Chapter 2

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Training plays a significant role in improving organizational productivity. Success

of modern organizations largely depends on competent employees with
dedication and commitment to work and produce qualitative results. The rapid
change in technology and globalised business operation demands highly skilled
employees having requisite job knowledge and positive attitude to perform. While
many organization prosper and flourish in this competitive global business
environment, examples are also there where the organizations have perished
due to lack of adequate trained manpower.

Human Resource Development has been the major focus area today and
organizations having sound and consistent track record of performance give
utmost importance to motivate identify, acquire, induct, train, deploy and retain
the talented and competent employees in their organization. To understand the
integrated approach in HRD, one need to understand the various subsystems
like Job Analysis and Design, Recruitment and Selections, Induction, Placement
Training and Development, Performance Appraisal Career and Succession
Planning, Employee Motivation Compensation Management etc. Out of all the
subsystems, Training and Development is considered to be the most significant
subsystem which provides continuous input at every stage for organizational
growth and sustainability. Every modern organization to-day tries to establish the
key link between Training and Human Resource Management in order to develop
the human potential and utilize them for organizational success.

Role and Relevance of Training

The concept of training for developing people has been an age old phenomena.
The Stone Age people were self trained to meet their daily requirements and they
were gradually evolving methods for better living. The people in metal age learnt

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the use of metals for cooking. Subsequently princess of the kings and monarchs
were sent to ‘Gurukuf for being trained in various technical and man
management skills in order to prove themselves for rightful successors of the
throne. The modern method of apprenticeship is an alternative method of
Gurukul training. Then came post -industrialization era where training assumed
higher importance to develop the competence of people and getting the work
done through them.

In the 21st century, the world has been witnessing the process of fast change in
the environment and both the developed and developing countries are facing the
challenge to encounter the change. Products, processes, social values, norms
and even the jobs are becoming fast obsolete and as a result there is demand for
updated knowledge and skilled manpower to meet the above challenges. It is at
this juncture, role of training and development has been a prime concern for all
organization for their survival and sustenance. In a developing country like India,
there is great demand of trained personnel at all levels for several reasons like
economic liberalization, entry of multinational companies, growing size and
complexity in business, industries and corporate houses etc. Even Banks,
Insurance, Tourism and Hospitals are being commercial and have demand for
trained manpower to handle their business. The training unfolds the latent
potential in people and provides them new skills required for enhancing their
effectiveness.

Training
In order to help the managers acquire the required professional knowledge,
skills, attitudes, habits and other personality traits and to facilitate them to realize
their potential to the maximum possible extent, the organization has to provide
them continuous training and opportunities for growth and development. Thus the
need for training in the organization arises for unfolding the skills hidden in the
managers and provides them with new skills required for discharging their
functions more effectively and efficiently.

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Training is defined as the use of specific means to specific learning often with the
use of techniques that can be identified and continually improved. It is known as
a sequence of experiences or opportunities designed to modify behaviour in
order to attain a stated objective. Thus training is an universal act, to guide
individuals learning with a view to bring about desired change in their behaviour.
Training assumes greater importance in improving the individual learning level
and thereby changes their behaviour. Unguided learning or experience is proved
to be costly, slow, fumbling and likely to teach individuals both bad and good.
Such trial and error learning can be completely fruitless in improving skills and
even harmful in sophisticated fields such as engineering, medicine banking and
management. Training assists the individuals in choosing, utilizing and evaluating
their experiences. It ensures that the leaning is quick, sustained and right kind of
inputs are acquired, assembled and internalized in the personality.

Definition of Training
Pioneering research work has been done in the field of training and development
and the following definitions given by authors will amply justify the role of training
in modern day organizations.
Training is about the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA) through
professional development. The definitions given below help us to understand
training in varied perspectives.

Taylor (1961) conceptualized training as a means to bring about a continuous

improvement in the quality of work performed, it would equip them with
necessary knowledge, skill, abilities and attitude to perform their jobs.

Oatey (1970) defines it as any activity which deliberately attempts to improve a

person’s skill at a task. Both these definitions include ‘education’ and
‘development’ as well as training.

57
Hesseling (1971) defines training as a sequence of experiences or opportunities
designed to modify behaviour in order to attain a stated objective.

Nadler (1971) has stressed the difference between ‘training’ which is concerned
with present jobs, and ‘development’ which is concerned with future jobs as
opposed to Hamblin who assumes development simply as training for future jobs.

Hamblin (1974) defines training as ‘any activity which deliberately attempts to

improve a person’s skill on a job’ as opposed to education which is mainly
concerned with personal development and not related directly to the job.

Dale S. Beach (1980) in his book Personnel defines training as the organistional
procedure by which people learn knowledge and/or skill for a definite purpose.

Chowdhury (1986) remarked “Training is a process which enable the trainees to

achieve the goal and objectives of his/her organizations.

Randall S. Schuler (1989) in his book Effective Personnel Management defines

training and development as “any attempt to improve current or future employee
performance by increasing an employee’s ability to perform through learning,
usually changing the employee’s attitude or increasing his or her skill and
knowledge. The need for training and development is determined by the
employee’s performance deficiency and is computed as follows.
Training and Development need = Standard Performance - Actual Performance.

Lynton and Pareek (1990) in their book Training for Development defined
training as one that consists largely of well organized opportunities for
participants to acquire necessary understanding and skills. He identified three
distinct phases in the training process namely: pre-training, training and post­
training.

58
Chowdhry D.P (1994) training is a process which enables the trainees to
achieve the goals and objectives of their organizations.

Singh (1995) defined training as the ‘process of changing attitudes, improving

knowledge and developing skills of the persons/employees of an organization, so
as to enable them, to perform their jobs effectively.

From the above definitions we understand that training is acquisition of concepts,

theories, knowledge, skills and attitudes. ‘Development’ is defined as the
application of acquired knowledge, theories, skills and attitudes to the job, for
increasing organizational effectiveness. Learning is the ability through training
that helps in acquisition of knowledge, sharpening of skills, concepts, rules, or
changing of attitudes and behaviours to enhance the performance of employees

Organisations to be effective require large number of trained personnel at all

levels. During the post-liberalization period there is tremendous growth in
number, size and complexity in industries, corporate and business organizations.
Even service organizations like Banks, hospitals, hotels, tourism etc. are not
exception to this phenomenal change. This has resulted in shortage of talented
and competent manpower to manage the organizations. To meet this challenge,
organizations have now realized that training and development is of utmost
importance to develop the human potential and utilize them for enhancing
organizational effectiveness.

Training and Development

Training and development are planned learning experience designed to provide

workers with the competencies needed to perform their current or future jobs.

Training is referred to as teaching specific job related skills and behavior, where
as development is more general than training and more oriented towards
individual development besides fulfilling organizational needs. The development

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provides knowledge and understanding to individuals so as to enable them to
function more effectively in organizations through problem solving developing
inter personal relations and decision making.

Table 2.1: Training Vs. Development

Training Development

1 Training focuses on technical, Development focuses on theoretical

mechanical oriented operations. skill and conceptual ideas.

2 Development is concerned with related

Training is concerned with specific enhancement of general knowledge
job skills and behavior and understanding of non-technical
organization functions

3 Training is mostly for non­ The development is for managers and

managers executives

4 Training focuses on current jobs Development prepares for future jobs

5 Training focuses on short-term Development focuses long-term

gains accruals

6 The development is general in nature

The training is job-oriented process and strives to inculcate initiative,
and is vocational in nature enterprise, creativity, dedication and
loyalty amongst executives

7 Development is a continuous on-going

Training is one-shot deal
process
8 Training may result in Development may result in personal
enhancement of a particular job growth and development of overall
skill personality

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 Training Development
9 Training is the result of
In development the motivation is
organizational initiative and hence
intrinsic
motivation is extrinsic
10 Training can be classified into 2
major types(a) on-the job No such classification is possible
training(d) off-the-job training
11 Development activities, such as those
Training is usually imposed supplied by management development
programmes, are generally voluntary
12 The staff members may have no Here, the staff members have
clear perception of the relationship experience and knowledge: a clear,
between learning and career direct relationship between self­
development development and career success
13 Evaluation for training is No evaluation for development is
considered to be essential possible.

Training and Human Resource Development

Human Resource Development System has several sub-systems like job

analysis and design, recruitment and selection, induction and placement, training
and development, performance appraisal, compensation management, employee
safety and welfare etc. Out of all the sub-systems training and development is
considered to be the most important sub-system which fulfills the objectives of all
other sub-systems and integrates HRD as a whole. It is therefore essential job of
responsibility of HR department to create a conducive ambience in the
organizations to analyze, plane, design, implement and evaluate the training
programmes in order to being necessary change in skill, attitude and behaviour
of the employees.

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Objectives of training
Analyzing the above definitions, the following objective can be formulated for
training

• To enhance the knowledge of employees in doing their jobs

• To facilitate change in attitude of employees towards their job, fellow
workers, supervisor and the organization.
• To make the workers handle materials, machines and equipments
effectively.
• To prepare employees for higher jobs
• To reduce the number of accidents
• To impart skills among the employees systematically so that they learn
quickly:
• Last but not the least training improves the overall performance of the
organization

Scope of Training

Scope of training is multi dimensional and multi directional which are discussed
in the following points. Every new entrant to the organization requires induction
training to be familiar with the organizations, employees, department and job
content. Training helps in increased quality of performance both in service and
production areas. It enhances the competency of employees and increases their
morale. It makes the employees cost conscious and help them the reduce waste.

Employees undergoing training learn lot of behavioural techniques that help them
to build effective teams, communicate properly with other employees and take
decisions on various organizational issues. While enhancing job satisfaction,
training helps in career growth of employees and directly/indirectly helps in
reducing attrition and increasing retention of skilled manpower.

Few organizations do not attach importance to training and it has been observed
that they face shortage of talented manpower leading to decline in productivity

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and profitability. But organizations giving more thrust and importance to training
have received adequate benefit and have increased employees’ satisfaction to
their advantage.

Training and Learning

By learning we understand that it is a process of acquiring the ability to respond
adequately to situations which the individual might or might not have faced
earlier. Being a consequence of previous experience learning brings change and
modification in our response tendencies and help us to encounter a situation to
achieve a satisfactory outcome.

Following definitions will make the ideas more clear:

Weiss’ defined learning as ‘a relatively permanent change in knowledge or skill

produced by experience’. From the definition we can infer that change is
relatively permanent, but all changes need not lead to improvement in behaviour.

Sanford has defined ‘learning as relatively enduring change in behaviour brought

about as a consequence of experience’.

Midchel has defined learning as follows: ’Learning is the process by which new
behavior is acquired. It is generally agreed that learning involves changes in
behaviour, practicing new behaviour and establishing permanency in the
change’.

According to E. R. Hilgard ‘Learning is a relatively permanent change in

behaviour that occurs as result of the experience’.

Principles of Learning
The following are the principles to be followed to make the learning more
effective and durable.
• Every human being is capable of learning
• Learning is an active and dynamic process

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• When people are informed of their achievements in the form of feedback
they learn more and faster
• Leaning followed by immediate application enhances the learning
• Attention and concentration are sine qua non for learning
• Likes, dislikes, biases and prejudices retard learning
• Individuals learn better when they learn at their own pace
• Learning is problem solving, Challenging problems stimulate learning
• Learning results from stimulation through the sense
• Leaning is based on past experiences
• Friendly competition stimulates learning
• Knowledge of the standard required makes learning more effective
• Learning requires purposeful activity
• Knowing ‘why’ makes learning more effective
• Interest is essential to effective learning. Learning requires motivation
• Teaching should be logical or orderly
• Early successes increase chances for effective learning
• Continuous evaluation is essential to effective learning

Figure 2.1 : Learning Process

Source: Training and Development by Dr. B. Janakiram.

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Training Need Assessment

In order to make the training effective and meaningful, it is always essential to

have an objective training need assessment (TNA) so that the design plan,
implementation and evaluation of training can be done as per the need
assessed. This is an important and fundamental intervention, before undertaking
any training activity. If the TNA is not done properly, it leads to greater
misunderstanding and lack of confidence of employees on the success of training
outcome. A systems view of training need assessment is given below:

Figure 2.2: A system view of TNA

Source: Personal Growth and Training & Development by Madhurima Lall & Sheets! Sharma

65
 Assessing Training Needs
According to Miller & Chang (1978) there are three levels of analysis for
determining the training needs.

• Organizational analysis
• Task / Operations analysis
• Individual analysis

Longenker, C. O. et all (1978) are of the opinion “that at a general level, training
needs must be analyzed against the backdrop of organizational objectives and
strategies”. Unless this is done, time and money may be wasted on training
programs that do not advance the cause of the company. “Analysis of the
organization’s external environment and internal climate is also essential" The
important question is: will training produce changes in employee behavior that
will contribute to the organization’s goal? In short, the critical first step, as stated
by Cascio, W.F (1992) is to relate the assessment of training needs to the
achievement of organizational goals. There may not be any need for training, if
the relationship is not established. Task / Operations analysis requires a careful
examination of the job to be performed after training. It includes identifying the
important tasks and knowledge, skills and behavior that need to be emphasized
in training for the employees to complete their task. The following Need
Assessment Process diagram will help in understanding the concepts.
Reasons of Pressure Points
Outcomes
• Legislation
• What trainees need to
• Lack of basic skill
learn
• Poor performance
• Who receives training
• New Technology • Type of training
• Customer requests • Frequency of training
• New products
• Buy vs build training
• Higher performance standards decision
• New jobs • Try versus other HR
• Business growth or contractioi ho need training? in what do they need
options such as selection
• Global business expansion training?
or job redesign
• How training should be
Figure 2.3: TNA process diagram evaluated
Source: Hollenbecks, Gerhart & Wright, (2006), Human Resource Management,
Mcgraw Hill, Irwin, pp.261

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Operations/task analysis requires a careful examination of the jobs to be
performed after training. Chatterjee, B (1992) has suggested the following four
steps for Task/Operation analysis.

• A systematic collection of information that explains and elaborate the details

regarding how jobs are done

• This leads to the setting of standards of performance for various jobs

• An examination of existing or better methodologies of doing jobs so that

prescribed standards are met

• Exploration of the knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics

necessary for effective task performance.

Essentially, therefore, the focus, clearly, is on the 'task’ rather than on the
‘individual’ performance and the objective is to derive some concrete ideas about
the training needs that will help in performing the task/operation effectively.

Finally, the person analysis is done to find the gap between the actual and
desired level of performance of individual employee. The difference between
desired performance and actual performance is the individual’s training need.
Performance standards, identified in the operations analysis phase, constitute
desired performance. Individual performance data, diagnostic ratings of
employees by their supervisors, records of performance kept by workers in diary
form, attitude surveys, interviews, or tasks can provide information on actual
performance against which each employee can be compared to desired job
performance standards. A gap between actual and desired performance may be
filled by appropriate training input.

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 Person characteristics
• Ability and skill
• Attitude and motivation

Input
• Understand what, how, when to perform
• Necessary resources (equipment etc.)
• Interference from other job demands
• Opportunity to perform

Output
• Expectations for learning performance Performance and

Consequences
• Positive consequences i.e. Incentives to perform
0 Learning

• Few negative consequences to perform

Feedback
• Frequent and specific Feedback about how
The job is performed
Figure 2.4: Personal data, Performance and Learning
Source: G.Rummler'ln search of the Holy performance rail’,
Training and development April 1996, pp-26-331

According to Chatterjee, B. (1992), actual performance can be assessed by a

variety of indicators such as

a. Individual performance data

b. Production data

c. Observation at place of work

d. Examination of job schedules

e. Assessment of supervisors or superiors

f. Performance records

g. Interviews with supervisor

h. Attitude surveys

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 i. Job knowledge test

j. Work sampling

k. Diagnostic psychological test

By adopting any or all the above methods, we may derive fairly reliable
information, on actual performance against which each employee can be
compared to desired job performance standards. However, according to Cascio
W.F (1992) to evaluate the results of training and to assess what training is
needed in the future the need must be analyzed regularly and at all three levels;

1. At the organizational level, needs must be analyzed by the managers who

set the organization’s goal.

2. At the operational level, needs must be analyzed by the managers who

specify how the organization’s goals are going to be achieved.

3. At the individual level, needs must be analyzed by the managers and

workers who do the work to achieve those goals.

Training Design

A training design is a technique of arranging the course content in a logical

manner. A proper training design enables the trainees to learn maximum from
the training course. The identified training need forms a basis for training design.
Once the needs are uniformly agreed upon, steps are taken to design the training
programme and address the same.

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 Figure 2.5: Designing the Training Programme
Source: Personal Growth training and development, Madhurima Lall & Sheetal Sharma

From the above figure it is seen that designing training programme involves
defining participants’ needs, defining training goals and objectives, outlining the
training contents, developing instructional activities, preparing the programme
design, evaluation procedures and finally the follow-up activities.

The relationship between specific objectives and overall purpose or general

objective of training is shown in the figure below.

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 Specific Objectives of Training Overall purpose of training

1. Increased productivity
2. improved Quality
3. Better Human Resource
K
Planning Increased Organizational
... .............>
4. Higher morale V Effectiveness
5. better health and safety
6. prevention of obsolescence
7. Enhanced personal growth

Figure 2.6: Objective Statement of Training

Source: Chhabra, IN, (2006) “Human Resource Management”, Dhanpat Rai and Co., New Delhi

Statement of objectives of training programme is primarily based on the specific

needs identified. Sometimes one particular need may facilitate the objective of
training. Cluster of interlinked needs also lead to the statement of one training
objective. The trainer has to be extremely careful in “need analysis” and linking
the needs to specific objectives. Unless this exercise is done scientifically and
with utmost care, it will not be possible to make an appropriate training design.
All the specific objectives put together, and with proper synchronization will lead
to the General Objectives of the training.

Factors affecting training design

The objective of designing a training programme is to ensure optimum results
from the efforts needed for organizing the training. This should also result in
maximum satisfaction of the participants in terms of learning and transfer of
learning to work situations.

Some of the factors affecting training design are discussed below;

(i) Need assessment should be done carefully to bring clarity in content
and objective of training.

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 (ii) Job Analysis should be done accurately to establish relationship
between the task and necessary knowledge and skill required for doing
the task.
(iii) There should be enough clarity in module and contents of training
programme and it should be free from any input that is not related to
the job.
(iv) The course material should be prepared in line with the contents so
that the participants can refer the same while performing the job.
(v) Instructions guide lines should be provided direction to the trainer to
conduct the training module and involve greater participation.
(vi) Use of necessary training aids.

Consideration to be made for designing a Training programme

The effectiveness of a training programme depends largely on its design. There
are some important considerations to be taken into account for designing the
training.

I. Cover all contents: It is expected that the training programme will include
all the training needs and will not leave any need uncovered.
II. Making the training interesting; Since it is an adult learning, it must be
interesting to motivate the participants to learn. There must be some
useful inputs.
III. Training methods: The programme should combine many training
methods to suit to the needs of the participants.
IV. Gradual progress: The training programme should start with simple
concepts at the beginning and gradually lead towards complex issues.
V. Sequencing; The content of training programme should initially change the
attitude of participants and moved towards development of skills and
knowledge improvement.
VI. Module; For comprehensive learning training programme should be
divided into suitable modules for gradual understanding of the subject.

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VII. Timing: The timing of the training programme should not hamper the
holidays and other leave periods of the participants to get their full
involvement.

Training Methods

Training is a process of continuous change and lot of innovative methods and

pedagogies are adopted to make the trainings more appropriate and interesting.
A good trainer always adopts different training techniques out of his experience
and makes best effort to ensure that it provides maximum learning outcome.
Training method is defined as “a systematic procedure or technique by which a
skill is developed in a person / employee of an organization”. The quality of any
training programme depends upon the combination of training methods adopted.

The method chosen for training enables the trainees to learn and helps them to
practice the learning and transfer same to actual job situations.

Selection of Training Methods

Selection of training methods depends on the trainer, the environment, training

objective, the topic and the time factor.

1. The trainer: The knowledge, experience and personality largely contribute

to the communication process in training programmers. A well chosen
training method stimulates and facilitates the learning process. Often
“Training for Trainers” programmes are conducted to develop the quality
of trainers for effective programme delivery.

2. The environment: The trainers in invoke the learning of participants by

creating a suitable environment in the session. This requires a proper
analysis of participants background and adopt a suitable strategy for

73
 training, for example the methodology to be adopted for shop floor
personnel will be different from the same for office executives and senior
level executives will require a different training experience in contrast to
junior or middle level executives. It is therefore highly essential to create
an appropriate learning environment to suit to the participants.

3. The training objectives: The training methods should be appropriately

selected to meet the desired objectives which is derived from training
need analysis for example if the trainees are required to take important
decisions, training methods like team working, projects and business
games will be more suitable.

4. The training topics: Each management function like production,

marketing, finance etc. has typical approach for training. Therefore the
trainer is expected to adopt proper training method which will give
adequate justice to the topic and the participants can get knowledge and
learn new skills form the training programmes.

5. Time factors: This is an important consideration for conducting training

programmes. Due consideration is required to find suitable time period for
the employees so that they can concentrate in training. Sometimes
training programmes are conducted at far places (out of station) to avoid
external interruptions for the participants.

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 Classification of training methods
The training methods can be classified as follows:

Classification of Training
Methods

~... T......
I i
On the Job Simulation Knowledge Skill based Experiential
Training Methods Methods based Methods Methods Methods

• On the job • Role play • Lecture • Assignment • Sensitivity

training • Case method • Extension • Practice after • TA Group
• Job rotation • Management talk/talk demonstration • Transactional
• Guidance and games • Group • Task analysis
counselling • In basket discussion performance • Achievement
• Syndicate exercise • Buzz session, • Skill teaching Motivation
groups panel • Role plays game
• Discussion,
• workshops
workshop
• Seminar
symposium
• Conference,
etc
• Brain
stormiest
sessions

Figure 2.7: Classification of Training Methods.

1. On-the-job training methods

• Job Instruction training
• Job rotation
• Guidance and counseling
• Syndicate groups
• Coaching
• Mentoring
• Apprenticeship
• Vestibule training
• Committee assignments

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 2. Simulation methods
• Role plays
• Case methods
• Management games
• Behavior modeling
• In-basket exercise
• Equipment simulators

3. Knowledge-based methods
• Lecture
• Group discussion methods
• Buzz sessions, penal discussion and workshops
• Seminar, symposium, conference etc
• Brainstorming sessions.

4. Computer-based methods
• Intelligent tutorial system
• Programmed instruction
• Virtual reality

5. Experiential method
• Sensitivity trainings/!-Group training
• Transactional analysis
• Achievement and motivation games

On the job training methods

Job Instruction training:

The process involves four steps i.e Preparation, presentation, performance and
follow-up. Here the trainer works like a coach and teaches the works to do his
current job. The four steps are

i) Over view of the job with its purpose and outcome

ii) Demonstrating the job

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 iii) Allowing the employee to copy the trainer’s way
iv) Repeating the process till the trainee masters the right way
v) The job being done independently without supervision

Job rotation

This approach allows the manager to operate in different roles and understand
the different issues that arise while doing job. It is process of preparing the
employee to take higher responsibility. This method has got some major benefits
like expanding the horizon of skill knowledge ability, identifying areas of
improvement and assessing the potential of employees.

Syndicate group

People from different background bring their experience and share the same in a
bigger group. In this process learning is achieved by combining all the
experiences.

Coaching

This method best suit to people at the top. It helps in finding out the executives
specific developmental needs and fulfilling same. It is a one-to-one interaction
which can be done in person or over phone meetings, e-mails etc.

Mentoring

This is a method adopted to develop future executives by providing guidance and

clear understanding of the present and future job. It is done by an employee of
the same organization. The mentor identifies the areas for improvement of the
mentee and provides relevant training to improve. This method also helps in
developing positive attitude of the mentees.

Apprenticeship

It is the oldest and commonly used method to develop proficiency on the job. The
duration of apprenticeship programme is usually 2 to 3 years. The training

77
develops skilled work force, improves workmanship, reduces wastages and
improves loyalty of employees.

Vestibule training

This efficient method to train semi skilled personnel. It is conducted in a

classroom workshop having equipments and machines that are identical to those
used in the place of work.

Simulation methods
Training games and simulations are now seen as effective tool for training
designed to reproduce or simulate events, circumstances and processes that
takes place on the job situation. Business Games, role plays, Case study method
Behaviour modeling and In-basket exercises etc. are some of the common
simulation methods for training employees.

Knowledge Based method

Lecture Methods

Lecture method of training serves as the basis for other methods of training. The
participants can take brief notes while listening to oral discussions. They develop
receptive attitude the trainer. While speaking in natural conversational style
maintains eye contact and high degree of enthusiasm.

Group Discussion method

In this method, the instructor stands before the class and presents information for
the participants and participants answer the questions and provide examples.
This method provides scope for greater interaction, the trainees stay focused to
the topic which participating and the feel confident to ask questions and bring
clarity in discussion.

Seminars, Symposium and Conference

Seminars are smaller than conferences. But it involves greater degree of

participation from the members. It is usually centered around a single theme

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which is discussed in detail. The speakers are eminent personalities in the field
and makes a brief presentation on the topic. He leads the members and forms
smaller syndicate groups for more interactive discussions. Seminars provide
learning through sharing in presence of a subject expert. A well organized
seminar leads to a systematic discussion through investigation and careful
enquiry of the subject.

Symposium is a series of lectures on a singular subject delivered by two to fire

resource persons who present different aspects of the topic. The presentations
are brief but informative. Conference method is usually a structured device for
conveying message on a large scale. Conference is a large scale conglomeration
of delegates (often several hundred people) of common interest delegates attend
the conference to listen to the authorities in a particular field of knowledge.
Through the process of consultation, people get answers to the questions.

The Chairman is the key person in a conference who has complete control on the
speakers and the audience. It requires a considerable skill to balance the
expectation of audience and allocating optimum question time. In conferences,
members discuss the topic of high relevance and share their experiences. Finally
the chairman sums up the discussion with clarity and concisely integrates all the
proceedings.

Programmed Instruction (FI)

Programme instruction is a computer based training that comprise of graphics,

multimedia, text that is connected to one another and is stored in memory. It
provides the participants with context, information, asks questions and based on
the answer goes to the next level of information i.e when the trainee gives correct
answer, it moves on to next step. For wrong answer, the system takes the trainee
backward for repeating the same context. Some of the features of programme
instructions are, immediate feed back to trainee response, fewer errors for
moving in own speed of the trainee and helps the trainees for active responses.
PI comes in printed form (books), Tape, Interactive video and other formats.

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Virtual Reality (VR)

Virtual reality is a training method that puts the participants in 3-D environment.
The three dimensional environment stimulates situation and events that are
experienced in the job. This type of environment is designed to give a feeling of
physical involvement while going through the training. To get the feeling of 3-D,
the participant need to use Headset, Gloves, Tread mills and other sensory
devices. The system is expensive, time-consuming does not require travelling,
lodging and require excellent infrastructure.

Experiential Method
Experiential leaving is a highly effective educational method, where the learner is
actively involved in a experience and reflected on the experience to
conceptualize the learning.
(a) Sensitivity Training
(b) Transactional Analysis for improving personal and inter personal
effectiveness.

Sensitivity Training

Sensitivity training is other wise called T-Group Training”. T-Group training are
conducted by Indian society for Applied Behavioural Science (1SABS). It is also
otherwise called as L-Group (Learning), D-Group (Development) or Laboratory
training on self awareness. It is a participant centre learning process carried out
in a laboratory where participants simulate conditions for effective functioning of
the group in an unstructured manner. The group is not defined and the behaviour
in the group is also not presented. The trainer does not assume the leadership
role. All these are evolved through ntura! process in the group.

T-Group training provides a deeper insight and understanding of other persons

and bring awareness of one’s impact on them. Apart from exposing the
participants to the dynamics of change, it provides them with the understanding

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group process and increased skill in achieving group effectiveness. In simple
terms it aims at unfreezing the ole values, development of new values and
refereeing the old ones.

Transactional Analysis (TA)

Transactional Analysis, commonly known as TA, was first developed by Eric

Berne in late 1950’s. It focuses on the content of people’s interaction with each
other. As a theory of communication, it can be extended to the analysis of
systems and organizations. As a theory of personality, TA describes the people
are structured psychologically in parent-Adult-child ego states model’s of
personality.

