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The ecosystem system

Ecosystems are entire living communities of plants and animals that,

although diverse in nature, share common characteristics. These primarily
relate to the climate and soil seen in the ecosystem. Climate, soils and
vegetation interact closely to produce the characteristic nature of an
individual ecosystem.

Ecosystems can be split into two main sections, abiotic and biotic
elements:

1. Abiotic elements are those that are non-living, but affect the ecosystem.
Examples of these include water, heat, relief, the atmosphere, soil, fire,
gravity, nutrients and rocks.

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2. Biotic elements are those living elements of the ecosystem. In other words
the plants and animals. Within the biotic element, there are organisms, which
are known as producers. These convert sunlight into energy through the
process of photosynthesis. There are also organisms known as consumers,
which feed on the other organisms. Within each ecosystem there is a
hierarchy of producers and consumers. Energy moves between these
groups as shown in the diagram below:

Location map

The map below shows the major ecosystems of the world:

Characteristics overview table

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Ecosystem Temperature Rainfall

Low annual rainfall, manly

Warm summers (12-18°C),
Coniferous falling in the summer
very cold winters (less than
Woodland months (approx. 500mm).
0°C for up to half the year)
Winter snow

Warm summers (15-20°C),

Deciduous Precipitation throughout the
Reasonably cold winters (3-
Woodland year (approx. 1000mm)
7°C)

Very hot throughout the Very little rainfall (approx.

Desert
year (over 30°C) less than 300mm)

Mediterranean
Hot summers (20-25°C), Dry summers, wet winters
Woodland and
mild winters (10-15°C) (approx. 800mm)
Scrub

Tropical Hot throughout the year Wet throughout the year

Rainforest (25-30°C) (approx. 2000-3000mm)

Coniferous woodland
The coniferous biome, also known as the Taiga, is characterised by evergreen trees. Find out about the location, climate,
soil and adaptations of this biome.

Characteristics and climate

Coniferous woodland is a biome found between 50° and 60° north of the equator and is
characterised by evergreen coniferous trees with needles instead of leaves. It is also known as
Taiga.

Typical trees include spruce, pine and fir. Animals commonly found in the region are reindeer,
voles and hares.

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Features of a coniferous woodland

Climate: The temperature in the summer varies between 12 and 18°C, with

temperatures falling below freezing for the winter months. In the most
Northernly forests, or thoseat the highest latitude, the temperature can
remain below freezing for upto 6 months.

Rainfall is low, with the majority falling in the summer. Snow can be
expected in the winter months. The total precipitation amount will be
approximately 500mm. Long summer days mean that the growing season,
although short, can be productive.

Soils: The main soil found in coniferous forests is called a PODSOL. This has
a thin top layer of organic material, and is a very acidic soil.

Snowmelt and summer rainwater leach the minerals in the soil, meaning

that they are washed deeper into the soil, thus making it less fertile. The
leached minerals, such as iron, concentrate in the B Horizon of the soil
creating a hard pan. The acidic soil means that there are very few
earthworms, which are very useful for mixing the soil.

Vegetation: Coniferous trees are evergreen, meaning that they have leaves

all year round, and therefore canal ways photosynthesise.

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All the trees of a coniferous woodland, such as firand pine, are very similar in
shape. They are conical shaped, which allows snow to easily slide off them.
The leaves are actually needles, which are the most efficient leaf for these
trees. The needles allow very little waterloss by transpiration, which is
particularly important in the relatively dry winter months.

The trees of coniferous woodland are often of only one species, and pack
quite tightly together; meaning little light reaches the forest floor.
Consequently there is little vegetation below the trees.

At the most northern extent, summer temperatures rarely rise above 10°C. As you move further
north, trees are shorter and less dense because of the shorter growing season. Winter
temperatures can fall as low as minus 30°C. At its southern margins, the trees become taller and
denser and merge with deciduous trees (those that lose their leaves). Temperatures here can rise
as high as 20°C in the summer and can fall to minus 15°C in winter. Precipitation is 300–900
mm, and most falls as snow in winter.

