetic Operations
Arithmetic in binary is much like arithmetic in other numeral systems.
• Addition
• Subtraction
• Multiplication
• Division
Binary arithmetic operation starts from the least significant bit i.e. from the right most
side.
Binary Addition
It is a key for binary subtraction, multiplication, division. The four rules of binary
addition are as follows.
● 0+0=0
● 0+1=1
● 1+0=1
● 1 + 1 = 0 (carry 1 to the next significant bit)
Example Perform Addition
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
i) 13= 1 1 0 12 ii) 1 1 1 1 02
5= 0 1 0 12 + 1 1 0 02
------------------------------ ------------------------
1 0 0 1 02
1 0 1 0 1 02
Binary Subtraction
Normally the borrow method is used. The four rules of binary subtraction are as
follows
● 0–0=0
● 0 – 1 = 1, borrow 1 from the next more significant bit
● 1–0=1
● 1–1=0
Example: if a = 11012 , b = 1012 , find a - b
13= 1 1 0 12
- 5= 0 1 0 12
---------------------
--
1 0 0 02

0 10 0 10
1 0 1 1 02
- 1 0 0 12
------------------------
0 0 1 0 12
10
0 0 1 10 0 10
10
1 1 0 0 1 1 02
- 1 1 1 1 0 12
-----------------------------
1 0 1 0 0 12
Binary Multiplication
Binary multiplication may sound like it would be more difficult than binary addition
or subtraction – but is actually a simple process. The rules are as follows.
● 0×0=0
● 1×0=0
● 0×1=0
● 1×1=1 (there is no carry or borrow for this)
When performing binary multiplication, remember the following rules.
1.Copy the multiplicand when the multiplier digit is 1. Otherwise, write a row of
zeros.
2.Shift the results one column to the left for a new multiplier digit.
3.Add the results using binary addition to find the product.
Example: if a = 1000012 , b = 1012 , find a x b
100001
101
-----------------
100001
000000+
100001++
--------------------
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 12
--------------------
Example: if a = 2610 , b = 310 , find a x b

11010
11
-----------------
1
11010
11010+
--------------------
1 0 0 1 1 1 02
---------------------------------
-
Binary Division
Division of binary numbers uses the same technique as division in the decimal
system.
● 0/0=0
● 1/0=(indefinte)
● 0/1=0
● 1/1=1 (there is no carry or borrow for this)
When doing binary division, some important rules need to be remembered.
(a) When the remainder is greater than or equal to the divisor, write a 1 in
the quotient and subtract.
(b) When the remainder is less than the divisor, write a 0 in the quotient and
add another digit from the dividend.
(c) If all the digits of the dividend have been considered and there is still a
remainder, mark a radix point in the dividend and append a zero. Remember that
some fractions do not have an exact representation in binary, so not all division
problems will terminate.
Example: if a = 1011012 , b = 1012 , find a / b
110 ) 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 (1001102
110
------------- Quotient
Divisor
10 0
11 0
-------
10 01
1 10
----------
111
110
---------
Remainder
1
02 using complements
Note:Perform subtraction
Exercise Problems
1. Add and multiply the following numbers without converting to decimal.[CO1,K2]

(a) (367)8 and (715)8.
(b) (15F)16 and (A7)16
(c) (110110), and (llOIOI)2
2.
3. If the numbers sixteen and nine are added in binary form, will the answer be any
different than if the same quantities are added in decimal form? Explain.[CO1,K3]
Ans:
5. Unsigned and Signed Binary Numbers
Variables such as integers can be represent in two ways
• Signed
• Unsigned.
Signed numbers use sign flag or can be distinguish between negative values and
positive values.
unsigned numbers stores only positive numbers but not negative numbers.
To represent negative integers, it requires a notation for negative values.
In ordinary arithmetic,
• Negative number is indicated by a (-) sign
• Positive number by a (+) sign.
With hardware limitations, computers represents everything with binary digits,
commonly referred to as bits. The convention is to make the sign bit
• 0 for positive
• I for negative.
For example,
the string of bits 01001 represents
• 9 (unsigned binary) or
• +9 (signed binary) ; leftmost bit is 0.
the string of bits 11001 represent the
• 25 (unsigned binary) or
• - 9 (signed binary) ; leftmost bit is 1.
In each case: left-most bit indicates sign: positive (0) or negative (1).
Can’t include the sign bit in ‘Addition’
Sign Magnitude Decimal Equivalent
0 0001110 1410
1 0001110 -1410
5. Representation of Signed Binary Numbers:
There are three types of representations for signed binary numbers. Because of
extra signed bit, binary number zero has two representation, either positive (0) or
negative (1)
• Sign-Magnitude form
• 1’s complement form
• 2’s complement form
Sign-Magnitude form
For n bit binary number, 1 bit is reserved for sign symbol. If the value of sign bit is
0, then the given number will be positive, else if the value of sign bit is 1, then the
given number will be negative.
S MAGNITUDE(BINARY)
Sign bit or Most Least

Significant Significant
Bit(MSB) Bit(LSB)
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
Magnitude numbers
if MSB is 0,
the number is positive(+)
+0 0 00000
Examples -0 1 00000
+31 0 11111
-31 1 11111
6. Complement Representation
Complements are used in digital computers to simplify the subtraction operation and
for logical manipulation. There are Two types of complements for each base-r
system:
• the diminished radix(r -1)'s complement
• the radix complement (r)'s complement
Binary Complement Representation
Complement for binary numbers are represented by two forms

• the diminished radix(2 -1)'s complement form
• the radix complement (2)'s complement form
1’s complement form

The 1’s complement of a binary number is the number that results
when we change all 1’s to zeros and the zeros to ones. Complement Ranges from n-
Bit Representation −2n−1+1 ≤ Number ≤ +2n−1 − 1.where n is number of bits
Example Find 1’s complement of binary number 10101110.
Simply invert each bit of given binary number, so 1’s complement of given number
will be 01010001.
1’s Complementation in Signed Binary number Representation:

If the number is negative then it is represented using 1’s complement. First
represent the number with positive sign and then take 1’s complement of that
number.
Example Find 1’s complement of -510
+5 is represented as it is represented in sign magnitude method. -5 is represented

using the following steps:
(i) +5 = 0 0101
(ii) Take 1’s complement of 0 0101 and that is 1 1010. MSB is 1 which indicates that
number is negative.
(iii) -510 = 1 1010 ;; MSB is always 1 in case of negative numbers.

Decimal 1’s Complement
+7 0111
+6 0110
+5 0101
+4 0100
+3 0011
+2 0010
+1 0001
+0 0000
−0 1111
−1 1110
−2 1101
−3 1100
−4 1011
−5 1010
−6 1001
−7 1000
Advantages of 1’s Complement:

•Still relatively simple to represent the numbers,
•Simpler Add/Subtract circuit design (subtracting a number from another involves
complementing the subtracted and then adding it to the other number).
Disadvantages:
•Has the problem of double representing the 0 (-0 and +0),
•It may require two addition operations as if there is a carry out it has to be added
to get the correct result
Overflow: occurs when the result is out of range
2’s complement:
The 2’s complement is the binary number that results when we add 1 to
the 1’s complement. Complement Ranges from n-Bit Representation
−2n−1 ≤ Number ≤ +2n−1 − 1.where n is number of bits It is used to represent
negative numbers.
4-Bit Representation
24 = 16 Combinations
− 8 ≤ Number ≤ + 7
−23 ≤ Number ≤ + 23 − 1
2’s Complement=1’s Complement+1
Example Find 1’s complement of binary number 10101110.
Simply invert each bit of given binary number, so 1’s complement of given number
will be 01010010.
2’s Complementation in Signed Binary number Representation:

If the number is negative then it is represented using 2’s complement. First
represent the number with positive sign and then take 2’s complement of that
number.
Example Find 2’s complement of -510
+5 is represented as it is represented in sign magnitude method. -5 is represented

using the following steps:
(i) +5 = 0 0101
(ii) Take 2’s complement of 0 0101 and that is 1 1011. MSB is 1 which indicates that
number is negative.
(iii) -510 = 1 1011 ;; MSB is always 1 in case of negative numbers.

2’s complement:
Decimal 2’s Complement
+7 0111
+6 0110
+5 0101
+4 0100
+3 0011
+2 0010
+1 0001
+0 0000
−1 1111
−2 1110
−3 1101
−4 1100
−5 1011
−6 1010
−7 1001
Disadvantages of 2’s Complement:

•It is slightly more complex to obtain the 2's complement (it involves complementing
and adding 1).
Overflow: occurs if the result is out of range

•Adding two positive numbers and getting a negative number
•Adding two negative numbers and getting a positive number
•If the last two carries are not equal
Decimal Complement Representation
Complement for binary numbers are represented by two forms

• the diminished radix(10 -1)'s complement form
• the radix complement (10)'s complement form
9 ’s complement form
The 9’s complement of a decimal number is the subtraction of it's each
digits from 9.
Example Find 9’s complement of decimal number 456.
= 999
-456
-------------
5 4 310
-------------
10 ’s complement form
The 10’s complement of a decimal number is the adding 1 to the result
of 9’s complement .
10’s complement=9’s Complement+1
Example Find 10’s complement of decimal number 456.

= 999
-456
----------
543
+ 1
----------
5 4 410
----------
7. Binary Arithmetic Using Complement
Subtraction using complement allow us to perform subtraction using addition.Thus
only adder component is required and no need of separate subtractor component.
Subtraction using 1’s complement
a) Subtraction of smaller number from a larger number:-
1. Calculate the 1’s complement of a smaller number(subtrahend).
2. add the 1’s complement to the larger number(minuend).
3. If carry comes in the MSB , remove the carry and add it to the result.
b) Subtraction of larger number from a smaller number:-
1.Calculate 1’s complement of a larger number(subtrahend).
2. Add 1’s complement in smaller number (minuend)
3. If no carry then the result will be in 1’s complement form. Calculate 1’s
complement of final value and assign –ve sign to the result.
Advantages of using 1’s complement subtraction
1. This can be easily obtained by simply inverting each bit in the number
2. This subtraction can be done with an binary adder. Thus ,it is useful in arithmetic
logic circuits.
Subtraction Using 1’s Complement
Solve:101012 - 10012 = ?
Objective :
101012 - 10012 = ?
Input Data :
Binary Input 1 = 10101
Work with Steps :
101012 + (- 010012)
i)Calculate the 1’s complement of a subtrahend.
(- 10012)=>1’s(010012)
= 10110
ii)add the 1’s complement to the larger number(minuend).
10101
+ 10110
1 01011
iii) If carry comes in the MSB , remove the carry and add it to the result.
01011
+ 1
01100
Subtraction Using 1’s Complement
Solve:10012 - 101012 = ?
Objective :
10012 - 101012 = ?
Input Data :
Work with Steps :
010012 + (- 101012)
(- 101012)=>1’s(101012)
= 010102
01001
+ 01010
0 10011
iii) If no carry then the result will be in 1’s complement form. Calculate 1’s
1’s(10011)
- 01100
Subtraction Using 2’s Complement:
Steps for Subtraction using 2’s complement
1. Calculate the 2’s complement of a smaller number.
2. add the 2’s complement to the larger number.
3. If carry comes in the MSB , discard the carry .
1.Calculate 2’s complement of a larger number.
2. Add 2’s complement in smaller number
3. The result will be in 2’s complement form. Calculate 2’s complement of final value
and assign –ve sign to the result.
Advantages of 2’s Complement
It is optimally simple to implement adders that can do signed arithmetic when 2’s
complement notation is used.
two's complement only has one value for zero
2's complement doesn't require carry values.

Solve: 101012 - 10012 = ?
Objective :
101012 - 10012 = ?
Input Data :
Work with Steps :
101012 + (- 010012)
(- 10012)=>1’s(010012)
= 10111
10101
+ 10111
1 01100
iii) If carry comes in the MSB , discard the carry.
01100
Solve: 10012 - 101012 = ?
Objective :
10012 - 101012 = ?
Input Data :
Work with Steps :
010012 + (- 101012)
i) Calculate the 2’s complement of a subtrahend.
2’s(- 101012)=>1’s(101012)+1
= 010112
ii) add the 1’s complement to the larger number(minuend).
01001
+ 01011
0 10100
2’s(10100)
- 011002
8. Decimal Arithmetic Using Complement
Steps Subtraction using 9’s complement

1. Calculate the 9’s complement of a smaller number(subtrahend).
2. add the 9’s complement to the larger number(minuend).
3. If carry comes in the MSB , remove the carry and add it to the result.
Example

1.Calculate 9’s complement of a larger number(subtrahend).
2. Add 9’s complement in smaller number (minuend)
3. If no carry then the result will be in 9’s complement form. Calculate 9’s
Subtraction using 10’s complement

1. Calculate the 10’s complement of a smaller number.
2. add the 110’s complement to the larger number.
3. If carry comes in the MSB , discard the carry .