The programmes on TA help improving communication processes and develop

better understanding of people both in organizational and personal levels.

Field Trip Method of Training

A field trip is a planned and organized visits to other organization /Institutions/

centers that provides the first hand knowledge to the participants about the best
practices of the organization. By interacting with the external environment,
participants by to appreciate the practical situations and reinforce their
understanding in a comprehensive way. The success of this method depends on
pre-visit preparations and establishment of learning objectives.

Training Implementation

Training implementation is putting the training programme into effect according a

appropriate plan and procedure. It is the most difficult part of the system because
are wrong slep may affect the training programme to a great extent. The
implementation phse starts after completion of training design. This phase
requires redesigning, refining and continual adjustment.

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Following factors are given due consideration while implementing training
programme.

Logistic Arrangements

Logistic arrangements include preparing training venue communicating to all

concerned employees/ agencies, availability of training aids and equipments,
arrangement of food, refreshments, tea/coffee drinking water etc. Lot of problems
are associated in this phase and utmost care to be taken to avoid any lapses.
The effectiveness of training programme largely depends on adequate logistic
arrangement and participant after attending the training give feedback on the
aspect. A well developed checklist containing details of facilities, materials,
equipment, food accommodation and travel requirements will help in this
process. A suitable room configuration and break-act rooms for small group
discussions are essential. Room temperature lighting, sound system, safety and
sanitation etc. need to be given due care.

Instructional strategy

Next phase of training implementation is instructional strategy. In this phase,

instructional materials instructional equipment, trainee and trainer manuals and
other facilities are to be arranged for smooth conduct of the training programme
and greater involvement of participants. This includes training exercises case
studies role play situations film show games and other training materials for use
during training.

Effective Training implementation

Measurers to be taken for effective training implementation include:

• Keeping equipments, materials and other items ready

• Welcoming the participants
• Proper time management

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 • Giving a preview to the participants to generate their interest
• Proper business attire of the training
• Proper instruction and communication to the participants.

Training Policy
The purpose of Training policy is to by down guidelines for the organization and
encourage a learning culture, providing, learning and developmental
opportunities tyo the employees. Training policies are developed for the following
reasons.
(a) Training policy enhances corporate image

(b) It defines relationship between organization objective and

(c) The corporate training policy gives broad guide lines and at department
level it id specifies the nature of training, duration of training, venue and
the person responsible for implementations.

(d) All employees are informed about training policies.

The training policy contain implicitly and explicitly the underlying philosophy of
the organization, process of identifying training need type of training to be
provided (job related, career related and general programmes) allocation of
financial resources, on-the-job and off-the-job trainings person responsible to
decide adequacies of training programme etc.

Several factors influence the training policy viz. strategic objective of the
organization, product/service provided by the organization, top management view
about training, employees’ expectation, identified training needs, level of
technology adopted by the organization, resource available and allocable for
training.

Evaluation of Training
Training Evaluation is done to verify whether training has had the desired effect
on the participants and the organization of ensures whether the participants

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could implement the learning in their respective job situation and could bring any
positive change.

Kirkpatrick’s Model of Training Evaluation

Kirkpatrick’s has suggested a model having four levels of evaluation to assess

impact of training programme.

Level-1: Reaction

Reaction is impression of the trainees about the programme, materials,

instructors, infrastructure, methodology, content etc. this happens to be a critical
factor for continuance of the training programme.

Level-2: Learning

The level measures the learning of principles, facts, techniques and skills imprted
in a programme. These measures are to be objective and quantifiable. There are
many ways of measuring this learning through paper and pencil tests, skill tests
and job simulations.

Level-3: Behaviour

The extent to which skills and knowledge learnt in the training programmes are
translated as job performance is measured at this level. Observations by the
supervisor or peers, before and after training comparisons, self assessments are
the ways in which evaluation takes place.

Level-4: Results

Evaluation of results involves monitoring organizational effectiveness factors

such as cost reduction output quality and quality of the product. Training
Evaluation serves as an objective to assess be impact of training on individual
and organizational levels and gives a feedback regarding adequacies/ in­
adequacies in training programme. The feedback gives an idea to improve the
training contents and inputs so that it can be useful for improving organizational
goals.

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