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 WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANISATION, 2013

Adaptations of vegetation

 Coniferous trees have thick bark to protect against the cold. They are cone-
shaped, with flexible branches which help them to cope with heavy snow fall.
 Pine cones protect the seeds during the harsh winter.
 The thin waxy needles reduce water loss.
 Their evergreen nature means that the needles can photosynthesise whenever
there is sufficient sunlight.
 The dense forest creates warmth during the harsh winter.

Taiga soils

 Soils are shallow due to lack of decomposition and weathering caused by the cold. They are
acidic due to leaching from rainfall and they are also poor in nutrients.
 The litter layer is thick with needles due to slow decomposition.
 The humus (decomposed) layer is thin.
 There are clear boundaries between the layers in the soil as there are few worms to mix it in the
cold conditions.
 Trees have shallow roots.

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 The typical soil is a podsol, which has a distinctive ash grey layer (or horizon) above a red layer,
which is rich in iron.

Human uses of coniferous woodland

Coniferous trees are softwoods, and grow quickly compared to deciduous

trees. For this reason they are extensivelyused as timber and for paper
making. Managed forestry of coniferous area is increasingly becoming a
viable economic activity, although you have to wait a number of years until
the trees are ready to be sold.

Deciduous woodlands
Deciduous woodlands contain trees with broad leaves, such as oak, beech and elm. They occur in places with high rainfall,
warm summers and cooler winters and lose their leaves in winter.

Characteristics and climate

Temperate deciduous forests are found between 40° and 60° north and south of the
equator.

The rainfall is high, between 500-1,500 mm a year. The temperatures remain on

average above 0°C even in the winter. The summer temperatures average between 25-
20°C. The winter is cooler, encouraging the trees to shed their leaves.

WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANISATION, 2013

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The trees have typically large broad leaves, such as oak, beech and elm. These form
the canopy layer.

As some light can get through, the vegetation is layered. Beneath the taller trees is a
shrub layer. The shrub layer contains species like hazel, ash and holly. Grass,
bracken or bluebells can be found in the ground layer.

Soils in deciduous woodland

The soil type is brown earth. This is a fertile soil. In the autumn the leaves fall from the trees.
The leaves decompose and help to give the soil its nutrients. Earthworms in the soil help to mix
the nutrients, and blend the layers within the soil.

The tree roots are deep and so help to break up the rock below. This
helps to give the soil more minerals. The trees take up the nutrients in
the soil as they grow. However, more nutrients are put back in the soil
when the autumn comes.

Uses of deciduous woodland

Humans use woodlands in a variety of ways:

 as a resource - wood is used for fuel (firewood) or as timber for buildings

 for recreation - for example for deer hunting or walks
 for conservation

 Clearance: Huge tracts of deciduous woodland have been cleared

across Britain over the past centuries, as humans have cut the trees down
for building materials and fuel. Settlements were built close to woods, as
they allowed local people a place to hunt, find fuel, and find protection in
times of danger.
 Agriculture: One of the primary reasons for the clearance of many of
the deciduous woodlands around Britain was to use the area for
agriculture. This occurred as more and more new settlements grew and
the food sources of the forests ran out.
Desert
Deserts are characterised by extreme temperatures and less than 250mm of rainfall per year. Human intervention has
positive and negative consequences for people and this environment.

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Characteristics and climate of deserts

Deserts have extreme temperatures. During the day the temperature may reach 50°C, when at
night it may fall to below 0°C. Deserts have less than 250 mm of rainfall per year. The rain can
be unreliable. Most deserts are found between 20° and 35° north and south of the equator.

WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANISATION, 2013

The Sahara is the largest desert, covering 9 million km2.

There are three factors which form desert areas:

1. the presence of high pressure, creating cloud-free conditions

2. cold ocean currents
3. mountain ranges to create rain shadows

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Vegetation adaptation

The cactus has adapted to the desert environment

Plants and animals need to cope with the dry conditions. Compared to other biomes, deserts have
limited numbers of plants and animals that are able to survive.

Some plants are succulents and store the water in leaves, stems or roots. One example is
the cactus.

Other ways plants tolerate the dry conditions include:

 long roots to tap into the water deep underground

 short life cycles - a plant or seed could remain dormant until the rains come

Animal survival

 Some may burrow to escape the heat.

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  Nocturnal animals sleep during the day, sheltering to help prevent dehydration.
 Animals may hibernate during temperature highs or lows.

Human uses of the desert in MEDCs

Deserts are areas with fragile and limited resources. Despite the harsh conditions people live in
desert areas, but their need for food and water presents many challenges.

Major uses

 tourists – visiting areas such as Death Valley.

 military, as they test out airplanes and train troops.
 hikers and rock climbers.
 off-road vehicles – including quad bikes and motorcycles
making use of the varied terrain.
 solar and wind energy generation.
 film makers, attracted by the scenery.

Soil erosion and salinisation

There are many issues when humans use deserts and their surrounding areas.

Soil erosion

This is a problem which affects many areas. When the soil is left bare, the wind can pick up speed due to the
flat land and blow away the unprotected soil.

The effects of drought in Africa

 The soil is exposed and vulnerable to erosion as a result of the removal of vegetation and overgrazing.

 Trees, which provide protection from the wind and rain, are removed to be used as fuel.

 Nomadic tribes have become more sedentary, which puts pressure on the land where they settle.

 When soil is blown away the land becomes useless for grazing and crops and causes desertification.
This is a problem in the Sahel region of Africa. This problem is worsened when restrictions are placed on
the movement of nomadic tribes.

Salinisation

Salinisation occurs when the water in soils evaporates in high temperatures, drawing salts from the soil to the
surface. These salts are toxic to many plants and make the land unusable. This has consequences such as

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low yields, poor profits and even starvation. Irrigation of land - when water is brought to land that is naturally
dry - can cause salinisation on desert margins.

It is not just physical geography which is affected when humans use desert environments. Culturally, when
tourists and new migrants come in culture may be diluted or new languages picked up.

Population pressures

With a growing population there is more demand for food and water. This puts pressure on fragile and limited
resources. Overgazing and overcultivation to provide enough food are two problems caused.

Tropical rainforests
Tropical rainforest biomes are found in equatorial countries in hot and humid climates. Human intervention has positive
and negative consequences for people and this environment.

Characteristics and climate

A tropical rainforest biome is found in hot, humid environments in equatorial climates. They

contain the most diverse range and highest volume of plant and animal life found anywhere on
earth.

In general, tropical rainforests have hot and humid climates where it rains virtually everyday.
The level of rainfall depends on the time of year. Temperatures vary through the year - but much
less than the rainfall.

The graph shows average rainfall and temperature in Manaus, Brazil, in the Amazon rainforest.
The rainy season is from December to May. Notice how much the rainfall varies over the year -
the highest monthly rainfall is in March with over 300mm, while the lowest is in August with
less than 50mm. Over the year, the temperature only varies by 2°C.

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 World Meteorological Organisation, 2013

Rainforest water and nutrient cycles

Rainforest ecosystems are characterised by heavy convectional rainfall, high humidity, lushness

of vegetation and nutrient-rich but shallow soil. These factors give rise to a unique water
and nutrient cycle.

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Rainforest water cycle

The roots of plants take up water from the ground and the rain is intercepted as it falls - much of
it at the canopy level. As the rainforest heats up, the water evaporates into the atmosphere and
forms clouds to make the next day's rain. This is convectional rainfall.

Rainforest nutrient cycle

The rainforest nutrient cycling is rapid. The hot, damp conditions on the forest floor allow for the
rapid decomposition of dead plant material. This provides plentiful nutrients that are easily
absorbed by plant roots. However, as these nutrients are in high demand from the rainforest's
many fast-growing plants, they do not remain in the soil for long and stay close to the surface of
the soil. If vegetation is removed, the soils quickly become infertile and vulnerable to erosion.

If the rainforest is cleared for agriculture it will not make very good farmland, as the soil will not
be rich in nutrients.

Rainforest soils

Soils are red due to the high iron and aluminium content. There is a thick layer of leaf litter and
decomposing organic matter on the surface.

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Rainforest vegetation levels

Tropical rainforests have dense vegetation. From ground level up these levels of vegetation are:

 The shrub layer. It is dark and gloomy with very little vegetation between the trees. During
heavy rainfalls this area can flood.
 The under canopy. It is the second level up. There is limited sunlight. Saplings wait here for
larger plants and trees to die, leaving a gap in the canopy which they can grow into. Woody climbers
called lianas avoid having to wait for gaps by rooting in the ground and climbing up trees to get to
the sunlight.
 The canopy. This is where the upper parts of most of the trees are found. The canopy is typically
about 65 to 130 feet (20 to 40 metres) tall. This leafy environment is home to insects, arachnids,
birds and some mammals.
 Emergents. These are the tops of the tallest trees in the rainforest. These are much higher, and
so are able to get more light than the average trees in the forest canopy.

Adapting to rainforest life

The vegetation in the rainforest has evolved characteristics which help it to survive in this unique
environment.

Each has adapted to rainforest conditions in a different way.

 Fan palms have large, fan-shaped leaves that are good for catching sunshine and water. The
leaves are segmented, so excess water can drain away.

 Rainforests have a shallow layer of fertile soil, so trees only need shallow roots to reach the
nutrients. However, shallow roots can't support huge rainforest trees, so many tropical trees have
developed huge buttress roots. These stretch from the ground to two metres or more up the trunk
and help to anchor the tree to the ground.

 Lianas are woody vines that start at ground level, and use trees to climb up to the canopy where
they spread from tree to tree to get as much light as possible.

 Strangler figs start at the top of a tree and work down. The seed is dropped in a nook at the top
of a tree and starts to grow, using the debris collected there as nourishment. Gradually the fig sends
aerial roots down the trunk of the host, until they reach the ground and take root. As it matures, the
fig will gradually surround the host, criss-cross its roots around the trunk and start to strangle. The
figs branches will grow taller to catch the sunlight and invasive roots rob the host of nutrients.
Eventually the host will die and decompose leaving the hollow but sturdy trunk of the strangler fig.

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Advantages and disadvantages of human intervention

Advantages

 Improved transportation - new roads and airports. Better transportation means easier access to
raw materials like minerals and timber. Rainforest resources can be transported away and sold.
 Infrastructure, hospitals and education can be improved from the money gained from selling
natural resources.
 Profits from selling resources can be used to improve a country's infrastructure. For example,
profits from the sale of rainforest resources can be used to build schools and hospitals.
 Raw materials, eg tropical hardwoods such as ebony and mahogany, can be sold for a good
price abroad.
 Mineral deposits in the Amazon include bauxite (the main constituent of aluminium), iron ore,
manganese, gold, silver and diamonds. Minerals can be sold for high profits.
 Large-scale farming brings money into the country and provides food and jobs for the country's
growing population.
 Small-scale farming provides food for rainforest communities and the landless poor of Brazil.

Disadvantages

 New roads divide up parts of the rainforest and can cut off connections between
different biotic and abiotic systems. For example, a road can stop monkeys such
as the golden lion tamarin from travelling to gather food and, in turn, distribute
seeds to re-sow plants in the forest.
 Land clearance for farming, transportation and mining can lead
to deforestation. Hardwood trees take many years to grow so can be difficult to
replace.
 Fertile soils that make farming possible are quickly washed away when the
forest is cleared. If soil ends up in rivers, this can lead to flooding.
 Loss of animal habitat occurs when trees are cut down. Hence, deforestation
can result in endangering animals and plant life, or even causing them to become
extinct.
 Profits from large-scale farming and selling resources often go back
to MEDCs or large companies and don't benefit the rainforest communities.

Sustainable management of the forest

Brazil needs to exploit the Amazon's resources to develop, so leaving it untouched is not an
option.

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Uncontrolled and unchecked exploitation can cause irreversible damage such as loss of
biodiversity, soil erosion, flooding and climate change. So, sustainable use of the forest is
essential. Sustainable development will meet the needs of Brazil's population without
compromising the needs of future generations.

Possible strategies include:

 Agro-forestry - growing trees and crops at the same time. This lets farmers take advantage of
shelter from the canopy of trees. It prevents soil erosion and the crops benefit from the nutrients
from the dead organic matter.
 Selective logging - trees are only felled when they reach a particular height. This allows young
trees a guaranteed life span and the forest will regain full maturity after around 30-50 years.
 Education - ensuring those involved in exploitation and management of the forest understand
the consequences behind their actions.
 Afforestation - the opposite of deforestation. If trees are cut down, they are replaced to
maintain the canopy.
 Forest reserves - areas protected from exploitation.
 Monitoring - use of satellite technology and photography to check that any activities taking
place are legal and follow guidelines for sustainability.

Savanna grassland
Savannas are also called tropical grasslands and are found close to tropical rainforests. Human intervention has positive
and negative consequences for this environment and the people who live there.

Characteristics and climate

Savannas - also known as tropical grasslands - are found to the north and south of tropical
rainforest biomes. The largest expanses of savanna are in Africa, where much of the central part
of the continent, for example Kenya and Tanzania, consists of tropical grassland. Savanna
grasslands can also be found in Brazil in South America.

Elephants at a water-hole in Namibia

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Savanna regions have two distinct seasons - a wet season and a dry season. There is very little
rain in the dry season. In the wet season vegetation grows, including lush green grasses and
wooded areas. As you move further away from the equator and its heavy rainfall, the grassland
becomes drier and drier - particularly in the dry season. Savanna vegetation includes scrub,
grasses and occasional trees, which grow near water holes, seasonal rivers or aquifers.

Plants and animals have to adapt to the long dry periods. Many plants are xerophytic - for
example, the acacia tree with its small, waxy leaves and thorns. Plants may also store water, for
example the baobab tree) or have long roots that reach down to the water table. Animals
may migrate great distances in search of food and water.

The graph below shows average monthly temperatures and rainfall levels in the savanna region
of Mali. Notice how the temperature and rainfall patterns relate to each other - the hottest
temperatures come just before heavy rainfall, and the coolest time of the year comes just after the
rains. This pattern is typical of savanna climates.

WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANISATION, 2013

Soils

Savanna grassland soils are not very fertile. The nutrients in the soil are found near the surface as
they come from decayed organic matter (vegetation) from the previous growing season. This
organic matter decays rapidly due to the high temperatures.

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Soils tend to be red in colour due to their high iron content. The diagram below shows the
different horizons, or layers, of soil in savanna grassland. Plant roots cannot penetrate the hard
'pan' layer in the B-horizon, or subsoil. This restricts vegetation growth.

Desertification

Desertification can result from poorly managed human intervention in the savanna.

Areas of desert are created by the destruction of natural vegetation. Causes of
desertification include:

 Removal of vegetation cover.

 Overgrazing.
 Uncontrolled fuel wood collection.
 Unsustainable farming practice and loss in fertility of soil.
 Excessive tree felling.

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The Masai and desertification

Maasai farmers with cattle in Tanzania

Many people in central Africa farm to produce the food they eat. The Masai tribe of the Kenyan
Serengeti practise nomadic farming, a traditional method of farming allows vegetation to recover
from animal grazing whenever the farmers move on to another area.

However, in the past 40 - 50 years the Masai's way of life and farming have been disrupted as a
result of commercial pressures and government policies. The ecosystem has also started to
suffer.

 Commercial farmers, encouraged by government policies, have moved into the best dry-season
land and converted it to commercial agriculture. As savanna is converted into cropland, the natural
vegetation is removed and the soil's nutrients are rapidly used up.
 When the Serengeti National Park was established in the 1950s to conserve wildlife and
encourage tourism, human access to the park was restricted and the Masai were excluded from it.
 The Serengeti's population has expanded rapidly over the past 30 years. This has resulted in
larger herds grazing the grassland and more trees being cut down for fuel. As vegetation is removed
there is a risk of soil erosion.
These interventions forced the nomadic Masai farmers onto marginal land. Their traditional
pastoral migration patterns have been disrupted and they have been compelled to use smaller
areas of land for their cattle. Overgrazing has been the inevitable result.

The Serengeti's increasing population has resulted in a growth in demand for meat, which has led
to a rapid increase in meat poaching. Poachers are now killing around 150,000 wildebeest a year

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- and a dramatic fall in the wildebeest population will cause a knock-on effect throughout the
ecosystem

Tourism in the Serengeti

Tourism brings income to Kenya and gives tourists a greater understanding of the area's animals
and plants. The Serengeti is especially popular for safari holidays, which give tourists a chance
to observe the annual migration of the wildebeest and zebra.

Tourism can also have negative impacts on the area. These need to be managed carefully to
ensure that the natural environment isn't damaged for future generations.

Positive impacts of tourism

 Conservation. Tourism has supplied the economic incentive to set up national parks and
conservation areas which protect wildlife.
 Employment. Tourism has generated jobs, improving the living standards for local communities.
 Infrastructure. Roads, airports and other facilities have been built.
 Investment. Profits from tourism have been invested in education and other programmes for
local communities.

Negative impacts of tourism

 Environmental damage. Roads and tracks for safari jeeps can erode grass cover, damaging
plants and animals and disturbing local habitats. The removal of trees and other vegetation for the
construction of roads can lead to soil erosion.
 Inequality. Often the profits of tourism are reaped by wealthy landowners or the hotel and
travel companies in MEDCs.
 Loss of traditional cultures. The Masai's way of life and traditional farming methods have been
affected by the setting up of the Serengeti National Park.
 Water cycle damage. Diverting water for tourists can exploit local water reserves, leaving local
people, plants and animals short of water. Tourist hotels sometimes dump waste into rivers.

Sustainable management of the savanna

Conservation is the key to protecting the Serengeti for future generations. A sustainable future
could be achieved if the following policies are adopted:

 Local people employed by investors.

 Respect for local cultures and customs.
 Local people should receive some financial rewards from tourism.

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 Sustainable methods are used in order to protect the environment.
 Improved conservation education programmes for local communities and farmers.
Possible strategies to achieve these goals:

1. Harvesting branches rather then whole trees to prevent deforestation, soil erosion and
desertification.
2. Controlled burning of grassland to avoid wildfires.
3. Crop rotation to keep a varied supply of nutrients in the soil and prevent soil erosion and
desertification.
4. Stone lines along the soil contours keep it in place, prevent erosion and improve crop yields.
Projects such as this can involve the whole community and give them a sense of ownership and
responsibility.
5. Managing grazing land to avoid overgrazing, soil erosion and desertification.

Solutions to desertification - some disadvantages

 Afforestation - newly planted trees need water, which will be a problem in a drought stricken
region.
 Building stone lines - reduces soil erosion, but is a labour intensive process which diverts the
community from tasks essential to their survival.
 Decreasing livestock - solves the problem of overgrazing but requires people to adapt if they rely
on cattle or goats for their livelihoods.

*****the END of Topic*****

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