1.Calculate 10’s complement of a larger number.
2. Add 10’s complement in smaller number
3. The result will be in 10’s complement form. Calculate 10’s complement of final
value and assign –ve sign to the result.
Solve:101012 - 10002 = ?
Objective :
101012 - 10002 = ?= 2110- 1810
Input Data :

Work with Steps :
2110 + (- 1810)
(- 1810)=>9’s( -1810)
=99-18
=81

21
+ 81
1 02
iii) If carry comes in the MSB , Add carry to the result .
0 2
+ 1
0 310
Solve : 1810 - 2110= ?
Objective :
1810 - 2110= ?
Input Data :

Work with Steps :
1810 + (- 2110)
(- 2110)=>9’s( -2110)
=99-21
=78
18
+ 78
0 96
9 9
- 9 6
- 0 310
Solve:101012 - 10002 = ?
Objective :
101012 - 10002 = ?= 2110- 1810
Input Data :

Work with Steps :
2110 + (- 1810)
(- 1810)=>10’s( -1810)
= 9 9 -1 8 + 1= 8 2
21
+ 82
1 03
iii) If carry comes in the MSB , discard the carry.
0 310
Solve:10002 - 101012= ?
Objective :
10002 - 101012= ?= 1810 - 2110
Input Data :

Work with Steps :
1810 + (- 2110)
(- 2110)=>10’s( -2110)
= 9 9 -2 1 + 1= 7 9
18
+ 79
0 97
iii) The result will be in 10’s complement form. Calculate 10’s complement of final
value and assign –ve sign to the result.
10’s(9 7) =9 9 - 9 7 + 1
= 0 310
Exercise Problems
1. Find the 9’s and 10's complement of the following 6-digit decimal
numbers:[CO1,K2]
123900;
090657;
100000;
and 000000.
2. Find the I's and 2's complements of the following 8-digit binary
numbers:[CO1,K2]
10101110;
10000001;
10000000;
00000001; and 00000000.
3. Perform subtraction with the following unsigned decimal numbers by taking the
9’s and 10's complement of the subtrahend.[CO1,K3]
(a) 5250 - 1321
(b) 1753 - 8640
4.Perform the arithmetic operations (+42) + (-13) and (-42) - (-13) in binary using
the signed-2's-complement representation for negative numbers [CO1,K3]
The (r - 1)'s complement of base-6 numbers is called the 5's complement.
(a) Determine a procedure for obtaining the 5's complement of base-6 numbers.
(b) Obtain the 5's complement of (543210)6.[CO1,K3]
(c) Design a 3-bit code to represent each of the six digits of the base-6 number
system.[CO1,K3]
Make the binary code self-complementing so that the 5's complement is obtained by
changing 1's to O's and O's to l's in all the bits of the coded number. [CO1,K3]
9. Binary Coded Decimal - Arithmetic
Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD) is a class of binary encodings of decimal numbers
where each digit is represented by a fixed number of bits, usually four or eight.
Sometimes, special bit patterns are used for a sign or other indications (e.g. error or
overflow)
In this code each decimal digit is represented by a 4-bit binary number. BCD
is a way to express each of the decimal digits with a binary code. In the BCD, with
four bits we can represent sixteen numbers (0000 to 1111). But in BCD code only
first ten of these are used (0000 to 1001). The remaining six code combinations i.e.
1010 to 1111 are invalid in BCD.
Decimal Binary Coded Decimal Binary Coded Decimal

Decimal
0 0000 10 1 0000
1 0001 11 1 0001
2 0010 12 1 0010
3 0011 13 1 0011
4 0100 ... ...
5 0101 ….. ….
6 0110 25 0010 0101
7 0111 : :
8 1000 149 0001 0100 1001
9 1001 1024 0001 0000 0010 0100

BCD is a binary code of the ten decimal digits. It is not a binary equivalent.
Steps to perform BCD addition

Add the BCD digits as regular binary numbers.
If the sum is 9 or less and no carry was generated, it is a valid BCD digit.
If the sum produces a carry, the sum is invalid and the number 6 (0110) must be
added to the digit.
If the sum is greater than nine, the sum is invalid and the number 6 (0110) must be
added to the digit.
Repeat for each of the BCD digits.
Example For 599 and 015, Find BCD Addition method
Add 599 and 015 using BCD addition

Solution:
BCD code for 599 : 0101 1001 1001

BCD code for 015 : 0000 0001 0101
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Addition : 0101 1010 1110
If Invalid BCD then add 6 : 0110 0110
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Addition : 0101 10000 10100
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Remaining bits except carry : 0101 0000 0100
Carry : 1 1
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Addition : 0110 0001 0100BCD
BCD value : 6 1 4
So final answer of BCD addition is 61410
Example Add 712310 and 339510 using BCD addition
Solution:
For A+B
1. Add each digit of A and B using binary addition

2. If sum of two digits is more than 9 then result is Invalid BCD and add 6 to the
result, Otherwise result is valid BCD.
3. If carry then add it to the next bits
Add 7123 and 3395 using BCD addition

BCD code for 7123 : 0111 0001 0010 0011
BCD code for 3395 : 0011 0011 1001 0101
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Addition : 1010 0100 1011 1000
If Invalid BCD then add 6 : 0110 0110

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Addition 10000 0100 10001 1000

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Remaining bits except carry : 10000 0100 0001 1000
Carry : 1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Addition : 1 0000 0101 0001 1000BCD
BCD value : 1 0 5 1 8
So final answer of BCD addition is 1051810

BCD Subtraction using 9's complement
Steps for BCD subtraction using 9′s complement
For A-B
1. Take 9′s complement for B

2. Add it to A using BCD addition
3. If addition is invalid BCD then add 6
5. In final result, if carry is occured then add it the remaining result and if there
is no any carry over, then take 9′s complement of the result and it is negative.
BCD Subtraction using 9's complement
Steps for BCD subtraction using 9′s complement
For A-B
1. Take 10′s complement for B

2. Add it to A using BCD addition
3. If addition is invalid BCD then add 6
5. In final result, if carry is occured then it is ignored and if
there is no any carry over, then take 10′s complement of the result and it is
negative.
BCD Subtraction using 9's Complement
Find BCD Subtraction for 599 and 015, using 9's complement method
1. Take 9′s complement for 015

Note : 9's complement of a number is obtained by subtracting all bits from 999.
9's complement of 015 is
9 9 9
- 0 1 5
----------------
9 8 4
2. Add 599 and 984 using BCD addition
BCD code for 599 : 0101 1001 1001
BCD code for 984 : 1001 1000 0100
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Addition 1110 10001 1101
If Invalid BCD then add 6 : 0110 0110 0110
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Addition : 10100 10111 10011
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Remaining bits except carry : 10100 0111 0011
Carry : 1 1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Addition : 1 0101 1000 0011BCD
BCD value : 1 5 8 3
The left most bit of the result is 1, called carry and This will be added to 583
583+1=584
So final answer of BCD Subtraction is 58410
BCD Subtraction Using 10's Complement
Find BCD Subtraction for 015 and 599 , using 10's complement method
1. Take 10′s complement for 599

Note : 10's complement of a number is obtained by subtracting all bits from 999 and
then add 1 or directly subracting from 1000.
9 9 9
- 5 9 9
----------------
4 0 0
Now add 1 : 400 + 1 = 401

2. Add 015 and 401 using BCD addition
BCD code for 015 : 0000 0001 0101
BCD code for 401 : 0100 0000 0001
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Addition 0100 0001 0110
If Invalid BCD then add 6 : 0000 0000 0000
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Addition : 0100 0001 0110
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
There is no carry over, So 10′s complement of 416 is the final result and it is
negative.
Note : 10's complement of a number is 1 added to it's 9's complement number.
9 9 9
- 4 1 6
----------------
5 8 3
Now add 1 : 583 + 1 = 58410 is the final result.
Exercise Problems
1. Perform BCD addition with the following unsigned decimal numbers by taking the
9’s and 10's complement of the subtrahend.[CO1,K3]
(a) 2850 - 1490
(b) 7553 - 8646
2. Perform BCD subtraction with the following unsigned decimal numbers by taking
the 9’s and 10's complement of the subtrahend.[CO1,K3]
(a) 1350 - 1591
(b) 7753 - 8640
3. Perform BCD subtraction with the following unsigned decimal numbers by taking
the 1’s and 2's complement of the subtrahend.[CO1,K3]
(a) 131250 - 15191
(b) 97853 - 28780
Quiz – Binary Arithmetic
1. Which of the following is not a positional number system?
a) Roman Number System
b) Octal Number System
c) Binary Number System
d) Hexadecimal Number System
View Answer
Answer: a
Explanation: The Roman number system isn’t a positional number system since it
uses symbols to represent numbers.
The octal number system uses digits from 0-7, the binary number system uses digits
from 0-1 whereas, the hexadecimal number system uses digits from 0-15.
3. The 1’s complement of 1 in 4 bits is __________
a) 0001
b) 0
c) 1001
d) 1110
View Answer
Answer: d
Explanation: 1’s complement is obtained by reversing the bits from 0 to 1 and vice-
versa. Binary of 1 is : 0001 and 1’s complement is : 1110.
4. The binary number 111 in its 2’s complement form is ____________
a) 010
b) 001
c) 000
d) 111
View Answer
Answer: b
Explanation: 2’s complement is obtained by adding 1 to the 1’s complement. 1’s
complement of 111: 000 and 2’s complement:001.
5. The sign magnitude representation of -9 is ___________
a) 00001001
b) 11111001
c) 10001001
d) 11001
View Answer
Answer: c
Explanation: In case of a negative number, the leftmost digit is 1 if the number is
negative. Therefore, +9=00001001 and -9=10001001. Similarly for all other
negative numbers.
6. The weights used in Binary coded decimal code are:
a) 4,2,1
b) 8,4,2,1
c) 6,4,2,1
d) 2,1
View Answer
Answer: b
Explanation: BCD is a weighted code and it uses the weights 8,4,2,1 respectively. It
is often called the 8421 code. Since, it uses 4 bits for the representation therefore
the weights are assigned as : 23 = 8, 22 = 4, 21 = 2, 20 = 1.
7. Write the decimal equivalent for (110001)BCD.
a) 31
b) 13
c) C1
d) 1C
View Answer
Answer: a
Explanation: To obtain the decimal equivalent :
We start from the rightmost bit and make groups of 4, then write the decimal
equivalent accordingly.
0011 0001 = (31)10.
8. The 9’s complement of 45 is _____________
a) 45
b) 54
c) 64
d) 46
View Answer
Answer: b
10. BINARY CODES
A binary code represents text, computer processor instructions, or any other data using a
two-symbol system(0’s and 1’s).
An n‐bit binary code is a group of n bits that assumes up to 2n distinct combinations of

1’s and 0’s, with each combination representing one element of the set that is being
coded.
CLASSIFICATION OF BINARY CODES
10.1. NUMERIC CODES
10.1.1 Weighted Numeric Codes

In a weighted numeric code, each bit position is assigned a weight factor in such a way
that each digit can be evaluated by adding the weights of all the 1’s in the coded
combination.
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
BCD is a commonly used Weighted Numeric code.
Each digit of a decimal number (0-9) is represented by a 4-bit binary number (i.e. 0000
through 1001)
Moreover, the binary combinations from 1010 through 1111 are not used and have no
meaning in BCD.
Consider the decimal number 185. Its corresponding BCD and binary equivalent are given
as follows.
(185)10 = (0001 1000 0101)BCD = (10111001)2

10. BINARY CODES
Other weighted numeric codes:
There are many other weighted numeric codes such as 5421, 2421, 84-2-1 etc.,
Among these codes, 2421 and 84-2-1 are self-complementing codes.
BCD 8421 and 5421 codes are not self-complementing codes.
Self complementing codes are the codes that have the property that
9's complement of a decimal number is obtained directly by complementing each
bit in the pattern.
In the 5421 and 2421 numeric codes, some decimal digits can be coded in two
possible ways.
Table 8.1 Weighted Numeric Codes

10. BINARY CODES
10.1.2 Unweighted Numeric Codes
In the unweighted numeric codes, each digit of the code is not assigned any
weight factor.
Gray Code
The Gray code is an unweighted code in which, every successive number differs
by only one bit.
Gray code is also called as unit distance code.
The Gray code is used in applications in which the normal sequence of binary
numbers generated by the hardware may produce an error or ambiguity during
the transition from one number to the next.
It is convenient to use gray code in Analog to digital converters.
Table 8.2 Gray Code
Table: Gray code
Excess-3 Code
Excess‐3 is an unweighted code in which each coded combination is obtained from the
corresponding binary value plus 3.
The excess‐3 code is a self complementing code.

