3rd Asian Physics Olympiad

Singapore
Theoretical Competition
Wednesday, 8 May, 2002
Please read this first:
1. The examination lasts for 5 hours. There are 3 questions.
2. Use only the pen issued.
3. Use only the front side of the sheets of paper provided. Do not use the side
marked with a cross.
4. Each question should be answered on separate sheets of paper.
5. For each question, in addition to the blank writing sheets on which you may
write, there is an answer sheet where you must summarize the results you have
obtained. Numerical results should be written with as many digits as
are appropriate to the given data. Do not forget to state the units.
6. Write on the blank sheets of paper whatever you consider is required for the
solution of the questions and that you wish to be marked. However you should use
mainly equations, numbers, symbols and diagrams. Please use as little text as
possible.
7. It is absolutely essential that you enter your Country and your student number
(Student No.) at the top of each sheet of paper used. In addition, on the blank
sheets of paper used for each question, you should enter the number of the
question (Question No.), the progressive number of each sheet (Page No.) and the
total number of blank sheets that you have used and wish to be marked for each
question (Total pages). It is also helpful to write the question number and the
section label of the part you are answering at the beginning of each sheet of
writing paper. If you use some blank sheets of paper for notes that you do not
wish to be marked, put a large cross through the whole sheet and do not include it
in your numbering.
8. When you have finished, arrange all sheets in proper order (for each question put
answer sheets first, then used sheets in order, followed by the sheets you do not
wish to be marked. Put unused sheets and the printed question at the bottom).
Place the papers for each question inside the envelope labeled with the appropriate
question number, and leave everything on your desk. You are not allowed to take
any sheet of paper out of the room.
Theoretical Question 1 (vibrations of a linear crystal lattice)

A very large number N of movable identical point particles (N >>1),

each with mass m, are set in a straight chain with N + 1 identical massless
springs, each with stiffness (spring constant) S, linking them to each other
and the ends attached to two additional immovable particles. See figure.
This chain will serve as a model of the vibration modes of a one-
dimensional crystal. When the chain is set in motion, the longitudinal
vibrations of the chain can be looked upon as a superposition of simple
oscillations (called modes) each with its own characteristic mode
frequency.
m m m m
S S S S

0 a 2a 3a na (N - 1)a Na (N + 1)a = L

(a) Write down the equation of motion of the nth particle. [0.7 marks]

(b) To attempt to solve the equation of motion of part (a) use the trial solution

Xn(ω) = A sin nka cos (ωt + α),

where Xn(ω) is the displacement of the nth particle from equilibrium, ω the angular
frequency of the vibration mode and A, k and α are constants; k and ω are the
wave numbers and mode frequencies respectively. For each k, there will be a
corresponding frequency ω. Find the dependence of ω on k, the allowed values of
k, and the maximum value of ω. The chain’s vibration is thus a superposition of
all these vibration modes. Useful formulas:
(d/dx) cos αx = - α sin αx, (d/dx) sin αx = α cos αx, α = constant.

sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B, cos(A + B) = cos A cos B – sinA sin B
[2.2 marks]

According to Planck the energy of a photon with a frequency of ω is hω,

where h is the Planck constant divided by 2π. Einstein made a leap from
this by assuming that a given crystal vibration mode with frequency ω
also has this energy. Note that a vibration mode is not a particle, but a
simple oscillation configuration of the entire chain. This vibration mode
is analogous to the photon and is called a phonon. We will follow up the
consequences of this idea in the rest of the problem. Suppose a crystal is
made up of a very large (∼1023) number of particles in a straight chain.
(c) For a given allowed ω (or k) there may be no phonons; or there may be one; or
two; or any number of phonons. Hence it makes sense to try to calculate the
average energy E (ω ) of a particular mode with a frequency ω. Let P p(ω)
represent the probability that there are p phonons with this frequency ω. Then the
required average is
∞

∑ ph ω P (ω )
p =0
p

E (ω ) = ∞
.
∑ P (ω )
p =0
p

Although the phonons are discrete, the fact that there are so many of them (and the
Pp becomes tiny for large p) allows us to extend the sum to p = ∞, with negligible
error. Now the probability Pp is given by Boltzmann’s formula

Pp(ω) ∝ exp (– phω/kBT),

where kB is Boltzmann’s constant and T is the absolute temperature of the crystal,

assumed constant. The constant of proportionality does not depend on p.
Calculate the average energy for phonons of frequency ω. Possibly useful
formula: (d/dx) ef(x) = (df / dx) ef(x).
[2 marks]

(d) We would like next to compute the total energy ET of the crystal. In part (c) we
found the average energy E (ω ) for the vibration mode ω. To find ET we must
multiply E (ω ) by the number of modes of the crystal per unit of frequency ω
and then sum up all these for the entire range from ω = 0 to ωmax. Take an interval
∆k in the range of wave numbers. For very large N and for ∆k much larger than
the spacing between successive (allowed) k values, how many modes can be
found in the interval ∆k?
[1 mark]

(e) To make use of the results of (a) and (b), approximate ∆k by (dk/dω )d ω and
replace any sum by an integral over ω. (It is more convenient to use the variable
ω in place of k at this point.) State the total number of modes of the crystal in this
approximation. Also derive an expression ET but do not evaluate it. The following
1
integral may be useful: ∫ dx /
0
1 − x 2 = π / 2. [2.2 marks]

(f) The molar heat capacity C V of a crystal at constant volume is experimentally

accessible: C V = dET/dT (T = absolute temperature). For the crystal under
discussion determine the dependence of C V on T for very large and very low
temperatures (i.e., is it constant, linear or power dependent for an interval of the
temperature?). Sketch a qualitative graph of CV versus T, indicating the trends
predicted for very low and very high T.
[1.9 marks]
Theoretical Question 2 (the rail gun)

A young man at P and a young lady at Q were deeply in love. These two places are
separated by a strait of width w = 1000 m. After learning about the theory of rail gun
in class, the young man could not wait to construct such a device to launch himself
across the strait. He constructed a ramp of adjustable elevation of angle θ on which he
laid two metal rails (the length of each rail is D = 35.0 m) in parallel, separated by L =
2.00 m. He managed to connect a 2424 V DC power supply to the ends of the rails. A
conducting bar can slide freely on the metal rails such that he could hang on to it
safely as it slides.

A skilled engineer, moved by all these efforts, designed a system that can produce a
B = 10.0 T magnetic field that can be directed perpendicular to the plane of the rails.
The mass of the young man is 70 kg. The mass of the conducting bar is 10 kg and its
resistance is R = 1.0 Ω.
 P 1000m Q
B
θ

35m

Just after he had completed the construction and checked that it worked perfectly, he
received a call from the young lady, sobbing and telling him that her father was going
to marry her off to a rich man unless he can arrive at Q within 11 seconds after the
call, and having said that she hang up.

The young man immediately got into action and launched himself across the strait to
Q.

Show, using the steps listed below, whether it is possible for him to make it in time,
and if so, what is the range of θ he must set the ramp?

(a) Derive an expression for the acceleration of the young man parallel to the rail.
[3 marks]
(b) Obtain an expression in terms of θ for the time spent
i. on the rails, ts and
ii. in flight, tf.
[3 marks]
(c) Plot a graph of the total time T = ts + tf against the angle of inclination θ.
[1.5 marks]
(d) By considering the relevant parameters of this device, obtain the range of
angles that he should set. Plot another graph if necessary. [2.5 marks]

Make the following assumptions:

1) The time between the end of the call and all preparations (such as setting θ to
the appropriate angle) for the launch is negligible. This is to say, the launch is
considered to start at time t = 0 when the bar (with the young man hanging to
it) is starting to move.
2) The young man may start his motion from any point along the metal rails.
 3) The higher end of the ramp and Q is at the same level, and the distance
between them is w = 1000 m.
4) There is no question about safety such as when landing, electric shocks, etc.
5) The resistance of the metal rails, the internal resistance of the power supply,
the friction between the conducting bar and the rails and the air resistance are
all negligible.
6) Take acceleration due to gravity as g = 10 m/s2.

Some Mathematical notes:

e − ax
1. ∫ e −ax dx = − .
a

dx
2. The solution to = a + bx is given by
dt
a
x (t ) = (e bt − 1) + x(0)e bt .
b
Theoretical Question 3 (wafer fabrication)

Wafer fabrication refers to the production of semiconductor chips from silicon. In

modern technologies there are more than 20 processes; we are going to concentrate on
thin films deposition.
In wafer fabrication process, thin films of various materials are deposited on the
surface of the silicon wafer. The surface of the substrate must be extremely clean
before the process of deposition. The presence of traces of oxygen or other elements
will result in the formation of a contamination layer. The rate of formation of this
layer is determined by the impingement rate of the gas molecules hitting the substrate
surface. Assuming the number of molecules per unit volume is n , the impingement
rate on a unit area of the substrate from the gas is given by
1
J = nv
4
where v is the average or mean speed of the gas molecules.