10. BINARY CODES
Table 10.3 Excess-3 code
10.2. ASCII CHARACTER CODE

The alphanumeric codes represents alphabetic and numeric information as a
series of 0’s and 1’s.
An alphanumeric character set is a set of elements that includes the 10 decimal

digits, the 26 letters of the alphabet, and a number of special characters.
The standard binary code for the alphanumeric characters is the American
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), which uses 7 bits to code
128 (i.e. 27) characters.
The ASCII code is used to represent 128 alpha numeric characters that includes
26 uppercase letters (A through Z), the 26 lowercase letters (a through z), the 10
numerals (0 through 9), and 32 special printable characters, such as %, *, $ and
34 non printing characters that are used for various control functions.
10.3. ERROR DETECTING CODES
To detect errors in data communication and processing, an eighth bit is
sometimes added to the ASCII character to indicate its parity.
A parity bit is an extra bit included with a message to make the total number of
1’s either even or odd.
10. BINARY CODES
Consider the following two characters and their even and odd parity
With even parity With odd parity
ASCII A (65) = 1000001 01000001 11000001
ASCII T(84) = 1010100 11010100 01010100
Use of parity bit:
The parity bit is helpful in detecting errors during the transmission of information
from one location to another.
The eight‐bit characters that include parity bits(odd parity or even parity) are
transmitted to their destination. The parity of each character is then checked at
the receiving end.
If the parity bit of the received character has changed, then it indicates that
atleast one bit has changed value during transmission.
This method detects one, three, or any odd combination of errors in each
character that is transmitted.
Disadvantage:
An even combination of errors, however, goes undetected.
Additional error detection codes may be needed to take care of that possibility.
11. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Definition of Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra is a mathematical system that is defined with
A set of elements
Operators
A number of postulates or axioms
Boolean Operations using binary operators
The rules for the binary operators ‘+’ and ‘.’ on a set of two elements S={0,1}
are shown in the following operator tables.
Table 11.1 Boolean Operations
11.1. POSTULATES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

The postulates are the basic assumptions from which it is possible to deduce the
rules and theorems.
The most common postulates used to formulate various algebraic structures are
as follows:
1. Closure Property
2. Commutative Property
3. Distributive Property
4. Identity Property
5. Inverse Property
(Refer Table 11.2)

11. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
11.2. BASIC THEOREMS AND PROPERTIES OF BOOLEAN
ALGEBRA
1. Duality Principle
2. Consensus Theorem
3. Associative Theorem
4. Absorption Theorem
5. DeMorgan Theorem
6. Idempotent Theorem
7. Involution Theorem
(Refer Table 9.2)
DUALITY PRINCIPLE
The important property of Boolean algebra is the duality principle. It states that
every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates of Boolean algebra
remains valid if the operators and identity elements are interchanged.
Duality principle states that a Boolean expression can be obtained from other
expression by,
Converting AND operation to OR operation
Converting OR operation to AND operation
Complementing/negating the 0’s or 1’s appearing in the expression.
CONSENSUS THEOREM
i) AB+A’C+BC = AB+A’C
ii) (A+B).(A’+C).(B+C) =(A+B).(A’+C)
A consensus term/redundant term is the conjunction of unique literals/variables of
the terms, excluding the literal that appears negated in one term and unnegated
in the other. The redundant term is eliminated.

11. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Conditions to apply Consensus Theorem

1. Three literals must be present in the expression.
2. Each literal is repeated twice.
3. One literal must be present in both negated and unnegated form.
Table 11.2 Boolean Algebra Postulates and Theorems
11. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
11.3. PROOF OF THEOREMS
Operator Precedence
The operator precedence for evaluating Boolean expressions is (1) parentheses,

(2) NOT, (3) AND, and (4) OR.
The Boolean theorems can be proved in two ways:
(i) Using the Boolean algebra Postulates (ii) Using the truth table.
Examples:
Prove A+A =A (Prove the Idempotent theorem)
L.H.S = A+A
= (A+A) . 1 (Identity property)
= (A+A) . (A+A’) (Inverse property)
= A+AA’ (Distributive property)
=A+0 (Inverse property)
=A (Identity property)
= R.H.S
Hence proved.
Prove A.A=A (Prove the Idempotent theorem)
L.H.S = A.A
= (A.A) +0 (Identity property)
= (A.A)+(A.A’) (Inverse property)
= A.(A+A’) (Distributive property)
= A.1 (Inverse property)
= R.H.S
Hence proved.
Prove A+1 = 1 (Theorem 1)
L.H.S =A+1
= (A+1) . 1 (Identity property)
= (A+1) . (A + A') (Inverse property)
= A + 1.A’ (Distributive property)
= A+A’ (Identity property)
=1 (Inverse property)
= R.H.S
Hence Proved
11. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Prove A+AB = A (Prove the Absorption theorem)
L.H.S = A+AB
= A.1 + AB (Identity property)
= A(1+B) (Distributive property)
= A.1 (Theorem 1)
= R.H.S
Hence proved.
Prove A.(A+B) =A (Prove the Absorption theorem)

L.H.S = A(A+B)
= A.A+A.B (Distributive property)
= A+ AB (Idempotent property)
= A.1 + AB (Identity property)
= A(1 + B) (Distributive property)
= A. 1 (Theorem 1)
= R.H.S
Hence proved.
Prove A +(B+C) = (A+B)+C (Prove the Associative theorem)

Since the algebraic proof of Associative theorem is long, it can be proved using the
truth table
L.H.S R.H.S
L.H.S = R.H.S.
Hence proved.
11. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Prove A .(B.C) = (A.B).C (Prove the Associative theorem)
Since the algebraic proof of Associative theorem is long, it can be proved using the
truth table.
L.H.S R.H.S
L.H.S = R.H.S
Hence proved.
Prove (A+ B)’ = A’ . B’ (Prove the DeMorgan theorem)

Since the algebraic proof of DeMorgan theorem is long, it can be proved using the
truth table.
L.H.S R.H.S
L.H.S = R.H.S
Hence proved.
11. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Prove (A . B)’ = A’ + B’ (Prove the DeMorgan theorem)
Since the algebraic proof of DeMorgan theorem is long, it can be proved using the
truth table.
L.H.S R.H.S
L.H.S = R.H.S
Hence proved.
Prove that AB + BC + B’C = AB + C

L.H.S = AB+BC+B’C
= AB+C(B+B’)
= AB+ C.1 (Inverse property)
= AB+ C (Identity property)
= R.H.S
Hence proved.
Prove that x + xyz + yzx’ + wx + w’x + x’y = x + y

L.H.S = x + xyz + yzx’ + wx + w’x + x’y
= x(1+yz+w+w’) + x’(y+yz)
= x(1) + x’ (y) (Theorem 1 and Absorption theorem)
=x + x’y (Identity property)
=(x+x’) .(x+y) (Distributive property)
= 1. (x+y) (Inverse property)
= x+y (Identity property)
= R.H.S
Hence proved.
12. BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
A Boolean function described by an algebraic expression consists of:
binary variables,
the constants 0’s and 1’s and
the logic operation symbols.
For a given value of the binary variables, the function can be equal to 0 or 1.
A Boolean function can be represented in a truth table and it can be transformed

into a circuit diagram composed of logic gates.
12.1. SIMPLIFICATION OF BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS USING

ALGEBRAIC METHOD
The original Boolean expression can be converted to an equivalent simpler form
of Boolean expression by using the Boolean theorems and postulates.
Advantages of Simplification/Minimization
1. Circuit gets simplified.
2. Number of gates required is reduced.
3. Cost of the circuit is reduced.
Simplify the Boolean function F= x(x’+y) to minimum number of literals
F = x(x’+y)
= xx’+xy (Distributive property)

= 0 + xy (Inverse property)
= xy (Identity property)
The simplified Boolean function is F = xy
Simplify the Boolean function F= x+x’y to minimum number of literals
F = x + x’y
= (x + x’) (x + y) (Distributive property)

= 1 . (x+y) (Inverse property)
= x+y (Identity property)
The simplified Boolean function is F= x+y

Simplify the Boolean function F= (x + y)(x + y’) using algebraic method
F= (x + y)(x + y’)
= x + yy’ (Distributive property)
=x+0 (Inverse property)
=x (Identity property)
The simplified Boolean function is F=x
Reduce the given function F= xy + x’z + yz to minimum number of literals

F = xy + x’z + yz
= xy + x’z + yz(x+x’) (Identity property)
= xy + x’z + xyz + x’yz (Distributive property)
= xy(1+z) +x’z(1+y)
= xy +x’z (Theorem 1)
By applying consensus theorem, yz is identified as a consensus term/ redundant

term and it is eliminated from the expression.
Hence, the reduced Boolean function is F= xy + x’z
Minimize the Boolean function F = (x + y)(x’ + z)(y + z)
By applying the consensus theorem (y + z) is identified as a consensus/redundant

term and it is eliminated from the expression.
Hence, the minimized Boolean function is F= (x + y)( x’ + z)

12.2. COMPLEMENT OF A FUNCTION
The complement of a function F is represented as F’. It can be identified in two

ways:
Method 1: Algebraic method (using DeMorgan theorem)
Method 2: Finding Dual of F and Complementing each literal
Example: Find the complement of the Boolean function F= (x’yz’ + x’y’z)
Method 1: Algebraic method (using DeMorgan theorem)
Given F= (x’yz’ + x’y’z)
F ’= (x’yz’ + x’y’z) ’
=(x’yz’)’ . (x’y’z)’ (DeMorgan theorem)
= ( (x’)’+y’+(z’)’ ) . ((x’)’ + (y’)’+z’) (DeMorgan theorem)
= (x+y’+z) . (x+y+z’) (Involution theorem)
The complement of the given Boolean function is F’ = (x+y’+z) . (x+y+z’)
Method 2: Finding Dual of F and Complementing each literal
Given F= (x’yz’ + x’y’z)
i. Dual of F = (x’+y+z’). (x’+y’+z)
ii. Complementing each literal = (x+y’+z)(x+y+z’)
The complement of the given Boolean function is F’ = (x+y’+z) . (x+y+z’)
Note: The resulting complement of the function can further be reduced by applying
theorems and postulates if required.
13. CANONICAL AND STANDARD FORMS
A Boolean function is expressed in two form.
1. Sum of Minterms
2.Product of Maxterms
 Minterms are called products because they are the logical AND of a set of
variables, and maxterms are called sums because they are the logical OR of a set
of variables.
Minterms and Maxterms:

A binary variable may appear either in its normal form (x) or in its complement
form (x’). Now either two binary variables x and y combined with an AND
operation. Since each variable may appear in either form, there are four possible
combinations:
x’y’, x’y, xy’ and xy Each of these four AND terms is called a ‘minterm’.
In a similar fashion, when two binary variables x and y combined with an OR
operation, there are four possible combinations:
x’+ y’, x’+ y, x+ y’ and x+ y Each of these four OR terms is called a
‘Maxterm’.
The minterms and Maxterms of a 3- variable function can be represented as in
table below.
A B C Minterms Maxterms
0 0 0 A’B’C’ A+B+C
0 0 1 A’B’C A + B + C’
0 1 0 A’BC’ A + B’ + C
0 1 1 A’BC A + B’ + C’
1 0 0 AB’C’ A’ + B + C
1 0 1 AB’C A’ + B + C’
1 1 0 ABC’ A’ + B’ + C
1 1 1 ABC A’ + B’ + C’
13. CANONICAL AND STANDARD FORMS
Canonical Products of Sum
If each term in POS form contains all literals then the POS is known as standard
(or) Canonical POS form. Each individual term in standard POS form is called
Maxterm canonical form.
F (A, B, C) = (A+ B+ C). (A+ B’+ C). (A+ B+ C’)
F (x, y, z) = (x+ y’+ z’). (x’+ y+ z). (x+ y+ z)
Steps to convert general POS to standard POS form:
If each term in SOP form contains all the literals then the SOP is known as
standard (or) canonical SOP form. Each individual term in standard SOP form is
called Find the missing literals in each product term if any.
1. AND each product term having missing literals by ORi g the literal and
its complement.
3. Expand the term by applying distributive law and reorder the literals in
the product term.
4. Reduce the expression by omitting repeated product terms if any.
Obtain the canonical SOP form of the function:
1. Y(A, B) = A+ B
= A. (B+ B’)+ B (A+ A’) = AB+ AB’+ AB+ A’B = AB+ AB’+ A’B.
2. Y (A, B, C) = A+ ABC
= A. (B+ B’). (C+ C’)+ ABC = (AB+ AB’). (C+ C’)+ ABC = ABC+ ABC’+ AB’C+
AB’C’+ ABC = ABC+ ABC’+ AB’C+ AB’C’ = m7+ m6+ m5+ m4 = ∑m (4, 5, 6, 7).
3. Y (A, B, C) = A+ BC
= A. (B+ B’). (C+ C’)+(A+ A’). BC = (AB+ AB’). (C+ C’)+ ABC+ A’BC = ABC+ ABC’+
AB’C+ AB’C’+ ABC+ A’BC = ABC+ ABC’+ AB’C+ AB’C’+ A’BC = m7+ m6+ m5+
m4+ m3 = ∑m (3, 4, 5, 6, 7).
14. Converting Boolean functions to Standard
SOP/POS form
Canonical Sum of Products
If each term in SOP form contains all the literals then the SOP is known as
standard (or) canonical SOP form. Each individual term in standard SOP form is
called minterm canonical form.
F (A, B, C) = AB’C+ ABC+ ABC’
Steps to convert general SOP to standard SOP form:
1. Find the missing literals in each product term if any.
2. AND each product term having missing literals by ORi g the literal and
its complement.
3. Expand the term by applying distributive law and reorder the literals in
the product term.
4. Reduce the expression by omitting repeated product terms if any.
Obtain the canonical SOP form of the function:
1. Y(A, B) = A+ B
= A. (B+ B’)+ B (A+ A’) = AB+ AB’+ AB+ A’B = AB+ AB’+ A’B.
2. Y (A, B, C) = A+ ABC
= A. (B+ B’). (C+ C’)+ ABC = (AB+ AB’). (C+ C’)+ ABC = ABC+ ABC’+ AB’C+
AB’C’+ ABC = ABC+ ABC’+ AB’C+ AB’C’
= m7+ m6+ m5+ m4 = ∑m (4, 5, 6, 7).
3. Y (A, B, C) = A+ BC
= A. (B+ B’). (C+ C’)+(A+ A’). BC = (AB+ AB’). (C+ C’)+ ABC+ A’BC = ABC+ ABC’+
AB’C+ AB’C’+ ABC+ A’BC = ABC+ ABC’+ AB’C+ AB’C’+ A’BC = m7+ m6+ m5+
m4+ m3 = ∑m (3, 4, 5, 6, 7).
4. Y (A, B, C) = AC+ AB+ BC

= AC (B+ B’)+ AB (C+ C’)+ BC (A+ A’) = ABC+ AB’C+ ABC+ ABC’+ ABC+ A’BC =
ABC+ AB’C+ ABC’+ A’BC = ∑m (3, 5, 6, 7).
SOP/POS form
Canonical Product of Sum
If each term in POS form contains all literals then the POS is known as standard
(or) Canonical POS form. Each individual term in standard POS form is called
Maxterm canonical form.
F (A, B, C) = (A+ B+ C). (A+ B’+ C). (A+ B+ C’)
F (x, y, z) = (x+ y’+ z’). (x’+ y+ z). (x+ y+ z)
Steps to convert general POS to standard POS form:

1. Find the missing literals in each sum term if any
2. OR each sum term having missing literals by ANDing the literal and its
complement.
3. Expand the term by applying distributive law and reorder the literals in the
sum term.
4. Reduce the expression by omitting repeated sum terms if any.
Obtain the canonical POS form of the function:
1. Y= A+ B’C
= (A+ B’) (A+ C) [ A+ BC = (A+B) (A+C)] = (A+ B’+ C.C’) (A+ C+ B.B’)
= (A+ B’+C) (A+ B’+C’) (A+ B+ C) (A+ B’+ C)
= (A+ B’+C). (A+ B’+C’). (A+ B+ C)
= M2. M3. M0 = ∏M (0, 2, 3)
2. Y= (A+B) (B+C) (A+C)

= (A+B+ C.C’) (B+ C+ A.A’) (A+C+B.B’)
= (A+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A+B+C) (A’+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B’+C)
= (A+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A’+B+C) (A+B’+C)
= M0. M1. M4. M2 = ∏M (0, 1, 2,
SOP/POS form
3. Y= A. (B+ C+A)
= (A+ B.B’+ C.C’). (A+ B+ C)
= (A+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A+B’+C) (A+ B’+C’) (A+B+C)
= (A+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A+B’+C) (A+ B’+C’)
= M0. M1. M2. M3 = ∏M (0, 1, 2, 3)
4. Y= (A+B’) (B+C) (A+C’)
= (A+B’+C.C’) (B+C+ A.A’) (A+C’+ B.B’)
= (A+B’+C) (A+B’+C’) (A+B+C) (A’+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A+B’+C’)
= (A+B’+C) (A+B’+C’) (A+B+C) (A’+B+C) (A+B+C’)
= M2. M3. M0. M4. M1 = ∏M (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)
5. Y= xy+ x’z
= (xy+ x’) (xy+ z) Using distributive law, convert the function into OR terms.
= (x+x’) (y+x’) (x+z) (y+z) [x+ x’=1]
= (x’+y) (x+z) (y+z) = (x’+y+ z.z’) (x+z+y.y’) (y+z+ x.x’)
= (x’+ y+ z) (x’+ y+ z’) (x+ y+ z) (x+ y’+ z) (x+ y+ z) (x’+ y+ z)
= (x’+ y+ z) (x’+ y+ z’) (x+ y+ z) (x+ y’+ z)
= M4. M5. M0. M2 = ∏M (0, 2, 4, 5).
15. Introduction to Karnaugh Map
Gate-level minimization is the design task of finding an optimal gate-level

implementation of the Boolean functions describing a digital circuit.
The complexity of the digital logic gates that implement a Boolean function is
directly related to the complexity of the algebraic expression from which the
function is implemented.
Boolean expressions may be simplified by algebraic means using the basic

Boolean laws or theorems, however this procedure of minimization is difficult
because it lacks specific rules to predict each succeeding step during the process.
The map method provides a simple straightforward procedure for minimizing

Boolean functions.
This method may be regarded as a pictorial form of a truth table. The map
method is also known as Karnaugh map or K-map.
A K-map is a diagram made up of squares, with each square representing one

minterm.
Since, any Boolean function can be expressed as a sum of minterms, it follows

that a Boolean function is recognized graphically in the map from the area
enclosed by those squares whose minterms are included in the function.
The map presents a visual diagram of all possible ways a function may be
expresses in a standard form.
By recognizing various patterns, the user can derive alternative algebraic

expressions from the same function, from which the simplest can be selected.
The simplified expressions produced by the map are always in one of the two
standard forms; sum of products or product of sums.
15. Introduction to Karnaugh Map
Adjacent Squares
Number of squares = number of combinations
Each square represents a minterm
2 Variables  4 squares
Each two adjacent squares differ in one variable
Two adjacent minterms can be combined together
Example: F = x y + x y’
= x ( y + y’ )
=x
Two Variable Karnaugh Map

A two-variable map is shown in the following diagram. There are four minterms
for two variables; hence the map consists of four squares, one for each minterm.
y
0 1
x
m0 m1 0 m0 m1
m2 m3 1 m2 m3
Decimal Input
Minterm
Value X Y
0 0 0 m0 x’y’
1 0 1 m1 x’y
2 1 0 m2 xy’
3 1 1 m3 xy
The 0’s and 1’s marked for each row and each column designate the values of
variables x and y, respectively. Notice that x appears primed in row 0 and
unprimed in row 1. Similarly, y appears primed in column 0 and unprimed in
column 1.
15. Two Variable Karnaugh Map (SOP Form)
Example: 1
Simplify the following Boolean function in SOP F(x,y) = (1,2,3)
Solution
y
0 1
x
0 0 1 m0 m1
1 1 1 m2 m3
Since, the simplification of given Boolean function is to be minimized in SOP form,

we need to assign ‘1’ in those respective minterm squares of the K-map. (The
subscript decimal values in the right hand side diagram is used for easily
identifying the respective minterm square easily).
After assigning the 1s in the respective squares, the next step is to combine or
group adjacent 1’s using the following rules:
Adjacent 1’s should be grouped in powers of 2 (i.e. 21=2, Two horizontal or

vertical squares, 22=4, Four adjacent squares, 23=8, eight adjacent squares
and so on).
While grouping, search for maximum number of 1’s (in powers of 2) present
in adjacent squares.
To understand the usefulness of the map for simplifying Boolean functions,

we must recognize the basic property possessed by adjacent squares.
Any two adjacent square in the map differ by only one variable which is
primed in one square and unprimed in the other.
From the postulates of Boolean algebra, it follows that the sum of two
minterms in adjacent squares can be simplified to a single AND term
consisting of only two literals.
15. Two Variable Karnaugh Map (SOP Form)
The next step is to write the simplified Boolean expression from the grouped
minterms. Identify, which rows and which columns of the map are combined and
then write the expression in SOP form.
The Boolean expression for the Example:1 problem is as follows:
By identifying the map, we can identify that two groupings are done by
combining the minterms m1,m3 and m2,m3.
The minterms (m1,m3) belongs to Row 1, Row 2 and Column 2, which

corresponds to (x’+x).(y)=(1).y=y.
Similarly, the minterms (m2,m3) belongs to Row 2, Column 1 and Column 2,

which corresponds to x.(y’+y)=x.(1)=x.
Finally, combining the two results, we get F = y+x as the simplified Boolean
expression.
Example: 2
Simplify the following Boolean function in SOP F(x,y) = (0,1,2,3)
Solution
y
0 1
x
0 1 1
1 1 1
In this example, we can combine all four adjacent 1’s. Following the method for
identifying the expression we get,
F(x,y) = (x’+x)+(y’+y)=1+1=1
So, F(x,y)=1
15. Two Variable Karnaugh Map (POS Form)
Example: 3
Simplify the following Boolean function in SOP F(x,y) = (0,2,3)
Solution
y
0 1
x
0 0 1 M0 M1
1 0 0 M2 M3
Since, the simplification of given Boolean function is to be minimized in POS form,

we need to assign ‘0’ in those respective minterm squares of the K-map. (The
subscript decimal values in the right hand side diagram is used for easily
identifying the respective minterm square easily).
After assigning the 0s in the respective squares, the next step is to combine or
group adjacent 0’s using the following rules:
Adjacent 0’s should be grouped in powers of 2 (i.e. 21=2, Two horizontal or

vertical squares, 22=4, Four adjacent squares, 23=8, eight adjacent squares
and so on).
While grouping, search for maximum number of 0’s (in powers of 2) present
in adjacent squares.
To understand the usefulness of the map for simplifying Boolean functions,

we must recognize the basic property possessed by adjacent squares.
Any two adjacent square in the map differ by only one variable which is
primed in one square and unprimed in the other.
From the postulates of Boolean algebra, it follows that the sum of two
maxterms in adjacent squares can be simplified to a single OR term
consisting of only two literals.
15. Two Variable Karnaugh Map (POS Form)
maxterms. Identify, which rows and which columns of the map are combined and
then write the expression in POS form.
The Boolean expression for the Example:3 problem is as follows:
By identifying the map, we can identify that two groupings are done by
combining the maxterms M0,M2 and M2,M3.
The maxterms (M0,M2) belongs to Row 1, Row 2 and Column 1, which

corresponds to (x’.x)+(y’)=(0)+y’=y’.
Similarly, the maxterms (m2,m3) belongs to Row 2, Column 1 and Column 2,

which corresponds to x+(y’.y)=x+(0)=x.
Finally, combining the two results, we get F = y’x as the simplified Boolean
expression.
Example: 4
Simplify the following Boolean function in POS F(x,y) = (0,1,2,3)
Solution
y
0 1
x
0 0 0
1 0 0
In this example, we can combine all four adjacent 0’s. Following the method for
identifying the expression we get,
F(x,y) = (x’.x).(y’.y)=0.0=0
So, F(x,y)=0
15. Simplification of Boolean Function Using
Three Variable Karnaugh Map
The structure of three variable K-map is shown in the following diagram.
There are eight minterms for three binary variables. Therefore, the map
consists of eight squares.
yz 00 01 11 10
x
0 x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz x’yz’ m0 m1 m3 m2
1 xy’z’ xy’z xyz xyz’ m4 m5 m7 m6
The minterms are not arranged in binary sequence. The characteristic of this
sequence is that only one bit changes from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1 in the listing
sequence.
Example: 5
Simplify the Boolean function F = x’yz + x’yz’ + xy’z’ + xy’z
Solution
The given function is in canonical SOP form.
yz 00 01 11 10
x
0 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
First step, assign ‘1’ in the respective squares of the given minterms, and ‘0’ in the
remaining squares.
15. Three Variable Karnaugh Map (SOP Form)
The next step is to combine the adjacent 1’s forming the minterms m2,m3 and m4,m5
as two pairs.
minterms. Identify, which rows and which columns of the map are combined and
then write the expression in SOP form as follows,
For m2,m3, we get, x’(y+y)(z+z’) = x’y
For m4,m5, we get, x(y’+y’)(z’+z) = xy’
Finally, write the expression as F = x’y + xy’
Example: 6
Simplify the given function using K-map, F = A’C + A’B + AB’C + BC
Solution
The given expression has three variables A,B and C. Hence, we need to use three
variable K-map.
But, the given expression is not in canonical SOP form.
As the first step, we need to convert the given expression into canonical SOP form
F = A’C[B+B’] + A’B[C+C’] + AB’C + BC[A+A’]
F = A’BC + A’B’C + A’BC + A’BC’ + AB’C + ABC + A’BC
F = A’BC + A’B’C + A’BC’ + AB’C + ABC
Rearranging the expression we get, F = A’B’C + A’BC’ + A’BC + AB’C + ABC
Hence, F = (1,2,3,5,7)
Three Variable Karnaugh Map
BC 00 01 11 10
A
0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0
Expression for m2,m3, we get, A’(B+B)(C+C’) = A’B
Expression for m1,m3,m5,m7, we get, (A’+A)(B’+B)(C+C) = C
F = A’B + C
Example: 7
Simplify the following Boolean function F = (0,2,4,6)
Solution
BC 00 01 11 10
A
0 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
Combining m1,m3,m5,m7, as four adjacent squares (Visualize that we are folding the
map) we get, (A’+A)(B’+B)(C’+C’) = C’
F = C’
15. Three Variable Karnaugh Map (POS Form)
Example: 8
Obtain the simplified expression in product of sums F(x,y,z) = (0,1,4,5)
Solution
yz 00 01 11 10
x
0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
Combining maxterms M0,M1,M4,M5, we get,
F = (x.x’) + (y.y) + (z.z’)
F=y
Example: 9
Obtain the simplified expression in product of sums F(x,y,z) = (0,1,3,4,7)
yz 00 01 11 10
x
0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1
Combining maxterms M0,M1, we get, (x.x’) + (y) + (z) = (y+z)
Combining maxterms M1,M3, we get, (x) + (y.y’) + (z’.z’) = (x+z’)
Combining maxterms M3,M7, we get, (x.x’) + (y’) + (z’) = (y’+z’)
F = (y+z) (x+z’) (y’+z’)

15. Simplification of Boolean Function Using Four
Variable Karnaugh Map
The structure of three variable K-map is shown in the following diagram.
There are eight minterms for three binary variables. Therefore, the map
consists of eight squares.
m0 m1 m3 m2
m4 m5 m7 m6
m12 m13 m15 m14
m8 m9 m11 m10
yz 00 01 11 10
wx
00 w’x’y’z’ w’x’y’z w’x’yz w’x’yz’
01 w’xy’z’ w’xy’z w’xyz w’xyz’
11 wxy’z’ wxy’z wxyz wxyz’
10 wx’y’z’ wx’y’z wx’yz wx’yz’
Example: 10
Simplify the Boolean function F = W’X’Y’ + X’YZ’ + W’XYZ’ + WX’Y’
Solution
The given function is not in canonical SOP form.
We need to convert the given function into canonical SOP form.

Variable Karnaugh Map (SOP)
F = W’X’Y’[Z+Z’] + X’YZ’[W+W’] + W’XYZ’ + WX’Y’[Z+Z’]
F = W’X’Y’Z + W’X’Y’Z’ + WX’YZ’ + W’X’YZ’ + W’XYZ’ + WX’Y’Z + WX’Y’Z’
Rearranging the equation, we get,
F = W’X’Y’Z’ + W’X’Y’Z + W’X’YZ’ + W’XYZ’ + WX’Y’Z’ + WX’Y’Z + WX’YZ’
F = (0,1,2,6,8,9,10)
yz 00 01 11 10
wx
00 1 1 0 1
01 0 0 0 1
11 0 0 0 0
10 1 1 0 1
Combining minterms m0,m2,m8,m10, we get (W’+W)(X’+X’)(Y’+Y)(Z’+Z’) = X’Z’
Combining minterms m0,m1,m8,m9, we get (W’+W)(X’+X’)(Y’+Y’)(Z’+Z) = X’Y’
Combining minterms m2,m6, we get (W’+W’)(X’+X)(Y)(Z’) = W’YZ’
F = X’Z’ + X’Y’ + W’YZ’

Variable Karnaugh Map (SOP)
Example: 11
Simplify the Boolean function F(w,x,y,z) = (0,1,2,4,5,6,8,9,12,13,14)
Solution
yz 00 01 11 10
wx
00 1 1 0 1
01 1 1 0 1
11 1 1 0 1
10 1 1 0 0
Combining minterms m0,m1,m4,m5,m8,m9,m12,m13, we get
m0,m
(w’+w’+w+w)(x’+x+x’+x)(y’+y’)(z’+z) =2,m
y’ 4,m6,
Combining minterms m0,m2,m4,m6, we get (w’+w’)(x’+x)(y’+y)(z’+z’) = w’z’
Combining minterms m4,m6,m12,m14, we get (w’+w)(x+x)(y’+y)(z’+z’) = xz’
F = y’ + w’z’ + xz’
Rule of Thumb in four variable K-map
One square represents one minterm, giving a term of four literals
Two adjacent squares represent a term of three literals
Four adjacent squares represent a term of two literals
Eight adjacent squares represent a term of one literal
Sixteen adjacent squares represent the function equal to 1

Variable Karnaugh Map (POS)
Example: 12
Simplify the Boolean function F(w,x,y,z) = (3,7,10,11,15)
Solution
yz 00 01 11 10
wx
00 1 1 0 1
01 1 1 0 1
11 1 1 0 1
10 1 1 0 0
Combining maxterms M3,M7,M11,M15, we get (w.w.w’.w’) + (x.x’.x’.x) + (y’) + (z’) =

(y’+z’)
Combining maxterms M10,M11, we get (w’) + (x) + (y’.y’) + (z’.z) = (w’+x+y’)
F = (y’+z’) (w’+x+y’)
Example: 13
Simplify the Boolean function F(w,x,y,z) = (3,7,10,11,15)
Solution yz 00 01 11 10
wx
1 1 0 1
00
01 0 0 0 1
11 0 0 0 0
10 1 1 0 1
F = (y’+z’) (w’+x’) (x’+y)

Don’t Care Conditions
Unused combinations of the input variables are called as don’t care inputs or
condition.
As a result, we don’t care what the function output is to be for those input
combinations of the variables because they are guaranteed never to occur.
To distinguish the don’t care conditions from 1’s and 0’s an ‘’ mark will be used.
When choosing adjacent squares to simplify the function in the map, the ’s may be
assumed to be either 0 or1, whichever gives the simplest expression.
In addition, an  need not be used at all if it does not contribute to covering a large
area.
Example: 14
Simplify the Boolean function F(w,x,y,z) = (1,3,7,11,15) + d(w,x,y,z) = (0,2,5)
Solution
yz 00 01 11 10
wx
00  1 1 
01 0  1 1
11 0 0 1 0
10 0 0 1 0
F = w’z + yz
Example: 15
Simplify the Boolean function F in sum of products using the don’t care conditions d:
F = B’C’D’ + BCD’ + ABCD’
d= B’CD’ + A’BC’D
Solution
Convert F and d into canonical SOP form
F = B’C’D’[A+A’] + BCD’[A+A’] + ABCD’
F= A’B’C’D’ + AB’C’D’ + ABCD’ + A’BCD’ + ABCD’
F = A’B’C’D’ + A’BCD’ + AB’C’D’ + ABCD’ = (0,6,8,14)
d = B’CD’[A+A’] + A’BC’D
d = AB’CD’ + A’B’CD’ + A’BC’D = (2,5,10)
CD 00 01 11 10
AB
00 1 0 0 
01 0  0 1
11 0 0 0 1
10 1 0 0 
F = B’D’ + CD’
Example: 16
Simplify the Boolean function F in product of sums using the don’t care conditions d:
F = (0,2,3,4,7,9,11) + d= (1,5,6,12,14)
Solution
CD 00 01 11 10
AB
00 0  0 0
01 0  0 0
11  1 1 
10 1 0 0 1
F = (A+D) (A+B’) (B+D’)
Example: 17
Simplify the Boolean function F = (0,2,3,7) + d= (1,5)
BC 00 01 11 10
A
0 0  0 0
1 1  0 1
F = A + C’
15. Simplification of Boolean Function Using Five
Example: 18
Simplify the Boolean function F in sum of products
F(P,Q,R,S,T) = m(0,2,,4,7,8,10,12,16,18,20,23,24,25,26,27,28)
Solution
F = S’T’ + Q’RST + R’T’ + PQR’
Example: 19
Simplify the Boolean function F in product of sums
F(P,Q,R,S,T) = m(0,2,,4,7,8,10,12,16,18,20,23,24,25,26,27,28)
Solution
F = (S+T) (Q+R’+S’+T’) (R+T) (P’+Q’+R)

15. Simplification of Boolean Function Using Six
Example: 20
Simplify the Boolean function F in sum of products
F(a,b,c,d,e) = m(12,13,14,15,28,29,30,31,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,60,61,62,63)
Solution
F = cd + abc’d’
15. Simplification using KMpas
Gate Level Implementation :
Example: 21
Implement the following Boolean function F, after simplifying in a) sum of products

and b) product of sums
F(A,B,C,D) = m(0,1,2,5,8,9,10)
Solution
CD 00 01 11 10
a) AB
00 1 1 0 1
01 0 1 0 0
11 0 0 0 0
10 1 1 0 1
F = B’D’ + B’C’ + A’C’D

15. Simplification using KMpas
b)
CD 00 01 11 10
AB
00 1 1 0 1
01 0 1 0 0
11 0 0 0 0
10 1 1 0 1
F = (B’+D)(A’+B’)(C’+D’)
Click Here for Quiz

16. LOGIC GATES
 Logic gates are electronic circuits that can be used to implement the Boolean
Functions.
 Logic gates are also called switches.
 Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system having one or
more than one input and only one output. The relationship between the input and
the output is based on a certain logic. Based on this, logic gates are named as
AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate etc.
1-bit logic AND resembles binary multiplication:
0 • 0 = 0, 0 • 1 = 0,
1 • 0 = 0, 1•1 =1
1-bit logic OR resembles binary addition, except for one operation:
0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1,
1 + 0 = 1, 1 + 1 = 1 (≠ 102)
AND Gate
The AND gate performs logical multiplication, commonly known as AND function.
The AND gate has two or more inputs and single output. The output of AND gate
is HIGH only when all its inputs are HIGH (i.e. even if one input is LOW, Output
will be LOW).
Logic diagram Truth Table

16. LOGIC GATES
OR Gate
The OR gate performs logical addition, commonly known as OR function. The OR
gate has two or more inputs and single output. The output of OR gate is HIGH
only when any one of its inputs are HIGH (i.e. even if one input is HIGH, Output
will be HIGH).
NOT Gate
The NOT gate performs the basic logical function called inversion or
complementation. NOT gate is also called inverter. The purpose of this gate is to
convert one logic level into the opposite logic level. It has one input and one
output. When a HIGH level is applied to an inverter, a LOW level appears on its
output and vice versa
16. LOGIC GATES
NAND Gate
NAND gate is a cascade of AND gate and NOT gate, as shown in the figure
below. It has two or more inputs and only one output. The output of NAND
gate is HIGH when any one of its input is LOW (i.e. even if one input is LOW,
Output will be HIGH).
NOR Gate
NOR gate is a cascade of OR gate and NOT gate, as shown in the figure below.
It has two or more inputs and only one output. The output of NOR gate is HIGH
when any all its inputs are LOW (i.e. even if one input is HIGH, output will be
LOW).

16. LOGIC GATES
XOR Gate
An Exclusive-OR (XOR) gate is gate with two or three or more inputs and one
output. The output of a two-input XOR gate assumes a HIGH state if one and
only one input assumes a HIGH state. This is equivalent to saying that the
output is HIGH if either input X or input Y is HIGH exclusively, and LOW when
both are 1 or 0 simultaneously.
It can be used in the half adder, full adder and subtractor. The exclusive-OR
gate is abbreviated as EX-OR gate or sometime as X-OR gate. It has n input (n
>= 2) and one output.
XNOR Gate
An Exclusive-NOR (XNOR) gate is gate with two or three or more inputs and
one output. The output of a two-input XNOR gate assumes a HIGH state if all
the inputs assumes same state. This is equivalent to saying that the output is
HIGH if both input X and input Y is HIGH exclusively or same as input X and
input Y is LOW exclusively, and LOW when both are not same. If X and Y are
two inputs, then output F can be represented mathematically as F = X Y, Here
denotes the XNOR operation. X Y and is equivalent to X.Y + X'.Y'
16. LOGIC GATES
Logic Diagram Truth Table
17. UNIVERSAL GATES
 In addition to AND, OR, and NOT gates, other logic gates like NAND and NOR are
also used in the design of digital circuits.
 A universal gate is a gate which can implement any Boolean function without
need to use any other gate.
 The NAND and NOR gates are universal gates since NAND and NOR gates are
economical and easier to fabricate all the basic gates like AND, OR and NOT that
are used in all IC digital logic families.
 Any logic function can be implemented using NAND and NOR gates
To prove that any Boolean function can be implemented using only NAND gates,
we will show that the AND, OR, and NOT operations can be performed using only
these gates.
NAND IMPLEMENTATION
To prove that any Boolean function can be implemented using only NAND gates,
we will show that all the basic logic operations can be performed using only
these gates.
18. BASIC GATES IMPLEMENTATION USING NAND
The NAND gate is called as a Universal Gate because any logic circuit or Boolean
function can be implemented with NAND gate.
The AND, OR implementations using NAND gate needs additional inverters in

order to take the complement.
The logic operations with NAND gates are shown below:
The OR operation is achieved through a NAND gate with additional inverters in

each input.
The AND operation requires one NAND gate and an invertor.
Two equivalent graphic symbols for the NAND gate are : AND-Invert and Invert-
OR gates
a) AND-Invert b) Invert-OR
The AND-invert symbol consists of an AND graphic symbol followed by a small

circle negation indicator referred to as a bubble.
Invert-OR graphic symbol is preceded by a bubble in each input.
The complement operation can also be obtained from a one-input NAND gate that
behaves exactly like an inverter. The symbol is shown below.
18. BASIC GATES IMPLEMENTATION USING NOR
The NOR gate is another Universal Gate because any logic circuit or Boolean function can
be implemented with NOR gate.
The OR, AND implementations using NOR gate needs additional inverters in order to
perform complement.
NOR operation is the dual of the NAND operation.
The logic operations with NOR gates are shown below:
The OR operation is achieved through a NOR gate followed with an additional inverter.
AND operation is obtained with a NOR gate that has inverters in each input.
Two equivalent graphic symbols for the NAND gate are : OR-Invert and Invert-AND
a) OR-Invert b) Invert-AND
The OR-invert symbol defines the NOR operation as an OR followed by a complement.
The invert-AND symbol complements each input and then performs an AND operation.
The complement operation is obtained from a one input NOR gate that behaves exactly
like an inverter and is shown below:
18. BASIC GATES USING UNIVERSAL GATE
NAND GATE AS UNIVERSAL GATE

18. BASIC GATES USING UNIVERSAL GATE
NORGATE AS UNIVERSAL GATE
The NAND and NOR gates are the complements of the
previous AND and OR functions respectively and are individually a complete
set of logic as they can be used to implement any other Boolean function or
gate. But as we can construct other logic switching functions using just these
gates on their own, they are both called a minimal set of gates. Thus
the NAND and the NOR gates are commonly referred to as Universal Logic
Gates.
NOR IMPLEMENTATION
The NOR gate represents the complement of the OR operation. Its name is an
abbreviation of NOT OR. The graphic symbol for the NOR gate consists of an
OR symbol with a bubble on the output, denoting that a complement operation
is performed on the output of the OR gate
NOR GATE AS UNIVERSAL GATE

19. IMPLEMENT BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
USING NOR GATES
EXAMPLE 1:
IMPLEMENT THE FUNCTION G= (A+B)(C’+D)E

USING NOR GATE
Solution:
•Draw the logic diagram

•Add bubble to the output of OR gate
•Add bubble to the input of AND gate
•Do bubble compensation
Represent all gates by standard NOR representation
19. NAND IMPLEMENTATION
Procedure for NAND Implementation
Step 1. Draw the AND-OR-NOT logic diagram.
Step 2. Convert all AND gates to NAND gates with AND-invert graphic symbols and
Convert all OR gates to NAND gates with invert-OR graphic symbols.
Step 3. Check all the bubbles in the diagram. For every bubble that is not
compensated by another small circle along the same line, insert an inverter (a
one-input NAND gate) or complement the input literal.
Step 4. Convert all Invert-OR gates to NAND gate.

Converting AND-OR circuit to all NAND diagram
Example 1: Implement the Boolean Function F = AB + CD using NAND

Gates. ( Two-Level Circuit)
Step 1 : Draw the AND-OR-NOT logic diagram
Step 2: Convert all AND gates to NAND gates with AND-invert graphic symbols
and Convert all OR gates to NAND gates with invert-OR graphic symbols.
one-input NAND gate) or complement the input literal.

Converting AND-OR circuit to all NAND diagram
Example 2: Implement the Boolean Function F = (AB' + A'B)(C + D') using

NAND Gates. (Multi-Level Circuit)
Step 2: Convert all AND gates to NAND gates with AND-invert graphic symbols
and Convert all OR gates to NAND gates with invert-OR graphic symbols. Step 3.
Check all the bubbles in the diagram. For every bubble that is not compensated
by another small circle along the same line, insert an inverter (a one-input NAND
gate) or complement the input literal.

20. NOR IMPLEMENTATION
Procedure for NOR Implementation
Step 1. Draw the AND-OR-NOT logic diagram
Step 2. Convert all OR gates to NOR gates with OR-invert graphic symbols and
Convert all AND gates to NOR gates with invert-AND graphic symbols.
one-input NOR gate) or complement the input literal.
Step 4. Convert all Invert-AND gates to NOR gates

Converting OR-AND circuit to all NOR diagram
Example 1: Implement the Boolean Function F = (A + B)(C + D)E
using NOR Gates. (Two-Level Circuit)
Step 2: Convert all OR gates to NOR gates with OR-invert graphic symbols and
Convert all AND gates to NOR gates with invert-AND graphic symbols. Step 3.
by another small circle along the same line, insert an inverter (a one-input NOR

Converting OR-AND circuit to all NOR diagram
Example 2: Implement the Boolean Function F = (A' B + AB')(C + D')

using NOR Gates. (Multi-Level Circuit)
Step 2: Convert all OR gates to NOR gates with OR-invert graphic symbols and
Convert all AND gates to NOR gates with invert-AND graphic symbols. Step 3.
by another small circle along the same line, insert an inverter (a one-input NOR

MINDMAP ACTIVITY
1. Create a Mind Map to describe the procedure of NAND/NOR implementation

using the following tool:
https://www.apowersoft.us/mindmap?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIzLbL677i6gIVwQ0rCh2_S
AeKEAAYAiAAEgIi5_D_BwE
JIGSAW PUZZLE – BOOLEAN THEOREMS
https://www.jigsawplanet.com/?rc=play&pid=25d6b6a021b3
Video Links
Video Links
Sl. Topic Video Link
No.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
1 Number Systems
v=juJR_JDJRa0
2 Boolean Algebra
v=K73N9ES_8nI
3 BCD Addition
v=a2gbCeIilBU
Verifying the correctness of https://youtu.be/Yg5ufBFgq4c
4
minterms and maxterms
Logic Minimization using https://www.youtube.com/watch?
5
Karnaugh Maps v=ygm25sqqepg
Karnaugh Minimization using https://www.youtube.com/watch?
6
Maxterms v=i_HYxdri69Y
QUIZ
Quiz 1 :
https://forms.gle/6sSCzTcpoKVx1Fvd9
Quiz 2 :
https://forms.gle/uK81mqh6btLcGLGSA
Assignments
Assignment Questions
1. Express the following numbers in decimal: (CO1, K1)
(a) (10110.010) 2 (b) (16.5) 16 (c) (26.24)8 (d) (FAFA)16
(e) (1010.1010)2 (f) (DADA.B)16
2. Convert the following numbers with the indicated bases to decimal: (CO1, K1)
(a) (4310) 5 (b) (198)12 (c) (735)8 d) (525)6
3. Convert hexadecimal number 64CD to binary and then convert it from binary to
octal number system. (CO1, K1)
4. Convert the decimal number 431 to binary in two ways. (CO1, K1)
i) Convert directly to binary.
ii) Convert first to hexadecimal and then from hexadecimal to binary.
5. Perform 10’s complement subtraction for the following:
(a) 6428 - 3409 (b) 1631 - 745
6. Perform 2’s complement subtraction for the following:
(a) 1001 - 101000 (b) 110000 - 10101
7. Formulate a weighted binary code for the decimal digits using weights
(a ) 6, 3, 1, 1 (b) 6, 4, 2, 1
8. Find the complement of the following expressions:
(a) xy' + x'y (b) (A 'B + CD ) E' + E
(c) (x' + y + z')(x + y' )(x + z)
9. Express the complement of the following functions in sum-of-minterms form:
(a) F(A, B,C, D) = ∑ (3, 5,9, 11, 15) (b) F(x, y, z) = ∏ (2, 4, 5, 7)
10. Convert each of the following expressions into sum of products and product of
sums:
(a) (AB + C)(B + C’ D) (b) x' + x(x + y’)(y + z')
11. Simplify the following Boolean functions, using three-variable maps:
(a) F(x, y, z) = ∑ (0 , 1, 5, 7)
(b) F(x, y, z) = ∑(1, 2, 3, 6, 7)
(c) F(x, y, z) = ∑ (0. 1 , 6, 7)
(d) F(x, y, z) = ∑ (0, 1, 3, 4, 5)
(e) F(x, y, z) = ∑ (1,3, 5, 7)
(f) F(x, y, z) = ∑ (1,4,5,6, 7)
Assignment Questions
12. Find all the prime implicants for the following Boolean functions and determine
which are essential:
a) F (w, x, y, z ) = ∑ (0, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 13, 15)
b) F (A, B, C, D) = ∑(0, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11 14,15)
c) F (A, B, C, D) = ∑ (1, 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,15)
d) F (w, x, y, z ) = ∑ (1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15)
e) F(A, B,C,D) = ∑ (0, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 15)
f) F (w, x, y, z ) = ∑ (0, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15)
13. Simplify the following Boolean functions to product-of-sums form:
(a) F (w, x, y, z ) = ∑ (0, 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, 13)
(b) F (A, B, C, D) = ∏ (1, 3, 5, 7, 13,15)
(c) F (A, B, C, D) = ∏ (1, 3, 6, 9, 11,12, 14)
14. Simplify the following expressions to ( 1) sum-of-products and (2) products-or-
sums:
a) x'y' + y'z' + yz’ + xy
b) ACD' + C' D + AB' + ABCD
c) ( (A + C' + D' )(A ' + B' + D' )(A ' + B + D' )(A' + B + C' )
d) ABC' + AB'D + BCD
15. Simplify the following Boolean function F, together with the don't-care
conditions d, and then express the simplified function in sum-of-minterms form:
(a) F( x, y, z) = ∑ (2, 3, 4, 6, 7) + d (x, y, z ) = ∑ (0, 1, 5)
(b) F(A, B, C, D) = ∑ (0, 6, 8, 13, 14) + d (A,B,C,D ) = ∑ (2, 4, 10)
16. Simplify the following functions and implement them with two-level NAND gate
circuits:
(a) F(A, B, C, D) = A'B'C + AC' + ACD + ACD' + A' B'D'
(b) F(A, B, C, D) = AB + A'BC + A'B’C’D
16. Simplify the following functions, and implement them with two-level NOR gate
circuits:
(a) F = wx' + y' z' + w'yz'
(b) F (w, x, y, z) = ∑ (1, 2, 13, 14)
(c ) F(x, y, z) = [(x + y) (x' + z)]'
17. Implement the following Boolean function F, using the two-level forms of logic
(a) NAND-AND, (b) AND-NOR, (c) OR-NAND, and (d) NOR-OR
F(A, B, C, D) = ∑ (0, 4, 8, 9, 10,11,12, 14)
Part A – Q & A
Unit - I
Part A Q & A
1. Define a Digital system (CO1, K1)
Electronic systems are most reliable when designed for two state operation and this
binary system is made use of in digital system.
2. What is a decimal number system? (CO1, K1)
A decimal number system has a radix (Base r=10) and uses symbols
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.
Eg. (237) 10
3. Convert (196.062)10 to octal. (CO1, K1)
(196.062)10 = (304.03757) 8
4. Convert (10.175)8 to its decimal equivalent. (CO1, K1)
(10.175)8 = (8.244135)10
5. What is meant by bit? (CO1, K1)
A binary digit is called bit
6. Define byte. (CO1, K1)
A group of 8 bits is called byte
7. Define Nibble. (CO1, K1)
A group of 4 bits is called Nibble.
8. Convert (1128)16 to decimal. (CO1, K1)
(1128)16 = (4392)10
9. Convert (0.6875)10 to binary (CO1, K1)
(0.6875)10 = (0.1011)2
10.Find the octal equivalent of hexadecimal numbers AB.CD (CO1, K1)
(AB.CD)8 = (253.632)8
11. Convert (126)10 to octal number and binary number (CO1, K1)
(126)10 = (176)8
(126)10 = (111111)2
Part A Q & A
12) Subtract the following numbers:[CO1,K2]
i) 1012 from 10012
Solution:
101 from 1001
0 10 Borrow
1001
101
1 0 02
ii) 1112 from 10002
Solution:
111 from 1000
0 1 1 10 borrow
1000
111
0001
iii) 1010101.102 from 1111011.112
Solution:
1010101.10 from 1111011.11
1 Borrow
1111011.11
1010101.10
1 0 0 1 1 0 . 0 12
iv) 11010.1012 from 101100.0112
Solution:11010.101 from 101100.011
1
10 0 10 10 Borrow
101100.011
11010.101
1 0 0 0 1 . 1 1 02
Part A Q & A
13) list out the operation carried out in 1’s complement.[CO1,K1]
The operation is carried out by means of the following steps:
(i) At first, 1’s complement of the subtrahend is found.
(ii) Then it is added to the minuend.
(iii) If the final carry over of the sum is 1, it is dropped and the result is positive.
(iv) If there is no carry over, the 1’s complement of the sum will be the result and
it is negative.

(iv) If there is no carry over, the two’s complement of the sum will be the result
and it is negative.

(iv) If there is no carry over, the 9’s complement of the sum will be the result and
it is negative.
Part A Q & A
(iv) If there is no carry over, the 10’s complement of the sum will be the result and it
is negative.
17) Perform 101102 – 110102 [CO1,K3]

Solution:
2’s complement of 11010 is (00101 + 1) i.e. 00110. Hence
Minued - 10110
2’s complement of subtrahend - 00110
Result of addition - 11100
As there is no carry over, the result of subtraction is negative and is obtained by
writing the 2’s complement of 11100 i.e.(00011 + 1) or 00100.
Hence the difference is – 100.
18) Perform 1010.112 – 1001.012 using 2’s complement[CO1,K2]

Solution:
2’s complement of 1001.01 is 0110.11. Hence
Minued - 1010.11
2’s complement of subtrahend - 0110.11
Carry over 1 0001.10
After dropping the carry over we get the result of subtraction as 1.102.
Part A Q & A
19) Solve 1010112 – 1110012 using 1’s Complement[CO1,K1]
Solution:
1’s complement of 111001 is 000110. Hence
Minued - 101011
1’s complement - 000110
110001
Hence the difference is – 1 1 1 02
20) Solve 1011.001 – 110.102 [CO1,K3]

Solution:
1’s complement of 0110.100 is 1001.011 Hence
Minued - 1011.001
1’s complement of subtrahend - 1001.011
Carry over - 1 0100.100
1
0100.101
Hence the required difference is 100.1012
21) Discuss advantages of 2’s complement over 1’s complement[CO1,K1]

The primary advantage of two's complement over one's complement is that two's
complement only has one value for zero. One's complement has a "positive" zero
and a "negative" zero.
Next, to add numbers using one's complement you have to first do binary addition,
then add in an end-around carry value.
Two's complement has only one value for zero, and doesn't require carry values.
Part A Q & A
22) Multiply: 101112 by 11012[CO1,K2]
Solution:
10111
1101
10111
00000
10111
10111
________________
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 12 ← Final sum.
Hence the required product is 1001010112.
23) Multiply 1011.10 by 11.10 [CO1,K2]

1011.10
11.10
000000
101110
101110
101110
-------------------------
1010000100
Finally place decimal point appropriately
Hence the required result is 101000.01002

Part A Q & A
24) List the advantages and disadvantages of BCD code?[CO1,K1]
The advantages of BCD code are
a. Any large decimal number can be easily converted into corresponding binary
number
b. A person needs to remember only the binary equivalents of decimal number from
0 to 9.
c. Conversion from BCD into decimal is also very easy.
The disadvantages of BCD code are
a. The code is least efficient. It requires several symbols to represent even small
numbers.
b. Binary addition and subtraction can lead to wrong answer. c. Special codes are
required for arithmetic operations.
d. This is not a self-complementing code.
e. Conversion into other coding schemes requires special methods.
25) Represent (28)10 and (53)10 in 8421 BCD notation[CO1,K2]

Solution:
(28)10 in BCD notation can be represented as (0010 1000)bCD.
Similarly, (53)10 in BCD notation can be represented as (0101 0011)BCD.
Part A Q & A
26) What are the Rules of Binary Addition? [CO1,K2]
There are four rules of binary addition which are:
● 0+0=0
● 0+1=1
● 1+0=1
● 1+1=10
27) What are the Rules of Binary Subtraction? [CO1,K2]
There are four rules of binary subtraction which are:
● 0-0=0
● 0-1=1 with borrow 1
● 1-0=1
● 1-1=0
28) What are the Rules of Binary multiplication? [CO1,K2]
There are four rules of binary multiplication which are:
● 0*0=0
● 0*1=0
● 1*0=0
● 1*1=1
29) What are the Rules of Binary division? [CO1,K2]
There are four rules of binary division which are:
● 0/0=0
● 0/1= indefinite
● 1/0=1
● 1/1=1
30) What are different ways to represent a negative number? [CO1,K2]
Ordinary arithmetic-minus sign
Signed magnitude-MSB bit as 1.
1’s complement
Part A Q & A
31) What are the needs for binary codes? (CO1, K1)
Code is used to represent letters, numbers and punctuation marks.
Coding is required for maximum efficiency in single transmission.
Binary codes are the major components in the synthesis (artificial generation) of
speech and video signals.
By using error detecting codes, errors generated in signal transmission can be
detected.
Codes are used for data compression by which large amounts of data are
transmitted in very short duration of time.
32) What is a weighted code? Give example. (CO1,K1)

Weighted binary code are those which obey the positional weighting principle.
Example. 8421 BCD code
33) What is a non-weighted binary code ?Give example (CO1,K1)

Non-weighted codes are the codes that are not positional weighted. That is each
position within the binary number is not assigned a fixed value.
Example. Excess 3 code, Gray code.
34) Define BCD code. (CO1,K1)

BCD is a commonly used Weighted Numeric code.
Each digit of a decimal number (0-9) is represented by a 4-bit binary number
(i.e. 0000 through 1001)
Consider the decimal number 185. Its corresponding BCD and binary equivalent
are given as follows.
(185)10 = (0001 1000 0101)BCD = (10111001)2
Part A Q & A
35) What is a gray code? (CO1,K1)
The gray code is a binary code in which each successive number differs in only
one bit position.
It is a non-weighted code and not an arithmetic code.
Gray code is also called as unit distance code.
The Gray code is used in applications in which the normal sequence of binary
numbers generated by the hardware may produce an error or ambiguity during
the transition from one number to the next.
36) What is an Excess-3 code? (CO1,K1)
Excess‐3 is an unweighted code in which each coded combination is obtained

from the corresponding binary value plus 3.
The excess‐3 code is a self complementing code.
37) What is an Alpha numeric code? (CO1,K1)
As most of the computers and their peripherals process both alphabetic and
numeric information several coding techniques have been invented that represent
this alphanumeric information as a series of 1’s and 0’s. Such codes are called
Alpha numeric code.
38) What are error detecting codes? (CO1,K1)
Digital systems should be accurate to the digit. So, detecting errors are very
important. The simplest technique for detecting errors is that of adding an extra
bit, known as parity bit. These codes are called error detecting codes.
39) What is meant by parity bit? (CO1,K1)
Parity bit is an extra bit included with a binary message to make the number of
1’s either odd or even. The message, including the parity bit is transmitted and
then checked at the receiving and for errors.
Part A Q & A
40) What is the truth table? (CO1,K1)
A truth table lists all possible combinations of inputs and the corresponding
outputs.
41) State the sequence of operator precedence in Boolean expression

(CO1,K1)
Parenthesis
NOT
AND
OR
42) State DeMorgan theorem (CO1,K1)

The complement of the sum is equal to the product of complements
i) (x + y) ’ = x’ . y’
The complement of the product is equal to sum of complements.
ii) (x . y) ’ = x’+ y’
43) State the Duality principle (CO1,K1)
The important property of Boolean algebra is the duality principle. It states that
every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates of Boolean algebra
remains valid if the operators and identity elements are interchanged.
Duality principle states that a Boolean expression can be obtained from other
expression by,
Converting AND to OR
Converting OR to AND
Complementing/negating the 0’s or 1’s appearing in the expression

Part A Q & A
44) State the Consensus theorem (CO1,K1)
A consensus term/redundant term is the conjunction of unique literals of the

terms, excluding the literal that appears negated in one term and unnegated in
the other. The redundant term is eliminated.
Conditions to apply Consensus Theorem
Three variables/literals must be present in the expression.
Each variable/literal is repeated twice.
One variable/variable must be present in both negated and unnegated form.
AB+A’C+BC = AB+A’C
(A+B).(A’+C).(B+C) =(A+B).(A’+C)
45) State the Absorption theorem (CO1, K1)
i) A + AB = A
ii) A(A+B) = A
46) What are the advantages of simplifying a Boolean expression?

(CO1,K2)
The circuit gets simplified
The number of gates required is reduced
Cost of the circuit is reduced

Part A Q & A
47) Define Universal Gates (CO1 , K1)
Ans: A universal gate is a gate which can implement any Boolean function without
need to use any other gate type. The NAND and NOR gates are universal
gates. In practice, this is advantageous since NAND and NOR gates are
economical and easier to fabricate and are the basic gates used in all IC
digital logic families.
48) Which gates are called as universal gates? (CO1, K1)
Ans:
•NAND gate
•NOR gate
49) What are the advantages of universal gates? (CO1, K1)
Ans: 1. NAND and NOR are called as universal gates.

2. They are economical and easier to fabricate
3. Any logic circuit or Boolean function can be implemented with
NAND/NOR gates
50) Implement AND operation using NOR gate. (CO1, K2)
The AND operation can be implemented using NOR as follows
51) Implement OR operation using NAND gate. (CO1, K2)
The OR operation can be implemented using NAND as follows

Part A Q & A
52) Implement AND operation using NAND gate . (CO1, K2)
The AND operation can be implemented using NAND gate as follows
53) Implement OR operation using NOR gate (CO1, K2)
The OR operation can be implemented using NOR gate as follows
54) List out the advantages and disadvantages of K-map method?

(CO1, K1)
The advantages of the K-map method are
•It is a fast method for simplifying expression up to four variables.
•It gives a visual method of logic simplification.
•Prime implicants and essential prime implicants are identified fast.
•Suitable for both SOP and POS forms of reduction.
•It is more suitable for class room teachings on logic simplification.
•Kmap is a more orderly process with well defined steps as compared with the
trial and error process sometimes used in algebraic simplification
•Requires fewer steps especially for expressions containing many terms, and it
always produces a minimum expression
55) The disadvantages of the K-map method are (CO1, K1)

i. It is not suitable for computer reduction.
ii. K-maps are not suitable when the number of variables involved exceed four.
iii. Care must be taken to fill in every cell with the relevant entry, such as a 0, 1
(or) don’t care terms.
56) What are don’t cares? (CO1, K1)

Don’t care term is a minterm for which the combinational logic may output either
1 or 0.
Part B – Questions
Part B Questions
Q. Questions K CO
No. Level Mapping
1 Explain the various binary codes used in digital K2 CO1
systems
2 Show that the Excess – 3 code is self – K4 CO1
complementing
3 Explain how you will construct an (n+1) bit Gray K4 CO1
code from an n bit Gray code
4 Prove that (x1+x2).(x1’. x3’+x3) (x2’ + x1.x3) =x1’x2 K4 CO1
5 State and Prove idempotent laws of Boolean algebra K2 CO1
6 State and Prove Demorgan’s theorem K2 CO1
7 State and Prove the postulates and laws of Boolean K2 CO1

algebra
8 Show that the NAND operation is not distributive K4 CO1
over the AND operation
9 Simplify the following Boolean expressions to a K3 CO1
minimum number of literals:
i. ABC + A’B + ABC’
ii. x’yz + xz
iii. (x + y)’ (x’ + y’)
iv. xy + x(wz + wz’)
v. (BC’ + A’D) (AB’ + CD’)
10 Simplify the following boolean expressions: K3 CO1
i. AB’ + ABD + ABD’ + A’C’D’ + A’BC’
ii. BD + BCD’ + AB’C’D’
iii. x’z’ + y’z’ + yz’ + xy
iv. AC’ + B’D + A’CD + ABCD
11 Find the Minterm expansion of K3 CO1
f(a,b,c,d) = a’(b’+d) + acd’
12 Represent the Boolean function in standard / K3 CO1
canonical SOP form:
F(A,B,C) = A+B’C
13 Represent the Boolean function in standard / K3 CO1
canonical POS form:
F(A,B,C) = (A+B)(B+C)(A+C)
Part B Questions
Q. Questions K CO
No. Level Mapping
14 Find the dual and complement of the following K3 CO1

Boolean expression.
F=xyz’ + x’yz + z(xy+w)
15 Show that if all the gates in a two – level AND-OR K4 CO1

gate networks are replaced by NAND gates the
output function does not change.
16 Why does a good logic designer minimize the use of K4 CO1

NOT gates?
17 Show that if all the gate in a two – level OR-AND K4 CO1

gate network are replaced by NOR gate, the output
function does not change.
18 Implement Y = (A+C) (A+D’) ( A+B+C’) using NOR K4 CO1

gates only
19 Check if NOR operator is associative. K4 CO1
20 Implement Boolean expression for RXOR gate using K4 CO1

NAND and NOR gates.
21 Simplify the following functions, and implement them K3 CO1

with two-level NAND gate circuits:
(a) F(A, B, C, D) = AC'D' + A'C + ABC + AB'C +
A'C'D'
(b) F(A, B, C, D) = A'B'C'D + CD + AC'D
(c) F(A, B, C) = (A' + C' + D’) (A' + C’) (C' + D’)
(d) F(A, B, C, D) = A' + B + D' + B'C
Part B Questions
Q. Questions K CO
No. Level Mapping
22 Draw a NAND logic diagram that implements the K3 CO1

complement of the following function:
F(A, B, C, D) = Ʃ(0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 10, 11, 14)
23 Draw the multiple-level NOR circuit for the following K3 CO1

expression:
CD(B + C)A + (BC' + DE')
24 Draw the multiple-level NAND circuit for the following K3 CO1

expression:
w(x + y + z) + xyz
25 Simplify using K-map to obtain a minimum POS K3 CO1

expression:
(A’ + B’+C+D) (A+B’+C+D) (A+B+C+D’)
(A+B+C’+D’) (A’+B+C’+D’)(A+B+C’+D)
26 Using a K-Map ,Find the MSP from of K3 CO1

F= ∑(0,4,8,12,3,7,11,15) +∑d(5)
27 With the help of a suitable example ,explain the K3 CO1

meaning of an redundant prime implicant.
28 Using a K-Map, Find the MSP form of K3 CO1

F= ∑ (0-3, 12-15) + ∑d (7, 11)
29 Determine the MSP and MPS focus of K3 CO1

F= ∑ (0, 2, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15)
30 Determine the MSP form of the Switching function K3 CO1

F = ∑ ( 0,1,4,5,6,11,14,15,16,17,20-
22,30,32,33,36,37,48,49,52,53,56,63)
31 Determine the MSP form of the Switching function K3 CO1

F( a,b,c,d) =∑ (0,2,4,6,8) + ∑d(10,11,12,13,14,15)
32 Find a Min SOP and Min POS for K3 CO1

f = b’c’d + bcd + acd’ + a’b’c + a’bc’d
Part B Questions
Q. Questions K CO
No. Level Mapping
33 Find the MSP representation for K3 CO1

F(A,B,C,D,E) = ∑m(1,4,6,10,20,22,24,26) + ∑d
(0,11,16,27) using K-Map method.
Draw the circuit of the minimal expression using only
NAND gates.
34 Simplify the Boolean function K3 CO1

F(A,B,C,D) = ∑ m (1,3,7,11,15) + ∑d (0,2,5).
If don’t care conditions are not taken care, What is
the simplified Boolean function .What are your
comments on it? Implement both circuits.
35 F3 = f(a,b,c,d) = ∑ (2,4,5,6) K4 CO1

F2 = f(a,b,c,d) = ∑ (2,3,,6,7)
F1 = f(a,b,c,d) = ∑ (2,5,6,7) .
Implement the above Boolean functions
i. When each is treated separately and
ii. When sharing common term
36 Find a network of AND and OR gate to realize K3 CO1

f(a,b,c,d) = ∑m (1,5,6,10,13,14)
37 Given the following Boolean function K3 CO1

F= A”C + A’B + AB’C + BC
Express it in sum of minterms & Find the minimal
SOP expression.
38 Simplify the given Boolean function in POS form K3 CO1

using K-Map and draw the logic diagram using only
NOR gates.
F(A,B,C,D) = ∑ m (0,1,4,7, 8, 10, 12,15) +
∑d (2, 6, 11, 14).
Supportive online
Certification courses
(NPTEL, Swayam,
Coursera, Udemy, etc.,)
Supportive Online Certification Courses
Swayam:
• Digital Circuits By Prof. Santanu Chattopadhyay | IIT Kharagpur
• https://swayam.gov.in/nd1_noc19_ee51/preview
Coursera:
• Digital Systems: From Logic Gates to Processors offered by Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona
• https://www.coursera.org/learn/digital-systems
Classcentral.com:
• Online Course - Digital Electronic Circuits by Indian Institute of
Technology, Kharagpur and NPTEL via Swayam
• https://www.classcentral.com/course/swayam-digital-electronic-circuits-
12953
Udemy:
• Master The Digital Electronics- Minimisation And Basic Gates –
[Learn about the digital gates, boolean algebra, k-map| Update your digital
from base to pro]
• https://www.udemy.com/course/professional-digital-electronics/
Real time Applications in
day to day life and to
Industry
Real time Applications
A digital film
Digital Storage
Digital Stop watch

Content Beyond Syllabus
Quine-McCluskey Method
A systematic simplification procedure to reduce a minterm expansion to a
minimum sum of products.
Use XY + XY’ = X to eliminate as many as literals as possible.
The resulting terms = prime implicants.
Use a prime implicant chart to select a minimum set of prime implicants.
Determination of Prime Implicants:
Eliminate literals
Two terms can be combined if they differ in exactly one variable.
AB’CD’ + AB’CD = AB’C
10 10 +1011 = 101
X Y X Y’ X
A’BC’D + A’BCD’ (won’t combine)

0 1 0 1 + 0 1 1 0 (check # of 1’s)
Group 0 0 0000
We need to compare and combine whenever possible.
Group 1 1 0001
Sorting to Reduce Comparison:
2 0010
 Sort into groups according to the number of 1’s. 8 1000
F(a,b,c.d) = Σm(0,1,2,5,6,7,8,9,10,14)
Group 2 5 0101
No need for comparisons 6 0110
(1) Terms in nonadjacent group 9 1001
(2) Terms in the same group 10 1010
Comparison of Adjacent Groups:
Group 3 7 0111
Use X + X = X repeatedly between adjacent groups 14 1110
Those combined are checked off.
Combine terms that have the same dashes and differ one in the number of
1’s. (for column II and column III)
The terms that have not been checked off are called prime implicants.
f = 0-01 + 01-1+011- + -00-
+ -0-0 + --10
= a’c’d + a’bd + a’bc + b’c’ +
b’d’ + cd’
Each term has a minimum number of literals, but minimum SOP for f:
f = a’bd + b’c’ + cd’
(a’bd, cd’ => a’bc)
(a’bd, b’c’ => a’c’d)
(b’c’, cd’ => b’d’)
Definition of Implicant:
Definition
Given a function of F of n variables, a product term P is an implicant of
F iff for every combination of values of the n variables for which P = 1,
F is also equal to 1.
Every minterm of F is an implicant of F.
Any term formed by combining two or more minterms is an
implicant.
If F is written in SOP form, every product term is an implicant.
Example: f(a,b,c) = a’b’c’ + ab’c’ + ab’c + abc = b’c’ + ac
If a’b’c’ = 1, then F = 1, if ac = 1, then F = 1. a’b’c’ and ac are
implicants.
If bc = 1, (but a = 0), F = 0, so bc is not an implicant of F.
A prime implicant of a function F is a product term implicant which is no
longer an implicant if any literal is deleted from it.
Example: f(a,b,c) = a’b’c’ + ab’c’ + ab’c + abc = b’c’ + ac
Implicant a’b’c’ is not a prime implicant. Why? If a’ is deleted, b’c’
is still an implicant of F.
b’c’ and ac are prime implicants.
Each prime implicant of a function has a minimum number of literals
that no more literals can be eliminated from it or by combining it with
other terms.
QM procedure:
Find all product term implicants of a function
Combine non-prime implicants.
Remaining terms are prime implicants.
A minimum SOP expression consists of a sum of some (not necessarily all) of

the prime implicants of that function.
We need to select a minimum set of prime implicants.
If an SOP expression contains a term which is not a prime implicant, the SOP
cannot be minimum.
Chart layout
Top row lists minterms of the function
All prime implicants are listed on the left side.
Place x into the chart according to the minterms that form the
corresponding prime implicant.
Essential prime implicant
If a minterm is covered only by one prime implicant, that prime

implicant is called essential prime implicant. (9 & 14).
Essential prime implicant must be included in the minimum

sum of the function.
Selection of Prime Implicants:
 Cross out the row of the selected essential prime implicants
 The columns which correspond to the minterms covered by the selected
prime implicants are also crossed out.
 Select a prime implicant that covers the remaining columns. This prime
implicant is not essential.
Assessment Schedule
(Proposed Date & Actual
Date)
Assessment Schedule (Proposed Date &
Actual Date)
Prescribed Text Books &
Reference
Prescribed Text Books & Reference
TEXT BOOK:
M. Morris R. Mano, Michael D. Ciletti, “Digital Design: With an Introduction to the Verilog
HDL, VHDL, and System Verilog” , 6th Edition, Pearson Education, 2017.
REFERENCES:
1. G. K. Kharate, Digital Electronics, Oxford University Press, 2010
2. John F. Wakerly, Digital Design Principles and Practices, Fifth Edition, Pearson Education,
2017.
3. Charles H. Roth Jr, Larry L. Kinney, Fundamentals of Logic Design, Sixth Edition, CENGAGE
Learning, 2013
4. Donald D. Givone, Digital Principles and Design‖, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2003.
Mini Project Suggestions
Mini Project Suggestions
1) Digital Alarm Clock
2) Traffic Signal
Thank you
Disclaimer:
This document is confidential and intended solely for the educational purpose of RMK Group of
Educational Institutions. If you have received this document through email in error, please notify the
system manager. This document contains proprietary information and is intended only to the
respective group / learning community as intended. If you are not the addressee you should not
disseminate, distribute or copy through e-mail. Please notify the sender immediately by e-mail if you
have received this document by mistake and delete this document from your system. If you are not
the intended recipient you are notified that disclosing, copying, distributing or taking any action in
reliance on the contents of this information is strictly prohibited.

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Date: 29th July 2020

3 Pre Requisites (Course Name with Code) 8

4 Syllabus (With Subject Code, Name, LTPC details) 10

5 Course Outcomes (6) 12

12 Part B Qs (with K level and CO) 162

17 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

UNIT I BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC GATES 12

UNIT II COMBINATIONAL LOGIC 12

UNIT III SYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL LOGIC 12

UNIT IV ASYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL LOGIC 12

UNIT V MEMORY AND PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC 12

CO3 Analyze and Design Synchronous Sequential Circuits K4

CO4 Analyze and Design Asynchronous Sequential Circuits K4

CO5 Implement designs using Programmable Logic Devices K3

Knowledge Level Description

1 Crossword Puzzle – Number Systems 44

2 Binary Number System - Games 45

3 Sudoku – Hexadecimal Number System 46

5 Mind Map – NAND/NOR Implementation 139

6 Jigsaw Puzzle – Boolean Theorems 140

Sl. No. Contents Page No.

5 Signed Binary Number Representation 52

6 Complements: 1’s; 2’s; 9’s & 10’s complement 54

Sl. No. Contents Page No.

17 Universal gates 127

18 Basic gates implementation using NAND/NOR 128

19 Converting AND-OR circuit to all NOR diagram 132

20 Converting OR-AND circuit to all NAND diagram 136

 Discrete steps are not possible. Small change

• Digital describes electronic technology that

 It is designed to manipulate logical information or physical quantities

o Ex: Digital computers, Digital cameras

 Signals are represented in binary form (‘0’or ‘1’)

Disadvantages of digital systems

1. All physical quantities are analog in nature.

System of naming or representing numbers. There are various types of number

1. Binary Number system – Base or radix 2

102 101 100 10-1 10-2

Binary Number System

Hexadecimal Number System

162 161 160 16-1 16-2

Steps for conversions of a number in base ‘r’ to decimal

i. Expand the number in a power series with radix ‘r’

1. Binary Number System to Decimal Number System (radix 2

Decimal = 64+32+16+0+0+2+1 = 115

Decimal = 8+4+0+1+0.5+0.25 = 13.75

Decimal = 64+16+3+0.5 = 83.5

Decimal = 256+56+5+0.25+0.078 = 317.328

Decimal = 45056+1024+64+11 = 46155

ii) (DF8.28)16 = (?)10

Decimal = 3328+240+8+0.125+0.031 = 3576.156

Decimal = 500++10+1+0.4 = 511.4

Decimal = 144+108+8 = 260

3. Repeat step 2 until the quotient is equal to zero (0).

Therefore, answer is (a7a6a5a4a3a2a1a0) = (11111110)2

Therefore, answer is (a1a0) = (51)8

ii) (20.75)10 = (?)8

Combine both integer and fractional part results.