(a) Assuming that the gas molecules obey a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution,

3/ 2
 M 
W (v) = 4π   v 2 e − M v / ( 2 RT ) ,
2

2 π R T 
where W (v) dv is the fraction of molecules whose speed lie between v and v + d v ,
M is the molar mass of the gas, T is the gas temperature and R is the gas constant,
show that the average or mean speed of the gas molecules is given by

∞
8RT
v = ∫ v W (v) dv =
0
∂ M
[1.5 marks]

(b) Assuming that the gases behave as an ideal gas at low pressure, P , show that
the rate of impingement is given by
P
J =
2 π mk T
where m is the mass of the molecule and T is the temperature of the gas.
[1.5 marks]

(c) If the residual pressure of oxygen in a vacuum system is 133 Pa, and by
modelling the oxygen molecule as a sphere of radius approximately 3.6 × 10 −10 m,
estimate how long it takes to deposit a molecule-thick layer of oxygen on the wafer at
300o Celsius, assuming that all the oxygen molecules which strike the silicon wafer
surface are deposited. Assume also that oxygen molecules in the layer are arranged
side by side.
[1.7 marks]
(d) In reality, not all molecules of oxygen react with the silicon. This can be
modeled by the concept of activation energy where the reacting molecules should
have total energy greater than the activation energy before it can react. Physically this
activation energy describes the fact that chemical bonds between the silicon atoms
have to be broken before a new bond between silicon and oxygen atoms is formed.
Assuming an activation energy for the reaction to be 1 eV, estimate again how long it
would take to deposit one atomic layer of oxygen at the above temperature. You may
assume that the area under the Maxwell distribution in part (a) is unity.

0.0014
0.0012
0.001
Prob

W(v) 0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
velocity
,v
Velocity, v (m/s)
[2.8 marks]
(e) For lithography processes, the clean silicon wafer is coated evenly with a layer
of transparent polymer (photo-resist) of refractive index µ = 1.40. To measure the
thickness of this photo-resist, the wafer is illuminated with collimated monochromatic
beam of light of wavelength λ = 589 nm. For a certain minimum thickness of photo-
resist, d , there is a destructive interference of reflected light, assuming normal
incidence on the coating. Derive an expression for relation between d, µ and λ .
Calculate d using the given data. In this point you may assume that silicon behaves as
a medium with a refractive index greater than 1.40 and you may ignore multiple
reflections.
[2.5 marks]

The following data may be helpful:

Molar mass of oxygen is 32 g mol -1.

Boltzmann constant, k = 1.38 × 10 −23 J K-1.
Avogadro number, N A = 6.02 × 10 23 mol -1

Useful formula:
1 − k x2  1 x2 
∫ x e dx = −  2 + 
3 −k x
2
e
2 k k 
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Answer sheet: Theoretical Question 1 (vibrations of a linear crystal lattice)

(a) Equation of motion of the nth particle is:

(b) Angular frequencies ω of the chain’s vibration modes are given by the equation:

The allowed values of the wave number k are given by:

Maximum value of ω is:

(c) The average energy for phonons of frequency ω is given by:

(d) There are how many allowed modes in a wave number interval ∆k?

(e) The total number of modes in the crystal is:

Total energy ET of crystal is given by the formula:

(f) A sketch (graph) of CV versus absolute temperature T is shown below.

For T << 1, CV displays the following dependence:

As T → ∞, CV displays the following dependence:

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Answer Sheet: Theoretical question 2 (The Rail Gun)

a) Expression for the acceleration of the young man parallel to the rail.

dv/dt =

b) Obtain an expression for the time spent

a. on the rails ts.

ts =

b. in flight tf

tf =

c) (Examiner will refer to your tables of values and graphs in your solution.)

d) Range of angles:
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Answer Sheet: Theoretical Question 3 (Wafer Fabrication)

(c) The time needed to deposit ONE layer is

(d) The new time needed to deposit ONE layer is:

(e) Relation between d, µ and λ :

Value of d: